May 19th

2012

Consumer Psychology - MK342

Steven Quinn
Critically evaluate, with relevant examples, the ways in which consumer choice is influenced by our psychological need to create and maintain our Self Concept.

08827088

Consumer Psychology - MK342

Critically evaluate, with relevant examples, the ways in which consumer choice is influenced by our psychological need to create and maintain our Self Concept.

PREFACE ABSTRACT HISTORICAL INTRODUCTION CONSUMER NEEDS, MOTIVATION AND DECISIONS TYPES OF NEEDS THE SELF-CONCEPT PERSONALITY BRANDS ETHICAL CONSUMERS SOCIAL IDENTITY EMOTIONAL DESIGN CONCLUSION BIBLIOGRAPHY

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Preface
The mathematician and philosopher Ren Descartes wrote in his

philosophical and autobiographical treatise Discourse on Method (1637), je pense donc je suis, meaning I think, therefore I am. This statement arose out of the inextricable darkness of the problems that he raised through his scepticism of the nature of reality. Descartes acknowledges that his senses deceive him, I must exist if I can think is to Descartes logically unchallengable and so his formulation, je pense donc je suis, is how he resolves the problem of scepticism, saving his self there by with this affirmation of his own existence. Subsequently he asks what is this self? Simon Blackburn, professor of philosophy at Cambridge University, argues that Descartes was forced to recognize that knowledge of his self is not based on knowledge of his embodied existence (Blackwell, 1999). On the contrary, Descartes writes, At last I have discovered it thought; this alone is inseparable from me. I am, I exist that is certain (Blackwell, 1999). Fundamentally consciousness is existence and one must infer that conscious thought gives rise to the concept of ones self. In consumer society, however, the vast majority of people are not questioning the nature of reality in relation to the self but the nature of the products they buy in relation to their individual self-concepts. It would therefore not be inappropriate to suggest that perhaps today the affirmation should be reformulated as, I buy therefore I am.

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Abstract
The objective of this essay is to critically evaluate the ways in which human need to create and maintain their self-concept influences the choices that they make as a consumer. It will describe the make up of the self-image and evaluate needs and motives that influence the decisions consumers make. Comments will be made on the ways in which we are psychologically susceptible to advertising and brands through inherent symbols. All of this will be evaluated using different theories and relevant examples will be used to provide understanding. In some respects marketers exploit our psychological needs in order to sell us consumer goods. Through advertising they persuade consumers that choosing a certain product is the best way to satisfy their needs. Nevertheless, ultimately make decisions ourselves in purchasing products that in one way or another reinforce our self-concept. We project our identity through the products we buy. Our self-concept and our culture are intrinsically linked and this is partly why not all cultures are the same. Western culture is defined by individuality but many eastern cultures obtain their sense of identity through collective identity, a sense of being part of a wider community. Some tribes in Africa even create their sense of identity through collectively playing certain rhythms on hand drums. In order to illustrate how our consumer society and our consumer choices have come to be manipulated. I will begin with a brief historical contextual introduction.

Historical Introduction
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In post war America a number of people began to use Freuds ideas concerning human personality to influence and manipulate the masses in their political and consumer choices and opinions. Edward Bernays, the man who designed the advertising campaign that persuaded the public of the United States that they should be concerned with the war in Europe between 1914 and 1918, sold the Freudian theories both to the American public and to corporate America. Bernays was responsible for establishing what we now call Public Relations, formerly known as propaganda, and he transformed the way in which products were advertised, sold and consumed. He showed American companies how mass-produced goods could be linked to peoples emotional, irrational desires and satisfy their inner selfish desires, making them happy and thus docile. It was the beginning of the all-consuming self that has come to dominate modern western culture. For the first time products could become powerful emotional symbols of how you wanted to be seen by others.

A classic example of Bernays manipulation of consumer choices through the psychological need to project our identity was his contribution in breaking the taboo of women smoking. Previously unacceptable, he made it socially acceptable for women to smoke. He did this by portraying cigarettes for women as a symbol of emancipation and equality with men. Bernays contacted psychoanalyst A.A.Brill who described the cigarette as a phallic symbol. The woman who smoked demonstrated a self-concept with positive attributes of strength and independency, like her male counterpart. Bernays did this not for womens so called emancipation but for corporate profit. He

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paid a group of women to smoke Lucky Strikes whilst marching the streets at the Easter Sunday parade of 1929. The campaign was labeled with the slogan Torches of freedom; anyone who opposed this would theoretically be opposing freedom, and what would that say about your values (self-concept), if you opposed freedom? (The Century of the Self, 2002).

Consumer Needs, Motivation and Decisions

In order to understand consumer choices we need to understand the human needs that under pin them. Purchases derive ultimately from a need, want or desire and there are cognitive processes that influence the decision. Needs drive motivation, which in turn drives a person to make a decision. Fundamentally, motivation occurs when a need is aroused that the consumer wishes to satisfy (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). For example, if a person is hungry he has a need to Steven Quinn 08827088 - 18/05/2012 MK342 - Consumer Psychology 6

eat, therefore that individual will become motivated and exercise goalorientated behavior, the goal in this case being to obtain food. Obtaining the food then relieves the persons hunger and thus the need is fulfilled. Once a need has been activated, a state of tension exists that drives the consumer to attempt to reduce or eliminate the need (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). In the case of the hungry person, a hamburger for example could relieve this tension, provided that that individual was not a vegetarian, as such a person would require different food to satisfy the same basic need. There are different ways to satisfy the same needs and the consumers choice on which means to use to fulfill these needs are influenced by life experiences, culture, religion, ethnic or national background, all of which are means by which people define and maintain their self-concept. Therefore a persons self-concept directs the choice they make when fulfilling a need, even one as basic as eating food. For example many Buddhists do not eat meat, due to values that they hold on animal cruelty, and thus people of this culture or religion would be influenced in their decisionmaking when it comes to buying food, hence they would not buy a hamburger but instead make the decision to buy a vegetarian meal. This is also an example of ethical consumption.

The need for tension reduction has been proposed as a basic mechanism governing human behavior (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). The aim therefore in marketing must be to satisfy the needs of consumers through offering products and services that will provide the desired benefits and permit the consumer to reduce this

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tension (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010) and return to the balanced state of homeostasis. The driving force of biological needs that create tension and motivate people to make choices is the focus of drive theory. This theory however does not explain some facets of human behavior that run counter to its predictions (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). For example if you are going out for dinner you may decide to put off lunch or simply snack even though the tension of hunger persists. This is a cognitive decision making process that perhaps bypasses to some extent the biological need to eat, at least for a while. This is where expectancy theory, which explains motivation through cognitive factors instead of solely through biological ones, can be used to understand the influences and motivations behind consumer choices. Expectancy theory suggests that behavior is largely pulled by expectations of achieving desirable outcomes positive incentives rather than pushed from within (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). In the case of resisting eating before dinner for example, this can be explained through the cognitive process of expecting dinner to be far more gratifying if you wait and endure the tension of hunger for longer, making the consequences of enduring hunger, at least in this situation, more positive. Expectancy theory then, can therefore give an insight into the cognitive decision making processes that drive motivations that are not biologically driven but psychologically driven. The term driven here is used more loosely than in drive theory to refer to both the physical and cognitive driving factors. Motivations are goal-orientated, have direction, strength and often there can

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be a number pathways to reaching a goal. If motivation, which comes from a need, drives a person towards a decision then to understand how consumer choices are influenced by a psychological need to create and maintain the self-concept one must analyse psychogenic needs.

Types of Needs
Human needs can be understood by considering two types, biogenic needs and psychogenic needs. Biogenic needs are innate physiological needs that are considered primary needs, as they are necessary to maintain biological life. These are needs such as food, water, air, clothing (in the case of humans), shelter and sex. Psychogenic needs however are acquired needs that we learn in response to our culture or environment. These may include needs for self-esteem, prestige, affection, power and learning (Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008) and are considered secondary needs. Therefore as ones self-concept derives from culture and environment, creating and maintaining the self-concept is the fulfillment of psychogenic needs. For example, a male English consumer will develop different psychogenic needs to a male Scandinavian consumer. The English consumer will be influenced by culture to products that present individuality whereas a Scandinavian will choose products that connect him with his social group. However, distinguishing needs from wants in this context is difficult. For example, if the need to purchase a product originates from a biogenic need the decision is still influenced by psychogenic needs. If a consumer buys a house the biogenic need is shelter, but if the consumer chooses to buy a big house to impress friends and relatives the purchase was influenced by

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psychogenic needs to enhance self-image. Did the consumer need a big house or want it? From a biogenic perspective the size of the house was not of importance, but it could be argued that as we have a psychological need to maintain our concept of self then spending on products that appear to be wants could actually be needs, psychological needs. However, the distinction is hazy at best, everyone needs to have a sense of identity, but the degree to which a product purchase is needed to provided identity is questionable.

The Self-Concept
The self-concept is a term that refers to the values or beliefs that people hold about their personal attributes and how these qualities are evaluated. These beliefs can be positive or negative whilst some values and attributes are held in higher regard than others. Each individual has an image of himself or herself as a certain kind of person, with certain traits, skills, habits, possessions, relationships and ways of behaving (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). Individuals will therefore be influenced to buy the products that fit their self-image. For example a person who considers his or her image to be that of a skateboarder will buy products and brands relating to skateboarding or possibly, to extreme sports. This means that products and their related brands can have a symbolic value for individuals as consumers attempt to preserve or enhance their self images by selecting products and brands with images or personalities that they believe are congruent with their own self-images and avoiding products that are not (Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard

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Hansen, 2008). Many women believe that the brands they select reflect their personalities (Sex appeal, brandweek, 20 April 1998, 26).

Self-image is about how an individual sees himself or herself and how others see them. Consumer behaviour literature identifies and divides this into four main kinds of self-image, actual self-image (how you see yourself), ideal self-image (how you would like to see yourself), social self-image (how others see you), and ideal social self-image (how you want others to see you). All of these types of self-images influence consumer choices when it comes to purchasing a product. For example, the actual self may influence when it comes to purchasing household products, but for socially enhancing products such as clothing it is the social self that influences what clothes they will buy as people will see what you are wearing but not necessarily see your house.

Self-esteem refers to the positivity of a persons self-concept and how high it is, and this is often related to acceptability by others. People with low selfesteem, for example, will tend to avoid being embarrassed, experiencing or risking failure or rejection. For example, it was found that consumers with low self esteem preferred portion sizes when snacking because they felt they lacked self control (Emily Yoffe, You are what you buy, Newsweek (4 June 1990) and so they would be influenced by this lack of self esteem and purchase the relevant snack size items. On the other hand people with high self-esteem exude a lot of confidence and self esteem advertising attempts to change product attitudes by stimulating

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positive feelings about the self (Jeffry F, Durgee, Self-esteem advertising, journal of advertising 14 (1986) 4:21).

Each person assesses himself or herself comparatively throughout his or her life. This self-assessment/comparison often leads to dissatisfaction or a distorted view of ones self, especially when it comes to appearance attributes. It is estimated that 72 per cent of men and 85 per cent of women are unhappy with at least one aspect of their appearance (Lisa M.Keefe 200). Self-image and possessions affect how highly someone values himself or herself as a person. There is a perception that consumer insecurity is a widespread phenomenon and so marketing and advertising companies exploit peoples low self-esteem to facilitate the sale of products.

Personality
A persons self-image, or the way in which someone perceives himself or herself, is closely linked with that persons personality. Personality plays a big role in the choices people makes. A product that suits one personality might not suit another. There are three main theories that play a prominent role in the study of the relationship between consumer behavior and personality. These are Freudian theory, neo-Freudian theory and trait theory. Freuds theories were highly controversial, describing the self as a system of competing forces riddled with conflict (Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010). Steven Quinn 08827088 - 18/05/2012 MK342 - Consumer Psychology 12

In Freudian theory there are three main forces id: super ego and ego. The id is entirely orientated towards immediate self-gratification, it is the party animal side of the mind operating to maximise pleasure and avoid pain. It is selfish, irrational and illogical. The superego equates to conscience and to it that the individual satisfies needs in a socially acceptable fashion (Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008). It counters the id and conforms to social norms. The ego sits between the two to balance them. It is as if everyone has a devil and an angel in their minds, almost Dr. Jekyll and Mr. Hyde with a third entity attempting to balance the whole system. According to Freudian theory human drives are largely unconscious consumers are primarily unaware of their true reasons for buying what they buy. If it was true that there was this balancing act going on in peoples minds then perhaps, from a Freudian perspective, it could be argued that a person could potentially be tempted into buying into a product or service by the need to gratify the id but also that choice would be made on grounds social acceptability because of the superego. Neo-Freudian theorists believe that social relationships are fundamental to the formation and development of personality. Neo-Freudian Harry Stack Sullivan emphasised that people attempt to establish significant and Steven Quinn 08827088 - 18/05/2012 MK342 - Consumer Psychology 13

rewarding relationships with others. Horney established three classifications of personality, complaint (individuals who move towards others), aggressive (individuals who move against others) and detached (individuals who move away from others). For example a complaint person would be influenced to buy a product that reinforces the feeling of being part of a social group.

Brands

Brands are designed to have a personality. This is possible because consumers personify brands by giving them human like traits or 14

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characteristics. For example, consumers tend to see Volvo as representing safety, Nike as the athlete in all of us and BMW as performance driven (Martin 1998). A brands personality can either be functional (Volvo provides safety) or symbolic (Nike the athlete in all of us) (Bhat and Reddy 1998). People can relate to the personality of a brand and so they choose to buy products associated with that brand as it reflects some element of themselves that they wish to project. The fact that a brand has a personality has profound psychological implications since in some respects people connect to brands in the same the way that they connect to another person. Consumers use emotions and experiences evoked by brands to render an evaluative judgment (Brakus, Schmitt, & Zarantonello, 2009). This is the same process that humans use to evaluate each other.

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Ethical Consumers
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Evidence of ethical purchasing appears in every society. The phrase Ethical Consumer is used in the broadest sense and such consumers may have religious, spiritual, political, environmental, social or other motives for choosing one product over another. But there is one thing they all have in common and that is that they are all concerned with the effects their purchasing choice has not only on themselves but also on the external world around them (SAGE Publications, 2005). Therefore, the values they hold as part of their self-concept have an impact on the decisions that they make when purchasing consumer goods. For example, an ethical consumer will boycott a company such as Primark, where the production of that companys clothing range has been linked in the media to child labour. This is because there are moral and ethical issues surrounding the conditions the employees have been working under and the low wages they receive. The ethical consumer does not wish to support such a company, as this would be contrary to their values. On the other hand many consumers choose to shop in the Bodyshop because the perception is that the company only sells products that are environmentally friendly. This type of consumption has been described as ethical purchase behaviour or ethical consumption (Smith 1990b). However, they do still consider price and quality and obviously would not choose to spend large amounts of money or buy bad quality products just to be ethical. It simply means that they add extra ethical criteria to their decision making process.

Social Identity
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Social Identity Theory is "the individual's knowledge that he/she belongs to certain social groups, together with some emotional and value significance to him or her of group membership" (Tajfel, 1972:31a). This theory analyses the ways individuals classify themselves and others into groups. Psychologically this is the classic us and them duality (either one of us or one of them). This also gives the individual a sense of belonging and consequently many products are designed to promote a feeling of social identity; the symbols they contain give a feeling of inclusion for each member of the group. One example of a product like this is a football shirt. The badge of the club is the symbol by which all members unite and pledge loyalty to the club and to the group. (Henri Tajfel 1986 (b) proposed that stereotyping (i.e. putting people into groups and categories) is based on a normal cognitive process: the tendency to group things together. In doing so we tend to exaggerate firstly the differences between groups and simultaneously the similarities of the people within groups of similar interests. Brands will often exploit these stereotypes and use them to promote the importance of being part of the group and by exaggerating them further consumers feel the need to buy into the brand in order to make themselves feel a more integral part of their chosen social group.

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Emotional Design
Until relatively recently emotion was an ill-explored part of human psychology and some people dismissed it as merely remnant from our animalistic past. Freudian theory considered emotions to be a problem that had to be repressed and controlled, to be overcome by logical, rational

thought. However modern assessments have turned this view on its head.
Science has found more evolutionarily advanced organisms to be more emotional than primitive ones. Emotions play a vital role in our everyday lives helping us to assess situations rapidly so that the reflective level can pass judgment on them and influence decisions. This is especially true when it comes to human beings, decisions in purchasing consumer products.

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Designer Donald Norman illustrates in his book the three different levels
of mental processing: visceral, behavioural and reflective. The three levels in part reflect the biological origins of the brain and the system is tightly coupled to an organisms muscles. Each level plays a particular role in the functioning of people and these are the three levels by which we psychologically interpret, interact or connect with the products we buy. Each level requires a different style of design and some products are designed so that they are weighted more to one level of perception depending on its purpose. A product can, however, be interpreted at all three levels. The ways in which we interpret a product are integral to the decision we make as to whether or not we will purchase it. In his book Norman suggests ways in which designers can design these aspects appropriately into products so that the design fits the purpose of the product and this will influence the consumers decision. By getting the design of these aspects right or wrong, the designer will influence a consumer to either love or hate the product. Ultimately if a product is to be successful then the design and/or manufacture must be relevant to what the consumer feels about himself or herself. The visceral level of interpretation it the most basic, it is to do with the way we interpret a

products appearances. This level is fast, making rapid judgments of what

is good or bad, safe or dangerous, it sends appropriate signals to the muscles (the motor system) and alerts the rest of brain. This is the start of affective processing, it is biologically determined but it can be inhibited or enhanced through control signals from the two levels above.

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Animals such as lizards operate primarily at the visceral level where their world is a fixed routine responding, at the most basic level, to their environment through signals sent to the muscles at this level. Dogs and other mammals, however, have a higher level of cognition, the behavioural level, where they can analyse a situation and adapt their behaviour accordingly. In humans this is the site of most behaviour. This level is very valuable as it is where well-learned routine operations

can be done seemingly without thought. For example a pianist can let
his or her fingers play the notes that have been learned and still reflect upon the next phrase of a piece or the overall structure of the song. Another example would be when a person performs any task that they have learned whilst holding a meaningful conversation at the same time. This is because the behavioural level is not conscious and therefore we can utilise the reflective level whilst doing something at the behavioural level. In terms of the power a product has to be desired at the behavioural level it must be pleasurable, easy and effective to use so that the task desired could be performed with ease. To be desirable at this level the product must be self-explanatory, anthropometric and purely functional, and here form follows function indefinitely. For example, aeroplanes would not be purchased if the pilots cockpit was designed to be good-looking, covered in fancy aesthetics to be interpreted at the visceral level. The controls must do nothing but the task at hand, the design must excel at the behavioural level as potentially peoples lives are at stake.

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Finally reflective design covers a great deal of territory and its elements consider the rationalisation and intellectualisation of a product. This area evokes the meaning of things, the message a person wishes to send out to others. Watches are a classic example of this. For example when people choose to wear clothes or accessories that match the rest of an outfit they are sending out the

message that they are classy, fashionable, desirable and thus they
are concerned with their reflective self-image. At the reflective level this is why a product is purchased, to illuminate a particular aspect of a persons self-image. People may or may not like to admit this but to some degree everyone worries about how they present themselves in society and how other people interpret them based on the decisions they made. These are reflective decisions. Even people who claim that they do not care how they are perceived by others, the kind who refrain from being fashionable or buying products before the old one is unusable are still making a statement about themselves and what they deem to be important by doing so. Again these are the properties of reflective processing.

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Norman argues that there is a strong emotional component in how products are designed and put to use and that this may be more critical the success of a product than its practical elements. This means that by designing in an emotional attachment to a product you can sway consumer choices towards your product, thereby selling more units. A favourite object is a symbol, setting up a positive frame of mind, a reminder of

pleasant memories, or sometimes an expression of ones self (Norman,

2004). As our self-image is made up of our interactions with other people and our relationships, so a person can have an emotional attachment with a product that has become linked to another person, a loved one, friend or family member, through the form of a gift or just a reminder of the other person. Although when we buy a gift it is intended for someone else nevertheless it may well be that the choice of gift also serves to express a part of our own unique selves.

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Conclusion
It is clear that different and disparate factors, personal, social and ethical and more influence a consumers decision when it comes to purchasing a product. Whilst needs can be utilitarian, it is equally the case that self-image and personal identity play a major part in influencing the type of product purchased.

References
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Blackwell, S., 1999. Think. First Edition ed. New York: Oxford University Press. The Complete Psychological works of Sigmund Freud (1932-36) Introductory lectures on psycho-analysis

Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008. Consumer Behaviour a European outlook. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited. Schmitt, B., 2012. The consumer psychology of brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, pp.7-17. Norman, D., 2004. Emotional Design. New York: Basic Books. Jeffry F, Durgee, Self-esteem advertising, journal of advertising 14 (1986) 4:21 Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008. Consumer Behaviour a European outlook. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited. Tajfel, H., 1981. Human Groups and social categoriesstudies in social psychology. First edition ed. Cambridge University press. SAGE Publications, 2005. The Ethical Consumer. SAGE Publications. Lisa M. Keefe, Youre so Vain, Marketing News (28 February 2000) David Martin, Branding: Finding that one thing, brandweek, 16 February 1998, 18. Subodh Bhat and Srinivas K. Reddy, Symbolic and Functional Positioning of Brands, journal of Consumer marketing, 15,1988, 32-43. Emily Yoffe, You are what you buy, Newsweek (4 June 1990)

Self-esteem in context: a case study of the motivational processes underlying social identity construction by township youth Catherine Campbell psychology in society (pins), 22, 1997, 20-36

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Blackwell, S., 1999. Think. First Edition ed. New York: Oxford University Press. freud, S., 1932-36. The complete psychological works of Sigmund Freud - introductory lectures on psycho-analysis. first edition ed. Gergory Berns, Martin Reimann, Raquel Castao, Judith Zaichkowsky , Antoine Bechara, 2012. How we relate to brands: Psycholocial and neuropsychological insights into consumer brand relationships. Journal of Consumer psychology. Leon G. Shiffman, L.L.K.H.H., 2008. Consumer Behaviour a European outlook. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited. Leon Shiffman, Leslie Lazar Kanuk, Havard Hansen, 2008. Consumer Behaviour a European outlook. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited. Norman, D., 2004. Emotional Design. New York: Basic Books. Michael Soloman, Gary Bammossy, Soren Askegard, Margaret K. Hogg, 2010. Consumer Behaviour: A European Perspective. Third Edition ed. New Jersey: Pearson Education Limited. Sudjic, D., 2008. The language of things. First edition ed. Allen Lane. SAGE Publications, 2005. The Ethical Consumer. SAGE Publications. Schmitt, B., 2012. The consumer psychology of brands. Journal of Consumer Psychology, pp.7-17. Solomon, M., 2009. The truth about what consumers really want. First Edition ed. Prentice hall. Tajfel, H., 1981. Human Groups and social categoriesstudies in social psychology. First edition ed. Cambridge University press. The Century of the Self. 2002. [Film] United Kingdom.

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