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Applied Acoustics 70 (2009) 1120

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Applied Acoustics
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/apacoust

A turbulence-based prediction technique for ow-generated noise produced by in-duct elements in a ventilation system
Cheuk Ming Mak *, Wing Man Au
Department of Building Services Engineering, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Kowloon, Hong Kong, China

a r t i c l e

i n f o

a b s t r a c t
A number of investigators have tried to develop a generalized prediction method for ow-generated noise produced by in-duct elements in a ventilation system. Most of these prediction methods relied on limited data obtained from conventional measurement techniques that require the use of an expensive and specially combined acoustic and aerodynamic experimental facility. An alternative to using a specialised and aerodynamic facility that is currently gaining favour in building engineering is using computational uid dynamics (CFD) software packages. CFD is a powerful design tool that is able to predict the behaviour of uid ow regimes. With the aid of CFD, Mak and Oldham have developed a predictive technique that is based on the relationship between the acoustic power radiated, due to the interaction of air ow and a spoiler, and the turbulent kinetic energy generated in the region of the spoiler. Based on the results of CFD simulation of relevant congurations, the technique has been adopted to normalize the published experimental data of Nelson and Morfey, who produced a normalized spectrum for predicting the sound power level of ow-noise produced by the strip spoilers in a rectangular air duct. In this paper, the theoretical basis of this technique was reviewed and revised. A collapse of data from the simulation models were obtained against the experimental data of Oldham and Ukpoho. The data collapse for a damper were generally excellent at most Strouhal numbers. The data collapse for an orice plate were generally excellent at lower Strouhal numbers but was less efcient at higher Strouhal numbers where considerable scatter was observed. 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Article history: Received 24 August 2007 Received in revised form 5 February 2008 Accepted 22 February 2008 Available online 10 April 2008 Keywords: Flow-generated noise Computational uid dynamics Turbulence In-duct elements

1. Introduction Indoor environmental quality is affected by the acoustical performance of a ventilation system. Flow-generated noise is one of the noise problems encountered in a ventilation system. In addition, ow-generated noise problems in a ductwork system are often difcult and expensive to x. The current design guides that are usually adopted in Hong Kong, the UK, or the USA, such as the CIBSE guide [1] and the ASHRAE handbook [2], provide design methods for the prediction of the ow-generated noise in an air ductwork system. However, these guides are based on the experimental work of a number of investigators who have worked on a limited range of in-duct components and a limited range of duct sizes [311]. Wilson and Iqbal [12] have observed that these methods seriously underestimate the levels of ow-generated noise in practical systems. Despite the shortcomings and limitations of these investigations, engineers in Hong Kong and elsewhere are using these methods in practice. In order to reach a more accurate prediction of
* Corresponding author. Tel.: +852 2766 5856; fax: +852 2765 7198. E-mail address: becmmak@polyu.edu.hk (C.M. Mak). 0003-682X/$ - see front matter 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.apacoust.2008.02.004

ow-generated noise, a number of investigators [1329] have tried to devise an improved prediction method for ow-generated noise in air ductwork systems based on the limited data obtained from conventional measurement techniques that require the use of an expensive and specially combined acoustic and aerodynamic experimental facility. An alternative to using a specialised and aerodynamic facility that is currently gaining favour in building engineering [3033] is using computational uid dynamics (CFD) software packages. CFD is a powerful design tool that is able to predict the behaviour of uid ow regimes. With the aid of CFD, Mak and Oldham [34,35] have developed an engineering technique that can be used to predict the ow-noise produced by in-duct elements. Based on the results of CFD simulation, this technique was adopted to normalize the published experimental data of Nelson and Morfey [17] who produced a normalized spectrum for predicting ow-noise produced by a strip spoiler in a rectangular air duct. This paper reviews the theoretical basis of this technique [34,35]. A collapse of data from the simulation models were obtained against the experimental data of Oldham and Ukpoho [18]. With the aid of a commercial CFD code, this technique permits indirect determination of ow-generated noise levels produced by the in-duct elements. The technique (as described in

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this paper and in a previous publication [35]) can be characterized as a turbulence-based prediction technique for ow-generated noise. This is because it is based upon the empirical relationship between the sound power generated and the turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity of the ow spoiler. 2. The turbulence-based prediction technique

dz dy dx

2.1. Theory of Nelson and Morfey Aerodynamic noise is efciently generated when the energetic uid impinges on the acoustically hard surface of a ow obstruction. At the time of impingement, the turbulent air interacts with the acoustic hard surface of the spoilers and part of the turbulent kinetic energy is converted into acoustic energy. Nelson and Morfey [17] suggested two approximate equations for the sound power of ow-generated noise, WDf, radiated in a given bandwidth, Df, from the solution for the dipole source of the inhomogeneous wave equation government of the propagation of sound in an innite acoustic hard-walled rectangular duct of sides a and b. The two equations are for frequencies above and below the cut-on frequency, f0, of the lowest transverse duct mode. For fc < f0 (for plane wave propagation only), W Df % 1=4Aq0 c0 F 2 Df 3 For fc > f0 (for multi-modal sound propagation), W Df % x2 =24pq0 c3 F 2 Df 1 3pc0 =4xc a b=A c 0 3 2 1

1/2dx

1/2a(1/2dt)2

Fig. 1. (continued)

where fc is the center frequency of measurement frequency band, F 2 Df is the mean square value of the uctuating drag force in a gi3 ven bandwidth, A is the area of the rectangular duct cross-section, c0 is the ambient speed of sound, and q0 is the ambient air density. 2.2. Fluctuating drag force in terms of turbulent kinetic energy Currently, the calculation of the ne detail of turbulent ow is impractical; therefore, in order to deal with turbulent ows, conventional CFD codes limit themselves to the consideration of average values rather than instantaneous values. Mak and Oldham [34,35] employed a hypothesis (originally proposed by Reynolds [1,2]) that instantaneous uid velocities can be considered as consisting of a mean component plus a uctuating component.  u u u0 ;  v v v0 ;  w w w0 3

where u0 , v0 , and w0 are the uctuating velocities in the x, y, and zdirections, respectively. The xyz co-ordinate system for a spoiler in an innite rectangular air duct is shown in Fig. 1a. The Reynolds hypothesis introduces some unknown turbulent correlations, which are called the Reynolds stresses. The unknown Reynolds stresses render the Navier Stokes equations insolvable as there are more unknowns than equations. To overcome this closure problem, CFD codes employ turbulence models that consist of a set of differential equations and/or algebraic formulae that allow the determination of the Reynolds stresses and hence close the timeaveraged equations of uid motion. Considering a small volume element adjacent to a ow spoiler, the assumption that the mass of uid in the element is concentrated at the centre of gravity of the element and at a given instant it moves with the uctuating velocity in the positive x-direction. The element then collides with the surface of the rigid spoiler and thus its direction of motion is reversed. The momentum change in the x-direction is thus Dmu0 mu0 u0 2mu0 2q0 dx dy dzu0
0

where u is the uctuating velocity in the x-direction, q0 is the density of air, and dx dy dz is the volume of the small element. Assume that the uctuating drag force (F3)rms on the spoiler due to the uid in the cell is equal to the rate of change of uctuating momentum in the x-direction; that is, e 3 rms F 2q0 dx dy dzu0 dt 5

where dt is the time over which the momentum change occurs. Fig. 1b shows that the assumption is made that dt is determined by the time taken for the air particle to return to its initial position. Referring to Fig. 1, the following equation can be obtained  2 1 dx Ca dt 2 6

where C is a constant and a is the acceleration of the air particle in the x-direction. s r dx dx dt 2 7 2 e 3 =dx dy dzq Ca C F
rms 0

Thus,

e 3 rms F

2q0 dx dy dzu0 dt q e q0 dx dy dzu0 C F 3 rms =dx dy dzq0 p dx

X
Fig. 1. (a) Coordinate system for a spoiler in an innite air duct. (b) A schematic diagram showing a particle adjacent to the surface of an obstacle.

Squaring both sides of Eq. (8), e 3 2 q2 dx dy dz2 u02 C e 3 rms =dx dy dzq0 dx F rms F 0 9

C.M. Mak, W.M. Au / Applied Acoustics 70 (2009) 1120

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We therefore have e 3 rms Cq0 dy dzu02 F 10

e OA F

r X F 3 2 n Df
n

21

As such, CFD codes with conventional turbulence models do not provide information about uctuating velocities but do provide information about the turbulent kinetic energy. They employ Boussinesqs relationship to yield   2 oui ouj 2 oul lt q0 u0i u0j q0 dij k lt dij 11 oxj oxi 3 3 oxl 1 X 02 k u 12 2 i i where q0 u0i u0j is the Reynolds stress, lt is the eddy viscosity (kg/   ms), ui ; uj is the mean velocity (m/s), k is the turbulence kinetic energy (m2/s/s), dij is the Kronecker delta, u0i u0j is the 3 3 matrix if i = 1, 2, 3, j = 1, 2, 3. In a standard ke model, turbulence is assumed to be isotropic and the divergence of velocity is usually neglected because it has a negligible effect on the turbulent stress tensor (i.e. the term 2 l oul is ignored). 3 t oxl Hence,   2 oui ouj 13 q0 u0i u0j q0 dij k lt oxj oxi 3 For i = j, q0 u02 q0 2 ou k 2lt 3 ox 2 ov q0 v02 q0 k 2lt 3 oy 2 ow 02 q q0 w k 2lt 0 3 oz 14 15 16

where (F3)Df is the uctuating drag force in a given frequency band width Df and n = 1, . . ., n; that is, the number of octaves considered in the spectrum. Therefore, combining Eqs. (20) and (21), the root mean square uctuating drag force in a given frequency band can be expressed in terms of the total turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity of the spoiler in Eq. (22). This means that there will be a constant of proportionality between the mean square value of the uctuating drag force in a given frequency band and the total turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity of the in-duct spoiler. " # X 22 Ai ki F rms Df RStq0
i

where (Frms)Df is the root mean square uctuating drag force in a given frequency band width Df and R(St) is a single Strouhal number dependent constant. Hence, we have " #2 X F rms 2 R2 Stq2 Ai ki 23 0 Df
i

where F rms 2 is the mean square value of uctuating drag force in a Df given frequency band width Df. 2.3. The relationship between acoustic energy and turbulent kinetic energy Eqs. (1) and (2) show that the sound power radiated by an induct spoiler is related to the mean square value of the uctuating drag force acting on the spoiler. Eq. (23) shows that the mean square value of the uctuating drag force is related to the total uctuating drag force. Therefore, Eq. (23) can be used with Eqs. (1) and (2) to express the sound power in terms of the total turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity of the spoiler. Following a similar procedure to that of Nelson and Morfey [17], Mak and Yang [19,20], and Mak [24] for the rectangular air duct of sides a and b, the value of R(St) can be obtained by equating the measured values of sound power level SWLD in 1/3 octave bands with the turbulent kinetic energy obtained from the CFD simulation models as follows: For fc < f0 " # X 120 20log10 RSt SWLD 20log10 Ai ki
i

With the aid of Eqs. (10) and (14), the uctuating drag force acting on the spoiler can be expressed in the following way:   2 ou e 3 rms % C dy dz F q0 k 2lt 17 3 ox   2 ou e 3 rms % C dy dz q0 k 3lt F 18 3 ox Since the product of eddy viscosity lt and the velocity gradient is much smaller than the product of air density q0 and turbulent kinetic energy, the second term on the right hand side of Eq. (18) can be neglected. Therefore, Eq. (18) for the uctuating drag force acting on an element of an in-duct ow spoiler becomes e 3 rms % F 2 C dy dzq0 k 3 19

10log10 q0 =4Ac0 For fc > f0 120 20log10 RSt SWLD 20log10 " X
i

24 # Ai ki

Thus, the overall uctuating drag force acting on the spoiler is given by e OA 2 Cq F 3 0 X
i

Ai ki

20

10log10 x2 q0 =24pc3 1 3pc0 =4xc c 0 a b=A 25

C is a constant, Ai is the area of the element of the surface of the induct ow spoiler facing the turbulence, and ki is the turbulent kinetic energy of one element in the vicinity of the ow spoiler. Thus, an equation for the overall uctuating drag force acting in the spoiler has been devised in terms of the parameters for which conventional CFD codes can provide data, plus an unknown constant. In other words, the overall uctuating drag force can be expressed in terms of the total turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity of a spoiler. Heller and Widnall [16] presented the uctuating drag force spectra from which the overall uctuating drag force acting on the ow spoiler can be determined by means of the following equation:

The main feature of these equations derived by Mak and Oldham [35] is that the sound power level of ow-generated noise is a function of the turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity of the spoiler. The geometrical shape of the spoiler will have a profound effect on the generation of turbulence, and hence the ow noise. 2.4. Turbulence-based predictive equations By comparing Eqs. (24) and (25) with the equations of Nelson and Morfey [17], the equations of Oldham and Ukpoho [18] for the circular duct of radius R can be rewritten in terms of the

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turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity of a spoiler. Following a similar procedure to that of Oldham and Ukpoho [18] for the circular duct, the value of R(St) can be obtained by equating measured values of the sound power level SWLD in 1/3 octave bands with the turbulent kinetic energy obtained from the CFD simulation models as follows: For fc < f0 " # X 120 20log10 RSt SWLD 20log10 Ai ki
i

10log10 q0 =4Ac0 For fc > f0 120 20log10 RSt SWLD 20log10 " X
i

26 # Ai ki 27

10log10 x2 q0 =24pc3 1 3c0 =8Rfc c 0

pre-processing tool such as GAMBIT. The CFD solver is responsible for the ow calculations and produces a result. Post-processing is the nal step in CFD analysis. It involves the organization and interpretation of the predicted ow data and, if necessary, the production of CFD results and animations. The commercial CFD package selected in this work was FLUENT version 6 [36], which can be applied to model a wide range of air ow phenomena by solving the conservation equations for mass, momentum, energy, and chemical species using a control volume-based nite difference method. It has been used by Mak and Oldham [34,35] to simulate the experiment of Nelson and Morfey [17] and other investigators [32,33] in order to study natural ventilation. The grid and geometry of the simulation models were set up in GAMBIT version 2.1 [37] and the physical simulation model was set up in FLUENT version 6. 3.2.2. Simulation of the experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho The experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho [18] was modelled by FLUENT CFD code. A comparison of their experiment with the simulation model used in this study is provided in Table 1. The total length of the 0.3 m diameter circular duct in the simulation model was 12 m. The inclinations or diameters of the spoilers in the simulation model were the same as those used in the experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho. The thickness of the ow spoiler used was 3 mm. The ow spoiler was located in the middle of the circular duct, which was 6 m away from the entrance to the duct and centrally placed in the cross-section of the circular duct. Single-vane dampers that inclined at 20, 25, and 30 to the horizontal and orice plates with 191 mm, 216 mm, and 241 mm diameters for a range of air velocities were studied. The inlet air velocities of the simulation based on the experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho are shown in Table 2. The conguration of the duct with h inclination of the singlevane damper using two-dimensional (2-D) and three-dimensional (3-D) models, and with dop mm diameter of the orice plates in 2-D and 3-D is shown in Figs. 2 and 3, respectively. Triangular and

Similar to Eqs. (24) and (25), the above equations express the sound power level of ow-generated noise produced by a spoiler in the circular duct in terms of the turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity P of the spoiler. The i Ai ki in the vicinity of the spoiler can be evaluated from the CFD simulation, and the sound power level of owgenerated noise for the circular duct can be obtained from the published work of Oldham and Ukpoho [18]. Since all terms on the right hand sides of Eqs. (26) and (27) are constants or measurable variables, the trend line R2(St) against St for different air velocities can be obtained from CFD simulation results and measured data. These equations, together with a normalized spectrum of R2(St), could form the basis of a prediction technique for a particular spoiler in the circular duct. 3. Methodology 3.1. Experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho In order to determine the value of the single Strouhal number dependent constant, R(St), it is necessary to relate the results of CFD simulations to measured data obtained from tests carried out on the congurations modelled. There are little reliable data available on air-ow-generated noise in ventilation systems. The published experimental data of Oldham and Ukpoho [18] that relate to the sound power generated by dampers and orice plates in a circular duct was selected for the purpose of this paper. The setup and details of their experiment can be found in their paper. Oldham and Ukpoho [18] presented a large number of octave band sound power level spectra of single-vane dampers of three inclinations (20, 25, and 30) and orice plates of three diameters (191 mm, 216 mm, and 241 mm) at three to ve different air duct ow velocities between 9.5 m/s and 25.0 m/s. From their sound power level spectra, it is evident that at a particular velocity, the highest levels are observed at the lowest frequencies with a systematic decrease in sound power levels with increasing frequency. 3.2. Numerical simulation of dampers and orice plates in a circular duct 3.2.1. CFD code Computational uid dynamics (CFD) is the use of mathematical techniques to model uid ow. Commercial CFD codes can simulate the ow of gases and liquids, heat and mass transfer, moving bodies, multiphase physics, chemical reactions, uidstructure interactions, and acoustics through computer modelling. CFD simulation is divided into pre-processing, solving, and post-processing. Pre-processing is used for building and analyzing a ow model. A suitable computational mesh can be created. Flow boundary conditions and uid material properties can be inputted using a

Table 1 Comparison of the setup of the experiment Oldham and Ukpoho and the CFD simulation model Detail Duct Diameter of duct (mm) Length of the circular duct (m) Type of the ow spoiler Experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho Circular 300 12  Single-vane damper  Orice plate Not known from their paper 20, 25, 30 191, 216, 241 CFD simulation model Circular 300 12  Single-vane damper  Orice plate 3 20, 25, 30 191, 216, 241

Thickness of the spoiler (mm) Inclination of the damper, h Diameter of the orice plates, dop (mm)

Table 2 Inlet air velocities of the simulation for dampers and orice plates Inlet air velocities (m/s) Damper 20 inclination 25 inclination 30 inclination Orice plate 191 mm diameter 216 mm diameter 241 mm diameter 11.8, 14.8, 18.2, 22.1 9.5, 12.7, 15.0, 17.6, 21.9 12.0, 15.7, 18.9, 25.0 10.1, 12.5, 18.0 8.2, 10.3, 16.8 10.2, 13.0, 18.2

C.M. Mak, W.M. Au / Applied Acoustics 70 (2009) 1120

15

2-D
12m

3mm

0.3m

3-D
12m 3mm 0.3m

Fig. 2. Conguration of duct with h inclination of a single-vane damper using two-dimensional and three-dimensional models.

2-D
12m

dop

0.3 m

3mm

3-D
12m dop 3mm
Fig. 3. Conguration of duct with dop mm diameter orice plate using two-dimensional and three-dimensional models.

0.3 m

tetrahedral/hybrid mesh elements were used in the 2-D and 3-D CFD simulation models respectively. The grid conguration of the 2-D and 3-D CFD simulation models of the single-vane damper with 20 inclination is shown in Figs. 4 and 5, respectively. The interval size of the meshing cell was set as 0.05 m for both cases. The Reynolds number (Re) was checked to ensure that the simulated air ow inside the duct was turbulent. The Reynolds number (Re) is dened as the ratio of the inertia force to the viscous force as follows: Re q0 vD=l 28

where Re is the Reynolds number, q0 is the density of air (1.2 kg/ m3), v is the mean velocity, D is the diameter of duct (0.3 m), and l is the coefcient of dynamic viscosity (1.78 105 kg m1 s1). Table 3 shows the Reynolds number for a range of inlet air velocities in the simulation. For straight pipes with constant diameter, ow can be assumed to be turbulent if the Re exceeds 4000 [38]. The corresponding Reynolds numbers of duct with dampers and orice plates used in the experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho are larger than 4000 shown in Table 3. Therefore, a uniform incompressible turbulent air ow was assumed to be the inlet of the air duct. According to the FLUENT manual [36], the segregated solver

Fig. 4. Grid conguration of CFD Simulation Model with 20 inclination of a single-vane damper in two-dimensional model.

Fig. 5. Grid conguration of CFD Simulation Model with 20 inclination of a single-vane damper in three-dimensional model.

16 Table 3 Reynolds number for a range of inlet air velocities

C.M. Mak, W.M. Au / Applied Acoustics 70 (2009) 1120


1200

Static Pressure Loss (Pa)

20 damper (2D)

Inlet air velocities (m/s) Damper 20 inclination 25 inclination 30 inclination Orice plate 191 mm diameter 216 mm diameter 241 mm diameter 11.822.1 9.521.9 12.025.0 10.118.0 8.216.8 10.218.2

Reynolds number Re 238,652446,966 192,135442,921 242,697505,618 204,270364,045 165,843339,775 206,292368,090

1000 800 600 400 200 0 0

20 damper (3D) 25 damper (2D) 25 damper (3D) 30 damper (2D) 30 damper (3D)

10

15

20

25

30

was traditionally used for incompressible turbulent air ow. As a uniform incompressible turbulent air ow was used in the inlet of the circular air duct, the segregated solver was used in the simulation. In addition, rst-order discretization for the energy equation and a single-precision solver were used for the simulation in this study. The standard turbulence ke model can provide robustness, economy, and reasonable accuracy for a wide range of turbulent ow simulations [36]. As the turbulent air ow was assumed to be locally isotropic, the standard turbulence ke model was employed for the simulation of turbulence in this study. The inlet turbulence intensity was assigned the value of 5%, and the characteristic length for the inlet turbulence quantities was assumed to be equal to half of the diameter of the circular duct (0.15 m). In addition, the wall and the spoiler surface were assumed to be smooth for the calculation of wall shear-stress in the simulation. In FLUENT, the convergence criteria for the residual (such as uid properties, continuity, momentum, and velocity) and the energy residual were 103 and 106, respectively [36]. All variables were checked for determining the convergence of the solution. When each residual reduces to a value less than its corresponding convergence criterion, convergence occurs [36]. In order to obtain convergent results in the simulation, the convergence of variables was studied for each case in this study. 4. Analysis of results and discussion 4.1. Comparison of pressure drop results of 2-D and 3-D simulation models The measurement position of the static pressure drop in the simulation models in this work is the same as that used by Oldham and Ukpoho [18]. Mak and Oldham [35] have previously shown that by comparing the predicted and measured drag coefcients, even their 2-D simulation model of the experiment of Nelson and Morfey using FLUENT CFD code is of sufcient accuracy. The comparison of static pressure loss across the 20, 25, and 30 inclinations of the single-vane damper in the CFD simulation models in 2-D and 3-D is shown in Fig. 6. In the simulation model and in both the 2-D and 3-D models, the static pressure loss across the damper increased when the inlet velocity was increased. The results obtained are reasonable as the pressure loss should be larger when the velocity across the damper was increased. In fact, the pressure loss should increase when the inclination of the damper increased as the unobstructed area is decreased for a larger inclination of the damper. In addition, it was found that the static pressure loss for the simulation using 3-D models was smaller than those using 2-D models, as shown in Fig. 6. In fact, 3-D models can provide more accurate results than 2-D models. The 3-D models are closer to the real ductwork used in the experiment by Oldham and Ukpoho. Therefore, 3-D models were used to simulate the single-vane

Velocity (m/s)
Fig. 6. Comparison of static pressure loss CFD simulation model using 2-D and 3-D with 20 inclination: (r) 2-D and (j) 3-D; 25 inclination: (N) 2-D and () 3-D; and 30 inclination: (+) 2-D and (d) 3-D of a single-vane damper.

dampers and orice plates used in the experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho. 4.2. Testing of the sensitivity of the simulation models The use of the precision solver, the order of discretization scheme, the turbulence model, the inlet turbulence intensity, the characteristic length for inlet turbulence, and the interval size of meshing cell were used during the CFD simulation, and the accuracy of the CFD simulation model may be affected by these choices. In order to investigate their impact on the accuracy of the simulation model, a single-vane damper at a 20 inclination in a 0.3 m circular duct was modelled for a range of air velocities. The single-precision solver, the rst-order discretization scheme, a standard ke model, an inlet turbulence of 5%, an inlet characteristic length scale of 0.15 m, and a grid size of 0.05 m were originally selected for the simulation. According to the FLUENT Manual [35], the single-precision solver can provide sufciently accurate results for most cases. Fig. 7 shows the collapse of the CFD normalized data, which is a plot of R2(St) against the Strouhal number for different air velocities using a single-precision and a double-precision solver. The results obtained using a double-precision solver were close to those obtained using a single-precision solver. It shows that the simulation model in the study is sufciently accurate when using a single-precision solver. Fig. 8 shows the results obtained from the simulation using rst-order and second-order discretization schemes for the energy equation. Similar results were obtained when using these two

Single-precision Solver (Original)

100

Double-precision Solver

R2(St) (re dB 10-12)

80

60

40

20

0 0 1 10 100

Strouhal Number St
Fig. 7. Collapse of the CFD normalized data for 20 inclination of a single-vane damper using a single-precision and a double-precision solver.

C.M. Mak, W.M. Au / Applied Acoustics 70 (2009) 1120

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100

First-order Discretization (Original) Second-order Discretization

100

R2(St) (re dB 10-12)

R2(St) (re dB 10-12)

80

80

60

60

40

40

20

20

Turbulence Intensity 5% (Original) Turbulence Intensity 1% Turbulence Intensity 25%

0 0 1 10 100

10

100

Strouhal Number St
Fig. 8. Collapse of the CFD normalized data for 20 inclination of a single-vane damper using rst-order and second-order discretization.

Strouhal Number St
Fig. 10. Collapse of the CFD normalized data for 20 inclination of a single-vane damper with 1%, 5%, and 25% inlet turbulence intensity.

different discretization schemes. This suggests that the order of discretization employed would not signicantly affect the accuracy of the simulation model. The choice of the turbulence model depends on considerations such as the physics encompassed in the ow, the established practice for a specic class of problem, the level of accuracy required, the available computational resources, and the amount of time available for the simulation. As the choice of the turbulence model depends on many factors, several turbulence models were selected to investigate whether the results were affected by using different turbulence models. Fig. 9 shows the collapse of the CFD data using different turbulence models. The results obtained were different depending on the type of turbulence model used. As no single turbulence model is universally accepted as being superior for all classes of problems [36], the results obtained from the standard turbulence ke model were around the average values of the other values using different turbulence models. Previous investigators suggested that the standard turbulence ke model give reasonable estimation of pressure loss and k-factors for duct-ttings [34,35,39]. This suggests that in order not to underestimate or overestimate the pressure drop across the in-duct element, it is reasonable to use the standard turbulence ke model for the CFD simulation. Good estimates of the turbulence intensity at the inlet boundary should be obtained from the measured data. However, the inlet turbulence intensity was not provided in the experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho [18]. A turbulence intensity of 1% or less is generally considered as low, and turbulence intensities greater than 10% are considered as high [36]. In the study, the inlet turbulence
120

intensity was originally assigned the value of 5%. Therefore, for this investigation, inlet turbulence intensities of 1% and 25% were selected as respectively indicating low and high turbulence intensities. Fig. 10 shows the collapse of the CFD data using 1%, 5%, and 25% inlet turbulence intensities. Similar results were obtained using different inlet turbulence intensities. This suggests that the use of the 5% inlet turbulence intensity can provide sufcient accuracy for the simulation model in this study. The turbulence length scale is restricted by the size of the duct as turbulent eddies cannot be larger than the duct [36]. The characteristic length for inlet turbulence quantities was estimated to be equal to half of the diameter of the circular duct (i.e. 0.15 m). Inlet turbulence length scales of 0.05 m, 0.15 m, and 0.3 m were selected for further investigation. The collapse of the CFD data for a range of air velocities using the 0.05 m, 0.15 m, and 0.3 m inlet turbulence length scales are shown in Fig. 11. Similar results were obtained when using the different inlet turbulence length scales. This suggests that the 0.15 m inlet turbulence length scale is sufciently accurate for the simulation model in this study. The accuracy of the CFD simulation model may also be affected by the meshing size of the model. The interval size of the meshing cell was originally set as 0.05 m. Fig. 12 shows the collapse of CFD results for a range of air velocities using meshing sizes of 0.03 m, 0.05 m, and 0.08 m. Similar results were obtained from the simulation model when using different sizes of meshing cells. This suggests that a meshing size of 0.05 m can provide sufcient accuracy for the simulation model used in this study.

100

R2(St) (re dB 10 -12)

100

80

R2(St) (re dB 10-12)

80

60
Standard k-e Model RNG k-e Model Realizable k-e Model Standard k-w Model SST k-w Model Reynolds Stress Model

60

40

40

20

20

0 0

Inlet Turbulence Length Scale 0.15m (Original) Inlet Turbulence Length Scale 0.05m Inlet Turbulence Length Scale 0.3m

10

100

0 0 1 10 100

Strouhal Number St
Fig. 9. Collapse of the CFD normalized data for 20 inclination of a single-vane damper using standard ke, RNG ke, realizable ke, standard kx, SST kx, and Reynolds stress model.

Strouhal Number St
Fig. 11. Collapse of the CFD normalized data for 20 inclination of a single-vane damper with 0.05 m, 0.15 m, and 0.3 m inlet turbulence length scale.

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C.M. Mak, W.M. Au / Applied Acoustics 70 (2009) 1120

100

Grid Size 0.05m (Original) Grid Size 0.03m Grid Size 0.08m

a
100
11.8 m/s 14.8 m/s

R2(St) (re dB 10 -12)

80

R2(St) (re dB 10-12)

80

18.2 m/s 22.1 m/s

60

60

40

40

20

20

0 0

10

100

0 0 1 10 100

Strouhal number St
Fig. 12. Collapse of the CFD normalized data for 20 inclination of a single-vane damper using 0.03 m, 0.05 m, and 0.08 m grid size.

Strouhal Number St

b
100
-12)
9.5m/s 12.7 m/s

2 R (St) (dB re 10

Based on the above investigation, a single-precision solver, a rst-order discretization scheme, the standard ke model, an inlet turbulence of 5%, an inlet characteristic length scale of 0.15 m, and a grid size of 0.05 m were nally selected for the simulation work. 4.3. Normalization of the data of Oldham and Ukpoho P The total turbulent kinetic energy, i Ai ki , in the vicinity of the single-vane damper and orice plate was evaluated from the CFD simulation results of turbulent kinetic energy for those elements that enclosed the dampers and orice plates. The value of the P i Ai ki was calculated by considering the ratio of the size of the elements (since a non-uniform grid was used) and the turbulent kinetic energy. P The i Ai ki for the single-vane damper inclined at 20, 25, and 30 to the horizontal for a range of air velocities and for the orice plates with 191 mm, 216 mm, and 241 mm diameter were P obtained from the CFD simulation. The i Ai ki obtained from the simulation model were increased when the inlet velocity increased. The data from the CFD models for the single-vane damper, the orice plate, and the experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho were collapsed on the basis of Eqs. (26) and (27). The results for the singlevane damper inclined at 20, 25, and 30 to the horizontal for a range of air velocities are shown in Fig. 13ac. The results for the orice plates with 191 mm, 216 mm, and 241 mm diameter for a range of air velocities are shown in Fig. 14ac. The overall collapse of the data are excellent in view of the widely differing pressure drop across the damper or the orice plate. The trend lines of Figs. 13ac and 14ac are composed of data for different air velocities, and could form the basis of a prediction technique for the singlevane damper and the orice plate respectively. The overall collapse of the normalized data for all the dampers and orice plates are shown in Figs. 15 and 16. The data collapse for a damper were generally excellent at most Strouhal numbers. The data collapse for an orice plate were generally excellent at lower Strouhal numbers but were less efcient at higher Strouhal numbers where considerable scatter was observed. The overall collapse of the data displayed in this study are more efcient that of Mak and Oldham [35] as they indicated that their normalized data exhibit signicant scatter at the lower Strouhal numbers. An overall collapse of the normalized data for the single-vane dampers and the orice plates is shown in Fig. 17. The gure shows the overall collapse of the simulation data from the CFD codes and all the experimental data for the dampers and the orice plates obtained from the experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho.

80

15.0 m/s 17.6 m/s 21.9 m/s

60

40

20

0
0 1 10 100

Strouhal Number St

c
100
-12)

12.0 m/s 15.7 m/s

80

18.9 m/s 25.0 m/s

2 R (St) (dB re 10

60

40

20

0
0

10

100

Strouhal Number St
Fig. 13. Collapse of CFD normalized data for a single-vane damper (a) 20 inclination: (s) 11.8 m/s, (h) 14.8 m/s, (M) 18.2 m/s, and (d) 22.1 m/s; (b) 25 inclination: (s) 9.5 m/s, (h) 12.7 m/s, (M) 15.0 m/s, (d) 17.6 m/s, and (N) 21.9 m/s; and (c) 30 inclination: (s) 12.0 m/s, (h) 15.7 m/s, (M) 18.9 m/s, and (d) 25.0 m/s.

At a given Strouhal number, the simulation data for the orice plates tend to be higher than that for the dampers with the largest differences observed for the highest Strouhal numbers (as shown in Fig. 17). These results are different from the normalized spectrum of Oldham and Ukpoho (Fig. 10 of Ref. [18]). They plotted experimental points for the dampers, which tended to be higher than the orice plates; the largest differences were observed for the lowest Strouhal numbers. The difference between the single spectrum shown in Fig. 17 and the single spectrum in the experiment of Oldham and Ukpoho suggests that the collapse of the data of all the different congurations such as the dampers and the orice plates into a single normalized spectrum may not be suitable. In fact, Mak and Oldham [34] have indicated that for very different in-duct elements, a single normalized spectrum for ow-generated noise may not be sufcient for all of the in-duct elements.

C.M. Mak, W.M. Au / Applied Acoustics 70 (2009) 1120

19

a
100
10.1 m/s

100
12.5 m/s 18.0 m/s

191 mm 216 mm 241 mm

R (St) (dB re 10 )

R2(St) (re dB 10-12)

80

-12 2

80

60

60

40

40

20

20
0 0 1 10 100

0 0

10

10

Strouhal Number St
Fig. 16. The overall collapse of CFD normalized data for an orice plate: (s) 191 mm diameter, (h) 216 mm diameter, and (M) 241 mm diameter.

Strouhal number St

b
100
8.2 m/s 10.3 m/s

R2(St) (re dB 10-12)

80

16.8 m/s

60
100

Damper Orifice Plate

40

R (St) (dB re 10 )

20

-12

80

60

10

10

40

Strouhal number St

c
100

20
10.2 m/s 13.0 m/s 18.2 m/s

0 0 1 10 100

R2(St) (re dB 10-12)

80

Strouhal Number St
60

Fig. 17. Collapse of all data based on the CFD simulation: (d) damper, (s) orice plate, and () trend line.

40

20

5. Conclusions
0 1 10 10 0

Strouhal number St
Fig. 14. Collapse of CFD normalized data for an orice plate (a) 191 mm diameter: (s) 10.1 m/s, (h) 12.5 m/s, and (D) 18.0 m/s; (b) 216 mm diameter: (s) 8.2 m/s, (h) 10.3 m/s, and (M) 16.8 m/s; and (c) 241 mm diameter: (s) 10.2 m/s, (h) 13.0 m/s, and (M) 18.2 m/s.

100

20 25

R2(St) (dB re 10-12)

80

30

60

40

20

0 0

10

100

Strouhal Number St
Fig. 15. The overall collapse of CFD normalized data for a single-vane damper: (s) 20 inclination, (h) 25 inclination, and (M) 30 inclination.

A turbulence-based technique has been developed by Mak and Oldham for predicting the air-ow-generated noise in low speed ow ducts based on the relationship between the sound power generated and the turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity of a spoiler. The sound power level of ow-generated noise is related to the total turbulent kinetic energy in the vicinity of induct element that was provided by the CFD simulation models. This paper has reviewed and revised the theoretical basis of this technique. On the basis of Nelson and Morfeys theory, the collapsed data from the simulation models were obtained against the published experimental data of Oldham and Ukpoho. The data collapse for a damper were generally excellent at most Strouhal numbers. The data collapse for an orice plate were generally excellent at lower Strouhal numbers but were less efcient at higher Strouhal numbers where considerable scatter was observed. A single normalized spectrum for ow-generated noise may not be sufcient for all of the in-duct elements. It is suggested that a particular curve for the dampers obtained in this study can be used for the prediction of the ow-generated noise produced by any similar dampers inclined at different angles while a particular curve for the orice plates obtained in this study can be used for the prediction of the ow-generated noise produced by similar orice plates with various diameters.

20

C.M. Mak, W.M. Au / Applied Acoustics 70 (2009) 1120 [18] Oldham DJ, Ukpoho AU. A pressure-based technique for predicting regenerated noise levels in ventilation systems. J Sound Vibrat 1990;140:25972. [19] Mak CM, Yang JA. prediction method for aerodynamic sound produced by closely spaced elements in air ducts. J Sound Vibrat 2000;229(3):74353. [20] Mak CM, Yang J. Flow-generated noise radiated by the interaction of two strip spoilers in low speed ow ducts, acta acustica united with acustica. J Euro Acoust Assoc 2002;88:8618. [21] Mak CM. Development of a prediction method for ow-generated noise produced by duct elements in ventilation systems. Appl Acoust 2002;63:8193. [22] Ukpoho AU, Oldham DJ. Regenerated noise levels due to closely spaced duct elements. Proc Inst Acoust 1991;13(2):4618. [23] Mak CM. Prediction methods for regenerated noise produced by two elements in an air duct. J Build Acoust 2001;8(2):18792. [24] Mak CM. A prediction method for aerodynamic sound produced by multiple elements in air ducts. J Sound Vibrat 2005;287:395403. [25] Oldham DJ, Waddington DC. The prediction of airow-generated noise in ducts from consideration of similarity. J Sound Vibrat 2001;248(4):7807. [26] Waddington DC, Oldham DJ. Generalized ow noise prediction curves for air duct elements. J Sound Vibrat 1999;222:1639. [27] Mak CM. Towards generalised prediction techniques for regenerated noise in ventilation systems. Build Service Eng Res Technol 1995;16(2):B2540. [28] Han N, Qiu XJ, Mak CM. A further study of the prediction method for aerodynamic sound produced by two in-duct elements. J Sound Vibrat 2006;294:37480. [29] Han N, Mak CM. Prediction of ow-generated noise produced by acoustic and aerodynamic interactions of multiple in-duct elements. Appl Acoust 2008;69(6):56673. [30] Chow WK. Application of computational uid dynamics in building services engineering. Build Environ 1996;31:42536. [31] Chow WK. CFD simulation on balcony spill plume. J Fire Sci 1998;16:46885. [32] Liu L, Mak CM. The assessment of the performance of a windcatcher system using computational uid dynamics. Build Environ 2007;42:113541. [33] Mak CM, Niu JL, Lee CT, Chan KF. A numerical simulation of wing walls using computational uid dynamics. Energy Build 2007;39:9951002. [34] Mak CM, Oldham DJ. The application of computational uid dynamics to the prediction of ow generated noise in low speed ducts. Part 1: uctuating drag forces on a ow spoiler. J Build Acoust 1998;5(2):12341. [35] Mak CM, Oldham DJ. The application of computational uid dynamics to the prediction of ow generated noise in low speed ducts. Part 2: turbulencebased prediction technique. J Build Acoust 1998;5(3):199213. [36] FLUENT Manual at webpage. <http://www.uent.com/>. [37] GAMBIT Manual at webpage. <http://www.uent.com/>. [38] Douglas JF, Gasiorek JM, Swafeld JA. Fluid mechanics. 5th Ed. Harlow, New York: Pearson/Prentice Hall; 2005. [39] Gan G, Riffat SB. Accuracy of CFD for predicting pressure losses in HVAC duct ttings. Appl Energy 1995;51(3):23348.

Acknowledgements The work described in this paper was partially extracted from the works of Miss Au Wing Man under the supervision of Dr. Mak and was partially supported by a grant from the Research Grant Council of the Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, China (Project No. PolyU 5229/05). The authors would like to acknowledge the contribution of Miss Han Ning to some parts of Section 2.2. References
[1] ASHRAE Handbook. HVAC Applications SI Edition; 2003. p. 47.710. [2] CIBSE guide B5 Noise and Vibration Control for HVAC; 2002. p. 89. [3] Ingard U, Oppenheim A, Hirschorn M. Noise generation in ducts. ASHRAE Trans 1968:74. [4] Soroka WW. Refrig Eng 1939;37:393. [5] Soroka WW. Experimental study of high velocity air discharge noise from some ventilating ducts and elbows. Appl Acoust J 1970;3:30821. [6] Kerka WF. In high velocity system duct parts create sound as well as suppress it. ASHRAE J 1960:429. [7] Watson JH. Acoustical characteristics of mitre bends with lined turning vanes. Aust Refrig Air Condition Heat J 1968:30. [8] Brockmeyer H. Flow acoustic study of duct ttings of high velocity air conditioning systems. Dissertation for degree of Dr.-Ing. Carolo Wilhelmina, Braunschweig, Technical University (HVRA Translation 195); 1968. [9] Chaddock J.B. Ceiling air diffuser noise, Technical Information Report No. 45. Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc.; 1957. [10] Hubert M. Noise development in ventilation plant. Larmbekompfung 1969;4651:2933 [HVRA Translation 162]. [11] Holmes MJ. Air ow generated noise. Part II: bends with turning vanes. HVRA Lab. Report No.78; 1973. [12] Wilson TK, Iqbal A. Computer-aided analysis of airow systems noise. Build Service Eng Res Technol 1980;1:547. [13] Gordon CG, Maidanik G. Inuence of upstream ow discontinuities on the acoustic power radiated by a model air jet. Report No.1426. Bolt Beranek and Newman Inc.; 1966. [14] Gordon CG. Spoiler-generated ow noise I: the experiment. J Acoust Soc Am 1968;43:10418. [15] Gordon CG. Spoiler-generated ow noise II: results. J Acoust Soc Am 1969;45:21423. [16] Heller HH, Widnall SE. Sound radiation from rigid ow spoilers correlated with uctuating forces. J Acoust Soc Am 1970;47:92436. [17] Nelson PA, Morfey CL. Aerodynamic sound prediction in low speed ow ducts. J Sound Vibrat 1981;79:26389.

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