Role of PVC in Swirl Combustion Systems

Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161 www.elsevier.
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A review of oscillation mechanisms and the role of the precessing vortex core (PVC) in swirl combustion systems
Nicholas Syred *
School of Engineering, Cardiff University, Queens Buildings, The Parade, Cardiff, Wales CF24 0YF, UK Received 3 September 2004; accepted 13 October 2005 Available online 19 January 2006
Abstract This paper reviews the occurrence of the precessing vortex core (PVC) and other instabilities, which occur in, swirl combustion systems whilst identifying mechanisms, which allows coupling between the acoustics, combustion and swirling ow dynamics to occur. Initially, the occurrence of the PVC in free and conned isothermal ows is reviewed by describing its occurrence in terms of a Strouhal number and geometric swirl number. Phase locked particle image velocimetry and laser doppler anemometry is then used to describe the three-dimensional ow elds, which are generated when swirling ow is discharged into an open environment. This shows the presence of a rotating and precessing off centred vortex and associated central recirculation zone (CRZ), extending up to one burner exit diameter. The presence of axial radial eddies close to the burner mouth, in and around the CRZ, is clearly shown. Typically one large dominant PV is found, although many harmonics can be present of lower amplitude. The occurrence of these phenomena is very much a function of swirl number and burner geometry. Under combustion conditions the behaviour is more complex, the PVC occurrence and amplitude are also strong functions of mode of fuel entry, equivalence ratio and level of connement. Axial fuel entry, except at exceptionally weak mixture ratios, often suppresses the vortex core precession. A strong double PVC structure is also found under certain circumstances. Premixed or partially premixed combustion can produce large PVC, similar in structure to that found isothermally: this is attributed to the radial location of the ame front at the swirl burner exit. Provided the ame is prevented from ashing back to the inlets values of Strouhal number for the PVC were excited by w2 compared to the isothermal condition at equivalence ratios around 0.7. Connement caused this parameter to drop by a factor of three for very weak combustion. Separate work on unconned swirling ames shows that even when the vortex core precession is suppressed the resulting swirling ames are unstable and tend to wobble in response to minor perturbations in the ow, most importantly close to the burner exit. Another form of instability is shown to be associated with jet precession, often starting at very low or zero swirl numbers. Jet precession is normally associated with special shapes of nozzles, large expansions or bluff bodies and is a different phenomenon to the PVC. Strouhal numbers are shown to be at least an order of magnitude less than those generated by the PVC generated after vortex breakdown. Oscillations and instabilities in swirl combustion systems are illustrated and analysed by consideration of several cases of stable oscillations produced in swirl burner/furnace systems and two where the PVC is suppressed by combustion. The rst cases is a low frequency 24 Hz oscillation produced in a 2 MW system whereby the PVC frequency is excited to nearly six times that for the isothermal case due to interaction with system acoustics. Phase locked velocity and temperature measurements show that the ame is initiated close to the burner exit, surrounding the CRZ, but is located inside a ring of higher velocity ow. Downstream the ame has expanded radially past the high velocity region, but does not properly occupy the whole furnace. This allows the ame and
* Tel.: C44 29 20874318; fax: C44 29 20874939. E-mail address: syredn@cardiff.ac.uk
0360-1285/$ - see front matter q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.pecs.2005.10.002
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N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161
swirling ow to wobble, exciting instability. The next family of oscillations reviewed occur in a 100 kW swirl burner/furnace systems whereby oscillations in the w40 Hz range are excited with ow elds akin to those found in pulsating combustors where the ow is periodically stopped in the limit cycle of oscillation. The phase locked velocity and temperature measurements show a number of mechanisms that can excite oscillation including substantial variations in shape and size of the CRZ during the limit cycle of oscillation, and wobble of the whole ame and ow as shown by negative tangential velocities close to the centre line. Analysis is then made of a high frequency w240 Hz oscillation in the same 100 kW swirl burner/furnace system, this oscillation being caused by minor geometry changes. The ame was shown to not fully occupy the furnace, allowing irregular wobble and precession of the ow and ame to develop, being especially noticeable close to the outer wall. The addition of an exit quarl to the swirl burner is shown to substantially reduce the amplitude of oscillation by eliminating the external recirculation zone (ERZ), reducing ow/ame wobble and variations in the size and shape of the CRZ. The quarl used was designed to largely occupy the space normally taken up by the ERZ. Two gas turbine combustor units ring into chambers are then considered, strong PVCs are developed under isothermal conditions, these are suppressed with premixing in the equivalence number range 0.50.75. PVC suppression is attributed to the equivalence ratios used, the burner conguration, location of the ame front and associated combustion aerodynamics. Other work on an industrial premixed gas turbine swirl burner and can showed the formation of strong helical coherent structures for equivalence ratios greater than 0.75. LES studies showed the PVC contributed to instability by triggering the formation of radial axial eddies, generating alternating patterns of rich and lean combustion sufcient to reinforce combustion oscillations via the Rayleigh criteria. Finally, it was concluded that coupling between the acoustics and ame/ow dynamics occurs through a number of mechanisms including wobble/precession of the ow and ame coupled with variations in the size and shape of the CRZ arising from changes in swirl number throughout the limit cycle. Remedial measures are proposed. q 2005 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Swirl combustors; Precessing vortex core (PVC); Reverse ow zones; Oscillation mechanisms
Contents 1. 2. Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vortex core and jet precession . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.1. General characteristics of the PVC under isothermal conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.2. Effect of connement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2.3. Precessing jets and jet burners . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Combustion and the PVC . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Vortex breakdown, modelling of the PVC and related phenomena, comparison with experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . Oscillations in swirl burner furnace systems, related systems and associated driving mechanisms . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.1. Driven PVC oscillations in the 2 MW swirl burner/furnace system, 100% axial fuel entry . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.2. Helmholtz and other resonances and vortex wobble /precession in a 100 kW swirl burner/furnace system, partial premixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.3. Characterisation of high frequency oscillations in a 100 kW swirl burner furnace system, partial premixing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5.4. Combustion oscillations in a swirl burner combustion chamber systems and suppression of the PVC . . . . 5.4.1. Instabilities generated in industrial premixed gas turbine combustor systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Discussion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6.1. Interaction between the above effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Conclusions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . Acknowledgements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 94 98 99 103 106 110 126 135 135 140 143 148 149 154 158 159 159 159
3. 4. 5.
6. 7.
1. Introduction The use of swirl-stabilised combustion is widespread, including power station burners, gas turbine combustors, internal combustion engines, renery and process burners [1]. The mechanisms and benets of
swirl stabilised combustion are well documented and depend in most instances on the formation of a central toroidal recirculation zone which recirculates heat and active chemical species to the root of the ame, allows ame stabilisation and ame establishment to occur in regions of relative low velocity where ow and the
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Nomenclature A constant in modied Strouhal number for PJ burner B constant in modied Strouhal number for PJ burner CRZ central recirculation zone formed by swirling ow d inlet orice diameter of precessing jet burner D upstream PJ inlet orice diameter, mm De exhaust diameter of swirl burner, m Dfe diameter of central exhaust of furnace Do diameter of furnace or connement vessel, m ERZ external recirculation zone f frequency Iis intensity of oscillation, w/cm2, derived from pressure measurements for the isothermal PVC I intensity of oscillation relative to Iis, the value for the isothermal PVC Isothermal used to describe operation of a swirl combustor without combustion where the unit is fed air at ambient temperature k kinetic energy of turbulence LES large eddy simulation modelling LDA laser Doppler anemometry Lcontract length of contraction nozzle on end of furnace Lf ame length Lfurn length of parallel section of furnace in swirl burner furnace Linlet length of inlet duct to swirl burner furnace LPC lean premixed combustion mair mass owrate of air NGV nozzle guide vanes in gas turbines ~ p pressure PIV particle image velocimetry PJ precessing jet as characterised at University of Adelaide PVC precessing vortex core Q volumetric owrate, m3/s QH thermal input, kW r radius, m re exit radius, m ro radius of furnace or connement, m rs radius of bluff body in exit of Sydney swirl burner, m r* r/ro rms root mean square of a signal RANS reynolds averaged NavierStokes modelling Re reynolds number Ri modied richardson number, (1/r)((r/(r) (W2/r))/(U/(r)2 S swirl number, unless stated otherwise, always derived from device geometry, dened as ratio of axial ux of angular momentum to axial ux of axial momentum, non-dimentionalised by the exhaust radius Scr critical swirl number when direction of precession changes Sg swirl number for the Sydney swirl burner ratio of integrated bulk tangential to primary bulk axial air velocities measured via LDA just above burner exit annulus. The geometric swirl number S is 90% of this value SSN Strouhal number for the Sydney swirl burner, 2frs/Ws Strouhal number the common denition, fDe/ub, is used throughout. ub is derived from the isothermal burner owrate and is based on the burner exhaust area. Where the original data used the denition fDe3/Q, this has been converted PJ Strouhal fd/ubone denition of Strouhal number for the PJ nozzle number u axial velocity, m/s ub average bulk burner exit axial velocity, Q outlet area available for ow (isothermal conditions assumed), m/s ub bulk ow velocity through the PJ inlet orice, m/s. VBD vortex breakdown w tangential velocity at a specic radius r, m/s Ws bulk or average tangential velocity as measured by LDA in exhaust annulus of Sydney swirl burner, m/s x axial distance x0 axial distance from exit of PJ nozzle F equivalence ratio g directional intermittency, % of negative samples in bin used to collect velocity samples from LDA 3 turbulence dissipation rate r gas density, m3/kg
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Fig. 1.1. Schematic diagram of processing leading to CRZ formation [1]: (1) tangential velocity prole creates a centrifugal pressure gradient and sub-atmospheric pressure near the central axis; (2) axial decay of tangential velocity causes decay of radial distribution of centrifugal pressure gradient in axial direction; (3) thus, an axial pressure gradient is set up in the central region towards the swirl burner, causing reverse ow.
turbulent ame velocity can be matched, aided by the recirculation of heat and active chemical species [1,2]. These processes are illustrated in Fig. 1.1 and arise as follows: Swirling ow generates a natural radial pressure gradient due to the term w2/r. Expansion through a nozzle causes axial decay of tangential velocity and hence radial pressure gradient. This in turn causes a negative axial pressure gradient to be set up in the vicinity of the axis, which in turn induces reverse ow and the formation of a CRZ. Where the tangential velocity distribution is of Rankine form [1] (i.e. free/forced vortex combination), the central vortex core can become unstable, giving rise to the PVC phenomena. The formation of the CRZ is thus dependent on the decay of swirl velocity as swirling ow expands. A typical toroidal recirculation zone formed at the exhaust of a swirl burner is shown in Fig. 1.2 for a swirl number of 1.57 and shows the large bubble of time mean recirculated ow that is formed with here 12% of the ow being recirculated [3].
With connement this process is modied, the rate of decay of swirl velocity is considerably reduced, hence the size and strength of the CRZ formed [1,2]. This is illustrated by results from a swirl burner furnace system for the combustion of low caloric values gases from carbon black plants [4]. The combustion system is illustrated in Fig. 1.3 and consists of a variable swirl number burner with separate ow controls for axial and tangential premixed air and fuel. This is red into a refractory lined chamber, the connement ratio for the swirl burner, Do/De is 2, whilst the Lfurn/Do ratio for the furnace is 2.5. Isothermal velocity results are shown in Figs. 1.41.6. The tangential velocity distribution, Fig. 1.4, close to the burner exit at x/DoZ0.11 shows a peak velocity of w17 m/s at r*Z0.55; by x/DoZ0.33 this peak velocity has been maintained whilst moving radially inwards to r*Z0.35. These tangential velocity proles are then conserved until the end of the furnace. This initial change in tangential velocity proles induces complex axial velocity proles and reverse ow zone patterns, Fig. 1.5, and also a PVC close to the burner exhaust. Throughout the furnace a region of forward axial exists on the axis, extending to r*w0.30.4. An annular reverse ow zone, centred at
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Fig. 1.2. Stream function distribution at swirl burner exhaust showing typical recirculation zone set up in the exhaust of a swirl burner, isothermal conditions, SZ1.57. PVC is located on boundary of reverse ow zone [3].
Fig. 1.3. Schematic diagram of refractory lined swirl burner furnace system for combustion of low Caloric value gases from carbon black plants [4]: (1) inlet for tangential premixed gas and air; (2) inlet for axial premixed gas and air. Swirl number variation achieved by varying proportions of above. Do/DeZ2.:LfurnZ2.5: air ow rateZ2.85 kg/s: SZ1.36.
r*Z0.5, develops between x/DoZ0.11 and 0.69, virtually disappearing by x/DoZ1, although there is evidence of a weak intermittent zone to the end of the furnace. Associated velocity vectors are shown in Fig. 1.6 and show the development of the annular CRZ. The conservation of swirl velocity and hence, angular momentum along the furnace length causes the PVC formed near the burner exit to be of higher frequency, but lower amplitude, than that formed by a free, unconned, expansion. Moreover, this conservation of swirl velocity also means that there is potential for the formation of further PVCs in the furnace exit downstream. This is discussed later in Section 2. Despite the advantages of swirl stabilised combustion there is a well known propensity for instability to
Fig. 1.4. Distribution of tangential velocity in system of Fig. 1.3 [4].
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Fig. 1.5. Distribution of axial velocity in system of Fig. 1.3 [4].
develop and again there is an extensive literature in this area [519]. Recent focus has been on lean premixed combustion (LPC) as used with many modern gas turbine systems to ensure low NOx emissions. Premixed ames are by nature more susceptible to static and dynamic
Fig. 1.6. Velocity vectors in system of Fig. 1.3 illustrating ow patterns [4].
instabilities due to the lack of inherent damping mechanisms. The resulting absence of diffusive mixing times leaves ames sensitive to acoustic excitation from sound waves with ame response dependent upon the amplitude, frequency and nature of acoustic wave impingement. If conditions are favourable, periodic uctuations in the heat release will match the natural resonant frequency of one or more of the geometrical components of the combustor, or related natural uid mechanic mechanisms, resulting in self-excited thermo-acoustic instabilities. The mechanism responsible for the maintenance of limit-cycle heat-driven oscillations was originally proposed by Rayleigh [20] and refers to the relationship between the pressure wave and rate of heat release. This paper discusses natural uid dynamic and related instabilities, occurring in swirl combustors and related systems, which can excite or increase periodic heat release. A major focus here is the inuence of vortex core precession and precessing vortex cores (PVC). The actual mechanism of the coupling effect between the ow/ame dynamics appears to arise from ow instability feeding into unsteady heat release/combustion processes, which then feed instability via coupling with acoustic modes of oscillation and amplication via the Rayleigh criterion. Associated work has shown that in high pressure process plant containing large ductwork runs and cyclone separators low frequency high amplitude pressure oscillations can arise from coupling between natural modes of acoustic oscillation and the vortex core precession (PVC) generated in the cyclone separator, Yazabadi et al. [21,22]. Similarly, Kurosaka [23] has shown that the cooling effect produced by the RanqueHilsch tube relies on the presence of strong PVCs, with up to six strong harmonics being readily detectable, typical fundamental frequencies were 27 kHz, being a near linear function of inlet velocity. Suppression of the PVC could be achieved by tting 12 quarter wave damping tubes radially around the circumference of the tube and tuning their frequency to that of the PVC so that they worked in anti phase. It is often difcult to analyse the role of the PVC, its inuence on instability and indeed its presence in combustion systems. The occurrence of the PVC is a function of swirl number (S) [1,2], the presence of a CRZ (normally SO0.60.7 for vortex breakdown, the PVC and a CRZ to occur [1,2]), as well as the mode of fuel entry, combustor conguration and equivalence ratio. It has been shown that axial fuel entry normally suppresses the PVC amplitude substantially, whilst premixed fuel and air can restore its presence and
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indeed can considerably excite it [2]. This is of course extremely important with premixed and partially premixed combustors. Here again, the effect of connement ratio on the swirling ow is important as discussed in Section 5. This paper, thus commences with a review of relevant work and then uses recent and new data to analyse the role of the PVC and the associated CRZ, relative to other factors which inuence instability in swirl combustion systems. 2. Vortex core and jet precession The concepts to be discussed in this paper are initially best illustrated by reference to the swirl burner shown in Fig. 2.1. This is of simple conguration with two circular inlets ring into a circular chamber, which leads via a sudden contraction to the exhaust, normally 50% of the diameter of the main chamber. The area of the tangential inlets can be varied by removable inserts to give swirl numbers in the range 0.75 upwards. Fuel can be introduced by several methods, including axially along the centre line and premixed with the air by introduction via a premixing system just before the tangential inlets. This device normally produces a central recirculation zone (CRZ) in the exhaust over its operational range giving excellent ame holding capabilities. This burner has been extensively used to describe and illustrate the phenomena of the precessing vortex core (PVC) [18,2431]. Fig. 2.2(a) and (b) shows PIV images obtained from this device under isothermal conditions, operating with SZ2.6 [29]. Here, a laser sheet red horizontally close to the exhaust of the burner in the tangential radial plane has illuminated ne oil particles and with a double pulse laser unit
enabled velocity vectors to be derived in the tangential radial direction. The central axis is marked, together with the diameter of the burner exhaust. Fig. 2.2(a) shows the main vortex is displaced from the central axis and is precessing about the central axis of symmetry, here with a frequency of 140 Hz. In this gure, the PIV image is superimposed on top of the phase averaged tangential radial velocity contours obtained from LDA at the same section. The PVC can be seen to generate a central region of negative tangential velocity due to the co-ordinate system used for velocities in this plane. In this type of unit the PVC phenomena persists for about 11.5 exit diameters in free air. Fig. 2.2(b) shows another PIV image showing evidence of the presence of a second PVC [30]. A schematic representation of the ow patterns associated with the PVC is shown in Fig. 2.3(a), with a typical periodic signal obtained from a pressure transducer inserted in the burner exhaust ow shown in Fig. 2.3(b) [2]. Normally, the PVC frequency increases quasi-linearly with owrate. A visualisation of PVC obtained under combustion conditions is shown in Fig. 2.4(a) [30]. Here, 10% of the fuel is injected axially into the burner where it is entrained into a low-pressure region in the PVC centre. The remainder of the natural gas fuel is premixed with the air upstream of the tangential inlets and produces a non-luminous blue ame. This consumes most of the available oxygen and hence the fuel in the PVC burns fuel rich on the PVC boundary as it is starved of oxygen. The structure of the PVC extends to about 1.5 diameters downstream of the burner exit before breaking up. There is evidence from many sources that the PVC is helical in nature [2933], wrapping itself around the reverse ow zone boundary, as shown in Fig. 2.4(b) [33].
Fig. 2.1. Schematic diagram of generic swirl burnerswirl number adjustable from 0.75 upwards via use of tangential inserts. Exhaust extends backwards into swirl chamber to prevent ashback. Nominal thermal input 100 kW [2729].
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2.1. General characteristics of the PVC under isothermal conditions For isothermal conditions, the frequency of the PVC can be readily characterised by a Strouhal number and
the swirl number, S [1,2,24,25,32,33]. The Strouhal number is a weak function of Re and asymptotic values have been used for Fig. 2.5 (data has been gathered from many sources, it should be noted that the Strouhal number used on this and subsequent gures, fDe/ub, is
Fig. 2.2. (a) Isothermal PIV instantaneous velocity vector plot just above exit of swirl burner, Fig. 2.1, showing one PVC [30]; (b) isothermal PIV instantaneous velocity vector plot just above exit of swirl burner, Fig. 2.1, showing two PVCs [30].
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Fig. 2.3. Processes associated with the PVC [30]: (a) schematic diagram of the ow patterns; (b) pressure uctuation against time trace obtained from pressure transducer located at lip of swirl burner, Fig. 2.1.
different by the factor {P/4} to that used in the source data [1,2,21,22,26,3239], fDe3/Q, to ensure commonality with other literature reviewed). The relationship is clearly a function of burner/swirl ow system conguration. There are a number of effects here; the data from large power station boilers was obtained from largescale systems and indicates a scale effect in that high values of Strouhal number are obtained for low swirl numbers. Strouhal numbers of more than two are produced for Swirl numbers of one. Swirl burners and cyclone combustors with non divergent exhausts with no centre bodies produce data which t onto the same curve, giving values of Strouhal number of w0.86 for a swirl number of 1. The well known Ijmuiden movable block swirl burner [1,2,39], gives a Strouhal number of
w0.37 for the same swirl number of 1, indicating the unit is not that effective in generating swirling ow. This type of unit also uses a large central fuel injector, and produces CRZ down to low swirl conditions, resulting in the occurrence of a PVC type structure at low swirl levels. These results were obtained with zero or very low fuel jet velocities and thus do not arise from precession of the central fuel jet: this has been conrmed by separate PIV studies [39]. Cyclone dust separators similar values of Strouhal number as for the Ijmuiden movable block swirl generator, indicating that the vortex nder (facing backwards into the cyclone chamber to prevent boundary layer egress of particles into the exhaust) is having deleterious effects on swirl generation and hence, the Strouhal number.
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Fig. 2.4. (a) Visualisation of single PVC with separate axial fuel injection into a premixed ame, swirl burner as Fig. 2.1 [30]; (b) visualisation of helical nature of the PVC from Chanaud [33].
Interesting results have been reported from the group at the University of Sydney where a swirl burner is formed by forcing swirling ow through the thin annulus formed when a large bluff body is inserted into the exhaust of a swirl ow system, Fig. 2.6 [4045]. Fuel is introduced via a small central jet, which can be of high velocity. This conguration produces extremely complex ows, with the occurrence of multiple recirculation zones due to the interaction of the swirling ow, bluff body and the high velocity central fuel jet. As discussed in [1] this can result in several ame types; work at the international ame research foundation (IFRF), the Netherlands, show that there are at least two main types, the so called Type I ame where a high velocity fuel jet res through the CRZ, followed by a wide zone of instability as the jet velocity was reduced, nally resulting in a stable, more common, Type II ames. The reported occurrence of precession in this type of burner, Fig. 2.6, is very dependent on the swirl number, central jet velocity and bulk ow velocities [40,41]. Precession is reported down to swirl numbers of 0.28 with high central jet
velocities relative to the bulk inlet velocity, and is associated with precession of the central fuel jet as opposed to a PVC interacting with the outer boundary of the CRZ. As discussed later this form of precession is characterised by values of Strouhal number an order of magnitude less than shown in Fig. 2.5. The persistence of preccessional frequencies to low swirl numbers in the power station burners, Fig. 2.5, arises from the use of large central fuel injectors, bluff body stabilisers, and is differentiated from jet precession by the values of Strouhal number, which indicate PVC form. All the other data from a range of different swirl burners and cyclone combustors lack fuel injectors and large bluff bodies in the exhaust ow [21,22,3438]. These units only produce PVC signals beyond the normally accepted level of swirl for the formation of a CRZ and vortex breakdown for SO0.5. The Strouhal number data for these units thus collapses to one separate curve, Fig. 2.5, as does that for cyclone separators. The structure of the PVC has been quantied under isothermal conditions using the swirl burner of Fig. 2.1, and LDA techniques whereby the PVC pressure signal is used to phase lock and overlap velocity data to produce the rotating velocity eld associated with the PVC, Fig. 2.7(a)(c) (x/DeZ0.007) and Fig. 2.8(a)(c) (x/DeZ0.78), SZ1.5 [25]. Three diagrams are shown for the rotating tangential (a), axial (b) and radial velocities (c). Each diagram shows the average rotating velocity eld over the full 3608 of the burner. Close to the burner exit, Fig. 2.7(a), the rotating tangential velocity shows considerable variation in the q direction, with a small but signicant area of negative tangential velocity near to and around the axis of symmetry, due to the effect of the PVC, this is also shown on Fig. 2.2(a). This is an important effect due to the presence of the PVC and arises from the convention used to designate measured tangential velocities, reference to Fig. 2.2(a) is useful here. High levels of tangential velocity are conned to a banana shaped sector of 1208 close to the outer wall. There is an area of low tangential velocity diametrically opposite to the high velocity region of w8 m/s, reecting the inlet velocity. The angular position of maximum rotating axial velocity, Fig. 2.7(b), closely matches that of the rotating tangential velocity, indicating that much of the ow leaves the burner in a thin banana shaped segment inclined upwards at an angle of 458. The reverse ow zone has a relatively high axial velocity value of K7 m/s and is displaced substantially from the central axis, extending from r/reZ0 to 0.7 and over a phase angle of 1008. The rotating radial velocity levels,
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Fig. 2.5. Variation of Strouhal number with Swirl number, asymtotic high reynolds number values, data for four distinct groups of devices [1,2,21, 22,25,26,31,34,35,3739].
Fig. 2.7(c), are somewhat lower than the other two components. Of particular note is the kidney shaped region of negative radial velocity (corresponding to inwards ow), extending from the central axis to r/rew0.77. Correlation of the tangential, axial and radial velocities close to the burner exhaust, Fig. 2.7, shows there is a large PVC present which leads the reverse ow zone by about 901008 in phase. These appear to be linked but distinct structures as most of the volume of the PVC is in a region of forward ow. By one exit diameter downstream the ow has nearly returned to axisymmetry, although the PVC and off centred reverse ow zone could still be detected at x/ DeZ0.78, Fig. 2.8(a) and (b). The region of negative tangential velocity has shrunk considerably, although its existence was still well dened. The maximum value of tangential velocity had also decayed from 24 (Fig. 2.7(a)) to 9.5 m/s. Rotating axial velocity levels, Fig. 2.8(b), were also more uniform, although the banana shaped area of ow is still evident for both axial and tangential velocities, although moved by about 2308 in the ow direction. Clearly, as indicated by Fig. 2.4 the PVC and associated structures are helical in nature, having been twisted by w2708 between the
sections shown in Figs. 2.7 and 2.8 (x/DeZ0.07 and 0.78); see also Fig. 2.4(b). Phase locking of the PVC and associated phenomena clearly looses some information and this is illustrated by the two instantaneous PIV images shown in Fig. 2.2, SZ1.7 [30]. Fig. 2.2(b) shows a state where two PVCs can be distinguished, Fig. 2.2(a) shows a state where a single PVC exists. The single PVC dominates this ow, intermittently jumping to a two PVC state. This PIV data has been subsequently analysed to give phase locked axial radial velocity vectors, Fig. 2.9(a) and (b), at two different cross-sections separated by 908. Especially in Fig. 2.9(b), the presence of axial radial eddies can be seen in and on the boundary of the CRZ whilst, Fig. 2.9(a) shows that a phase angle change of 908 causes these eddies to diminish signicantly. Other work [2] using water models has shown the existence of axial radial eddies produced by a swirl burner, SZ1.86. Here, the eddies appear to be periodically shed from the end of the CRZ and propagate downstream through the expanding ow, accompanied by large scale motions or apping of the CRZ and shear layer. Other workers have reported similar phenomena with swirling ames including Roux et al. [45], Masri et al. [42], Syred et al.
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Fig. 2.6. Swirl burner developed by sydney university group [4144].
[46], but without the presence of the large PVC. Dorrestein [47] found large radial axial eddies on the edge of a swirling ame and attributed large amplitude system oscillations to acoustic coupling with these eddies. 2.2. Effect of connement The effect of connement has an extremely important effect upon the PVC and its related instabilities. As discussed by Syred and Dahmen [48], Syred and Beer [2], Gupta et al. [1], connement can dramatically alter the size and shape of the CRZ and ERZ formed as the swirl burner ow expands into a furnace or combustion vessel. It can also induce weak regions of forward axial ow on the central axis inside
the CRZ [2,46]. Connement ratio, Do/De, is the dominant factor, the smaller this ratio the larger is the effect. Other important factors include the level of swirl, equivalence ratio and whether or not a quarl or sudden expansion is used on the burner exit. As discussed in Section 1 the CRZ formed by an unconned swirl burner arises because of the sudden expansion and associated entrainment effects on the edge of the swirling ow [1]. This causes decay in swirl velocity prole, which in turn generates strong radial and axial pressure gradients creating the CRZ. Inevitably, any form of signicant connement will affect this process and alter the size and shape of the CRZ, whilst also normally causing an ERZ to form as the ow sticks to the external wall. As the PVC is closely associated with the boundary of the CRZ connement has considerable effects as discussed by Fick [30]. Available results are summarised in Fig. 2.10(a) and (b) for isothermal ow in the small 100 kW burner of Fig. 2.1 (unconned ow) and for conned ow in the swirl burner/furnace system of Fig. 2.10(c). Fig. 2.10(a) shows that for a connement ratio of 2 (see Fig. 2.10(c)) Strouhal number is scarcely affected by this relatively high level of connement until a swirl number of about 1.3, when sudden difference occur, more than doubling the unconned value for SO1.5. This continues up to the maximum swirl number characterised of 4.78. There is still sufcient swirl left in the ow for another vortex breakdown to occur, Fig. 2.10(a), in and just past the exhaust of the furnace, Fig. 2.10(c), creating another, separate PVC (this can be readily observed). Chao et al. [49] reported a similar phenomena nding two natural frequencies in different regions of an undisturbed swirling ow eld; a transition region was also found where both instabilities co-existed, as found by Fick [30]. Thus, in the exhaust of the furnace shown in Fig. 2.10(c) a PVC was found whose value of Strouhal number was considerably less than that found in the main furnace just after the burner exit. There was an effect of Reynolds number as especially at low swirl numbers, SZ0.5, the effect did not appear until high ow rates and furnace exit average axial velocities of 12 m/s, SZ0.5 (ReZ48,000). This decreased to 4.5 m/s, for SZ1.5 (ReZ18,000). Fig. 2.10(b) shows the relationships between the various frequencies at high Re. For SO1.7 the effect of connement is to increase the frequency of the PVC formed in the swirl burner exhaust by w2.1. The PVC then formed in the furnace exhaust has a frequency w30% of that formed just downstream of the burner exhaust. The occurrence of this secondary PVC is unfortunate, as it can easily
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Fig. 2.7. (a) Phase locked tangential velocity contours above swirl burner exit, x/DeZ0.07, burner as Fig. 2.1 [25]; (b) phase locked axial velocity contours above swirl burner exit, x/DeZ0.07, burner as Fig. 2.1 [25]; (c) phase locked radial velocity contours above swirl burner exit, x/DeZ0.07, burner as Fig. 2.1 [25].
106
Fig. 2.7 (continued)
become another mechanism for driving instability. Other work on cyclone dust separators has shown that the PVC can travel around bends [21,22]. Thus, where instability is a problem the use of inline exhausts for the burner and furnace/combustion chamber as shown in Fig. 2.10(c) is probably undesirable. Unfortunately, detailed results are only available for a connement ratio of 2, Do/DeZ2 [30]. Clearly, larger connement ratios would produce values of Strouhal number somewhat in between those for the unconned and conned cases shown in Fig. 2.10(a) and (b). Anacleto et al. [50] studied swirling ow with and without combustion in a LPP combustor model as shown in Fig. 2.11 using a number of techniques and a variable angle swirl generator. Swirl vane variation between 0 and 608 could achieved, giving a swirl number range of up to 1.6, whilst a wide range of Re could be covered. Flow passes through the vaned swirler, with an outer diameter of 120 mm, and then is converged to a 50 mm diameter, 110 mm long premixing section, before passing through a 40 mm contraction to the nal combustion chamber of
110 mm diameter, Fig. 2.11. The PVC was characterised under isothermal conditions just past the 40 mm contraction, both with and without the nal combustion chamber. The Strouhal number is shown as a function of swirl number and Re, Fig. 2.12(a) and the pressure difference, central ow axis to the wall of the 50 mm diameter chamber, Fig. 2.12(b) at a position just past the tip of the fuel injector, Fig. 2.11. In region I for S! 0.5 no PVC is detectable, vortex breakdown occurs in region II with the formation of a PVC. Strouhal numbers then decrease from the initial value with increasing swirl until values of Sw0.9. Subsequent increases in swirl number produces the expected increase in Strouhal number as indicated for other systems in Fig. 2.5. The effect of the nal combustion chamber on the PVC is small, Fig. 2.12(a), with the largest deviation occurring for SZ0.88. Thus, the processes determining the formation of the PVC in this system are governed by those occurring in the rst 50 mm diameter premixing chamber, Fig. 2.11. The pressure difference curves, Fig. 2.12(b) shows the changes in ow structure occurring with vortex
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Fig. 2.8. (a) Phase locked tangential velocity contours above swirl burner exit, x/DeZ0.78, burner as Fig. 2.1 [25]; (b) phase locked axial velocity contours above swirl burner exit, x/DeZ0.78, burner as Fig. 2.1 [25]; (c) phase locked radial velocity contours above swirl burner exit, x/DeZ0.78, burner as Fig. 2.1 [25].
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breakdown between states I and II and II and III. The Strouhal number data for SO0.9 and high Re compares well to the data of Fig. 2.5 and shows isothermal Strouhal numbers just a little higher in value than those produced by many other swirl burners and cyclone combustors. 2.3. Precessing jets and jet burners Studies have carried out at the University of Adelaide on Precessing Jets (PJ) and their application to burners in cement kilns and similar installations [5160]. Signicant advantages in terms of reduced NOx emissions have been shown on gas red cement kilns and promise is shown when ring pulverised coal [5254]. The associated fundamental work has included studies of oscillating two-dimensional jets of varying aspect ratios, triangular jets and most relevant to this work oscillating or uidic jets [51,55]. The relevance to the PVC and swirl instabilities is that there are many similarities in the mechanisms from which the PJ originates and the characteristics of the jets so generated. Fig. 2.13(a) and (b) schematically illustrates
the processes occurring with the PJ [51], with the entire jet precessing about the axis of the system. Fig. 2.13(a) shows a schematic of the processes occurring, whilst Fig. 2.13(b) shows a water model visualisation, obtained via a thin light sheet illuminating the central axial radial plane. The unit consists of a cylindrical chamber with a small axisymetric sharp edged inlet orice at one end and an exit lip at the other. Flow enters the sharp edged orice and expands into the chamber where it attaches asymmetrically to the wall, with substantial internal ow recirculation, Fig. 2.13(a). The asymmetry causes the reattaching ow to precess about the axis of the device, producing a precessing exit ow. The lip and large transverse pressure gradients near the outlet together steer the exit ow through a large angle, towards the axis and across the face of the nozzle outlet [51,56]. As a result the PJ entrains large quantities of external uid, some 56.8 that of an equivalent free turbulent jet. Later versions of the PJ nozzle have a centre body located just before the exit, Fig. 2.14, to improve the regularity of the precession. Fig. 2.15 shows phase locked LDA measurement of axial velocity past the PJ nozzle exit at a PJ frequency
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Fig. 2.9. (a) Phase locked PIV image in axial radial plane at exit of swirl burner, Fig. 2.1, plane 1553358 [30]; (b) phase locked PIV image in axial radial plane at exit of swirl burner, Fig. 2.1, plane 652458 [30].
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Fig. 2.10. (a) Variation of Strouhal number with swirl number, isothermal conditions, data for unconned and conned ow [30]; (b) frequency ratio for the PVC between conned and unconned states [30]; (c) schematic diagram of swirl burner furnace system, swirl burner as Fig. 2.1 [30]. Inserts are used in the tangential inlets to alter swirl number. DeZ75 mm. Burner exit protrudes backwards into swirl chamber to prevent ashback.
of 7.5 Hz. Flow leaving the PJ nozzle, Fig. 2.15, at x 0 /dZ0.67, assumes a banana or kidney shape region of high velocity, moving downstream the ow has returned to near symmetry by x 0 /dZ1.93. These results
are similar to those obtained with the PVC, Figs. 2.7(b) and 2.8(b). However, in operation the frequency and motion of the PJ is more irregular than the PVC with considerable signal jitter. This lead to several studies produced by a mechanically rotating PJ nozzle where the ow eld was much more regular [59,60]. Wong [57] describes a new phase locking technique to analyse the complex motion from conventional non-rotating PJ nozzles using two separate hot wire probes to produce triggering signals for LDA or PIV systems. Earlier phase locked techniques were unable to detect the direction of rotation of the PJ. In this way, different and consistent and parts of the cycle can be phase averaged to obtain detailed velocity maps. Fig. 2.16 shows the general ow characteristics of the PJ analysed by this technique derived from instantaneous PIV, phase, precession direction resolved phase averaged PIV and surface ow visualisations. This shows a number of smaller vortices and structures which the earlier phase locked LDA technique had missed, for instance on the exit nozzle, centre body and in the ow around the precessing jet. Wong [57] also discusses in detail various methods of non-dimensionalising the frequency data from various designs of PJ to produce Strouhal number data. He proposes a modied Strouhal number for PJ systems based on the inlet orice diameter, d, precessional frequency, bulk ow velocity through the inlet orice and two constants, A and B, which are representative of system length scales. The derived Strouhal number range from 0.008 to 0.06. This contrasts with previously derived Strouhal number values of w0.0010.005 [51] using precessional frequency, inlet PJ orice diameter and corresponding bulk ow velocity (fd/ub). These values are much lower those obtained for the PVC, ranging from 0.2 to 2 or more, although there are differences in denition. In combustion situations, the driving uid is usually high-pressure gaseous fuel, typically natural gas [52], although pulverised coal versions have been developed [54]. The PJ creates a rapid decay in mean velocity close to the nozzle and generates large-scale ame structures with reduced shear relative to a simple free turbulent jet [56]. As a result, the natural gas initially burns in an oxygen decient region and produces a ame of excellent stability and high emissivity, unusual for natural gas ames. This enhances radiant heat transfer and can reduce NOx emissions by between 20 and 60% [52,53]. The high entrainment rates ensure that downstream as the large-scale structures breakup, good mixing occurs with good nal fuel burnout. Extensive experimental work shows that combustion
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Fig. 2.11. Vaned swirler, prevapourisation and combustion chamber of Acacleto et al. [50].
has little effect on the PJ structure and characteristics as the initial processes which generate the PJ occur upstream of the combustion process. There is parallel here with the work of Ancacleto et al. [50], where the PVC was generated upstream of the combustion process and thus was not affected. 3. Combustion and the PVC Combustion processes make the behaviour and occurrence of the PVC more complex. The form of the PVC and associated ows can be similar to that found in isothermal ows [1,2,26,30,37,38,50]. The use of axial or tangential fuel entry alone [1,2,26,37,38] can suppress the amplitude of the PVC by an order of magnitude or more and its frequency/occurrence becomes a complex function of ow rate, equivalence ration and mode of fuel entry. The PVC occurs more readily with premixed combustion [1,2,30]. The occurrence of the PVC is a very strong function of the position where the ame is radially located and this is highly dependent on the mode of fuel entry. This is illustrated in Fig. 3.1(a)(c) which summarises three main ame types that can be found with a large 1 MW rated unconned swirl burner red on natural gas, SZ 1.86. The burner is schematically shown in Fig. 3.1(d) and has no ashback protection to guard the eight inlets. The rst ame [2], Fig. 3.1(a), shows a result with premixed air and natural gas where the ame is actually located in the air/fuel inlets and the PVC is considerably excited in frequency and amplitude. This is an extreme result from a large unconned ame where the premixed ame has ashed back to the eight slit tangential inlets through which the air/natural gas is red. The ame is thus mainly contained inside the burner and is extremely noisy. A strong PVC signal was readily seen and the results for a range of f are shown
for Strouhal numbers as a function of Re, Fig. 3.2(a). Flame extinction occurred beyond fw0.68. The highest excitation of the PVC frequency occurred for fw0.68 producing a value of Strouhal number increased by a factor of 4 on the isothermal result. This effect steadily decreases for reducing equivalence ratios. Simple calculations indicate that this Strouhal number increase can be described if allowance is made for the acceleration of the gases due to combustion in
Fig. 2.12. Effect of Swirl Number on Strouhal Number and Pressure Drop Parameter [50].
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Fig. 2.13. (a) Schematic of processes occurring in the PJ burner [51]; (b) water model visualisation via an axial radial slit light of the processes occurring in the PJ burner [51].
the tangential inlets as the value for bulk velocity, ub, in the Strouhal number is based on the isothermal owrate. This premixed condition is unusual and normally undesirable as considerable overheating and distortion of the inlets can occur. Reference to Figs. 2.1 and 2.10(c) shows that an extension to the exhaust nozzle is normally tted to prevent ashback. This produces very different ames, which are now primarily stabilised downstream in the exhaust nozzle. Fig. 3.1(b) shows the type of ame produced by axial fuel injection in the same large burner; here the main part of the ame is located downstream of the burner exit, but parts of the ame surrounding the CRZ extend
Fig. 2.14. Improved version of the PJ burner with centre body [56].
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Fig. 2.15. Phase locked LDA axial velocity contours in exhaust of PJ burner [56].
back into the burner mouth and indeed right down to the burner back plate, as a thin tulip shaped column. Similar ames are produced with axial fuel injection by the burners of Figs. 2.1 and 2.10(c). The PVC amplitude is nearly always suppressed by at least an order of magnitude compared to the isothermal state (until very small equivalence ratios [2,61]). Fig. 3.1(c) shows another ame produced by tangential fuel entry with the ame located at an intermediate radial position between that shown for the ames of Fig. 3.1(a) and (b). Again, the PVC amplitude is suppressed by at least an order of magnitude. Fig. 3.2(b) shows the effect of axial and tangential fuel entry upon Strouhal number for the suppressed PVC as a function of Reynolds number and equivalence ratio for a 1/5 scale model of the burner of Fig. 3.1(d). There are differences between axial and tangential fuel entry, but at high Reynolds numbers the values of Strouhal number are approaching 8090% of the isothermal state. At exceptionally low equivalence ratios (f!0.02) a large PVC reappears with axial fuel injection [2,51] and this is the conguration upon which
the stability analysis discussed later was carried out. The radial location of the ame front close to the burner exhaust is important as this can give rise to unfavourable/favourable gradients of rwr and density conducive to PVC formation/suppression. Claypole [26,37,38] used a natural gas red swirl burner of similar conguration to that of Fig. 2.1, but with four inlets. Fig. 3.3(a) shows the effect of combustion upon PVC rms pressure amplitude for centreline axial fuel injection via spectral analysis of signals obtained from a pitot tube located at the burner exhaust lip. The dramatic reduction in amplitude by up to a factor of 15 can be observed. Premixed fuel and air was shown to only slightly affect the PVC under the stated conditions, Fig. 3.3(b). Fig. 3.4 shows the occurrence of the PVC for a range of Swirl numbers and ow rates (Re). PVCs only occur beyond a ow rate of w600 l/min (ReZ40,000) and this is where vortex breakdown occurs as there is no CRZ formed at lower owrates. For 0.8OSO1.8 two PVCs are observed of approximately equal intensity. For higher Swirl numbers a single PVC reappears, but with multiple
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Fig. 2.16. General ow characteristics of the PJ, derived from instantaneous PIV, phase and precession direction resolved phase averaged PIV and surface ow visualisations [57].
harmonics, whilst for S!0.8 only one PVC could be detected. A visualisation of a two PVC state in the swirl burner of Fig. 2.1 with axial fuel injection is shown in Fig. 3.5. A stainless steel mirror enabled simultaneous images to be obtained in the axial/radial and tangential/ radial directions. Inside the burner the two PVCs rotate in mesh and then spiral outwards in a helical manner as they leave the burner exit. The PVCs persist for about 1.5 exhaust diameters downstream of the exhaust, being of similar length to the single PVC visualised in Fig. 2.4. For fZ0.89, Fig. 3.6, the Strouhal number ranged from w0.8 (SZ0.63) to 0.32 (SZ1.26), 0.3 (SZ1.53). The value for SZ0.9 shows a sudden jump as a double PVC mode is established with values of Strouhal number dropping from 0.86 to 0.2 as the mode switched from single to double PVC. This behaviour is quite different from the isothermal state [26,37,38] where
there is a steady increase of Strouhal number with swirl number, Fig. 2.5. The variation of Strouhal number for the second harmonic of the PVC shows the same trends, Fig. 3.7. A radial fuel injector reduced the coherence of the PVC somewhat. Available data on PVC frequencies in combustion systems has been assembled in Figs. 3.8 and 3.9, this data has been derived from references [1,2,26,30,31,37,38]. Fig. 3.8 shows the variation of Strouhal number for the PVC with 100% axial fuel entry with swirl number varying from 0.73 to 3.43 as a function of equivalence ratio, all the ames being unconned. An equivalence ratio of 0 conveniently corresponds to the isothermal state. For the lowest swirl number of 0.732, there is a trend of increasing PVC frequency with equivalence ratio, changing as the swirl number increases due to the occurrence and formation of double PVC structures with changes in equivalence ratio.
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Fig. 3.1. Effect of different modes of fuel injection, SZ1.8 [2]; (a) premixed ame with excited PVC, premixed natural gas and air, fZ 0.52; (b) effect of central axial fuel injection, fZ0.952; (c) effect of tangential fuel entry, fZ0.952; (d) schematic diagram of burner.
For partially premixed conditions, Fig. 3.9 (100 kW burner of Fig. 2.1, 1050% of the fuel injected axially, SZ0.76), a different situation pertains and although higher harmonics of the PVC were present, the rst harmonic always dominates. This is why with unconned ames, SZ1.76, there is a steady increase in PVC frequency with equivalence ratio, the value doubling from the isothermal Strouhal number of 0.86 1.64 at fZ0.71, but then dropping down again to values between 0.56 and 0.96 as the burner is operated up to fZ2. The level of axial fuel injection varied from 0 to 50%, depending on the equivalence ratio. For unconned ames the technique is limited by the blow off limits of the combustor. Fig. 3.9 also shows results from a large 2 MW swirl burner furnace system, Fig. 3.10(a) and (b) (0.7!S! 1.6, De/DoZ0.5, swirl burner four times geometric scale up unit of Fig. 2.10(c)). Here, because the furnace
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Fig. 3.2. The effect of Reynolds number and equivalence ratio f upon Strouhal number [2]: (a) premixed natural gas and air and isothermal statelarge combustor, SZ1.86; (b) 1/5 scale model combustor axial and tangential fuel entry, SZ1.86.
is refractory lined to investigate the combustion of low caloric value gases, much wider blow off limits can be investigated with different modes of fuel entry. Seventy to one hundred % of the natural gas fuel was injected axially, the rest was premixed in the inlets with the air.
The value of Strouhal number drops dramatically from that of the isothermal state, 1.2 to w0.5 for f between 0.1 and 0.3, and then rises steadily back to the isothermal value for fw1, then steadily increases again with increasing f. There is only a small effect of
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Fig. 3.4. Occurrence of the PVC for a range of swirl numbers as a function of Swirl number and ow rate (Re). Hatched area shows region of single PVC, square hatched area shows region of double PVC [26,37,38].
Fig. 3.3. Effect of combustion upon the PVC with (a) 100% axial fuel injection; and (b) premixed, SZ1.98, DeZ75 mm, equivalence ratio 0.89 [26,37,38].
Swirl number and mode of fuel injection, upon Strouhal number for fw1. As the PVC frequency varied quasilinearly with owrate changes it was evident that the PVC was not driven by system acoustics. The isothermal value of the Strouhal number for the 2 MW system is 1.2, Fig. 3.9. Reference to Fig. 2.10(b) shows a frequency ratio conned to free (Do/DeZ2) of 1.5 and thus, the equivalent Strouhal number for the 2 MW unit ring into free air is w0.8. This is a reasonable match to the isothermal result for the unconned SZ1.76, 100 kW unit, Strouhal number 0.88, when differences in swirl number are allowed for.
For partially premixed conditions only one dominant PVC was normally found, although there was always evidence of other harmonics. The work of Anacleto et al. [50] provides an interesting contrast here. In their LPP system, Fig. 2.11, a vaned type swirl surrounds a central hub containing a fuel injector/atomiser. The swirling ow is converged to a small diameter, but long chamber, where centrally injected liquid fuel is pre-vapourised. Combustion occurs downstream of this section in a larger diameter chamber. The mixing and ow characteristics in the combustion chamber are shown to be strongly inuenced by the formation of a large PVC in the rst pre-mixing chamber. However, as the PVC has had signicant opportunity to develop in the rst chamber, there is no suppression, and the Strouhal number with combustion is very similar to the isothermal state. The stability of rotating ow may be analysed via the work of Rayleigh on ow stratication [62] and consideration of stratication parameters such as modied Richardson numbers, Ri, as proposed by Beer et al. [63]. The stability criterion proposed by Rayleigh was that a system is: stable if rwr increases with r (solid body rotation) neutrally stable rwr is constant with r (free vortex) unstable if rwr decreases with r Syred et al. [61] characterised the ow containing a single PVC with combustion via axial fuel injection in the burner of Fig. 3.1(d) at very low equivalence ratios, fZ0.02, using phase locked uctuating temperature measurements and ow analysis. The rotating temperature elds obtained are shown in Fig. 3.11(a) and (b). Here, the natural gas was completely entrained into the
118 N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161 Fig. 3.5. Co-incident pairs (a and b), (c and d), (e and f) of double PVC images from natural gas red swirl burner, SZ1.77, via high-speed video. Images obtained via inclined stainless steel mirror.
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Fig. 3.6. Variation of Strouhal number for rst harmonic PVC with ow rate and swirl number equivalence ratio, 0.98, DeZ75 mm (1 m3/minZreynolds number 67,500) [37,38].
PVC and burnt on the boundary, the precessional motion developing in the last half diameter before the exhaust. By the exhaust the PVC was about 39% of the exhaust radius and trailed a wake of burning hot gas, achieving maximum temperatures of 1250 8C on the edge of the PVC. Phase locked distributions of angular momentum (rwr), Fig. 3.12, showed negative gradients in and around the PVC, followed by a neutral region just past the PVC, then an outer annulus with positive gradients at larger radii showing stable ow. Further analysis of this ow was carried out using the modied Richardson number, Ri, which is the ratio of the centrifugal forces in a eld with density gradients to the shear forces. Stabilising effects occur for values of
Fig. 3.8. Variation of unconned strouhal number with equivalence ratio, 100% axial fuel injection, 100 kW unit, Fig. 2.1 [1,2,26,30,31, 37,38].
Fig. 3.7. Variation of Strouhal number for the second Harmonic of the PVC with ow rate and swirl number [26,37,38].
RiO0. As the radial density gradient distributions showed large negative values in and around the PVC, Fig. 3.13(a) and (b), Ri becomes negative and thus conrms the unstable nature of the ow region around the PVC. Re-examination of the ames produced by axial fuel injection, Fig. 3.1(b) shows that at the burner exit the ame is burning in and around the central vortex core region at quite a small diameter, typically w0.2 De. There is little opportunity for negative gradients of rwr and temperature (hence, density gradient) to develop and thus precession of the vortex core is minimised. The ame can only expand radially when velocities have decayed due to the downstream expansion of the ow, allowing matching to occur between the ow and ame speed. This also causes a downstream displacement of the CRZ; conditions in and around the CRZ are then not favourable to signicant PVC formation. Recent work from several sources [4246,64] has shown some light on stability of swirling ames when the PVC is suppressed. Roux et al. [45] modelled the ows within an atmospheric complex swirl combustion system using compressible large eddy simulation (LES), acoustic analysis and experiments in both isothermal and reacting ows with methane as fuel. A vaned type swirler red into a square combustion chamber was used whilst the fuel, methane, was premixed with the air. Reasonable agreement between predictions and experimental measurements was found. Under combustion conditions (fZ0.75, mairZ12 g/s, QHZ27 kW) a PVC found under isothermal conditions was suppressed. Here the combustion aerodynamics are strongly inuenced by an acoustic
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Fig. 3.9. Variation of Strouhal number with equivalence ratio with partial premixing, 2 MW and 100 kW units [1,2,26,30,31,37,38].
588 Hz 3/4 wave mode. A snapshot of an LES prediction of an instantaneous temperature isosurface is shown in Fig. 3.14(a) with a compact but irregular ame located close to the burner exhaust. Mean temperature proles show a regular ame form [45], and this is constructed from the average of thousands of snapshots as shown in Fig. 3.14(a). This irregular instantaneous ame form is clearly susceptible to distortion and coupling with acoustic and other natural modes of oscillation of the system. Selle et al. [64] carried out a LES simulation of a swirl stabilised Siemens industrial gas turbine burner ring into a square combustion chamber under atmospheric conditions ring natural gas with preheated air at 673 K. The burner was constructed from two sections, a central axial swirler is used to inject some air, whilst the majority of the air is injected by a so-called diagonal swirler. Fuel is normally injected in the diagonal swirler through holes located on both sides of the swirl vanes. Measurements were taken of mean and rms velocities for hot and isothermal cases, in addition thermocouples were used to obtain temperature elds under combustion conditions. Under isothermal conditions PVC was predicted and measured, but completely suppressed by combustion and a 1000 K temperature iso-surface from the LES work is illustrated in Fig. 3.14(b). This clearly shows again the turbulent nature of the ame/ow interaction where pockets of fresh gas are periodically shed from the main ame zone and burn downstream. A central core of hot gas is stabilised along the burner axis by the CRZ, this core is attached to the face of the axial swirler. The pressure eld structure with combustion corresponds with and induces an acoustic mode of the chamber not analysed.
Syred et al. [46] have shown that swirling ames with a suppressed PVC are susceptible to irregular disturbances and hence, coupling with acoustic or other modes of oscillation and indeed re-establishment of a large PVC structure in certain circumstances [30].
Fig. 3.10. Photograph and schematic diagram of swirl burner/furnace system, four times scale up of 100 kW system, operated with 25%, tangential inserts to give Swirl No. 1.155 [30]: (a) photograph; (b) schematic.
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The burner of Fig. 2.1 is operated with axial fuel entry alone at fZ0.456, whilst the PVC amplitude is substantially suppressed so little residual trace can be found. A salt solution is injected with the fuel so that the high temperature regions of the ame are well visualised by the uorescence of the sodium chloride. This volatilises early in the high temperature regions inside the burner, enabling high frequency images to be obtained at 1 kHz, with an exposure of w0.1 ms (no laser is used, this is just natural ame luminescence). Successive images are subtracted from each other to give a measure of the change of intensity especially towards the edge of the ame, Fig. 3.15. These
subtracted images are then analysed to give a mean, rims and local intensity value. Both a side and top, tangential/radial, views are obtained via the use of stainless steel mirror. This plot thus gives information on the uctuation of ame intensity for frequencies up to 1 kHz for a 1 s time frame (the storage limit of the camera was 1000 frames, based on LDA experience probably 10,000 images are needed to obtain better statistics). In particular, it shows that the edge of the ame is highly intermittent with instantaneous uctuations up to six times the mean, this occurring within about 11.5 burner exit diameters. Circumferentially, there is also a very large non-uniformity as shown by the top view, and tangential radial mixing appears to dominate on the edge and top of the ame. The data can be further analysed, Fig. 3.16. Here, four successive ame images, again each separated by 1 ms have been analysed in terms of the ame shape, the 5 and 95% areas of maximum intensity have been identied. Analysis of the behaviour of volatilised sodium in ames indicates that the ame boundary corresponds to the outer contour and a temperature around 650 8C. As to be expected the downstream ame shows substantial variation in shape, but most interestingly the ame just leaving the burner exit shows considerable variation in its diametric location and it appears that the ame is physically wobbling or precessing with no regular frequency that could be detected, there are also indications of this in Fig. 3.15. The top view of the ame shows that it is non-circular in shape and considerably distorted. there have been similar reports of this phenomena by other workers [4042,45]. Examination of the cine lm and still images so derived shows that the ame is sensitive to small disturbances and is easily disturbed by ow or acoustic perturbations, especially downstream of the burner exit. Clearly, the presence of a quarl (or conical burner outlet) which guides the expansion of the ow can also serve to damp signicant eddy movements on the outside of the ame as it expands past the burner exit, (discussed in more detail later). However, it does little to suppress the irregular circumferential movements shown in the top views of Figs. 3.15 and 3.16, or the irregular end section of the ame. The 95% intensity contour also suggests that the boundary of the highest temperature regions of the ame and central reaction zone is also varying considerably, Fig. 3.16, probably also corresponding to an irregular uctuation in the size and shape of the CRZ and associated shear layer. Fig. 3.17 shows ame boundaries derived from an analysis of three separate successive side views. Here, it is clear that between images 783 and 784 there has been
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Fig. 3.11. Phase locked rotating temperatures (8C) obtained from compensated thermocouples in swirl burner of Fig. 3.1(d), fZ0.02 [61]: (a) x/DeZK0.52; (b) x/DeZ0.
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Fig. 3.12. Phase locked radial distribution of angular momentum ux [61].
massive movement in 1 ms, corresponding to mean ame front velocities of up to 40 m/s in places, more commonly 20 m/s. The radial movement of the whole ame close to the burner exit is evident between images 783 and 784, with a radial displacement in 1 ms of 5.2 mm, or 10% of the ame diameter at this point. As discussed earlier one reason for the suppression of the large PVC is the very small column of hot recirculating ow in the exhaust of the burner, surrounded by a thin annular ame, this being contained within a high velocity annulus of swirling ow where the ame will not stabilise. Flame expansion occurs downstream of the burner exhaust and this ame then surrounds the CRZ located well downstream of the burner exhaust (i.e. ame of Fig. 3.1(b)) in a region not conducive to PVC formation. The work of Roux et al. [50] is noteworthy in that it shows a swirl ow combustor with premixed fuel and air where the PVC is suppressed. The reasons for this appear to lie with the conguration of the system, location of the ame front and the development of the swirl ow system and CRZ. In particular, swirling ow enters an annulus surrounding a centre body and then is
forced into a contraction before entering the combustion chamber. The processes occurring are illustrated by Figs. 3.18(a), (b) and 3.19(a), (b) (fZ0.75, mairZ 12 g/s, QHZ27 kW), which show velocity and temperature proles just inside the combustion chamber. The important features are as follows. For isothermal ow the tangential velocity close to the entrance to the combustion chamber follows a Rankine distribution [1,2], Fig. 3.18(a), with a steady rise from the central axis to a peak in the forward shear layer (forced vortex) followed by a decay towards the walls (free vortex). This type of distribution continues downstream with steady decay of velocity levels, Fig. 3.18(a), with transference of angular momentum to the external ow and smoothing out of the prole by xZ25 mm. In contrast, the tangential velocities with combustion show, Fig. 3.18(b), that at the entrance to the combustion chamber (xZ1.5 mm) there is little tangential velocity in the central region of ow. Signicant transference of angular momentum to this region does not occur until xZ35 mm, Fig. 3.15(b). All the tangential velocity is concentrated in an annular ow region on entry to the combustion chamber. Essentially, as there is little angular momentum in the central region of the ow there is no real vortex core (normally this region has a forced vortex distribution [1,2]) and nothing to precess. The axial velocity proles under combustion conditions, Fig. 3.19(a), show that the initial annular jet ow rapidly diverges and gives rises to a large toroidal recirculation zone and is of high velocity w25 m/s. The corresponding temperature proles, Fig. 3.19(b), shows recirculation of very hot combustion products back to the root of the ame at xZ 1.5 mm. These hot recirculated gases are extremely viscous and appear to substantially reduce the transference of angular momentum into the central region, thus producing conditions not favourable to PVC formation. The presence of a centre body restricts the upstream location of the CRZ and due to the high velocity levels the ame cannot ash back and allow a PVC to develop as reported in [1,2]. The conguration of the centre body is important here, it consists of a tapering cone leading from the axial swirler and terminating at small diameter at the entrance to the combustion chamber. There is thus some restriction of ow on the central axis but not enough to induce a substantive bluff body ow and allow a PVC to form as reported in [39]. Although the PVC has been suppressed with premixed combustion an acoustic 3/4 wave for the whole device is amplied at 588 Hz and interacts with
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the instantaneous the ame structure. Obviously under appropriate conditions considerable excitation can occur. Selle et al. [64] also showed suppression of the PVC with combustion in an Industrial gas turbine swirl stabilised combustor. There are considerable similarities to the results of Roux [45] in terms of the velocity and temperature proles produced close to the burner exhaust when ring into the combustion chamber. Especially, noticeable is the experimental LDA results showing that there is negligible tangential velocity in the central region of ow at x/DeZ0.35, this only develops for values of x/DeO0.6 (LES results differ). Again the temperature proles show a CRZ completely lled with hot gas at the main combustion chamber temperature (w1650 K), surrounded by an initially cold, just starting to burn, annular jet of fuel and air, thus creating similar conditions to Roux et al. [45]. Thus, there is a situation where there is initially no swirl velocity in the central region, hence, no vortex
core to precess. Similarly, use of the Rayleigh criteria for stratied ows [62] and consideration of the modied Richardson number, Ri, shows that as angular momentum ux, rwr, is very low in the central region of ow close to the burner axis, positive gradients exist due to the strongly swirling annular jet entering the combustion chamber, thus promoting stability; in terms of the modied Richardson number, Ri, density gradients and centrifugal force gradients are positive from the central region outwards to the annular swirling jet, again promoting stability; this analysis applies equally to the work of Roux et al. [45]. Unfortunately, neither Roux et al. [45] nor Selle et al. [64] dene a swirl number for their congurations. Reddy et al. [66] used PIV with a 508 vaned swirler (swirl number S estimated at about 1) ring
Fig. 3.13. Phase locked distribution of radial density Gradient: (a) cross-section at burner exhaust, x/DeZ0; (b) radial distribution at x/DeZ0, various phase angles.
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isothermally into a square combustion chamber and found both a central CRZ, and also, not unexpectedly, a series of corner eddies. The swirl vanes are tted to a large at centre body. The PVC was clearly visualised well downstream of the swirler at x/DeZ2.5. Unfortunately, the effect of combustion was not investigated. Paschereit and Gutmark [65] described and analysed the effectiveness of passive combustion control methods applied to a low-emission swirl stabilised industrial combustor. Several axisymetric and helical unstable modes were identied for fully premixed and diffusion type combustion. The combustion structures associated with the different unstable modes were visualised using phase locked images of OH chemiluminescence and analysed using cross-correlation between OH detecting bre optics. Four different thermo-acoustic instability modes were forced to occur by adjusting the acoustic boundary conditions for different operating conditions. Each of the four modes was due to different acoustic and or ow modes.
Three of the modes reported were of helical form, both with premixed combustion and diffusion ames. The Strouhal numbers ranged from (all Strouhal numbers corrected to that used in this text) 0.59 (axisymetric structure, premixed), to 1.19 (helical structure, premixed, 2.05 (helical structure, diffusion) to 7.97 (helical structure, premixed). The helical structures appear to of PVC form. One form of instability that contributed to the pressure oscillations was movement of the CRZ and initiation of vortex breakdown. Three passive control methods were discussed and reviewed in the paper: Miniature vortex generators installed around the circumference of the burner exit to induce instability in the KelvinHelmholtz vortices formed at that point. These instabilities disrupted the roll-up of the vortices, thus reducing the source of regular oscillating heat release, and disrupting amplication via the Rayleigh criteria [20]. This technique reduced high frequency oscillations and at the same time suppressed low frequency instabilities. Some nozzle designs yielded
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Krebbs et al. [67] undertook a detailed acoustic analysis of a swirl stabilised gas turbine combustor and described design and modelling methodologies aimed at evolving congurations which minimise acoustic response and excitation, hence interaction with any nascent PVC. In contrast, Ancacleto et al. [50] used a system with a vaned swirler ring through a convergence, followed by a rst stage premixing chamber and then the combustion chamber, Fig. 2.11. The rst stage-mixing chamber allowed the PVC to develop and this then continued through into the combustion chamber so combustion had little effect on the PVC. A summary of ame types with and without the PVC is summarised in Table 1. Six different ame types are identied; the state of the PVC is indicated and whether or not it is suppressed or not. What is clear from the above is that even when the large PVC is absent the resulting swirl stabilised ame is very sensitive to small disturbances and can follow an irregular precessional motion, which translates to large irregular motion of the ame brush.
Fig. 3.14. (a) Snapshot of an LES prediction of 1250 K instantaneous temperature, iso-surface [45]. Note compact but irregular ame located close to the burner exhaust; (b) Snapshot of an LES prediction of 1000 K instantaneous temperature iso-surface produced by industrial gas turbine combustor [64].
4. Vortex breakdown, modelling of the PVC and related phenomena, comparison with experiment The occurrence of the PVC is normally linked to the phenomena of vortex breakdown and the occurrence of CRZ. There is considerable evidence from analytical and experimental studies that precessional motion can exist at low swirl numbers when CRZs are not present, although there do appear to be signicant differences to the PVC occurring after vortex breakdown; this is discussed later in this section. Sarpkaya [68] provided the rst very detailed experimental study of the vortex breakdown phenomena and showed that the form, type and occurrence were very much a function of Swirl number and Re, Fig. 4.1. In his rig, vortex core precession only started after the formation of the initial breakdown bubble. Two main types of vortex breakdown were identied, being a function of Swirl number and Re. An extensive review of vortex breakdown has been made by Lucca-Negro and ODoherty [69]. The paper reviews experimental, numerical and analytical studies, as well as descriptions, types and forms of the phenomenon. Although a clearer picture of the ow structures produced has emerged, a complete description of the phenomena has not emerged. As the vortex breakdown phenomena is normally regarded to be a pre-cursor to PVC
over 10 dB suppression of high and low frequency instabilities. An elliptically shaped burner, which essentially has two volute or scroll inlets, induces axis-switching dynamics in the large-scale swirling vortices formed in the combustor. These are characterised by several azimuthal unstable modes that reduce the coherence of the vortices. Such geometry prevented coupling with acoustic modes and resulted in suppression of instabilities by over 25 dB for a wide range of ame temperatures and power levels. In addition, NOx and CO were reduced due to enhanced mixing and increased turbulence. Extended pilot fuel lance protruding into the plenum of the burner was used to stabilise the point of vortex breakdown (VBD). Tests in high and low pressure combustion conditions showed the VBD was highly sensitive to combustor pressure uctuations, thus leading to another mechanism for thermoacoustic excitation. A longer lance prevents this interaction and was implemented in gas turbines in the eld.
Table 1 Summary of ow and ame characteristics and the precessing vortex core Flame/ow type Isothermal Combustion intensity other effects Connement doubles PVC frequency for SO 1.5 High comb. iIntensity; Lfw15 De PVC intensity and frequency (f) Iis!5 w/cm2 for SZ1.8 Strouhal no. fDelub Correlation Good at high Re with/ without furnace. Fair Pressure drop Strong function of Swirl no. By factorw3 of isothermal Remarks Audible low frequency noise. Large PVC Wide blow off limits, violent ame oscillations large PCVs present Exceptionally wide blow off limits: PVC suppressed Flame burns on PVC boundary. Large PVC present Narrow blow off limits: ame quiet. PVC suppressed Axial fuel entry for 1050% of fuel, rest premixed. Large PVC present PVC suppressed due to system conguration N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161
(a) Premixed fuel and air. Combustion extends back (b) Diffusion ames axial fuel entry (c) Diffusion ames axial fuel entry very low f (d) Tangential fuel entry, diffusion ame (e) Partially premixed ashback prevented back to inlets by extension of exit see Fig. 2.10 (f) Premixed conned LPP conguration Fwup to 0.75
Iw20Iis
fpvcw3fisothermal
Medium combustion intensity: Lfw35 De Very weak combustion ame burns on PVC boundary Medium combustion; Lfw23 De Medium combustion intensity: Lfw12 De
Iw0.010.1Iis
fwfisothermal
Poor at low Reynolds no. Good at high Reynolds numbers Poor at low Reynolds numbers Fair, function equivalence ratio
w90% of isothermal
Iw0.8Iis
fw0.85fisothermal
w85% of isothermal
Iw0.010.1Iis
fwfisothermal
Up to twice isothermal
Iw0.50.8Iisothermal
f function of mixture ratio and connement, Fig. 3.9
Similar to isothermal
High comb. intensity
PVC suppressed
Not applicable
Not applicable
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Fig. 3.15. Intensity variations from a free natural gas, swirling ame, burner of Fig. 2.1, non-dimentionalised by maximum intensity value. Simultaneous horizontal and vertical views. Intensity variations obtained by subtracting successive images obtained from camera with 1 ms interval (exposurew0.1 ms) [46].
formation there is clearly a fruitful area for further research here. Experimental studies have indicated that for many different systems (cyclone combustors, dust separators, hydrocyclones, burners, uidic vortex devices, vortex whistles, RanqueHilsch tube, turbine runners [1,33, 71]) and different uids the PVC is a phenomena which only occurs when vortex breakdown has occurred beyond critical levels of Swirl number, Re, and for certain congurations [1,2,25,32,33,37,38,70,71]. Other work [39,40,41,44] has shown that precessional motion may persist to very low values of swirl number if a swirling jet is red into a large expansion or a centre body of signicant size is present in the burner exhaust. For zero swirl the ow past a centre body will naturally induce a CRZ due to ow separation. As the level of swirl is increased there is some form of vortex breakdown occurring/change in recirculation zone/ CRZ structure leading to PVC formation [39], providing any central fuel jet is of limited velocity as otherwise the mechanism can differ with precession of the central fuel jet. Hallet and Gunther [78] while studying the ow within a dump combustor, with expansion ratios Do/De ranging from 1.25 to 3.0, visually observed jet precession within
the combustor chamber. They further concluded that precession in a dump combustor was not benecial for mixing and did not pursue the matter further. Dellenback et al. [79] conducted a series of experiments with upstream swirl in a long pipe ow to further observe the precession phenomenon. They used an expansion ratio of Do/De of 1.94 and varied the upstream swirl number from 0.05!S!0.4 for ReZ30,000 and 100,000. Jet precession direction was found to be related to Swirl number. At low Swirl numbers the precession of the jet is opposite to that of the upstream swirl. When the swirl increases past a critical swirl number (Sw0.15), the ow precesses in the same direction as the upstream swirl. However, the air bubble visualisation technique was not able to resolve jet precession direction for values for S!0.05. The results were extrapolated to conclude that at a swirl number of zero, no precession occurs. The other region where precession direction was difcult to resolve was at the critical swirl number, Scr. The authors interpolated the data before and after the crossover point and reasoned that no precession exists at the critical swirl number (Scrw0.15). There have been many attempts to model the PVC phenomena using a number of tools ranging from
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Fig. 3.16. Top four images show instantaneous successive images from sodium, seeded ame, contours show 5 and 95% intensity levels (images move sequentially from left to right, top to bottom). Note irregularity both in the axial radial and tangential radial planes. Bottom left gure shows normalised mean rms intensity from 1000 images [46].
analytical models to CFD and LES. One of the earliest studies was that of Sozou and Swithenbank [72]. They used an inviscid model of a vortex core embedded in an axial ow and a perturbation technique by presuming small, wave-like disturbances of variables about the asymmetric ow. The intention was to model high frequency travelling tangential waves, but the numerical solution converged to a slow wave or PVC solution. Reasonable agreement with the data of Chanaud [33] and Vonnegut [71] was found. Avramenko et al. [73] extended this work by considering an axisymetric swirling ow with radial velocities that were an order of magnitude lower than
axial or tangential velocities. Cylindrical polar coordinates were used with the assumption that unperturbed velocities and turbulent viscosity are functions of radius only. The analysis eventually reduces to a second order differential equation for the perturbed tangential velocity amplitude. With the assumptions of a linear form for the unperturbed tangential velocity and considering only angular perturbations, analytical solutions are then derived for the perturbed velocity amplitudes in terms of Bessel functions and an analytical solution for the Strouhal number in terms of an effective Reynolds number. The model predicts
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Fig. 3.17. Flame boundaries derived from an analysis of three separate successive axial/radial views, burner of Fig. 2.1, exit diameter 80 mm [46].
that the PVC frequency is only a weak function of viscosity, but linearly dependent upon mean inlet velocity, in agreement with experiments. The prediction of the PVC frequency was improved by using values of turbulent viscosity that varied linearly with radius, adopting complex forms of the solutions, invoking the variational principle. This produced a general expression for the Strouhal number which included the effects of axial perturbations and an effective turbulent viscosity function [74]. Reasonable agreement between experimental velocity measurements and the theory was shown, Fig. 4.2. Bowen et al. [74] extended this work further by utilising variational techniques based on the principle that solutions will tend to a state in which energy is minimised given certain conserved quantities. They used a stream function vorticity approach for twodimensional inviscid incompressible ow over a disc. They then expanded these equations by BesselFourier functions, whilst using several variational theorems which allow critical points of kinetic energy under the constraints of conserved quadratic entropy and angular momentum to be derived. Families of relative equilibria solutions were produced, the rst solution representing the axisymetric case, the second term in higher order solutions representing sets of vortices rotating about each other. Prediction of the rotating owelds produced by the swirl burner of Fig. 2.1 were qualitatively in agreement with the experimental phase locked isothermal data produced near to the burner exhaust, Fig. 2.7, with the dominant features of
the ow present. The model predicts the existence of a second peak of tangential velocity opposite to the main tangential peak, indicative of a second vortex, again conrmed by experiment, Fig. 2.2(b). The central region of negative tangential velocity is also well predicted. The rst attempt to use CFD to characterise and describe the PVC was by Sato [75,76]. Fluent with a three-dimensional axisymetrical grid was used to model the swirl burner furnace combination of Fig. 2.10(c). Although a non-time dependent analysis was used he showed for the isothermal state that the ow would easily perturb and stick to a sidewall producing structures similar to those experimentally recorded and shown in Figs. 2.7 and 2.8. Bowen et al. [74] and Lucca-Negro [77] extended the work of Sato using Fluent and the RNG and RSM turbulence models operating in a time dependent mode. Good qualitative agreement between the CFD predictions and the measured PVC characteristics, Figs. 2.7 and 2.8 were found, although there was a tendency for the CFD predictions to revert to axisymetry over time. Guo et al. [80] used the CFX code and a VLES kK3 turbulence model approach for time dependent analysis of turbulent swirl ow passing into a sudden expansion, Do/DeZ5, ReZ105. The ow was unstable over the whole swirl number range from 0 to 0.48, with a large PVC type structure normally being present. The analysis shows that with zero swirl the limit cycle is a mixture of precession and apping oscillation: the apping motion is signicant up to SZ0.5. Increase of
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Fig. 3.18. (a) Isothermal tangential velocity proles in the combustion chamber. O LDA:LES [45]; (b) tangential velocity proles in the combustion chamber-combustion conditions. O LDA:LES [45].
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Fig. 3.19. (a) Axial velocity proles in the combustion chamber-combustion conditions. O LDA:LES [45]; (b) temperature proles in the combustion chamber. O thermocouples:LES [45].
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sharp change at Scr, 0.23. The denition of Strouhal number used here is as follows: 2 p p Do De 2 f De ub
Fig. 4.1. Occurrence of the vortex breakdown phenomena [68].
swirl number beyond 0.08 makes the precessional motion dominant with more regular limit cycles. At the same time the precessional frequency drops until it reaches a critical swirl number, Scrw0.23, and then increases again with Swirl number, but in the reversed direction. Dellenback et al. [79] found similar results experimentally, but with Scr at 0.15. Two instantaneous visualisations of the precessional ow for swirl numbers of 0.13 and 0.25 are shown in Figs. 4.3(a), (b) and 4.4. The change in pressional direction should be noted. Beyond values of SZ0.48 vortex breakdown occurs with the formation of a CRZ and ERZ. The Strouhal number, Fig. 4.5, varies linearly with swirl number as found elsewhere, Fig. 2.5, although there is a
Fig. 4.2. Comparison of predicted and measured axial velocities at exit of swirl burner [73].
Compared to conventional denitions Strouhal p of number the inclusion of the terms 2= pDo=De2 increases the value by more than 28, and thus the values in Fig. 4.5 must be divided by this value to compare with Fig. 2.5, i.e. giving values ranging from 0 to 0.0075. The modelled processes are thus similar to those occurring with precessing jets [5157], where values of (a comparable) Strouhal number between 0.001 and 0.005 were found. This is hardly surprising considering the extent of the jet expansion (Do/DeZ5) and the low level of swirl. Thus, this form of precession is quite different to that associated with the CRZ and which normally occurs for higher values of S, where values of Strouhal number are from 0.2 upwards. Guo et al. [41] used RANS kK3 time dependent calculations and extensive measurements to characterise swirl ow instabilities in the Swirl burner developed at the University of Sydney, Fig. 2.6 [4144], primarily for non reacting ows. Data from the earlier work of Al-Abdeli et al. [44] was used for comparison. For isothermal conditions they showed that for ujZ66 m/s and ubZ16.3 m/s increases in Swirl number, Sg, eventually lead to the detection of distinct frequency peaks indicative of precession. This was initiated at SgZ0.34 with a 20 Hz irregular oscillation, leading to stable strong precession at SgZ0.4, again at 20 Hz. Further increases of Sg to 0.57 produced a further peak at 28 Hz, followed at SgZ0.68 and 0.91 peaks at w28 and 26 Hz, respectively. Increase of Sg to 1.59 showed no distinct frequencies, but considerable noise. A lower jet velocity of 50 m/s for SgZ0.4 gave a frequency peak of 17 Hz, whilst a jet velocity of 90 m/s for SgZ 0.57 gave a 35 Hz frequency. As discussed earlier there are obviously interactions between the swirl, bluff body and central jet which are difcult to separate. High velocity central jets are well known to cause substantial changes in ow patterns both for bluff body [81] and swirl ows [1,2] and further work is needed to separate effects. RANS prediction of the Strouhal number variation with Sg are shown in Fig. 4.6(a) and (b). Fig. 4.6(a) (ubZ16.3 m/s) shows good agreement with measured and predicted vales of Strouhal number: Fig. 4.6(b) (ubZ29.7 m/s) shows poorer agreement for a higher bulk uid velocity. Here again the Strouhal number (SSN) is dened unconventionally, see the
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Fig. 4.3. Instantaneous visualisation of swirl ow showing its spiral nature, SZ0.13 [80]: (a) isosurface of axial velocity; (b) image showing corresponding vortex core location.
nomenclature. The values of Strouhal number may be converted to the conventional denition (fDe/ub) by the parameter 1.2Sg. If this is carried out the values of Strouhal number reduce to a range of w0.04 (SgZ2.1) to 0.1 (SgZ1) maximum. For high swirl numbers, SgO 0.8 these values of the SSN and conventional Strouhal number are very low w0.10.04, indicating again that this is different to conventional swirl burner systems as described by Fig. 2.5. This is conrmed by Fig. 4.7 which shows snapshots the isothermal ow evolution and structure change with variation in Sg. Regions of reverse ow are displayed by the contour line u!0. For low values of Sg, 0.35, the central jet deects little and the ow is virtually symmetric. A downstream recirculation bubble appears at about x/DeZ1.67 from the burner face at SgZ0.6. This bubble appears to restrict the central jet movement as the precessional frequency is reduced by subsequent growth of bubble size. A recirculation ring exists in a stagnant region behind the burner face. The extent of the downstream bubble increases with Sg, eventually merging with the upstream recirculation zone. Subsequent increases of
Sg cause the bubble to intersect the central jet so the jet precesses within the conned space created by the recirculating bubble. As has been commented earlier these very complex structures differ very signicantly from the conventional CRZs discussed in [1,2]. Limited reacting ow studies were undertaken where it was found that increasing heat of reaction of the fuel suppressed precession. The Strouhal number results from the Sydney Swirl Burner show that the precession generated is very similar to that of the precessing jets of references [5158]. Wegner et al. [82] used time dependent RANS, LES and experiments to characterise isothermal swirl ow instability in an Ijmuiden type of movable block swirl generator [1,2], that has been extensively studied in the EU funded TECFLAM programme. The device is shown in Fig. 4.8, together with the computation grid used. As can be seen the computational grid extended back into the device and to the sets of inlets used to vary the swirl level. The RANS method employing a full Reynolds stress model was able to capture the PVC phenomena both qualitatively and quantitatively in
Fig. 4.4. Instantaneous visualisation of swirl ow, SZ0.25, note change of direction of precession from Fig. 4.3 [80].
Fig. 4.5. Variation of Strouhal number with Swirl number, without CRZ presence [80].
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parts. Good accuracy was achieved for predictions of PVC frequency, however the energy contained in the coherent motion of the PVC was signicantly underpredicted by the unsteady RANS. Measured and predicted values of Strouhal number for SZ0.75 are in agreement with the results of [39], which are already plotted in Fig. 2.5. As has been discussed earlier, Roux et al. [45] carried out an LES study of the atmospheric ow from a gas turbine combustor into a large furnace chamber, Figs. 3.11(b) and 3.15(a). For the isothermal state a major PVC 540 Hz oscillation was found in the main chamber as well as a strong second acoustic mode at 360 Hz. The PVC frequency did not coincide with any major acoustic modes of the system and was the dominant mode of oscillation. A visualisation of the 540 Hz PVC at the exit of the swirl burner in the combustion chamber is shown in Fig. 4.9, and the helical nature is clear. The Strouhal number is estimated at around 0.70.8 from available data and
this is agreement with the data for the swirl burner of Figs. 2.1 and 2.5 for a geometric swirl number of about 1. Fig. 4.10 shows the measured and modelled pressure uctuations for two positions in the system. The PVC can be seen to be only inuential in the combustion chamber, whilst an acoustic resonance dominates in the inlet plenum. Combustion results and the suppression of the PVC are discussed in the next section. Selle et al. [64] studied a Siemens industrial gas turbine burner ring into a combustion chamber using LES and detailed experimental results. The burner is of complex geometry with both a central axial and an outer diagonal swirler. An instantaneous visualisation of the isothermal predicted PVC is shown in Fig. 4.11 for this conguration in the form of a snapshot of a pressure isosurface, the rotational frequency is 275 Hz. The ow inside of the spiral structure is recirculating in a CRZ, with the entire structure, PVC and CRZ rotating about the central axis causing large pressure perturbations. The sense of the rotation of the whole spiral, as a structure, is that of the surrounding swirling ow, but the sense of the winding of the spiral is opposite to that of the swirl. Not enough information is provided to calculate Strouhal and Swirl numbers. Again suppression of the PVC with combustion is discussed in the next section.
5. Oscillations in swirl burner furnace systems, related systems and associated driving mechanisms In order to explain in part the driving mechanisms for instability in swirl stabilised combustion systems, it is useful to characterise the complex mechanisms occurring under oscillation conditions and ow conditions where the PVC is suppressed. There are few articles in the literature which quantify the processes occurring under regular, stable, oscillatory conditions whilst analysing the underlying processes, apart from Fick [30], Froud, [19,85], Dawson, [83,86], Syred et al. [18,61,84], Rodriquez-Martinez [28,29], Roux et al. [45], Ancacleto et al. [50], Schildmacher et al. [8790]. In each of these references, analysis has been made of the ow and other structures in swirl combustion systems oscillating under representative but very different conditions using a variety of techniques including phase locked LDA, LDA, phase locked temperatures via ne wire thermocouples and LES. A variety of different oscillations have been investigated with a range of different driving mechanisms, these are discussed below. This is complemented by two studies [45,64] where the PVC is suppressed by combustion.
Fig. 4.6. Variation of Strouhal number with swirl number, Sydney swirl burner [41] for bulk uid velocities ubZ16.3 and 29.7 m/s.
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Fig. 4.7. Sydney swirl burner, RANS visualisation of instantaneous ow-eld showing evolution with Sg for ubZ16.3 m/s. Contour lines show reverse ow zones where axial velocity is zero [41].
5.1. Driven PVC oscillations in the 2 MW swirl burner/furnace system, 100% axial fuel entry This occurred with the large 2 MW swirl burner/ furnace system shown in Fig. 3.10(a) and (b). This involved a 24 Hz oscillation [30,84], identied as of large, high amplitude, PVC form. It occurred with 100% axial fuel injection (no premixing), an equivalence ratio of 0.092. This gave a value of Strouhal
number of 4.8, some four times that expected with the isothermal state or 58 times that with partial premixing, Fig. 3.9. Indeed under these conditions a suppressed PVC would have been expected. This oscillation only occurred at low values of equivalence ratio as indicated, but over a signicant range of owrates, and there are similarities to the combustion state reported in [61] and previously described in Section 3. Acoustic analysis of the swirl burner/furnace
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Fig. 4.9. Isosurface of low pressure to visualise the isothermal PVC formed at the exit of the swirl burner [45].
Fig. 4.8. Ijmuiden movable block swirl generator and computational grid [82]: (a) schematic of device; (b) computational grid.
system showed that there were a number of different acoustic modes corresponding to this resonance, including basic Helmholtz and inlet travelling waves. It thus appears that the large PVC is being driven by coupling with acoustic resonances of this system. The oscillation was analysed by measurement of phase averaged temperature (via compensated ne wire thermocouples), axial and tangential velocities, as shown in Figs. 5.15.3. Fig. 5.1 shows the rotating axial and tangential velocities x/DeZ0.5 below the burner exit in the furnace. In comparison with the ow eld found with the PVC freely exhausting in open air, (Figs. 2.7 and 2.8) there is less circumferential nonuniformity, especially with the axial ow, Fig. 5.1(a). The tangential ow shows an elongated, elliptical shaped higher velocity region extending over phase angles of 2002508, whilst due to the connement the ow has not spread radially as much as the unconned system, Fig. 5.1(b). There is evidence of a small CRZ in the centre of the ow, Fig. 5.1(a), and this matches the characteristics of the open ame found with axial fuel
entry in the vicinity of the burner exhaust, Fig. 3.1(b). Here, almost all the combustion takes place past the burner exhaust, there being a thin narrow tulip shaped CRZ which extends back into the burner and the back plate. The phase averaged tangential velocity, Fig. 5.1(b) shows a small central region of negative tangential velocity, characteristic of the PVC. The rotating temperature eld, Fig. 5.1(c), shows that combustion is occurring in a region surrounding the small CRZ of diameter about 0.56De, just within the annular high velocity regions shown in Fig. 5.1(a) and (b). The irregular nature of the outer periphery of the ame appears to be due to shear effects from this high velocity region, with the ame moving into lower velocity regions opposite to the high velocity PVC region. Combustion occurs in regions with velocities up to about 7 m/s. Thus here, at x/DeZ0.5 a fairly stable combustion region is surrounded by the rotating PVC and associated ows. Correlation of Fig. 5.1(c) and (b) shows there is a small trailing arm of hot 1200 8C combustion gases which have expanded into a low tangential velocity region of ow for phase angles 120 1808, thus increasing the diameter of the ame in this region by 40% or more: there are similarities to Fig. 3.11(b). This periodic variation in heat release can be one of the feedback mechanisms for the Rayleigh criteria. There is also clear evidence of a large external recirculation zone near to the outer walls as shown by the negative axial velocities here. Further downstream at x/DeZ1.5, Fig. 5.2ac, phase averaged axial and tangential velocities have become much more uniform circumferentially; the CRZ has
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Fig. 4.10. Pressure uctuation spectra for isothermal ow at two locations [45]. Solid line experiment, dashed line LES.
expanded somewhat in size, Fig. 5.2(a), but is still off centred and of kidney shape. There again is evidence of an external recirculation zone close to the outer walls as shown by reversed axial velocities, Fig. 5.2(a). Residual vortex core precession is also present,
Fig. 5.2(b), in the centre of the ow as shown by negative tangential velocities. The phase averaged temperature contours, Fig. 5.2(c), show that here the ame has expanded radially beyond the regions of highest velocity, being about 1.3De in overall diameter.
Fig. 4.11. Pressure iso-surface visualisation of the isothermal pvc generated by an industrial gas turbine swirl burner [64].
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Fig. 5.2. Phase averaged characterisation of oscillating ow in the 2 MW swirl burner furnace at x/DeZ1.5 below burner, 100% axial fuel injection, fZ24 Hz [30]: (a) axial velocity; (b) tangential velocity; (c) temperature 8C. Fig. 5.1. Phase averaged characterisation of oscillating ow in the 2 MW swirl burner furnace at x/DeZ0.5 below burner, 100% axial fuel injection, fZ24 Hz [30]: (a) axial velocity; (b) tangential velocity; (c) temperature 8C.
The axial velocity contours in a single axial radial plane at a phase angle of 1058, Fig. 5.3, are typical of those found. The CRZ is not symmetrical, being of annular form and slightly titled to one side; only one view is presented as the differences between successive phase angles is small. The driving mechanism for the
Rayleigh criteria appears to arise from small variations in the diameter of the ame, Figs. 5.1(c) and 5.2(c); examination of the original data indicates that throughout the cycle at x/DeZ1.5, the ame diameter (as characterised by the 1035 8C contour) contracts by up to 15% or more, especially between phase angles of 190 and 2608 on the exterior boundary and 270908 internally. This variation in heat release appears to be sufcient to provide the requisite driving mechanism
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5.2. Helmholtz and other resonances and vortex wobble /precession in a 100 kW swirl burner/furnace system, partial premixing The next type of resonance generated in a swirl burner/furnace system is quite different, as discussed by Froud [31], Froud et al. [19,85]. Here, the swirl burner/ furnace system of Fig. 2.10(c) was operated in a wide range of different modes with the deliberate aim of stimulating regular oscillations so the system could be appropriately described and driving mechanisms identied [31]. One such case for a swirl number of 1.5 is shown in Figs. 5.4 and 5.5 [31,85], where a 900 mm long extension has been added to the exhaust of the furnace (same diameter as the swirl burner exhaust). This caused a high intensity regular oscillation in the system as characterised by Figs. 5.4 and 5.5 where rst and second harmonic frequencies and amplitudes as a function of equivalence ratio are shown. For a constant fuel ow rate (110 l/min), the air ow rate is varied such that a range of equivalence ratios from 0.4 to 1.2 is covered. Other variables include the isothermal PVC frequency and the Helmholtz frequency of the system calculated by assuming that the gases in the furnace act as the capacitance and the ow oscillates in the extended furnace exhaust pipe as the neck. An average combustion temperature is assumed to give the result shown in Fig. 5.4. Other acoustic resonances were investigated, but did not t the data. Many interesting features are shown: A high-amplitude, low-frequency resonance occurs for equivalence ratios 0.570.83, the frequency of which is close to that of the predicted Helmholtz oscillation. A second resonance of much reduced amplitude occurs over the equivalence ratio range 0.570.83 with frequencies in the range 130/140 Hz, some three times higher than the rst harmonic. The frequency varies quazi linearly with equivalence ratios between 0.57 and 0.83, hence with ow rate as the natural gas ow rate is held constant at 110 l/min. A PVC structure could also be seen to be forming in the exhaust of the furnace as discussed by Fick [30], see Fig. 2.10(a) and (b) plus associated text. Similar results were achieved with axial fuel entry alone, different fuel ow rates and variable furnace exhaust extension pieces. Longer extension pipes gave sharper resonant peaks and much higher amplitudes of oscillation.
Fig. 5.3. Axial velocity contours at a phase angle of 1058 for the 2 MW burner, fZ24 Hz, 100% axial fuel injection [30].
for large amplitude oscillations. Examination of the overall ow eld suggests that as the ame is not impinging on the wall in the system it is free to wobble radially in response to external perturbations (such as arise from acoustic resonances), like the ames shown in Fig. 3.14(a) and (b), and observed by other workers [42,45]. This has resulted in a large PVC type of resonance for a situation where PVC suppression would normally occur. Clearly, stabilisation methods for such ames require methodologies to reduce the wobble at the base and to better stabilise the ame downstream by avoiding the weak, doubtless intermittent, ow regimes between the ame and the outer walls.
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Fig. 5.4. Oscillation frequencies as a function of equivalence ratio for swirl burner furnace, Fig. 2.10(c), 900 mm exhaust extension, 50% axial fuel injection, partially premixed [31,85].
For all cases combustion was not complete until the gases had entered the nal extension pipe section, as shown by surface temperatures. As the resonance was essentially driven by a Helmholtz oscillation the frequency was constant over a wide range of equivalence ratios and ow rates and hence, it is difcult to immediately associate the PVC or related ow instabilities with this resonance. Phase averaged tangential, axial velocities and temperatures (again using compensated thermocouples) over the oscillation cycle, just past the swirl burner exit and in the furnace, were used to characterise the mechanisms of oscillation in the system for an equivalence ratio of 0.671 and an oscillation frequency of 41 Hz, Fig. 5.6 (phase angle 08), 5.7 (phase angle 908), 5.8 (phase angle 1808), 5.9 (phase angle 2708) [83]. Examination of the axial velocity levels through the system, Figs. 5.65.9, shows the device is acting like a pulsating combustors as the axial ow is virtually stopped between phase angles of 90 and 1808. It is only at a phase angle of 08 that a conventional type of swirl burner ow exists with a continuous ow stream leaving the burner exit, hitting the furnace wall at about x/Dew0.5De and then staying attached as it moves through the furnace. A large CRZ exists in the centre of the ow, with some evidence that it extends down to the end of the furnace. Highest levels of tangential velocity are not reached until x/Dew1 downstream of the swirl burner exit for all phase angle shown, 0, 90, 180, 2708, Figs. 5.65.9 The uctuating temperature measurements, Fig. 5.6, show that at a phase angle of 08, combustion is conned to a central rod shaped region in and around the CRZ and this appears to act as a pilot ame through the oscillation. At a phase angle of 908, Fig. 5.7, the rising pressure of the oscillation has
virtually stopped ow entering the furnace from the swirl burner, leaving a weak, annular CRZ close to the swirl burner exit and a weak ERZ. The ame has weakened in the central region, but a ame front can be seen to be propagating backwards down the wall of the combustor, Fig. 5.7 in the low velocity region. Flow continues to swirl with high tangential velocities in the main section of the furnace, Fig. 5.7. Both Figs. 5.6 and 5.7 show very signicant levels of negative tangential velocity in and around the centre line along the whole length of the furnace (phase angles 0 and 908). This must be associated with vortex core precession or some form of vortex wobble. Fig. 5.8 (phase angle of 1808) shows the ame front has now moved completely down the outer wall and become joined to the central region of combustion. The corresponding axial velocity contours, Fig. 5.8, show that apart from small regions towards the far end of the furnace, axial velocities are low, creating conditions favourable for ame stabilisation in the main section of the furnace. Quite high levels of
Fig. 5.5. Corresponding rst and second harmonic oscillation amplitudes as a function of equivalence ration (arbitrary units) [31,85].
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tangential velocity still persist in the downstream section of the furnace, Fig. 5.8. Finally, Fig. 5.9 shows results for a phase angle of 2708. The axial velocity contours show that ow is reissuing from the swirl burner exhaust as the pressure in the furnace reduces, this can also be seen for the tangential velocities. The outer annular ame front has retreated up the furnace, just leaving the central rod shaped pilot ame. Again Fig. 5.9 shows signicant levels of negative tangential velocity in and around the centre line of the system, indicative vortex precession or wobble. Both Figs. 5.8 and 5.9 show areas of negative tangential velocity in the region of the external recirculation zone, close to the burner exit for r/roO 0.5, again indicative of unstable swirling ow. The negative tangential velocities in and around the centre line of the system thus indicate that as in the previous case, with the 2 MW swirl burner/furnace system, the ow is wobbling radially as it leaves the swirl burner exit (where there is little or no combustion, only some recirculation of hot gases via the CRZ back into the burner exit). Wether this wobble is irregular or regular in nature is difcult to resolve as some data smearing does occur with phase locked LDA and temperature measurements and there may be undetected generation
of axial radial eddies from any PVCs that are present. Simple calculations based on the maximum tangential velocity and its radius as it leaves the swirl burner exit (phase angles 270 and 08) indicate that a double PVC may be present with a frequency of about 80 Hz for part of the cycle. However, ame wobble probably produces circumferential variation of heat release, triggering the formation of axial radial eddies, generating alternating patterns of rich and lean combustion sufcient to reinforce combustion oscillations via the Rayleigh criteria, especially as the ame propagates back along the furnace wall towards the swirl burner exhaust at a phase angle of 1808, Fig. 5.8, as with the 2 MW system previously described. More recently, Rodriquez-Martinez [27,29], Dawson et al. [86] have extended the work on the 100 kW swirl burner/furnace system, Fig. 2.10(c), producing a number of stability maps similar to that shown in Figs. 5.4 and 5.5. Of relevance here is the detailed phase averaged velocity characterisation of a low frequency (41 Hz, SZ2.18, equivalence ratio 0.9) system oscillation, this time excited by travelling waves in the inlet pipe. This lead to instantaneous ow reversal in the pipes over part of the limit cycle oscillation. The conguration of the furnace was changed slightly
Fig. 5.6. Phase averaged (phase angle 08) temperatures, 8C, axial and tangential velocities [85].
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from that of Froud [31,85], with a reduced furnace exit diameter, Dfe/DeZ0.7, and small changes to the length of the furnace taper and length. Inside the swirl burner furnace system there were some differences in the ow patterns generated, but there still clearly existed a fundamental pattern of the ow into the furnace from the swirl burner being periodically shut off over the limit cycle of oscillation. As angular momentum and swirl velocities were largely conserved in the swirl burner and furnace system over the limit cycle oscillation, the considerable variation in axial velocity caused large variation in swirl number and hence, size and shape of the CRZ. No negative tangential velocities were found with the measured tangential velocities inside the system, although directional intermittency measurements clearly showed that the centre line of the vortex in the furnace was wobbling off centre more than 30% of the time. Similar effects were found close to the outer wall, but the internal measurements were not as detailed as those of Froud [31,85]. Detailed phase locked axial and tangential velocities were taken just above the top of the furnace exit. Fig. 5.10(a)(e) shows the phase averaged pressure trace used for
triggering purposes and illustrates there are inputs from several harmonics in the system; similarly the geometry and geometrical ratios used are illustrated. The phase averaged axial velocity, Fig. 5.10(a) shows that although ow is issuing from the furnace exit for all phase angles, the velocity and hence, ow rate doubles over most of the section for phase angles 240 758. The associated axial directional intermittency plot, Fig. 5.10(c), shows that there is some irregular wobble for all phase angles, the most intense effect being between 0 and 908. The tangential velocities, Fig. 5.10(b), show a very different pattern with the most intense swirling ow being conned to phase angles between 300 and 908. The corresponding tangential directional intermittency plot, Fig. 5.10(d) shows that this ow is very unstable over the whole limit cycle of oscillation, both close to the outer wall and in the central region of ow. Instantaneous ow reversal is occurring up to 40% of the time for phase angles 250458 close to the outer wall and again this infers a high level of vortex wobble and/or precession, probably originating from excitation of the swirling ow leaving the swirl burner and entering the furnace as discussed in the data from Figs. 5.6 to 5.9.
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5.3. Characterisation of high frequency oscillations in a 100 kW swirl burner furnace system, partial premixing Rodriquez-Martinez [27,29] and Dawson [28,83,86] have extended the work with the generic 100 kW swirl burner/furnace system of Fig. 2.10(c) with 60% of the fuel being premixed with the air, the rest being introduced axially to investigate not only low frequency oscillations but those in the range w240/260 Hz, again produced by subtle changes in furnace geometry, Fig. 5.11. The two geometries are designed to contrast the effects of a sudden expansion and a quarl. Fig. 5.12 contrasts pressure and frequency spectra data from the two different congurations, a and b refer to geometry 2a and c and d to geometry 2b with a quarl inserted. The quarl substantially reduces the amplitude of the oscillation. The spectral analysis for both cases, Fig. 5.12(b) and (d) shows the predominant peak of the Helmholtz resonance at w240 Hz, although there is also a low frequency peak present for both cases at around 40 Hz, corresponding to the bulk mode low frequency oscillation previously described. Fig. 5.13 shows the corresponding rms pressure and frequency as
a function of equivalence ratio. The high frequency oscillation persists for an equivalence ratio range w0.550.85, dependent on the case, reverting to the low frequency bulk mode oscillation beyond these limits, w40/50 Hz, although at much lower amplitude levels. The effect of the quarl is seen to substantially reduce the amplitude of oscillation, case 2b compared to the case without it, case 2a, over virtually the whole of the equivalence ratio range where this high frequency oscillation is found. The quarl has little effect on the amplitude of the low frequency oscillations. Simultaneous measurement of light emission and pressure from the system enables a Rayleigh index to be constructed, which showed, as to be expected that maximum excitation occurred in the ow region immediately downstream of the swirl burner exit in the furnace [27,29,85]. The high frequency oscillations are attributed to near in phase coupling of a natural Helmholtz resonance of the swirl burner and furnace with the combustion process and swirl dynamics. The exhaust of the swirl burner acts as the neck of the resonator, and periodic heat release occurs via the mechanisms discussed above [27,83], including wobbling and precessional motion of the swirling ow
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as it leaves the burner exit, as well as shed partially burning radial axial eddies. Detailed phase locked velocity measurements for both this high frequency oscillation case are shown in Figs. 5.14 and 5.15, case 2a, and 5.16, case 2b [27,29,86]. The phase locked velocity levels for case 2a, Fig. 5.14 show considerable differences from those found with the low frequency oscillation, Figs. 5.65.9, in that the ow through the swirl burner is not periodically arrested, but slows and accelerates in tune with the near sinusoidal pressure wave shown on Fig. 5.14(e). Fig. 5.14 compares and contrasts axial and tangential velocities as well as their directional intermittencies for six phase angles. Most variation occurs with the axial velocity which shows the CRZ expanding and contracting with the sinusoidal pressure wave, becoming detached and quite weak at a phase angle of 2408, whilst extending well down into the swirl burner and the burner back plate at a phase angle of 08. This arises because the variations in axial velocity and hence ow rate into the furnace cause a variation in swirl number (as in previous cases) estimated from 0.8 at phase angle 2408, rising to nearly four at phase angle 08. Changes in size and shape of recirculation zones are
well known to produce substantial pressure perturbations and this also probably adds to the mechanisms contributing to instability. An external recirculation zone is also evident as the swirling jet res into the furnace. Axial directional intermittency levels show that much of the swirling jet entering the furnace is quite stable, but with layers of signicant intermittency on the sides as it interacts with the CRZ and ERZ. The phase locked tangential velocities have very small regions of negative tangential velocity on the centre axis (indicative of vortex wobble), but signicant regions close to the outer wall, whose size and location vary considerably over the pressure cycle. The tangential directional intermittencies are possibly the most revealing showing very considerable intermittency approaching 80% close to the wall for some phase angles. Again, as with the 2 MW swirl burner system and the 24 Hz PVC type oscillation, the ow and hence, ame is wobbling and precessing in the furnace, possibly several PVCs are spiralling in the system over part of the limit cycle oscillation at a much higher frequency. Reference to Fig. 5.12 shows that there is some modulation on the pressure signal for
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case 2a, with a superimposed frequency probably originating from the low frequency 40/50 Hz peak evident on the power spectrum. This effect is also illustrated by Fig. 5.15(a) and (b), which show the phase averaged axial and tangential velocities and associated directional intermittencies, Fig. 5.15(c) and (d) just above the furnace exit for case 2a. The results are quite different to the low frequency oscillation results above the furnace exit, Fig. 5.10. The tangential velocity eld is virtually uniform above
the furnace exhaust, whilst there is still some variation in the axial velocity through the pressure cycle for phase angles 902858. However, the directional intermittency levels for both axial and tangential velocities are both very high, although antiphased. Again this is indicative of wobble in the main ow leaving the burner which is amplied by the combustion process and Helmholtz resonance. The corresponding data from case 2b with the quarl, is shown in Fig. 5.16, although with a restricted set of
Fig. 5.10. Phase locked velocity levels just above furnace exit [28,29,83] at X/De Z 0.52. Phase averaged axial velocities, phase averaged tangential velocities, axial directional intermittency, tangential directional intermittency, pressure trace, schematic diagram of swirl burner furnace
(a) Phase averaged axial velocities; (b) phase averaged tangential velocities; (c) axial directional intermittency; (d) tangential directional intermittency; (e) pressure trace; (f) schematic diagram of swirl burner furnace.
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data owing to the quarl interfering with laser access. The presence of the quarl has made the axial velocity contours much more uniform over the oscillation cycle with a more uniform and consistent CRZ, albeit of reduced size. Apart from a phase angle of 08, the ERZ has disappeared giving much more stable ows in this region and much lower values of directional intermittency. Again the tangential velocity proles are quite uniform over the oscillation cycle, whilst the levels of directional intermittency are substantially reduced, both at the wall and towards the central axis. Above the furnace exit the ows were much more stable with substantially reduced levels of directional intermittency [27,29]. Doubtless, better shaping of the quarl section could have improved these results and reduced the pressure amplitude even further. The Rayleigh Criteria for stratied ows [62] is useful here. Although temperature measurements are not available examination of tangential velocity contours and associated directional intermittencies, Fig. 5.14(c) and d, Fig. 5.15(b) and (d), conguration 2a, shows signicant levels of negative tangential velocity in the region of the ERZ and near the swirl burner exit over at least 6070% the oscillation cycle. Thus, at the burner exit in the furnace, moving radially outwards from the entering annular, highly swirling shear ow, gradients of angular momentum, rwr, must be negative, thus
conrming the unstable nature of this region. For conguration 2b and the corresponding Fig. 5.16(c) and (d) there are no regions of negative tangential velocity and thus certainly stability in the outer region of ow close to the walls is much improved. Even for dilute combustion systems operating beyond an equivalence ratio of 0.6, thus putting them beyond the range of the high frequency oscillation with this conguration, the role of the quarl in stabilising wobbling or irregular precessing swirling ow is evident, as well as the improvement of the gradient of rwr. Clearly, the ow and ame stabilisation methods proposed herein cannot eliminate the acoustic response of the system. The mechanism of instability and coupling thus appears to be irregularities in the ame boundaries and/or reaction surfaces/areas, primarily associated with wobble or precession of the main vortex, possibly distortions of the CRZ, axial/radial eddy shedding from the shear layer, triggered by PVCs. Associated with this CRZ distortion is the production of a PVC whose radius of precession is governed by the motion and distortion of the CRZ, and the actual instantaneous level of swirl at a given point in the oscillation cycle. Other work on Industrial gas turbines using CFD has shown precessing vortices leaving the combustor can exhaust, passing through and attaching to the turbine guide vanes, causing overheating problems [87],
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Fig. 5.11. Swirl burner/furnace congurations to produce 240/260 Hz oscillations [27,28,86]. Differences between conguration 2a and 2b involve the removable insert which forms a conical exit or quarl at the exit of the swirl burner as it enters the furnace.
conrming the results shown in Fig. 2.10; this is discussed in more detail later. Here the reader is referred to the work of references [65,67], where methods for detailed acoustic analysis of gas turbine combustors and systems are described, together with amelioration techniques, such as small vortex generators, elliptical burners and enlarged, better located lances. 5.4. Combustion oscillations in a swirl burner combustion chamber systems and suppression of the PVC As discussed earlier in Sections 3 and 4, Roux et al. [45] have made a very detailed study of the ow characteristics of a vaned type swirl burner ring into a square combustion chamber using both modelling, LES, acoustic analysis and experimental measurements, primarily LDA. Section 4 described the isothermal characterisation of the system and the appearance of a strong PVC signal, both measured and predicted at 540 Hz, located close to the region where the swirling ow res into the combustion chamber. A weaker 340 Hz acoustic mode exists everywhere in the system. Measured
and calculated velocities and temperatures have been presented earlier in Fig. 3.15(a), (b), 3.16(a) and (b), whilst an instantaneous LES 1250 K isosurface was shown in Fig. 3.11 for combustion conditions, fZ0.75. For this mode of combustion the PVC is suppressed as discussed earlier in Section 3 whilst two self excited acoustic modes appear experimentally around 300 and 570 Hz. They correspond to the rst two modes of the combustor, 1/4 and 3/4 wave, respectively, with the 3/4 wave being the most amplied from 360 Hz (isothermal) to 570 Hz (combustion). Both the LES and Helmholtz acoustic solver gave good correlation with the experimental data, differences from experiment being attributed to errors in the acoustic boundary conditions. Fig. 5.17 shows the eld of rms pressure taken from the LES predictions along the chamber axis together with the modal structure predicted by the Helmholtz solver for the 3/4 wave mode. Even though the LES signal contains the signature of all modes, its shape matches the structure of the 3/4 wave predicted by the Helmholtz solver. Unlike the rms pressure prole for the isothermal ow, the match between the Helmholtz solver and the LES is good everywhere,
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Fig. 5.12. Time series traces of pressure signals at burner wall and associated power Spectral densities for conguration 2a (a and b) and 2b (c and d), Fig. 5.11 [27,29,86].
even in the combustion chamber, conrming that the whole ow is locked on the 3/4 wave mode. Apparently, changes in ow structure due to combustion, especially the distribution of swirl ow (see Section 3), have altered the characteristic of any nascent PVC such that its frequency is well displaced from that of the Helmholtz resonance and amplication is unable to occur. This is in contrast to the oscillations reported in the 2 MW swirl burner furnace system of Fig. 3.10(a) and (b), Section 5.1. Similar results for the suppression of the PVC with combustion have been reported by Selle et al. [64] for an Industrial LPP gas turbine combustor. The conditions causing suppression of the PVC appear to be very similar to those reported above [45]. These results on the suppression of the PVC need to be treated with caution as the swirl combustors were not operating with a conventional combustor can, where there is a high level of connement. For conditions of high swirl even when PVC does not develop near to the swirler, the intense Rankine vortex so formed can give rise to PVC in the exhaust of the combustor can [87]. The next section discusses the effect of equivalence ratio on suppression of oscillation, including the PVC, and important effects are highlighted. Finally, the effects of vortex core precession in the exhaust of a combustor can are described. 5.4.1. Instabilities generated in industrial premixed gas turbine combustor systems Schildmacher et al. [88,89] have described a series of experiments undertaken on an industrial gas turbine
combustor to investigate various instability modes, the test rig burner and combustor liner are illustrated in Fig. 5.18(a) and (b). Initial investigation of the isothermal ow indicated a vortex shedding phenomena whose frequency was linearly proportional to owrate [88]. The accompanying large eddy simulation studies [90] showed that there was PVC which triggered vortex
Fig. 5.13. Stability maps for high frequency oscillations, systems 2a and 2b, as a function of equivalence ratio [27,29,86]: (a) pressure rms; (b) frequency Hz.
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Fig. 5.14. Phase averaged contour plots at six phase angles for conguration 2a [27,29,86]: (a) axial velocities; (b) axial directional intermittency; (c) tangential velocities; (d) tangential directional intermittency; (e) phase averaged pressure trace: directional intermittency is the phase averaged % of negative samples, contour cut off at 3%.
shedding in the shear ow region at the burner mouth. This is the same phenomena as reported in Dorresten [47] and the radial axial eddy phenomena discussed in Section 2.1. In addition, investigations of fuel concentration showed that alternating patterns of rich and lean fuel concentration is generated by this vortex shedding, though time averaged fuel concentration were axisy-
metrical and much more homogeneous [88,89,91]. Under combustion conditions with premixing of the air and fuel, pressure uctuations were found to strongly increase with equivalence ratio, Fig. 5.19, starting at fZ0.66. The pressure amplitude at peak frequency was twice the turbulent combustion noise level at nominal operating conditions without oscillations, fZ0.5.
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Fig. 5.15. (a) Phase averaged axial (left) and (b) tangential (right) velocity contour plots just above the furnace nozzle exit (x/DeZ4.0) for conguration 2a, sudden expansion. Velocities normalized by the mean inlet ow velocity uiZ4.3 m/s [27,29,86]; (c) contour plots of the directional intermittencies of the axial (left) and (d) tangential (right) velocities just above the furnace nozzle exit (x/DeZ4.0) for conguration 2a [27,29,86].
The amplitude of the oscillations grew steadily with f, in contrast to a sudden excitation which can often happen in other systems. For fO0.77 the pressure amplitude was more than 50 times higher than the turbulent noise at nominal operation. Phase locked velocity measurements were used to analyse the variation of local swirl number over the oscillation cycle for the highest amplitude oscillations, Fig. 5.20, fZ0.83. This shows the strongest uctuation is between 0.1!S!0.8 and is located in the reaction zone (x/DeZ0.63, 0.56). The periodicity of the signal indicated the presence of coherent structures, probably PVC induced or derived. Fig. 5.20 also indicated that for a short time around 1508 phase angle, swirl stabilisation of the ame is interrupted, which may cause strong strain rates in the reaction zone and local ame quenching. Only minor uctuations of swirl were recorded outside of the recirculation zone. This work
compliments that discussed in Sections 5.2 and 5.3 where considerable variation of swirl number (derived from integrating the measured phase locked velocities across the ow eld) through the oscillation cycle was shown [2729,81,84]. Even when barely audible oscillations were generated at fZ0.71 the amplitude was still ve times higher than the turbulent combustion noise: phase locked velocity measurements showed velocity uctuations were of identical frequency to that of the pressure eld. No frequency harmonics were present, the phase averaged velocity proles being sinusoidal in form, whilst the swirl level only varied between 0.35!S! 0.5. No denite frequency peak could be found in the transition region when oscillation started, fZ0.66. The work concluded that there was a very strong impact of the heat release on the generation of coherent structures. For combustion the oscillation frequency
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Fig. 5.16. Phase averaged contour plots at six phase angles for conguration 2b with quarl inserted, Fig. 5.11 [27,29,86]: (a) axial velocities; (b) axial directional intermittency; (c) tangential velocities; (d) tangential directional intermittency: directional intermittency is the phase averaged % of negative samples, contour cut-off at 3%.
only changes slightly with normalised ow and the Strouhal number decreases, leading to the conclusion that resonant frequencies are linked to the acoustic eigen frequencies of the system and are not too dependent on the burner air owrate. This work provides an interesting contrast to that of Roux et al. [45] and Selle et al. [64]. Roux et al. operated at an equivalence ratio of 0.75, Selle et al.
at 0.5. Although congurations differ, reference to Fig. 5.19 shows that the work of Roux et al. at fZ0.5 is beyond the range of equivalence ratios where excitation of high amplitude PVC type oscillations can be expected, whilst that of Selle et al. is only just in the range where excitation is initiated. Here also the effect of swirler expansion appears to be important, as the swirler was red into a square furnace for these two
Fig. 5.17. Field of rms pressure predicted via LES along the chamber axis together with the modal structure predicted by the Helmholtz solver for the 3/4 wave mode [45].
153
Fig. 5.20. Phase locked analysis of swirl number over oscillation cycle [89].
Fig. 5.18. Industrial gas turbine combustor and combustion chamber [89]: (a) schematic of test Rig; (b) schematic of swirl burner.
cases. In contrast, Schildmacher [8,89] used the complete swirler and combustor can system, giving higher levels of connement and a smoother transition from the swirler to the can. A very interesting CFD study of a Siemens high swirl dry low emissions gas turbine combustor [87]
Fig. 5.19. Effect of equivalence ration on pressure amplitude and frequency [89].
has been produced, arising from development tests on a 13.4 MW Cyclone engine. Problems arose from observed interactions between the exhaust ow from the combustor can and the rst row nozzle guide vanes of the turbine. A schematic diagram of the combustor arrangement is shown in Fig. 5.21, the system is designed for dual fuel operation. Temperature indicating paint was used to verify operating temperatures in the rst row nozzle guide vanes and high temperatures were found on the six guide vanes having their leading edge closest to the axis of the six combustors used on the development engine. Fig. 5.22 shows an example of one of these vanes (termed a central NGV) and for comparison an example of a non-central NGV. The gure shows high temperatures on the suction side of the central vane and at the hub platform immediately downstream of this. A degree of ow visualisation is shown by the leading edge lm cooling whose tracks can be clearly seen on the temperature indicating paint. A three-dimensional time dependent CFD analysis of the system was carried out using the computational domain shown in Fig. 5.23. A special version of the turbulent Reynolds Stress model was necessary to reproduce measured behaviour [87]. Analysis of the upstream section was rst carried out and used to derive inlet boundary conditions for the full CFD analysis which covered the combustor can and nozzle guide vanes. Fig. 5.24 shows a vector plot of the combustor front end extracted at an arbitary time step. The transient nature of the ow is evident with a large radial axial eddy and the formation of PVC (not shown). Fig. 5.25 shows
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Fig. 5.21. Schematic diagram of siemens high swirl dry low emissions gas turbine combustor [87].
the temperature at a plane through the centre of the combustor and an iso-surface of relatively high vorticity, and indicates the central core of the Rankine vortex formed. Moving away from the central core the vorticity drops, given that the outer potential vortex is irrotational. The vortex core so generated in the centre of the can passes through the NGVs, Fig. 5.26, where the vortex core is again visualised by a surface of relatively high vorticity. The vortex core is directed towards the leading edge of the central NGV; however it is also attracted by the low pressure on the suction side of this vane. A second rotation is thus set up near the hub over the pressure surface, due to a large variation in incidence angle with span induced by the vortex core. The vortex core passes the leading edge of the vanes at about 40% span and migrates towards the hub through the NGV passage. This migration appears to be due to the core being attracted by the locus of lowest static pressure and an interaction between the vortex cores and secondary ows set up within the NGV. These results are consistent with the experimental ones from the development engine. 6. Discussion Most swirl combustion systems are designed with a Swirl number SO0.5 to generate a CRZ for ame stabilization purposes. When a PVC appears it is linked and possibly coupled with the CRZ. Typically, it is of helical form and is wrapped around a distorted asymmetrical CRZ. This ow combination also excites secondary ows especially radial axial eddies, and recent LES work indicates that these eddies, shed from the edge of an inlet shear ow can propagate downstream and help to initiate thermoacoustic instability. Strouhal numbers are usually in the range 0.21.5 unless distorted by acoustic coupling.
There are other forms of precession, associated with jets as shown by the work at the University of Adelaide. This shows that such jet precession can occur with zero to quite high Swirl numbers and a variety of different congurations up to and beyond vortex breakdown. Usually this is forced precession of a central initially non-rotating jet. Below a critical swirl number, Scr, between 0.15 and 0.23 the precession is a mixture of apping motion and precession, beyond this it is dominated by precession with a change in rotational sense. Strouhal numbers are one to two orders of magnitude lower than those generated with conventional swirl combustors with a large PVC and CRZ. Under isothermal conditions the frequency of the PVC can be characterised for a range of different swirl ow systems by a Strouhal and Swirl number. There is evidence that a central fuel injector or bluff body of signicant size can allow the formation of the PVC to much lower levels of swirl than previously thought especially when the central fuel jet is of low velocity. The effect of high levels of connement (Do/DeZ2) upon the isothermal PVC is to increase the value of Strouhal number by more than 2 for SO1.5. The occurrence of a further vortex breakdown and associated PVC of different frequency was noted in the exhaust of the furnace in a swirl burner/furnace system, and has also been noted by others in diverse systems. Offset or other arrangements of furnace exhaust may be benecial here in eliminating this source of the PVC. Phase locked LDA and PIV data showed that the PVC in isothermal swirling ow is characterised by the formation of regions of negative tangential velocity in the near the central axis coupled with elliptical/banana shaped regions of high axial and tangential ow close to the burner wall just above the burner exit.
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Fig. 5.22. Temperature indicating paint results from rst stage NGVs. View of leading edge of central and non Central NGVs [87].
The associated CRZ is also distorted, displaced radially, and precesses about the central axis. The ow normally returns to near axi symmetry by x/Dew11.5. PIV studies showed the formation of axial radial eddies in and around the CRZ near the swirl burner exit, whilst water models and other experimental work showed
the shedding of axial radial eddies further downstream both from the outside of the jet ow and from the end of the recirculation zone. LES work and experiments have shown the presence of the PVC in many simulated gas turbine combustion chambers, especially under isothermal conditions, being of helical form.
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Fig. 5.23. Geometry of the computational domain [87].
Fig. 5.24. Time dependent CFD velocity snapshot at a diametrical plane at the head of the combustor. Velocity vectors are coloured with the velocity component in the direction of the combustor axis. Note the transient radial axial eddy [87].
Qualitative agreement between the LES predictions and measurements is steadily improving. Under combustion conditions the behaviour of the PVC becomes much more complex. Except at
exceptionally weak equivalence ratios, 100% axial fuel injection suppresses the PVC amplitude by more than an order of magnitude, although its residual presence can still be detected in many systems. One
Fig. 5.25. Temperature contours at a diametrical plane through the combustor and an iso-surface of relatively high vorticity [87].
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Fig. 5.26. View of the vortex core approaching the leading edge of the central NGV. The vortex core is visualised by an iso-surface of relatively high vorticity [87].
reason for this suppression of the PVC appears to be the radial location of the ame front and the pushing of the main region of ame stabilisation and CRZ formation well downstream. The ow appears to be stabilised in the burner exhaust by an annular region comprising a rotating ame surrounding a small column of hot recirculating ow which extends to the back-plate of the burner. This is surrounded by another annular region of high axial and tangential velocity where the ame cannot stabilise. Analysis using the Rayleigh criteria for the stability of stratied ows and a modied Richardson number has shown this is a very stable condition. The PVC can be excited when the ame front can move into the outer region of high velocity ow. Values of Strouhal number are very much a function of Swirl number, less so of equivalence ratio, also being complicated by the occurrence of double PVC for certain swirl number ranges for 100% axial fuel injection. Partial premixing can change this pattern with the excitation of the PVC frequency by up to a factor of 2 for equivalence ratios w0.7. The effect of connement and partial premixing for weak equivalence ratios, 0.10.3, shows the value of Strouhal number being reduced by up to a factor of 3 compared to the isothermal state. Although 100% axial fuel injection generally suppresses the amplitude of the PVC, the swirling ames so produced are still unstable and susceptible to small perturbations in the ow especially in the burner exit. The ames were essentially shown to wobble with large changes in ame shape between
successive 1 ms separated cine images. Similar ndings arise from consideration of snapshot ame temperature images from LES studies. Analysis of the mechanism of oscillation of swirl burner/furnace systems has been carried out in the context of the Rayleigh criteria and describing how, with a number of different excitation conditions, the system ow and ame characteristics can serve to add heat in phase with naturally occurring acoustically generated pressure nodes. The rst case describes how, in a large 2 MW swirl burner/furnace system with 100% axial fuel injection, a high amplitude PVC oscillation is generated by resonance with the systems natural frequencies. High amplitude PVC would not be normally found in this condition, or be of very low amplitude. Here, the ame initially stabilises in a low velocity region around the forming CRZ and inside an annular region of high axial and tangential ow velocities. The ame propagates outwards into low velocity regions, giving a circumferential variation in heat release. This effect propagates downstream such that the ame engulfs the PVC region, but is still irregular circumferentially as the ame propagates into any available low velocity region of ow. The ame never touches the furnace walls and is surrounded by a weak area of low velocity ow which often reverses direction. This ame is thus unconstrained, can readily wobble, shed axial/radial reacting eddies, contributing to instability and the oscillation. The second case describes low frequency oscillations in a 100 kW swirl burner/furnace system,
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excited by a Helmholtz resonance. Here the oscillation is akin to that found in pulsating combustors as the ow is periodically arrested over part of the limit cycle of operation. A central cylindrical shaped pilot ame exists over all the oscillation cycles, just downstream of the burner exit, with an annular ame front moving axially back into the furnace as the ow is arrested. Phase locked measurements show negative levels of tangential velocity on and around the central axis through the limit cycle, indicative of vortex core precession, albeit of an irregular nature. Complimentary work on a similar system with a similar frequency of oscillation, but excited by travelling waves in the inlet pipes showed some vortex wobble in the furnace, but essentially a precessing ow in the furnace exhaust with signicant levels of especially tangential directional intermittency, adding to evidence that the whole ame is wobbling, thus deforming the ame externally near to the furnace walls and internally in and around the CRZ, the primary ame stabilisation region. This thus again provides the variation in heat release rate necessary for the Rayleigh criteria and excitation of oscillations. The third case uses the same swirl burner furnace system with some minor changes to the furnace geometry and this time generates a high frequency oscillationw240 Hz, via a Helmholtz excited resonance. Two cases are compared, one with a quarl or conical section inserted at the swirl burner exit, one without. Without the quarl the ame does not properly ll the furnace and has considerable wobble. The quarl produces a ame which substantially lls the furnace section and thus gives a substantial reduction in oscillation amplitude over a wide range of equivalence ratios. Outside of this range the amplitude of oscillation falls considerably, the frequency dropping back to that of the low frequency case (w40 Hz), the quarl having little effect. Again the effect of ow/ame wobble/irregular precession is brought out via the phase locked measurements, especially the directional intermittencies. The quarl is shown to especially reduce intermittency, negative tangential velocities and variation in CRZ size and shape over the limit cycle of oscillation. Here, the Rayleigh criteria for the stability of stratied ows is useful in explaining the instability of the ERZ formed without the quarl. A substantive body of work has now been generated on industrial gas turbines using a variety of techniques, both experimental and numerical, RANS, LES, phase locked velocity measurements, PIV and advanced acoustic analysis. In all these systems the presence of the PVC is reported under isothermal conditions, but
with combustion suppression often occurs for equivalence ratios ranging from 0.5 to 0.75. This is a function of the system conguration, the type of swirl ow generated and the absence of swirl and angular momentum in the central region of ow close to the burner exit. Effectively there is no vortex core to precess. However, as the equivalence ratio moves into the range greater than 0.75, the ame front moves further into the annular shear ow entering the combustion chamber with the result that severe oscillations can develop, dependent on system geometry and ame front location often with the presence of helical coherent structures of PVC form. Thus, the coupling between swirl combustion and acoustic oscillations (apart from the case of PVC excitation) appears to arise from regular variations in heat release rate arising from the following: Swirl ow and hence, ame wobble or irregular precession, causing circumferential and hence, axial variations in ame shape, combustion aerodynamics, CRZ and hence, the initial region of ame formation and stabilization. The PVC is inuential here via ow coupling triggering the formation of axial radial eddies from the edge of the shear ow and the CRZ, generating alternating patterns of rich and lean combustion sufcient to reinforce combustion oscillations via the Rayleigh criteria. This is reinforced as the limit cycle of oscillation causes natural variations in the swirl number, primarily due to variation in axial ow rate into or through the system, there being less variation in the swirl ow velocity over the limit cycle. This in term cause natural variation in the size and shape of the CRZ, in accord with the Swirl number variation. Again this affects the initial region of ame stabilisation/formation as the CRZ moves axially in and out of the burner exit and this again can reinforce oscillation. 6.1. Interaction between the above effects Remedial effects which can be used on combustors include: the use of higher swirl levels should produce more regular and stronger CRZs that are less susceptible to deformation by pressure uctuations. This will generate stronger PVCs, but providing these are well controlled and regular should not cause problems, providing there is a fundamental mismatch to major acoustic modes of oscillation; control of the wobble of the central ow and ame appears to be important in reducing the regular and
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irregular precession of the ow and ame, a quarl or carefully shaped exhaust section can be useful here to remove the ERZ and ensure the ame properly lls the furnace; an off centred furnace exhaust may well be benecial in eliminating the formation of other PVCs, whilst also altering the fundamental acoustic modes of oscillation of the combustor; the use of minature vortex generators to distort the generation of PVC and axial radial eddies; the use of elliptical burners which again distort the generation of the PVC, axial radial eddies and other coherent structures; The use of substantive pilot lances to stabilise the point of vortex breakdown and location of the CRZ. Investigation of the acoustic response of the system and derivation of techniques to give acoustic mismatch to other resonant frequencies.
Union via several programmes is acknowledged for much of the more recent work carried out at Cardiff University. The assistance of Dr Andy Crayford with the diagrams is gratefully acknowledged.
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[78] Hallett WLH, Gunther R. Flow and mixing in swirling ow in a sudden expansion. Can J Chem Eng 1984;62:14955. [79] Dellenback PA, Mertzger DE, Neitzel GP. Measurement in turbulent swirling ow through an abrupt axi-symmetric expansion. AIAA J 1988;26(6):66980. [80] Guo B, Langrish TAG, Fletcher DF. CFD simulation of precession inb sudden pipe expansion ows with inlet swirl. Appl Math Modell 2002;26:115. [81] Beer JM, Chigier NA. Combustion aerodynamics. Barking: Applied Science Publishers; 1972. [82] Wegner B, Maltsev A, Schneider C, Sadiki A, Dreizler A, Janicka J. Assessment of unsteady RANS in predicting swirl ow instability based on LES and experiments. Int J Heat Fluid Flow 2004;25:52836. [83] Dawson J. PhD Thesis. University of Wales, Cardiff; 2000. [84] Syred N, Fick W, ODoherty T, Grifths AJ. The effect of the precessing vortex core on combustion in a swirl burner. Combust Sci Technol 1997;119. [85] Froud D, Beale A, ODoherty T, Syred N. Studies of helmholtz resonance in a swirl burner/furnace system. Proceedings of the 26th international symposium on combustion. Pittsburgh, PA: The Combustion Institute; 1997. p. 335562. [86] Dawson JR, Rodriquez-Martinez VM, Syred N, ODoherty T. The effect of combustion instability on the structure of recirculation zones in con ned swirling ames. Combust Sci Technol 2005;177:122. [87] Turrell MD, Stopford PJ, Syed K, Buchanan E. CFD simulations of the ow within and downstream of high swirl lean premixed gas turbine combustors. Proceedings ASME turbo-expo 2004, vol. 1, Combustion and fuels, education; 2004. p. 318. [88] Schildmacher K-U, Koch R, Krebs W, Hoffmann S, Wittig S. Experimental investigations of the temporal air-fuel mixing uctuations and cold ow instabilities of a premixing gas turbine burner, ASME 200-GT-0084; 2000. [89] Schildmacher K-U, Koch R, Krebs W, Hoffmann S, Wittig S. Experimental investigations of unsteady ow phenomena in high intense combustion systems. Proceedings of the sixth European conferences on industrial furnaces and boilers; 2002 [ISBN 972-8034-05-9]. [90] Schluter J, Schonfeld T, Poinsot T, Krebs W, Hoffman S. Characteristics of conned swirl ows using large eddy simulations; 2001 [ASME 2001-GT-0060]. [91] Schildmacher K-U. Experimental investigation of the interaction of junsteady ow with combustion. ASME turbo expo, Atlanta, Georgia; 2003 [GT2003-38644].

Role of PVC in Swirl Combustion Systems

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Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161 www.elsevier.

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 1.4. Distribution of tangential velocity in system of Fig. 1.3 [4].

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 1.5. Distribution of axial velocity in system of Fig. 1.3 [4].

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 2.6. Swirl burner developed by sydney university group [4144].

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 2.7 (continued)

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 2.8 (continued)

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 3.1 (continued)

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 3.10 (continued)

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 3.12. Phase locked radial distribution of angular momentum ux [61].

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 3.13 (continued)

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

f function of mixture ratio and connement, Fig. 3.9

High comb. intensity

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

Fig. 4.1. Occurrence of the vortex breakdown phenomena [68].

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161

N. Syred / Progress in Energy and Combustion Science 32 (2006) 93161