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Engineering Materials

Assignment No. 1 Submitted to: Khalid Saifullah Sahib


Submitted by: Fazal Din Siddiqui Semester No. 4 Reg No. BSME01103062 Date: 25-05-2012

Solution
Q. Write a note on Chromium. Ans: 01.Discovery of Chromium: Chromium was discovered in 1780 by Nicolas Louis Vanquelin. He discovered the element in a mineral sample of 'Siberian red lead'- now known as crocoite (lead chromate). He boiled the crushed mineral with potassium carbonate to produce lead carbonate and a yellow potassium salt solution of chromic acid. Vanquelin was convinced by further experiments on the solution that he had found a new metal. In 1781 he succeeded in isolating the metal. Initially he removed the lead from the mineral sample by precipitation with hydrochloric acid. Vanquelin then obtained the oxide by evaporation and finally isolated chromium by heating the oxide in a charcoal oven. (1), (2). Vanquelin also identified small amounts of chromium in ruby and emerald stones. Vauquelin went on to discover Beryllium in 1798. Chromium was named from the Greek word 'chroma', meaning color because it forms a variety of colorful compounds.

Classification: Chromium is a transition metal Color: silver-gray Atomic weight: 51.996 State: solid Melting point: 1907 oC, 2180 K Boiling point: 2670 oC, 2943 K Shells: 2,8,13,1 Electron configuration: [Ar] 3d5 4s1 Density @ 20oC: 7.19 g/cm3 Atomic volume: 7.23 cm3/mol Structure: bcc: body-centered cubic Hardness: 8.5 mohs 02. Harmful effects: Chromium metal is an essential trace element, but hexavalent chromium (Cr(VI)) is very toxic and carcinogenic. 03. Characteristics: Chromium is a silver, lustrous, very hard metal that can take a high mirror polish. It is also odorless, tasteless, and malleable. The metal forms a thin protective oxide coating in air, and burns when heated to form green chromium oxide(Cr2O3). 04. Uses of Chromium Chromium is used in stainless steel, and other alloys. Chromium plating, for example on cars and bicyles, produces a smooth, silver finish that is highly resistant to corrosion. The metal is also widely used as a catalyst. Chromium compounds are valued as pigments for their vivid green, yellow, red and orange colors. Q. Write a note on Aluminium. Ans: Aluminium is the third most abundant element (after oxygen and silicon), and the most abundant metal, in the Earth's crust. It makes up about 8% by weight of the Earth's solid surface. Aluminium metal is too reactive chemically to occur natively. Instead, it is found combined in over 270 different minerals.[4] The chief ore of aluminium is bauxite. Aluminium is remarkable for the metal's low density and for its ability to resist corrosion due to the phenomenon of passivation. Structural components made from aluminium and its alloys are vital to the aerospace industry and are important in other areas

of transportation and structural materials. The most useful compounds of aluminium, at least on a weight basis, are the oxides and sulfates. Despite its prevalence in the environment, aluminium salts are not known to be used by any form of life. In keeping with its pervasiveness, aluminium is well tolerated by plants and animals.[5] Due to their prevalence, potential beneficial (or otherwise) biological roles of aluminium compounds are of continuing interest.

Characteristics of aluminium : Aluminium, Al (lat. Aluminium), is a non-noble, silver-grey, unstable, forgeable metal with a very good conductivity for electricity. It mainly occurs in nature in the form of compounds, whereby the most common ore is bauxite. Only Al+3 occurs in atomicity in compounds.In an acidic environment, it occurs as aluminium cation, and as alumina anion in an alkaline environment [AlO2]. In its pure form, aluminium is very reactive. When exposed to the air, a thin layer of oxide Al2O3 is formed, which protects the metal against further oxidation. Aluminium is easily soluble in diluted acids. Concentrated nitric acid has the same effect as air oxygen in that it covers the aluminium with a layer of passivating oxide. Similarly, hydroxides of alkaline metals easily dissolve metal aluminium once aluminates occur (AlO2).

Uses of Aluminium: 1) Low density and strength make aluminium ideal for construction of aircraft, lightweight vehicles, and ladders. An alloy of aluminium called duralumin is often used instead of pure aluminium because of its improved properties. 2) Easy shaping and corrosion resistance make aluminium a good material for drink cans and roofing materials. 3) Corrosion resistance and low density leads to its use for greenhouses and window frames. 4) Good conduction of heat leads to its use for boilers, cookers and cookware. 5) Good conduction of electricity leads to its use for overhead power cables hung from pylons (low density gives it an advantage over copper). 6) High reflectivity makes aluminium ideal for mirrors, reflectors and heat resistant clothing for fire fighting. Q. Write a note on Copper. Ans: Copper is a chemical element with the symbol Cu (from Latin: cuprum) and atomic number 29. It is a ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. Pure copper is soft and malleable; a freshly exposed surface has a reddish-orange color. It is used as a conductor of heat and electricity, a building material, and a constituent of various metal alloys. The metal and its alloys have been used for thousands of years. In the Roman era, copper was principally mined on Cyprus, hence the origin of the name of the metal as yprium (metal of Cyprus), later shortened to uprum. Its compounds are commonly encountered as copper(II) salts, which often impart blue or green colors to minerals such as turquoise and have been widely used historically as pigments. Architectural structures built with copper corrode to give green verdigris (or patina). Decorative art prominently features copper, both by itself and as part of pigments. Copper(II) ions are water-soluble, where they function at low concentration as bacteriostatic substances, fungicides, and wood preservatives. In sufficient amounts, they are poisonous to higher organisms; at lower concentrations it is an essential trace nutrient to all higher plant and animal life. The main areas where copper is found in animals are liver, muscle and bone.

Characteristics of Copper: Copper is valued for strength, malleability, ductility, and ability to conduct electricity and heat. It is also non-magnetic, resists wear, and forms a green patina which makes it resistant to corrosion. Copper is used to coat bottoms of steel pans to improve heat conduction, for decorative items, and in a few other cookware applications. It is also used for electrical wiring, plumbing pipes, and many uses in appliances. Uses of Copper: Copper wires allow electric current to flow without much loss of energy. This is why copper wires are used in mains cables in houses and underground (although overhead cables tend be aluminium because it is less dense). However, where size rather than weight is important, copper is the best choice. Thick copper strip is used for lightning conductors on tall buildings like church spires. The cable has to be thick so that it can carry a large current without melting. Copper wire can be wound into a coil. The coil will produce a magnetic field and, being made of copper, won't waste much electrical energy. Some examples of where copper coils can be found are: Electromagnets: Locks, scrapyard cranes, electric bells. Motors: Pumps, domestic appliances (washing machines, dishwashers, fridges, vacuum cleaners), cars (starter motors, windscreen wipers, electric windows), computers (disc drives, fans), entertainment systems (CD and DVD players). Dynamos: Bicycles, power stations. Transformers: Mains adaptors, electricity substations, power stations.

Q. Write a note on Nickel. Ans: Discovery of Nickel: Nickel is present in metallic meteorites and so has been in use since ancient times. Artifacts made from metallic meteorites have been found dating from as early as 5000 BC for example beads in graves in Egypt.(1) Iron is the most abundant element in metallic meteorites, followed by nickel. It was not until the 1750s that nickel was discovered to be an element. In the 1600s, a dark red ore, often with a green coating, had been a source of irritation for copper miners in Saxony, Germany. They believed the dark red substance was an ore of copper, but they had been unable to extract any copper from it. In frustration, they had named it 'kupfernickel' which could be translated as 'goblin's copper' because clearly, from the miners' point of view at any rate, there were goblins or little imps at work, preventing them extracting the copper. Between 1751 and 1754, the Swedish chemist Axel Cronstedt carried out a number of experiments to determine the true nature of kupfernickel. (We now know that kupfernickel is nickel arsenide, NiAs.) After finding that its chemical reactions were not what he would have expected from a copper compound, he heated kupfernickel with charcoal to yield a hard, white metal, whose color alone showed it could not be copper. Its properties, including its magnetism, led him to conclude that he had isolated a new metallic element. Cronstedt named the new element nickel, after the kupfernickel from which he had isolated it. (2), (3), (4) There is a satisfying symmetry in this discovery. Cronstedt was a pupil of George Brandt, who had discovered cobalt, which sits immediately to the left of nickel in the periodic table. The names of both elements have their origins in the frustrations of miners caused by metal-arsenic ores: nickel arsenide and cobalt arsenide. Cobalt's name is derived from the German 'kobold' meaning 'goblin' - a close relative of the creature from which nickel's name was derived. In cobalt's case, miners mistakenly thought the ore contained silver, and called the ore kobold in frustration at the wicked goblins who they believed were preventing them getting silver from the ore.

In the early twentieth century, Ludwig Mond patented a process using nickel carbonyl to purify nickel. This process is still used today.

Characteristics of Nickel: Nickel is a hard, silvery-white metal, which is malleable and ductile. The metal can take on a high polish and it resists tarnishing in air. Nickel is ferromagnetic and is a fair conductor of heat and electricity. Most nickel compounds are blue or green. Uses of Nickel: Nickel is used in corrosion-resistant alloys, such as stainless steel. (Stainless steel is the application in which most nickel is used.) Tubing made from a copper-nickel alloy is used in desalination plants. This alloy is naturally resistant to corrosion by seawater and to biofouling. Many coins contain nickel. Nickel steel is used for burglar-proof vaults and armour plate. Nickel is also used in batteries - for example NiCd (nickel-cadmium) rechargeable batteries - and in magnets.

Q. Write a note on Steel. Ans: Discovery of Steel: By the 11th century BC it has been discovered that iron can be much improved. If it is reheated in a furnace with charcoal (containing carbon), some of the carbon is transferred to the iron. This process hardens the metal; and the effect is considerably greater if the hot metal is rapidly reduced in temperature, usually achieved by quenching it in water. The new material is steel. It can be worked (or 'wrought') just like softer iron, and it will keep a finer edge, capable of being honed to sharpness. Gradually, from the 11th century onwards, steel replaces bronze weapons in the Middle East, birthplace of the Iron Age. It becomes essential, from now on, to have a good steel blade rather than a soft and indifferent one.

Characteristics of Steel: Hardening. - The characteristic difference between steel and pure wrought iron is as follows: When steel is raised to a red heat and then suddenly cooled, it becomes hard and brittle. This process, which is known as hardening, has no effect upon pure wrought iron. Tempering is a characteristic of steel which distinguishes it from cast iron. If steel has been hardened by being heated and suddenly cooled, as above described, it may be softened again by applying a lower degree of heat and again cooling. This is known as tempering. Cast iron, on the contrary, though it is hardened by the first process, cannot be softened by the second. When a bar of steel is struck it gives out a sharp metallic ring, quite different from the sound produced by striking wrought iron.

Other characteristics of steel are its great elasticity and its retention of magnetism. Steel has the following properties: Lustre It is a shiny metal with a very attractive finish (architecture, cutlery, appliances). Conductivity It transfers heat and electricity (saucepans). Malleability It can be rolled into thin sheets, rod, bar or beams (roofing, structural) or forged into different shapes (gears, tools). Ductility It can be stretched and drawn out into thin wires (wire fences) or pressed into different shapes (auto body panels). Strength It is very strong and resistant to fracture (building frames, security doors, trains, ships). Durability It is a long lasting material (buildings, rail lines, bridges) and resistant to wear (machines and equipment). Alloying Adding other chemicals can change steel's properties. Stainless steel contains the elements chromium, nickel and molybdenum to make it rust resistant for use in kitchens. Manganese is added to increase toughness, while steel for rods has tungsten and cobalt to keep it hard, even when it gets hot. Coating As well as having various recipes, steel can also be coated with different substances, such as other metals like tin, or plastics or paint. ZINCALUME steel has a protective coating of a zinc-aluminium alloy to protect it from the weather.

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