LUBRICATION

Process by which the friction in a moving contact is reduced. Five distinct form of lubrication are:
Hydrodynamic Hydrostatic Elastohydrodynamic Mixed Boundary Solid film
335

Quantification of LUBRICATION using dimensionless film parameter (Specific film thickness)

= hmin
2 2 Rrms ,a + Rrms ,b

Solid-film

Boundary lubrication, <1 Mixed lubrication, 1<<3 Hydrodynamic lubrication, >5 Elastohydrodynamic , 3<<5

Hydrostatic

336

Root-mean-square deviation

1 l 2 Rq = 0 z (x ) dx l

337

To understand functioning of lubricants one needs to understand Dry FRICTION

Leonardo da vinci(1452-1519): F W;F A
Friction made by same weight will be of equal resistance at the beginning of movement, although contact may be of different breadths or length Friction produces the double the amount of effort if weight be doubled

G.Amontons, 1699: F Fn; F A

338

C.A.Coulomb 1781 (1736-1806):

1)Clearly distinguished between static & kinetic friction 2)Contact at discrete points. 3)Friction due to interlocking of rough surfaces

4)No adhesion 5)f func(v)

339

TOMLINSONs Theory of Molecular attraction: 1929

Relation between friction coefficient & elastic properties of material involved.

f = 1 . 07 * [ =

II

]2 / 3

E is young

modulus,

Mpsi Mpsi
0.6558

3 . E + 4 .G G (3 .* E + G )

G is modulus

in shear,

Clean Steel Aluminum Titanium

E=30 Mpsi, E=10 Mpsi, E=15.5 Mpsi

G=12 Mpsi G=3.6 Mpsi G=6.5 Mpsi

0.5039

340

Bowden & Tabor Model

Two friction sources
Generally load on bearing surface is carried on just a few points. These are subjected to heavy unit pressure, and so probably weld together. Adhesion force developed at real area of contact. Deformation force needed to plough asperities of harder surface through softer. Resulting friction force is sum of two contributing terms

Adhesion = Attractive force across an interface Interface = Contact boundary between two surfaces.
341

ADHESION Theory

342

ADHESION Theory

Two surfaces are pressed together under load W. Material deforms until area of contact (A) is sufficient to support load W. A = W/H. To move the surface sideway, must overcome shear strength of junctions with force F F=As
344

Shear stress of softer of contacting materials

W = Areal H

F = Areal s

s H

For most of materials H = 3y & s = y /1.7321 Expected value of =.2 Friction of metals arises from strong adhesion or welding at the regions of real contact. Similar & dissimilar materials?????
345

PLOUGHING Effect
Ploughing occurs when two bodies in contact have different hardness. The asperities on the harder surface may penetrate into the softer surface and produce grooves on it, if there is relative motion.
Assume n conical asperities of hard metal in contact with flat soft metal, vertically project area of contact:

W = n(0.5 * r ) H
2

A = n 0.5 * r 2

F = (nrh) H

cot
346

Two basic reasons of ploughing are:

Ploughing by surface asperities Ploughing by hard wear particles present in contact zone For = 45 = 0.6366 For = 60 = 0.3676 For = 80 = 0.1123

Slope of real surfaces are nearly always less than 10 (i.e. > 80), therefore < 0.1. Conclusion: Total , representing contribution for
both ploughing and adhesion terms, should not exceed 0.3. For same material, = 0.2.

Junction Growth

A. y =
Constant

2 + F 2

F =f (A) ????
348

Limiting Junction Growth Presence of weak interfacial films. Assume shear stress, i.

Fmax = i Amax
Fmax i Amax = = 2 2 W ( y 4 i2 ) Amax

W 2 A. y = + F 2

2 2 ( y i2 )

Understanding this mechanism motivate to apply thin film of low shear strength materials to the surfaces.
349

 for mixed lubrication

= 0.01 0.1

for elastohydrodynamic lubrication = 0.001 0.01 Coefficient of friction for hydrodynamic lubrication ???
350

FLUID FILM BEARINGS

Machine elements designed to produce smooth (low friction) motion between solid surfaces in relative motion and to generate a load support for mechanical components. Fluid between surfaces may be a gas, liquid or solid. Word film implies that fluid thickness (clearance) separating the surfaces is several orders of magnitude smaller than other dimensions of bearing (width & length). Successful design requires film thickness to be larger than the micro asperities on the surfaces, operation without contact of surfaces. Operation principles of liquid film bearings are hydrodynamic, hydrostatic or combination.
351

Hydrodynamic

Hydrostatic

Axial coordinate

Axial coordinate

Hydrodynamic
Relative motion between two mechanical surfaces is utilize the generate pressure and levitate one surface relative to other surface. Self-acting Load support is a function of lubricant viscosity. HDL provided an infinite bearing life Able to damp the external vibrations. Requires lubricant flow to compensate the leakage from bearing ends. Significant difference in static & kinetic friction coefficients High relative speed generates much higher load capacity & destabilize the shaft-system.

Hydrostatic
External source of pressurized fluid is required to levitate the shaft surface and separate it from bearing surface.. Costly Load support is a weak function of lubricant viscosity.
Infinite life if supporting ancillary equipments function well Able to control the effect of external vibration.. Active control

Require pressurized lubricant.

Almost same value of coefficient of frictions. Very good control on the shaft position.

VISCOSITY

Absolute viscosity Dynamic viscosity

Constant of proportionality

To define viscosity consider surface 1 is moving with a velocity V on a film of thickness h. Imagine film is composed of series of horizontal layers and force F causing these layers to deform/slide on one another just like a deck of card.

du = ; dy

=
2

m in Pa.s ; in s

354

Viscosity
Physical property-resistance to flow. Due to internal friction and molecular phenomena . Dynamic Viscosity

o 1 cP=10-3 Pa.s
Kinematic Viscosity

o 1 cSt = 1 mm2/s

Grades of Oils:
SAE (Society of Automotive Engineers) ISO
355

Variation of viscosity with temp: Increase in temp decreases intermolecular forces.

SAE grade 10W 20W SAE 30 SAE 40 5W-20 10W-30 10W-40 10W-50 ISO grade 32 68 100 150 46 68 100 -----Viscosity In mPa.s 1000c 400c 32.6 62.3 100 140 38 66.4 77.1 117 5.57 8.81 11.9 14.7 6.92 10.2 14.4 20.5 VI 1300c 107 118 110 102 140 135 193 194
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3.20 5.01 6.25 8.0 4.17 5.7 8.4 10.53

Petroffs Equation
Friction = Shear Stress * Area F = (Viscosity* V/h)*Area
V = 2RN ; A = 2RL C F Coefficient of friction, = W * 2RN * 2RL / C = 2 RLP Conclusion: Coefficient of 2 N R = 2 friction is a function of P C speed, load and viscosity Friction force, F =

* 2RN * 2RL

C is radial clearance

357

Temperature Rise
Friction, due to shear of lubricant film, generates heat (FV)) in lubricant oil and increases the temperature of lubricant. Assuming that total generated heat is carried by the oil flowing through bearing
Heat generated = Heat convected by oil flow (2 R N )(2 R L ) (2 R N ) = m CP t C or t =

(2 R )3 N 2
C m CP

= 860 kg / m3

C P = 1760 J / kg oC R = 1000 C

(2 R )3 N 2 or t = L 2RN C C L CP 8 2 N R or t = ( ) C P C

( )

t = 52.2 N

t = 52.2 N t = 783
SAE grade 25.5258 48.7809 78.3000 109.6200 29.7540 51.9912 60.3693 91.6110 10W 20W SAE 30 SAE 40 5W-20

Assume rotational speed = 900 rpm

Viscosity in Viscosity in mPa.s 400c mPa.s 1000c 32.6 62.3 100 140 38 5.57 8.81 11.9 14.7 6.92 10.2 14.4 20.5 4.3660 6.8982 9.3177 11.5101 5.4184 7.9866 11.2752 16.0515

10W-30 66.4 10W-40 77.1 10W-50 117

Logarithmic scale

VISCOSITY INDEX: Qualitative comparison index VI relates viscosity change at 37.8 0c and 98.90c. Pennsylvanian oil~VI=100 gulf coast oil ~ VI=0
VI = L-U *100 L-H

An oil with VI = 240 has less rate of viscosity change with temperature compared to oil with VI 100.
361

 = in e

(t tin )

log e in = (t tin )
SAE grade 10W 20W SAE 30 SAE 40 5W-20 10W-30 10W-40 10W-50

Walther' s Equation log log( cS + 0.6) = constant c log T

1300c 0.0294 0.0326 0.0355 0.0376 0.0284 0.0312 0.0284 0.0401

Viscosity In mPa.s 1000c 400c 32.6 62.3 100 140 38 66.4 77.1 117 5.57 8.81 11.9 14.7 6.92 10.2 14.4 20.5

3.20 5.01 6.25 8.0 4.17 5.7 8.4 10.53

 Lubricant viscosity increases with pressure. Barus relationship

Pressure 1.e5 1.e6 1.e7 1.e8 1.e9 Multiplier 1.0010 1.0101 1.1052 2.7183 22.026
363

= 0 exp( p )

for petroleum oil~2*10-8/pa

Reynolds Equation
A basic pressure distribution equation for Fluid Film Lub. In 1886, Reynolds derived for estimation of pressure distribution in the narrow, converging gap between two surfaces. Reynolds equation helps to predict hydrodynamic, squeeze, and hydrostatic film mechanisms.
Reynolds' equation h 3 P h 3 P + = 6 (U 1 + U 2 )h + (W1 + W2 )h + 2(Vh V0 ) x x z z z x
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No pressure development within the parallel surfaces.

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Pressure driven flow

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Small element of Fluid with sides dx, dy, and dz

p Force balance : pdy.dz + + dy dx.dz = p + dx dy.dz + dx.dz y x

u For Newtonian flow = y P u

x = y y

367

u P On integration : y + C1 = y x P y 2 + C1 y + C2 u = x 2
Using boundary conditions : y = 0, u = U 2 ; y = h, u = U 1

P u = x y y

U 2 = C 2 ,

(U1 U 2 ) P h

h x 2 y 2 yh P y u = x + (U1 U 2 ) h + U 2 2

= C1

Check !!!

368

Flow rate in x - direction per unit width : q x = u.dy

0 h

h 3 P h qx = + (U1 + U 2 ) 12 x 2
Similarly flow rate in z - direction q z = w.dy
0 h

Check !!!

h 3 P h qz = + (W1 + W2 ) 12 z 2

Reynolds equation is derived using mass continuity equation q x q z + (Vh V0 ) + =0 x z

369

Reynolds' equation h 3 P h 3 P + = 6 (U1 + U 2 )h + (W1 + W2 )h + 2(Vh V0 ) x x z z z x

Stretching action

Wedge action (inclined surfaces

Simplification I : h 3

1 P = 6(U1 + U 2 ) h z z x

Squeeze action (bearing surfaces move perpendicular to each other) Can carry High loads for short duration

h 3 P Simplification II : x = 6(U1 + U 2 ) x h x

Comparison among pressure profiles at z = 0 7000000 6000000 5000000 Pressure 4000000 3000000 2000000 1000000 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
plong in green color

Simplification II

Simplification I

Length / diameter = 0.25

Comparison among pressure profiles at z = 0 1.4E8 1.2E8 1E8 Pressure 8E7 6E7 4E7 2E7 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
pshort in red

Simplification I

Simplification II

Length/ diameter = 2.5

Comparison among pressure profiles at z = 0 22000000 2E7 18000000 16000000 14000000 Pressure 12000000 1E7 8000000 6000000 4000000 2000000 0 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 160 180
pshort in red

Simplification I

Simplification II

Length/diameter = 1.0

Short Static Bearing

1 P h z = 6(U1 + U 2 ) x h z
3

2 P 6U dh = 3 2 z h dx
dp 6U dh = 3 z using symmetry condition dp/dz = 0 at z = 0 dz h dx
3U dh 2 L2 z p= 3 4 h dx using p = 0 at z = L/2
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Film thickness, h, depends on geometry of tribo-pair. For example, in journal bearing h = Cr + e cos
Using expression of h in following equation 3U dh 2 L2 z p= 3 4 h dx

2 2 L z 4

3U sin p= 2 3 R Cr (1 + cos )

375

Load capacity of short journal bearing

Load component in direction of loc UL3 2 2 W = p.( Rd .dz ). cos W = 2Cr2 1 2 L 0 2
2 L

Load component perpendicular to loc UL3 Wr = p.( Rd .dz ). sin Wr = 4Cr2 1 2 0 L 2

2

UL W = 4Cr2 1 2
3

16 2 2 1 + 1

1/ 2

Wr 1 2 tan = tan = W 4

Lesser the attitude angle, better the stability of bearing.

eccentricity ratio vs. attitude angle 90 80 70 60 Attitude angle 50 40 30 20 10 0 0 .1 .2 .3 .4 .5 .6 .7 .8 .9 1
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Eccentricity ratio

Friction force in Journal Bearing

Petroff equation --- inaccurate
U dp h = + h dx 2 L/2 U dp h F = + Rd .dz h dx 2 L / 2 0
y 2 yh P y u= x + (U 1 U 2 ) h + U 2 2

F=

2ULR Cr 1 2

Cr Wr 2R

UL3 Wr = 4Cr2 1 2

If

0, F

Petroff solution
378

Temperature Rise
Friction, due to shear of lubricant film, generates heat (FV)) in lubricant oil and increases the temperature of lubricant. Assuming that total generated heat is carried by the oil flowing through bearing
Heat generated = Heat convected by oil flow F (2 R N ) = m C P t or F (2 RN ) 2RN Cr L C P 2 2F t = ( Cr L ) C P t = t = 1 F 756800 (Cr L )

= 860 kg / m3
C P = 1760 J / kg oC

or or

Design of Hydrodynamic Journal Bearing

1. Guess eccentricity ratio 2. Calculate load capacity, friction force, temperature rise. 3. Modify lubricant viscosity. 4. Repeat steps 1-3 so that average viscosity and load converge.
380

Ex: Determine the minimum film thickness, maximum pressure, coefficient of friction for a hydrodynamic journal bearing, which supports a 600 N load at rotational speed of 2000 rpm. The shaft dia is 40 mm. Assume bearing length = 10 mm, oil viscosity at room temp (30C) = 15 mPa.s, =0.029, and radial clearance 20 m. Given: U = 4.19 m/s. Factor1 = U*L3**0.25/(Cr2)=8227 m2 /s, Factor2 = 2*U*L*R*pi()/Cr , STEP 1: Assume = 0.5 Assume = 0.75 STEP 2: Assume = 0.8 W = 118 N W = 562 N W = 900 N, F = 6.76 N, t=44.68C

W = (Factor1)
F=

(Factor 2)
1
2

(Factor1)Cr +
2R

(1 )

2 2

16 2 2 1 + 1

1/ 2

(1 )

2 1 .5

t =

1 F 756800 (Cr L )

381

STEP 3: Modify viscosity using

= in e

(t tin )

at t = 44.68o C = 0.0041
STEP 4: For = 0.8 W = 246 N, F = 1.85 N, t=12.22C, =0.0105 W = 630.2 N, F = 4.74 N, t=31.3C. Now it is preferable to increase . Let us assume = 0.82 and t=30 C W = 471.4 N, F = 2.99 N, t=19.75C, =0.0085 W = 636 N, F = 4.0 N, t=26.6C. =0.0069 W = 516.3 N, F = 3.3 N, t=21.63C. Now it is preferable to increase . Let us assume = 0.83 and t=25 C W = 615.3 N, F = 3.56 N, t=23.5C.

Groove arrangement to feed to HB under pressure Hybrid bearing

3 1.75 0.675 hg Psupply d h QP = + 0 .4 L hg = Local film thickness , m

d h = Diameter of feed hole , m Psupply = Feed pressure , Pa

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Ex: Determine the minimum film thickness, maximum pressure, coefficient of friction for a hydrodynamic journal bearing, which supports a 600 N load at rotational speed of 2000 rpm. The shaft dia is 40 mm. Assume bearing length = 10 mm, oil viscosity at room temp (30C) = 15 mPa.s, =0.029, and radial clearance 20 m. Assume dia of feed oil is 2.5mm and supply pressure is 1.5 bar Given: U = 4.19 m/s. Factor1 = U*L3**0.25/(Cr2)=8227 m2 /s, Factor2 = 2*U*L*R*pi()/Cr , STEP 1: Assume = 0.5 Assume = 0.75 STEP 2: Assume = 0.8 W = 118 N W = 562 N W = 900 N, F = 6.76 N

W = (Factor1)
F=

(Factor 2)
1 2

(Factor1)Cr +
2R

(1 )

2 2

16 2 2 1 + 1

1/ 2

(1 )

2 1 .5
384

Heat generated = Heat convected by oil flow F (2 R N ) = m C P t or F (2 RN ) 2RN Cr L + QP C P 2 27.64 F t = 4.189 + 0.254 (1 + )3 t =

= 860 kg / m3
C P = 1760 J / kg oC

3 1.75 0.675 hg Psupply d h QP = + 0 .4 L

or

hg = 20 10 6 (1 + ), m d h = 0.0025, m Psupply = 1.5 105 , Pa

t = 33o C

QP = 2.54 10 8 (1 + ) m3 / s
3

STEP 3: Modify viscosity using

= in e (t tin )
at t = 33o C = 0.0058

STEP 4: For = 0.8 W = 348 N, F = 2.615 N, t=12.75C, =0.0104 W = 624.2 N, F = 4.7 N, t=22.9C.

Now it is preferable to increase . Let us assume = 0.82 and t=23 C W = 576.13 N, F = 3.65 N, t=17.66C, =0.009 W = 673.4 N, F = 4.27 N, t=20.6C. =0.0083 W = 621 N, F = 3.94 N, t=19C.