Aircraft Characteristics

Type of Propulsion Size of Aircraft Minimum Turning Radius Minimum Circling Radius Speed of Aircraft Capacity of Aircraft Aircraft Weight and Wheel Configuration Jet Blast and Noise

Type of Propulsion
Propeller driven Piston Engine (P)
Thrust is generated by propeller which is powered by gasoline fed reciprocating engine (Cesna Aircrafts)

Turbo Prop (TP)

Thrust is generated by propeller which is powered by turbine engine. Its turbine uses almost all the engine's energy to turn its compressor and propeller, and it depends on the propeller for thrust, rather than on the high-velocity gases going out of the exhaust. (ATR, Dornier)

Turbo Jet (TJ)

Dont depend on propeller for thrust. Thrust is directly obtained from turbine engines (Concorde)

Turbo Fan (TF)

Similar to turbo jet, but with a small fan attached to the turbine engine. The fan causes more air to flow around (bypass) the engine. This produces greater thrust and reduces specific fuel consumption. This propulsion system is the most efficient. (most of the present day principal transport aircrfats Airbus, Boeng, McDonnell-Douglas)

Turbo Prop

Turbojet

Turbo Fan

Size of Aircraft
Wing span
Distance between two wing tips. Determines separation clearance between two parallel taxiways, size of gates, turning radius, etc.

Fuselage length
The overall length of aircraft from tip of nose to the tail. Determines size of gate, turning radius, etc.

Height
Determines the vertical clearances required in hangar and other service areas

Wheel base
Centre to centre distance between nose gear and landing gear. Determines the minimum turning radius

Wheel tread / Outer main gear wheel span

The centre to centre distance between the two landing gears is wheel tread. The outer to outer distance between the two landing gears is outer main gear wheel span. These dimensions effect the minimum turning radius, width of taxiway, etc.

Size of Aircraft (B-747)

Height

Fuselage Length

Wing span

Minimum Turning Radius

This dimension is important for establishing the geometry of movement of the aircraft. The exact position of the aircraft adjacent to the terminal building and the path of the aircraft at other locations is determined based on the turning radius. Turning radius is a function of nose gear turning angle (caster angle). The maximum turning angle varies between 600 800. However, while working out minimum turning radii, moderate caster angle (50) is used to minimize the wear and tear of nose gear.

Determining Minimum Turning Radius

Minimum Circling Radius

This is the minimum radius with which aircraft can take turn in space. Depends on type of aircraft, air traffic volume, weather condition, etc. Determines the spacing between two airports

Typical Values for Minimum Circling Radii

Small general aviation aircrafts operating under Visual Flight Rules Bigger aircrafts operating under Visual Flight Rules Piston Engine aircrafts operating under Instrument Flight Rules Jet Engine aircrafts operating under Instrument Flight Rules 1.6 km 3.2 km 13 km 80 km

Speed of Aircraft
Speed of aircraft is measured either with respect to ground (termed as cruising speed or ground speed) or relative to wind (termed as air speed) Speed of aircraft is reported in Nautical Miles per hour (1 nautical mile = 1.85 km) Approach speed, touchdown speed, exit speed and allowable deceleration values determine the location and design of exit taxiways.

Aircraft Weight
Operating Empty Weight (OEW)
Weight of aircraft excluding payload and fuel, but including crew and necessary gear required for flight

Zero Fuel weight (ZFW)

The weight above which all additional weight must be in terms of fuel, so that, when the aircraft is in flight, the bending moments at the junction of wing and fuselage do not become excessive.

Payload
This is the total revenue producing load: passengers + baggage + mail + cargo

Maximum Structural Payload

The maximum payload the aircraft is certified to carry. Theoretically, Maximum Structural Payload = ZFW - OEW Actual payload often is less than this as much of space is occupied by seats, etc.

Aircraft Weight Contd.

Maximum Ramp Weight
This is the maximum total weight of the aircraft authorised for ground maneuver

Maximum Structural Takeoff Weight

The maximum weight of the aircraft authorised at brake release for takeoff. It excludes taxi and run-up fuel and includes, OEW, payload and trip and reserve fuel. Thus, the difference between ramp weight and takeoff weight is nominal.

Maximum Structural Landing Weight

This is the weight for which the landing gear is designed. The total weight of the aircraft can not exceed this while landing. Maximum structural landing weight is less than the maximum structural takeoff weight as aircraft loses weight en route by burning fuel. In case of abortive takeoff, the fuel is jettisoned so as not to exceed the maximum structural landing weight

Gear Configuration
Aircrafts are supported by a nose gear and two main landing gears located on the wing area on each side. The distribution of the load between the main gears and the landing gear depends on the type of aircraft and the location of the centre of gravity of the aircraft However, for pavement design it is normally assumed that 95% of the weight is supported on the two landing gears. Maximum ramp weight is used while working out the distribution of load for pavement design purposes.

Gear Configurations

Single wheel

Dual wheel

Dual-in-tandem Double dual-in-tandem

Gear Configuration Contd.

Single wheel
Small aircrafts (Douglas DC-3)

Dual wheel
B 737, B 727

Dual-in-tandem
A300, A310, A320, B701, B720B, B757, B767

Double Dual-in-tandem
B747A, B747B

Payload Vs Range
Range of an aircraft is the maximum distance it can fly satisfying the norms relating to reserve fuel and the maximum weight characteristics. When the aircraft is loaded to its maximum structural payload (PA), the fuel tanks can not be completely filled to satisfy the requirement of maximum structural takeoff weight limiting the range (say to RA). In order to maximise the range (say to RB), the payload has to be reduced (say to PB) giving way for additional fuel filling the fuel tanks completely. When the aircraft is not on a passenger flight, the requirements of reserve fuel will not apply. The range worked out by considering maximum trip fuel and reserve fuel under zero payload is termed as ferry range (RC). The payload vs range curves are given by the manufacturer. These curves are useful in the planning of airport. Using these curves the exact weight characteristics of the aircrafts can be obtained by knowing their scheduled operations.

Typical Payload versus Range Curve

40000

(RA, PA)

Payload, kg

35000 30000 25000 20000 15000 10000 5000 0 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000

(RB, PB)

(RC, PC)
7000

Range, Nautical miles

Weight characteristics of an aircraft

Maximum structural takeoff weight 99880 kg Maximum structural landing weight 89892 kg Zero fuel weight Operating empty weight Maximum structural payload Fuel capacity 82860 kg 56982 kg 25878 kg 34232 kg

Reserve fuel requirement: 1.25 hr in en route service Average route speed: 869 km/hr Average fuel burn rate: 6.43 kg/km

Prepare payload versus range relationship

Other Aircraft Characteristics

Capacity of aircraft determines the facilities with in and adjacent to the terminal building. It also determines the range of the aircraft Noise created by the aircraft influences the decisions on airport layout and capacity. The noise contours are superimposed on the land use map of the airport to get a noise footprint. These footprints are used in optimizing the runway layouts minimizing the adverse effect on the surrounding communities. Jet blast of aircraft influences the design of blast pads at runway ends and the parking configurations adjacent to the terminals.

Basic Runway Length

Basic runway length is the length of runway required based on the imposed performance requirements of the critical aircraft under standard conditions Basic runway length has to be determined for the following three general cases
Normal landing case Normal Takeoff case Engine failure case
Continued takeoff Aborted takeoff (Engine failure accelerated stop)

Runway Components
The three basic components of runway are:
Full strength pavement (FS) Clearway (CL) Stopway (SW)

Full strength pavement should support the full weight of the aircraft Clearway is a prepared area beyond FS, clear of obstacles (max slope is 1.25%), allowing the aircraft to climb safely to clear an imaginary 11 m (35) obstacle. Stop way is a paved surface that allows an aircraft overrun to take place without harming the vehicle structurally (cannot be used for takeoff)

Stopway
Direction of operation

Departure end of runway

Sto p

wa y

Source: FAA AC: 150/5300-13 (1989)

Clearway
Direction of operation

Departure end of runway Maximum Upward Slope (1.25%)

Clea rway

Cle arw a

yL eng th

m 150

Source: FAA AC: 150/5300-13 (1989)

Runway Components
Each runway end has to be considered individually for runway length analysis

Nomenclature
FL = field length (total amount of runway needed) FS = full strength pavement distance CL = clearway distance SW = stopway distance LOD = lift off distance TOR = takeoff run TOD = takeoff distance LD = landing distance SD = stopping distance D35 = distance to clear an 11 m (35 ft.) obstacle

Normal Landing Case

Pilot approaches with proper speed and crosses the threshold of the runway at a height of 15m The demonstrated distance to stop an aircraft should be within 60% of landing distance

LD = 1.667 * SD FSland = LD

Normal Takeoff Case

The length of runway depends on
Lift off distance (LOD) Distance to reach a height of 35 feet (~11 m) (D35)

Take of Distance (TOD) is taken as 1.15 times the D35

The entire length of TOD need not be of full strength pavement. The regulations permit the use of Clearway at the end of full strength pavement

Clearway Length (CL) = 0.5(TOD-1.15LOD) The full strength runway, which is TOD-CL, is also termed as Take off Run (TOR)

Normal Takeoff Case

RELATIONSHIPS:

Engine Failure Continued Takeoff Case

Engine failure continued takeoff
TOD and LOD will be longer than those in normal takeoff case TOD is taken as D35 with no percentage applied Regulations permit the use of clearway at the end Length of Clearway (CL) is half the difference between TOD and LOD FS = TOR = TOD-CL FL = FS + CL

Engine Failure Aborted Takeoff Case

The length of runway should be sufficient to bring the plane to a stop The distance required by an aero plane for accelerating, decelerating and coming to a stop, in such a situation, is termed as Distance to Accelerated Stop (DAS) For piston engine aircrafts, full strength pavement is used for the entire DAS For turbine engine aircrafts, regulations permit the use of Stopway for portion of DAS beyond TOR.

Engine Failure Case

Example Problem
Determine the runway length requirements according to the specifications for a turbine powered aircraft with the following performance characteristics: Normal Landing:
SD = 2540 m

Normal Takeoff:
LOD = 2134 m D35 = 2438

Engine Failure Continued Takeoff:

LOD = 2500 m D35 =2774 m

Engine Failure Aborted Takeoff:

DAS = 2896 m

Solution
Normal landing:
LD = 1.667*SD = 1.667*1524 = 2540 m

Normal takeoff:
TOD = 1.15 (D35) = 1.15*2438 = 2804 m CL = 0.5(TOD-1.15LOD) = 0.5(2804-1.15*2134) = 175 m TOR = TOD CL = 2804 -175 = 2629 m

Engine failure take off:

TOD = D35 = 2774 m CL = 0.5(TOD-LOD) = 0.5(2774-2500) =137 m TOR = TOD CL = 2774 137 = 2637 m

Engine failure aborted take off:

DAS = 2896 m

Summary:
FL =max (LD, TOD, DAS) = 2896 m FS = max (TOR, LD) = 2637 m 259 m SW = (DAS FS) = 259 m CL = FL (FS+SW) = 2896 2896 = 0
2637 m 259 m

Environs at the Airport

Basic runway length is valid under the following assumed conditions at the airport
Altitude is at sea level Temperature at the airport is standard Runway is level in the longitudinal direction No wind is blowing on runway Aircraft is loaded to its full loading capacity No wind is blowing en route to the destination En route temperature is standard

Corrections to Basic Runway Length

The basic runway length is corrected for the actual conditions at the airport The following corrections are applied:
Correction for elevation Correction for temperature Correction for gradient

Correction for Elevation

High altitudes reflect low air densities, resulting in lower output of thrust. Therefore, higher the altitude the longer the runway required. The increase in runway length with altitude is not linear and it varies with weight and temperature. The rate of increase at higher altitudes is higher than at lower altitudes. ICAO, however, recommends that the basic runway length should be increased at the rate of 7% per 300 m rise in elevation above mean sea level. There is exception for high temperature and high altitude areas, where the increase could be up to 10%.

Correction for Temperature

Higher temperatures reflect lower air densities resulting in lower out put of thrust. Therefore, higher the temperature the longer the runway required. The increase in runway length with temperature is not linear. The rate of increase at high temperatures is greater than at lower temperatures. ICAO, however, recommends that the base runway length after having been corrected for elevation, should be further increased at the rate of 1% for every 1oC rise of airport reference temperature above the standard atmospheric temperature at that elevation.

Airport Reference Temperature

If, T1 = Mean of the mean daily temperatures for the hottest month T2 = Mean of the maximum daily temperatures for the hottest month Then, airport reference temperature (T) is found out as T = T1 + (T2 T1)/3

Standard Atmospheric Temperature

The standard temperature at mean sea level is 15oC. The temperature gradient of the standard temperature from the mean sea level to the altitude at which the temperature becomes -15.5oC is 0.0065oC per metre. The temperature gradient becomes zero at the elevation above the altitude at which the temperature is -15.5oC.

Check for Correction

The total correction in basic runway length for elevation and temperature should not exceed 35%. If this correction exceeds 35% further checks are needed using model studies.

Correction for Gradient

If the runway is on gradient, the aircraft has to overcome the grade resistance. More runway length is required to achieve the required speed for liftoff. Studies indicate that the runway length varies linearly with the gradient. Airport design criteria limits the runway gradient to a maximum of 1.5%

Effective Gradient
For applying correction to runway length for gradient, FAA uses effective gradient. Effective gradient is defined as the maximum difference in elevation between the highest and the lowest points of runway divided by the total length of runway.
h1 h2 L h3 h4

Effective gradient = (h4 h3)/L

Correction for Gradient

FAA recommends that the runway length after having been corrected for elevation and temperature should be further increased at the rate of 20% for every 1% effective gradient.

Example Problem
Determine the actual length of runway to be provided for the following data Basic runway length: 1500 m Elevation of the runway: 110 m +MSL Mean of average daily temperatures for the hottest month: 18oC Mean of maximum daily temperatures: 30oC The construction plan includes the following data: Station to Station Gradient (%) 0 300 300 900 900 1500 1500 1800 1800 - 2100 0.5 -0.3 1.0 -0.5 -0.3

Solution
Correction for elevation = (7/100)(110/300)(1500) = 38.50 m Corrected length = 1500 + 38.50 = 1538.50 m Correction for temperature:
Standard temperature = 15 0.0065110 = 14.2850C Airport reference temperature = 18+(30-18)/3 = 220C Correction = 1538.5(22-14.285) (1/100) = 118.7 m Corrected length = 1538.5 + 118.7 = 1657.2 m

Check for elevation and temperature correction

Increase in runway length = (1657.2-1500)/(1500/100) = 10.48%<35% Okay

Solution Contd.
Correction for gradient
Station 0 300 101.5 900 99.7 1500 105.7 1800 104.2 2100 103.3 Elevation 100

Effective gradient = [(105.7 99.7)/1657.2] 100 = 0.362% Correction = 1657.2 (0.362 20)/100 = 120 m Corrected length = 1657.2 + 120 = 1777.2 m

Actual runway length at the airport = 1780 m.

Airport Configuration
Airport configuration is defined as the number and orientation of runways and the location of the terminal area relative to the runways. Number of runways depends on air traffic volume. Orientation of runways depends on the direction of wind, size and shape of the area and land use and airspace use restrictions in the vicinity of airport. The terminal building should be located so as to provide easy and timely access to runways.

Analysis of Wind for Orienting Runways

Runways are oriented in the direction of prevailing winds. The data on the parameters of wind namely, intensity (speed), direction and duration are essential to determine the orientation of runways. High intensity winds perpendicular to the direction of runway cause wobbling effect and cause problems during landing and takeoff of aircrafts. Smaller aircrafts are particularly effected by these crosswinds.

Analysis of Wind
Cross wind component
The component of wind intensity perpendicular to the centre line of runway is termed as cross wind component.

Allowable cross wind component

This is the maximum cross wind component that is safe for aircraft operations. This depends on the size of aircraft, wing configuration and the condition of the pavement surface. ICAO guidelines on cross wind component
Runway Length (m) ACW Component (km/hr) >1500 1200 1500 <1200 37 km /hr 24 km/hr 18.5 km/hr

Analysis of Wind
Wind coverage
The amount of time in an year during which the cross wind component is less than the allowable cross wind component FAA specifies that the system of runways at an airport should be oriented in such a way to give at least 95% wind coverage. If it is not possible to achieve the specified wind coverage with one runway, a cross wind runway should be provided to achieve the same.

Calm Period
Percentage of time during which wind intensity is less than a small value of wind speed (say 6.5 km/hr) which will not effect the operations.

Wind rose
A diagram where in the direction, duration and intensity are graphically represented.

Typical Wind Data for Wind Rose

(Source: Horonjeff and Mckelvey,1993)

Collection of Wind Data

The wind information that is used in the analysis should be latest and should accurately represent the situation. Preferably, wind data for the last 10 consecutive years should be collected for carrying out the analysis. Wind data records for durations less than 10 years may be utilized with caution. In some instances, it may be highly desirable to obtain and assemble wind information for periods of particular significance. Indian Meteorological Department is the source for the collection of wind data in India. FAA specifies that the wind summary for the airport site should be formatted with the standard 36 wind quadrants and usual speed groupings (0-4; 4-7; 7-11; 11-17; 17-22; 22-28; 28-34; 34-41; 41-47; over 47 knots) At least 16 wind quadrants and suitable speed groupings should be used.

Collection of Wind Data

In the absence of wind data for a site, it is permissible to develop composite wind data using wind information obtained from two or more nearby recording stations. However, the terrain between the site and the recording stations should be plain or rolling for developing the composite wind data. In extreme cases, wind data should be collected for at least one year at the site and the composite wind data for the site should be prepared my merging the data from nearby recording stations and augmented with personal observations. Airport development should not proceed until adequate wind data are acquired

Wind Rose Construction

(Source: Horonjeff and Mckelvey,1993)

Graphical Representation of Wind Parameters

CWC

V cos

V/ cos

CWC

V sin

V/ sin

V/

Completed Wind Rose

(Source: Horonjeff and Mckelvey,1993)

Wind Coverage of E-W Runway

Wind Coverage = 90.8 %

(Source: Horonjeff and Mckelvey,1993)

Wind Coverage of CW Runway

Wind Coverage = 84.8 % Additional Wind Coverage = 5.8%

(Source: Horonjeff and Mckelvey,1993)

Wind Coverage of the Runway System

Wind Coverage of the runway system = 96.6 %

(Source: Horonjeff and Mckelvey,1993)