Pmu Based Relaying

-1- BE Final Year Project Report (Academic Year 2011-2012)
Dept. of Electrical & Electronics Engg, Birla Institute of Technology, Mesra, Ranchi
A THESIS
On
A PMU BASED SYNCHRONIZED RELAYING SCHEME FOR
TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION

Guided By:
Mrs. Debomita Ghosh
Assistant Professor, Dept. OF EEE

Submitted By:
Manish Agarwal
Roll No. BE/1209/08
Rajan Kumar Dubey
Roll No. BE/1214/08
Biswajeet Choudhary
Roll No. BE/1189/08

In partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the degree of

BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING
IN
ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

DEPARTMENT OF ELECTRICAL AND ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
BIRLA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
(A deemed university U/s 3 of UGC Act. 1956)
Mesra, Ranchi 835215, INDIA


Ranchi
03/05/2012

DECLARATION CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that the thesis entitled A PMU BASED SYNCHRONIZED
RELAYING SCHEME FOR TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION submitted is
a record of the bonafide work done by Manish Agarwal (Roll No. BE/1209/08), Rajan
Kumar Dubey (Roll No. BE/1214/08), Biswajeet Choudhary (Roll No. BE/1189/08) in
partial fulfillment of the requirements for the award of the Degree of Bachelor of
Engineering in Electrical and Electronics Engineering of Birla Institute of
Technology, Mesra, Ranchi, (A deemed university U/s 3 of UGC Act. 1956), during the
academic year 2011-12.

To the best of my knowledge, the content of this thesis does not form a basis for the
award of any previous degree to anyone else.

Date:

Mrs. Debomita Ghosh
Assistant Professor
EEE Dept.
BIT, Mesra
Ranchi
Dr. T. Ghose
Head of Dept.
EEE Dept.
BIT, Mesra
Ranchi



Ranchi
03/05/2012

CERTIFICATE OF APPROVAL

The foregoing thesis entitled A PMU BASED SYNCHRONIZED RELAYING
SCHEME FOR TRANSMISSION LINE PROTECTION, is hereby approved as a
creditable study of research topic and has been presented in a satisfactory manner to warrant
its acceptance as prerequisite to the degree for which it has been submitted.

It is understood that by this approval, the undersigned do not necessarily endorse any
conclusion drawn or opinion expressed therein, but approve the thesis for the purpose for
which it is submitted.

(Internal Examiner) (External Examiner)

(Head of the Department)
Electrical and Electronics Engineering



ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

During the course of our thesis preparation, we have received lot of support, encouragement,
advice and assistance from many people and to this end we are deeply grateful to them all.

It is with great pleasure that we express our cordial thanks and indebtedness to our admirable
Guides, Mrs. D. GHOSH, Professor, and Department of Electrical And Electronics
Engineering. His vast knowledge, expert supervision and enthusiasm continuously challenged
and motivated us to achieve our goal. We will be eternally grateful to him for allowing us the
opportunity to work on this project.
We also express our sincere gratitude to Dr T. Ghose, Professor and Head of Department,
Electrical and Electronics Engineering for his valuable help and suggestions and providing us
all research facilities that have made the work completed in time.

The present work certainly would not have been possible without the help of our friends, and
also the blessings of our parents.

Date:

MANISH AGARWAL
(BE/1209/2008)

RAJAN KUMAR DUBEY
(BE/1214/2008)

BISWAJEET CHOUDHARY
(BE/1189/2008)



CONTENTS

Topic Page No.

Abstract....06
Abbreviations...07
List of Figures..08
Chapter 1
1.1- Introduction..09
Chapter 2- Literature Review
2.1- Phasor12
2.2- Phasor Measurement Unit14
2.3- Distance Relay Fundamentals..20
2.4- Tripping Characteristics....21
2.5- Principle of Operation..22
2.6- Zones of Operations.23
2.7- Symmetrical Components.24
2.8- The Butterworth Low Pass Filter..29
2.9- Discrete Fourier Transform...31
2.10- Mimic Filter33
Chapter 3- Solution Techniques
3.1- PMU Installation...36
3.2- Filtering using Low Pass filter..36
3.3- Removal of DC offset using mimic Filter.37
3.4- Sampling and Phasor Estimation using DFT37
3.5- Strategy for Optimal Placement of PMU for Fault Observability38
3.6- Detection of the area nearest to the fault & the faulted line.39
3.7- The Proposed Algorithm for the detection of the Faulted Line41
3.8- Asynchronous Tripping in Conventional Relaying Scheme.42
3.9- The Proposed Pmu Based Relaying Schemes Zones43
3.10- Setting the relay to protect 80-90% of the Transmission Line...44
3.11- Proposed Algorithm for Synchronized Relaying45


Chapter 4- Case Study, Results and Discussions
4.1- Placement of the PMUs48
4.2- The SIMULINK model49
4.3- Details of the case study...49
4.4- Results and Discussions50
4.5- Comparison of Asynchronous & Synchronous Tripping of Circuit Breakers......52
Chapter 5- Conclusion and Further Scope of Work
5.1- Scope for Further Work53
References...54


ABSTRACT

The electricity supply industries need tools for dealing with system-wide disturbances that
often cause widespread catastrophic blackouts in power system networks. When a major
disturbance occurs, protection and control measures overtake a greatest role to prevent further
degradation of the system, restore the system back to a normal state, and minimize the impact
of the disturbance. Continuous technological development in Information and
Communication Technology, novel sensors and measurement principles in general has
promoted the utilization of Phasor Measurement Unit (PMU). According to recent studies,
the mal-operation or fail-to trip of protection is determined as one of the origins to raise and
propagate major power system disturbances. In the existed relay protection system, mal
operations of backup protection contribute a lot to system security and stability; furthermore,
they are main reasons to system cascade tripping.The conventional relaying schemes are
highly asynchronous ,PMU based relaying schemes are being developed which can provide
synchronous and coordinated operation of the relays.

In this work an efficient method to detect the faulted line and a synchronous relaying
algorithm based on PMU is presented. The work also covers a strategy for optimal placement
of PMU for a network based on the detection of the location of a fault on the transmission
line. The proposed method is implemented and investigated on a six bus network using
MATLAB/SIMULINK package.


ABBREVIATIONS

PMU : Phasor Measurement Unit
GPS : Global Positioning Satellite
CT : Current Transformer
PT : Potential Transformer
DFT : Discrete Fourier Transform
UTC : Universal Time Coordinate


LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Convention for synchrophasor representation
Figure 2: A sinusoid with a period of T observed at instants which are multiples of T
0
apart.
T
0
is not an integer multiple of T.
Figure 3: Model 1690 Phasor Measurement Unit
Figure 4: Block Diagram of Phasor Measurement Unit
Figure 5: Typical PMU Installation at a Substation
Figure 6: GPS Satellite
Figure 7: The GPS satellites orbiting the earth
Figure 8: Principle of operation of distance relay
Figure 9: Illustration of 1+a
Figure 10: Positive Sequence Components
Figure 11: Negative Sequence Components
Figure 12: Central Protection Centre
Figure 13: Phasor Measurement unit Simulation Flow Chart
Figure 14: One bus spaced placement of PMU for fault observability
Figure 15: Six bus network
Figure 16: Voltage waveform during fault
Figure 17: Current waveform during fault
Figure 18: Algorithm for detection of faulted line.
Figure 19: Three zones of protection and the delays.
Figure 20: The proposed PMU based relaying scheme zones
Figure 21: Transmission line with PMU at one end
Figure 22: The six bus network undertaken for study.
Figure 23: Placement of the PMU on the 6 bus network.
Figure 24: The SIMULINK model of the 6 bus network
Figure 25: Comparison of positive sequence voltage magnitude from all the PMUs
Figure 26: Comparison of positive sequence voltage magnitude from all the PMUs
Figure 27: Status of the trip signal
Figure 28: Comparison between conventional relaying and the proposed scheme.



CHAPTER 1

1.1 Introduction

More recent technological advancements in microprocessor relays, combined with GPS
receivers for synchronization and accurate time stamping, is providing users advanced relay
systems with synchronized measurements, called synchrophasor measurements (IEEE Power
System Relaying Committee, 2002; Phadke, 2002; Marek, 2002). Synchrophasor
measurements together with advancements in digital communications, provides users with
the power system state at a rate of twenty times per second. Synchrophasor measurements
from different network locations when combined and processed in a central computer system
will provide users with the absolute phase angle difference between distant network buses
with an accuracy of tenths of an electrical degree. These types of central computer systems,
equipped with wide-area protection and control algorithms, will be able to better address
future system out-of-step conditions and other system problems because they will have a
better knowledge of what happens throughout the power system. In addition, knowledge of
online generation and load demand provided from synchrophasor measurement systems will
aid in balancing better the generation and load during islanding, as well as minimizing load
and generation shedding in order to preserve stability during major system disturbances.
Time synchronized phasor measurements provide a dynamic view of a power system,
combining these measurements in a central protection system (CPS); this capability is used to
set up a wide area control, protection and optimization platform by means of new
communication systems and (GPS), integrated application design is shown in Figure 1.
Figure 1 shows an integrated application design based on phasor measuring units. When the
system operates in extreme conditions, load shedding, generation shedding, or system
islanding must occur to prevent total system collapse (Thorp et al., 1988; Centen et al., 1993;
Guzman et al., 2002; Guzman et al., 2002). Typical causes of system collapse are voltage
instability or transient angle instability. These instabilities can occur independently or jointly.
In most cases, system wide-area disruptions begin as a voltage stability problem. Because of
a failure to take proper actions for the system to recover, this voltage stability problem
evolves into an angle stability problem.

New monitoring, protection, and communications technologies allow us to implement
economical local- and wide-area protection systems that minimize risk of wide-area system
disruptions or total system collapse.

This study proposes a technique based on wide-area measurements for a power system. The
study is very vital and needed in the current state regarding the electrical utility and the
society as well to face future expansion of the electrical grid and to cover the demand of the
increasing growth and solving the problem of peak period. The study is very beneficial also
from the stability and security of the grid viewpoint in case of interconnection with other
countries.

This study presents a new approach for fault detection for interconnected system using the
time synchronized phasor measurements. The scheme is depending on comparing positive
sequence voltage magnitudes for specified areas and positive sequence current phase
difference angles for each interconnected line between two areas on the network. The
Matlab/Simulink program is extensively used to implement the idea. It is used to simulate the
power system, phase measurement unit function, synchronization process, and fault detection.


Chapter 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Phasor

The pure sinusoidal waveform x(t)=X
m
cos(t + ) is commonly represented as a phasor
X=Xr + jX
i
=(X
m
/ )( where depends on the definition of the time scale.
For this Standard, this basic concept is adapted as the representation of power system
sinusoidal signals.

Synchrophasor

The synchrophasor representation X of a signal x(t) is the complex value given by
X=Xr + jX
i
=(X
m
/ )
=(X
m
/ )(cos + jsin)
where (X
m
/ ) is the rms value of the signal x(t) and is its instantaneous phase angle
relative to a cosine function at nominal system frequency synchronized to UTC. This angle is
defined to be 0 degrees when the maximum of x(t) occurs at the UTC second rollover (1 PPS
time signal), and -90 degrees when the positive zero crossing occurs at the UTC second
rollover. Figure illustrates this relationship.


Figure 1: Convention for synchrophasor representation

Off-nominal frequency signals:

The synchrophasor representation of a sinusoid is based on the nominal system frequency,
not the actual frequency of the system. Given the sinusoid x(t)=X
m
cos(2ft + ) and a power
system frequency f
0
, the synchrophasor is based on the representation x(t)=X
m
cos(2(f
0
+
f)t + )=
x(t)=X
m
cos(2f
0
t + 2ft + )) where f = f
0
+ f and has a phasor representation
X=(X
m
/ ) It is clear that the base phase angle f of the phasor is determined by
the starting time (t=0) of the sinusoid and the phasor angle will rotate as a function of the
difference (f) between the actual frequency f of the signal and the system frequency (f
0
).

Consider that such a sinusoid is observed at intervals {0, T
0
, 2T
0
, 3T
0
,..,nT
0
, } where T
0
,= 1/
f
0
, and the corresponding phasor representations are {X
0
, X
1
, X
2
, X
3
, }. If the sinusoid
frequency f f
0
, the observed phasor will have a constant magnitude, but the phase angles of
the sequence of phasors { X
0
, X
1
, X
2
, X
3
, }will change uniformly at a rate 2(f-f
0
)T
0
, where
f
0
= 1/T
0
as illustrated in Figure



Figure 2: A sinusoid with a period of T observed at instants which are multiples of T
0

apart. T
0
is not an integer multiple of T.

2.2 PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNIT:

A PMU is a device which measures the electrical waves on an electricity grid, using a
common time source for synchronization. Time synchronization allows synchronized real-
time measurements of multiple remote measurement points on the grid. In power engineering,
these are also commonly referred to as synchrophasors and are considered one of the most
important measuring devices in the future of power systems. A PMU can be a dedicated
device, or the PMU function can be incorporated into a protective relay or other device.

Figure 3: Model 1690 Phasor Measurement Unit

A PMU is an electronic device that uses state-of-the-art digital signal processors that can
measure 50/60Hz AC waveforms (voltages and currents) typically at a rate of 48 samples per
cycle (2880samples per second). The analog AC waveforms are digitized by an Analog to
Digital converter for each phase. A phase-lock oscillator along with a Global Positioning
System (GPS) reference source provides the needed high-speed synchronized sampling with
1 microsecond accuracy. Additionally, digital signal processing techniques are used to
compute the voltage and current phasors. Line frequencies are also calculated by the PMU at
each site. This method of phasor measurement yields a high degree of resolution and
accuracy. The resultant time tagged phasors can be transmitted to a local or remote receiver at
rates up to 60 samples per second.

Figure 4: Block Diagram of Phasor Measurement Unit

PMUs come in different sizes. Some of the larger ones can measure up to 10 phasors plus
frequency while others only measure from one to three phasors plus frequency. The
approximate cost of the larger PMUs can range in the $30 to $40 thousand of dollars while
the smaller ones cost considerably less.

PMU INSTALLATION AND CONNECTION:

Installation of a typical 10 Phasor PMU is a simple process. A phasor will be either a 3 phase
voltage or a 3 phase current. Each phasor will, therefore, require 3 separate electrical
connections (one for each phase). We are talking about 6 wires per phasor 2 for each phase
of either voltage or current.The PMU will also measure the line frequency from a specific
voltage phasor (typically a major bus assigned by the user).


Typically an electrical engineer designs the installation and interconnection of a PMU at a
substation or at a generation plant. Substation personnel will bolt equipment rack to the floor
of the substation following established seismic mounting requirements. Then the PMU along
with a modem and other support equipment will be mounted on the equipment rack. They
will also install the GPS antenna on the roof of the substation per manufacturer instructions.
The antenna signal cable will be connected to the antenna and brought directly to the PMU.
Substation personnel will also install shunts in all Current Transformer (CT) secondary
circuits that are to be measured. Potential Transformer (PT) connections will not require the
installation of any additional equipment other than terminal blocks and fuses. They will have
to run wires from the CT shunts and the PTs to either an interface cabinet or directly to the
input connections of the PMU.
Each phasor (either Voltage or Current) will require three connections one for each phase.
In addition to the CT and PT connections the PMU will also require the following
connections:
- Power connection typically from station batteries.
- Station ground connection.
- Global Positioning Satellite (GPS) antenna connection.
- Communication circuit connection (Modem if using 4-wire connection or Ethernet for
network connection).
After all the connections are made, the PMU is configured and tested. This task is typically
performed by a substation Test Technician.
The utilitys IT department will play a key role will the phasor data connections phase of the
PMU installation. After the entire input channel configuration and testing is completed, the
PMU is connected to the utilitys Phasor Data Concentrator (PDC) via 4-wire Modem or
Ethernet connection depending on the bandwidth needs. They will also need to evaluate the
need to install additional communication equipment in order to provide the necessary circuit
connections between the PDC at the master site and the PC workstations at the client sites.


Figure 5: Typical PMU Installation at a Substation
Global Positioning System:

What is GPS?

The GPS is a space-based satellite navigation system that provides location and time
information in all weather, anywhere on or near the Earth, where there is an unobstructed line
of sight to four or more GPS satellites. It is maintained by the United States government and
is freely accessible to anyone with a GPS receiver.
The GPS program provides critical capabilities to military, civil and commercial users around
the world. In addition, GPS is the backbone for modernizing the global air traffic system.


Figure 6: GPS Satellite

The Global Positioning System (GPS) is a satellite-based navigation system made up of a
network of 24 satellites placed into orbit by the U.S. Department of Defense. GPS was
originally intended for military applications, but in the 1980s, the government made the
system available for civilian use. GPS works in any weather conditions, anywhere in the
world, 24 hours a day. There are no subscription fees or setup charges to use GPS.
How it works

GPS satellites circle the earth twice a day in a very precise orbit and transmit signal
information to earth. GPS receivers take this information and use triangulation to calculate
the user's exact location. Essentially, the GPS receiver compares the time a signal was
transmitted by a satellite with the time it was received. The time difference tells the GPS
receiver how far away the satellite is. Now, with distance measurements from a few more
satellites, the receiver can determine the user's position and display it on the unit's electronic
map.

A GPS receiver must be locked on to the signal of at least three satellites to calculate a 2D
position (latitude and longitude) and track movement. With four or more satellites in view,

the receiver can determine the user's 3D position (latitude, longitude and altitude). Once the
user's position has been determined, the GPS unit can calculate other information, such as
speed, bearing, track, trip distance, distance to destination, sunrise and sunset time and more.
How accurate is GPS?

Today's GPS receivers are extremely accurate, thanks to their parallel multi-channel design.
Garmin's 12 parallel channel receivers are quick to lock onto satellites when first turned on
and they maintain strong locks, even in dense foliage or urban settings with tall buildings.
Certain atmospheric factors and other sources of error can affect the accuracy of GPS
receivers. Garmin GPS receivers are accurate to within 15 meters on average.

Newer Garmin GPS receivers with WAAS (Wide Area Augmentation System) capability can
improve accuracy to less than three meters on average. No additional equipment or fees are
required to take advantage of WAAS. Users can also get better accuracy with Differential
GPS (DGPS), which corrects GPS signals to within an average of three to five meters. The
U.S. Coast Guard operates the most common DGPS correction service. This system consists
of a network of towers that receive GPS signals and transmit a corrected signal by beacon
transmitters. In order to get the corrected signal, users must have a differential beacon
receiver and beacon antenna in addition to their GPS.


Figure 7: The GPS satellites orbiting the earth

The GPS satellite system
The 24 satellites that make up the GPS space segment are orbiting the earth about 12,000
miles above us. They are constantly moving, making two complete orbits in less than 24
hours. These satellites are travelling at speeds of roughly 7,000 miles an hour.
GPS satellites are powered by solar energy. They have backup batteries onboard to keep
them running in the event of a solar eclipse, when there's no solar power. Small rocket
boosters on each satellite keep them flying in the correct path.
Here are some other interesting facts about the GPS satellites (also called NAVSTAR, the
official U.S. Department of Defense name for GPS):
The first GPS satellite was launched in 1978.
A full constellation of 24 satellites was achieved in 1994.
Each satellite is built to last about 10 years. Replacements are constantly being
built and launched into orbit.
A GPS satellite weighs approximately 2,000 pounds and is about 17 feet across
with the solar panels extended.
Transmitter power is only 50 watts or less.

2.3 Distance Relay Fundamentals
Distance relay is also called impedance relays, they are used to calculate line impedance by
measurement of voltages and currents on one single end. Impedance relays are better able to

discriminate (to distinguish) between conditions for which they should operate and conditions
for which they should not. Suppose V=0.5(V
normal
) and I=2(I
normal
).
Before fault: normal
normal
normal
Z
I
V
I
V
= =
.
After fault: fault
normal
normal
normal
normal
Z
I
V
I
V
I
V
= = =
4
1
) ( 2
) ( 5 . 0

From this, we can see that:
normal fault
Z Z
4
1
=
but
normal fault
I I 2 =
.
Therefore, proportionally, a larger change is seen in impedance than current, and so faults are
easier to correctly detect when measuring impedance relative to measuring current.

2.4 Tripping characteristic

The simplest impedance relay is one that operates with the following logic:
t
Z
I
V
Trip
t
Z
I
V
>
Block
This logic can be illustrated in the impedance plane as in Fig

TRIP
BLOCK
|Z
t
|

2.5 Principle of operation

The basic principle as illustrated in figure 1, involves the division of the voltage at the
relaying point by the measured current. The apparent impedance is compared with the reach
point impedance. If the measured impedance is less than the reach point impedance, it is
assumed that a fault exists on the line between the relay and the reach point. The reach point
of the relay is the point along the line impedance locus that is intersected by the boundary
characteristics of the relay. Distance relay is the broader name of the different types of
impedance relay.

Figure 8: Principle of operation of distance relay


The relay is connected at position, R and receives a secondary current, iF, equivalent to a
primary fault current, IF. The secondary voltage, VF, is equivalent to the product of the fault
current IF and impedance of the line up to the point of fault, ZF. The operating torque of
this relay is proportional to the fault current IF, and its restraining torque is proportional to
the voltage VF. Taking into account the number of turns of each coil, there will be a
definite ratio of V/I at which the torque will be equal. This is the reach point setting of the
relay. The relay will operate when the operating torque is greater than the restraining torque.
Thus any increase in current coil ampere-turns, without a corresponding increase in the
voltage coil ampere-turns, will unbalance the relay. This means the V/I ratio has fallen below
the reach point. Alternatively if the restrain torque is greater than the operating torque, the
relay will restrain and its contacts will remain open. In this case the V/I ratio is above the
reach point. The reach of a relay is the distance from the relaying point to the point of fault.
Voltage on the primary of voltage transformer, VT, is:

V =EZ
F
/(Z
S
+Z
F
)

The fault current, I
F

I=E/(Z
S
+Z
F
)

The relay compare the secondary values of V and I, as to measure their ratio which is an
impedance Z
m
,

Z
m
=(V/V.T Ratio) / (I/C.T Ratio)

Z
m
=ZF* (C.T Ratio / V.T Ratio)

Zm is the measured impedance called secondary impedance.

2.6 Zones of protection

Basic distance protection will comprise instantaneous directional Zone 1 protection and one
or more time delayed zones. Numerical distance relays may have up to five zones, some set

to measure in the reverse direction. Numerical relays usually have a reach setting of up to
85% of the protected line impedance for instantaneous Zone 1 protection. The resulting 15%
safety margin ensures that there is no risk of the Zone 1 protection over-reaching the
protected line due to errors in the current and voltage transformers, inaccuracies in line
impedance data provided for setting purposes and errors of relay setting and measurement of
the distance protection must cover the remaining 15% of the line. The reach setting of the
Zone 2 protection should be at least 120% of the protected line impedance. In many
applications it is common practice to set the Zone 2 reach to be equal to the protected line
section +50% of the shortest adjacent line. Zone 3 reach should be set to at least 1.2 times the
impedance presented to the relay for a fault at the remote end of the second line section.
Typical reach for a 3-zone distance protection are shown in Figure 2.

2.7 SYMMETRICAL COMPONENT

Theorem: We can represent any unsymmetrical set of 3 phasors as the sum of 3 constituent
sets, each having 3 phasors:
A positive (a-b-c) sequence set and
A negative (a-c-b) sequence set and
An equal set

These three sets we will call, respectively,

Positive
( )
1 1 1
, ,
c b a
V V V

Negative
( )
2 2 2
, ,
c b a
V V V

zero
( )
0 0 0
, ,
c b a
V V V

Sequence components.

The implication of this theorem that any unsymmetrical set of 3 phasors V
a
, V
b
, V
c
can be
written in terms of the above sequence components in the following way:

2 1 0
a a a a
V V V V + + =

2 1 0
b b b b
V V V V + + =

2 1 0
c c c c
V V V V + + =

We can write the equations of (9) in a more compact fashion, but first, we must describe a
mathematical operator that is essential.

The a-operator

To begin on familiar ground, we are all conversant with the operator j which is used in
complex numbers.

Remember that j is actually a vector with a magnitude and an angle:
= 90 1 j

In the same way, we are going to define the a operator as:
= 120 1 a

It is easy to show the following relations:
= 120 1
2
a

= 0 1
3
a
a a = = 120 1
4

We also have that:
= = + 60 1 1
2
a a
as illustrated in Fig.
1+a
a
1

Figure 9: Illustration of 1+a

Note that
= = 60 1 240 1
2
a
Similarly, we may show that:
= = + 60 1 1
2
a a

= 30 3 1 a

= 30 3 1
2
a

= 150 3 1 a

= 150 3 1
2
a

And there are many more relations like this that are sometimes helpful when dealing with
symmetrical components. (See the text called Analysis of faulted power systems by Paul
Anderson, pg. 17.)

Symmetrical components: the math

We repeat equations (9) below for convenience:


2 1 0
a a a a
V V V V + + =

2 1 0
b b b b
V V V V + + =

2 1 0
c c c c
V V V V + + =

We can relate the three different quantities having the same subscript.

Zero sequence quantities: These quantities are all equal, i.e.,
0 0 0
c b a
V V V = =

Positive sequence quantities: The relation between these quantities can be observed
immediately from the phasor diagram and can be expressed using the a-operator.
a-b-c

V
c1
V
b1
V
a1

Figure 10: Positive sequence components
1 1
1 2 1
a c
a b
aV V
V a V
=
=

Negative sequence quantities: The relation between these quantities can be observed
immediately from the phasor diagram and can be expressed using the a-operator.

a-c-b

V
b2
V
c2
V
a2

Figure 11: Negative sequence components

2 2 2
2 2
a c
a b
V a V
aV V
=
=

Now lets use equations (22), (23), and (24) to express the original phasor V
a
, V
b
, V
c
in terms
of only the a-phase components
2 1 0
, ,
a a a
V V V
,
i.e., we will eliminate the b-phase components
2 1 0
, ,
b b b
V V V

And the c-phase components
2 1 0
, ,
c c c
V V V

This results in
2 1 0
a a a a
V V V V + + =

2 1 2 0
a a a b
aV V a V V + + =

2 2 1 0
a a a c
V a aV V V + + =

So we have written the abc quantities (phase quantities) in terms of the 012 quantities
(sequence quantities) of the a-phase. We can write this in matrix form as:


2
1
0
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
a
a
a
c
b
a
V
V
V
a a
a a
V
V
V

Defining
=
2
2
1
1
1 1 1
a a
a a A

we see that eq. (25) can be written as:
2
1
0
a
a
a
c
b
a
V
V
V
A
V
V
V

We may also obtain the 012 (sequence) quantities from the abc (phase) quantities:
c
b
a
a
a
a
V
V
V
A
V
V
V
1
2
1
0

where
a a
a a A
2
2
1
1
1
1 1 1
3
1

2.8 The Butterworth Low Pass Filter
The frequency response of the Butterworth Filter approximation function is also often
referred to as "maximally flat" (no ripples) response because the pass band is designed to
have a frequency response which is as flat as mathematically possible from 0Hz (DC) until
the cut-off frequency at -3dB with no ripples. Higher frequencies beyond the cut-off point
rolls-off down to zero in the stop band at 20dB/decade or 6dB/octave. This is because it has a
"quality factor", "Q" of just 0.707. However, one main disadvantage of the Butterworth filter

is that it achieves this pass band flatness at the expense of a wide transition band as the filter
changes from the pass band to the stop band. It also has poor phase characteristics as well.
The ideal frequency response, referred to as a "brick wall" filter, and the standard
Butterworth approximations, for different filter orders are given below.
Ideal Frequency Response for a Butterworth Filter

Note that the higher the order and number of
cascaded stages the closer the filter is to the
ideal "brick wall" response. However, in
practice this "ideal" response is
unattainable.
The Butterworth low-pass filter has a magnitude response given by

Where A is the filter gain and
c
is the 3 dB cut-off frequency and N is the order of the
filter.The design parameters of the butterworth filter are obtained by considering the low-pass
filter with the desired specifications as given below.

1
|H(j)| 1, 0
1

|H(j)|
2
,
2

The order of the filter N is given by
N=
Normalised Low Pass Butterworth Filter Polynomials

Butterworth produced standard tables of normalised second-order low pass polynomials
given the values of coefficient that correspond to a cut-off corner frequency of 1 radian/sec.

2.9 Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT)

In this approach the estimation is based on equation Z = v / i . The sampled current and
voltage signals are initially transformed in to phasor quantities (both direct and quadrature
components). The estimation approach includes estimation of the first harmonic; calculation
from equation Z = v / i the impedance as a quotient of voltage and current phasors. Based on
fault type, the resistance and reactance up to the relay point is calculated.

Mathematical Background

Signal at any given time may be described by a phasor. Phasor actually is a vector rotating in
the complex plane with a speed radian/sec , a snap-shot in time, the signal at that time, x(t)
is given in rectangular form by

x(t) |
t=T
= (realcoordinate) + j(imaginarycoordinate)

x(t) = a + jb

And in polar form by

x(t) = Ae
jt

Considering the initial value at t=0,

x(0) = Ae
j

the general form of x(t)is;

x(t) = Ae
j(+)


e
jt
= cost + j sint

cost = (e
jt
+ e
-jt
)

sint = (e
jt
- e
-jt
)

Therefore, sine or cosine signal can be represented by two phasors form a conjugate pair, i.e
if, x(t) = Acost , then x(t)may be written as;
x(t) = (e
( jt + )
+ e
( -jt + )
)
The above discussion is related to a simple cosine or sine functions of a single frequency,
most signals are composed of many cosine and sine waves. Therefore any complex periodic
signal can be described as sum of many phasors. Fourier series assumes that a set of phasors
have frequencies which are multiples of some fundamental frequency, f
0
, i.e.

The individual frequency components are known as harmonics.
If the complex signal is not periodic the phasor frequencies are not related, thus the Fourier
general form may be written as;

In digital domain (discrete time), replace the continuous function, t, with a function
progresses in jumps of
0
T
s
, thus phasor description of single frequency signal would be;

x(n) = A


= cos(nT
s
) + jsin(nT
s
)

Where, T
s
is the sampling interval.
A real signal can be described using Fourier in discrete domain called (Discrete Fourier
Series) as,

Which is a simple phasor model that describes a general discrete signal? The discrete Fourier
transform (DFT) is a digital filtering algorithm that computes the magnitude and phase at
discrete frequencies of a discrete time sequence. Fast Fourier transforms are computationally
efficient algorithms for computing DFTs. FFTs are useful if we need to know the magnitude
and/or phase of a number individual or band off frequencies. The DFT is ideal method of
detecting the fundamental frequency component in a fault signal. However, DFT, Least Error
Square LES and Walsh Function algorithms are among the most popular phasor estimation
techniques employed in numerical relays (Phadke & Thorp, 1990). As we are dealing with a
50 Hz signal that is sampled synchronously. This means that the sample interval is the inverse
of an integer multiple of 50 . We need to compute the DFT for the fundamental using
equation (1), where, k equal to one for the fundamental and n is the coefficient subscript. Two
digital filters are required, one to get the real part and one for the imaginary part.
2.10 Mimic Filter
After we obtain the samples of the faulted current & voltages , it is required to filter out the
other unnecessary components leaving behind the fundamental components. Thus to suppress
the undesirable DC offset over a wide range of time as in real systems, we use the popular
digital filters such as Mimic Filter.
The antialiasing filters cannot remove the decaying DC components and reject low frequency
components. This makes the phasors very difficult to be quickly estimated and affects the
performance of digital relaying. Therefore, we usually use mimic filter to remove the DC
offset components.

A mimic filter which can be implemented in analog or digital circuitry, and which removes
dc offset or other noise from an input signal using a pseudo-differentiation technique. The
input signal is adjusted by a feedback value, and the adjusted signal is amplified by a
proportional gain factor to generate an output signal. The feedback value is determined by
integrating the output signal and multiplying the integration by an integration gain factor. The
mimic filter avoids the generation of false signal spikes.

In real systems, the line relays which are to be used have a tendency to overreach in the
presence of the DC offset components in the fault current waveforms. Therefore the decaying
DC components have to be removed from the fault waveforms.
When we pass a current waveform through a mimic filter circuit consisting of a resistance in
series with an inductance or an impedance of the form

Then the exponential decaying component at the ouput will vanish.

The Gain Vs Frequency has been depicted in the figure. It is seen that the Gain diminishes to
zero for low frequency components resulting in the removal of DC components.
-

kp
kl]dL
+
-
l(L) v(L)

CHAPTER 3

OVERVIEW OF THE PROTECTION SCHEME

1. Optimal placement of PMU on the basis for better fault observability.

2. A central protection centre is there which will analysze the data obtain from all the areas
where PMU are installed and take the required decisions.

3. Identification of the area nearest to the fault.

4. Identification of the faulted line connecting the faulted area with the neighbouring area.

5. Isolation of the faulted line with synchronous tripping of the circuit breakers using PMU
and a communication channel.

Figure 12: Central Protection Centre


3.1 PHASOR MEASUREMENT UNIT SIMULATION

In order to study a given network and develop strategy for its protection using PMU, an
accurate model of PMU is needed to be developed and simulated. The flow chart for the
simulation of a PMU is given below:

Figure 13: Phasor Measurement unit Simulation Flow Chart

The current and voltage waveforms is input from the CTs and PTs. Low pass filtering
removes the high pass frequency components present during the fault condition. The removal
of the DC offset components is done using mimic filtering algorithm. The sampling process
outputs discrete values. The Discrete Fourier Transform is performed to obtain the phasor
estimation of the fundamental component of the voltage and current. The common time
reference is provided by the clock of the Simulink which is same as the simulation time. The
positive sequence component of the voltage and current is computed (also negative and zero
sequence component if required).
In the PMU model we are assuming that the PMU has as many numbers of channels as the
number of connected lines to the bus it is installed.

3.2 Filtering using low pass filter
The 8
th
order Butterworth filter with passband frequency of 314 rad/s was used.The
comparison has been made between filtered and normal signals.


3.3 Removal of DC offset using Mimic Filter

The mimic filter was used to remove DC offset component.

3.4 SAMPLING AND PHASOR ESTIMATION USING DFT

In practical power systems the sampling is usually 4- 20 samples per cycle but as we are
using powerful SIMULINK/MATLAB package. Due to this reason the simple DFT is
preferred over FFT as the number of samples is less. However in our simulation we have
sampled at 32 samples per cycle for better accuracy in the results.


The phasor estimation is done using full cycle DFT. This gives us the amplitude and the
phase of the fundamental component of 50Hz for each cycle. The positive sequence
component is then obtained.

3.5 STRATEGY FOR OPTIMAL PLACEMENT OF PMU FOR FAULT
OBSERVABILITY

For observing a fault on the transmission line and controlling the tripping signal for isolation
of the line the best is to place the PMU at both the ends of a transmission line however the
economic considerations do not permit us to do so, therefore an optimal placement is desired
keeping in view the fault observability and protection from the fault.

One bus spaced strategy

Every general transmission network can be broken down into the following one bus spaced
network:

Figure 14: one bus spaced placement of PMU for fault observability

For observing the fault location on the transmission lines PMU is required to be placed at one
end only. The constraint equations would be
F(x)=
=1 if PMU is placed at k
=0 if PMU is not placed at k
The purpose is to minimize subject to the constraints.


For the following six bus network:

Figure 15: six bus network

The constraint equations are:
+
+
+
+
+
+
Solving this optimization problem by Branch and Bound method the results obtained for the
six bus network is
No of PMU= 3
Bus Location= 1, 3, 5 or 2, 4, 6
Applying the algorithm for the IEEE-14 bus network the optimized locations obtained are:
No of PMU= 8
Bus location= 2,3,4,7,8,9,11,13

3.6 Detection of the area nearest to the fault and the faulted line

The proposed scheme uses synchronized phasor data obtained from the Phasor Measurement
Units. The technique is based on two events:

a) Voltage reduction due to fault: Whenever there is a fault on the transmission line the
voltage at the buses drop sharply as very high current flow during the fault to the faulted
point.


b) Change in the phase angle of current during fault: At the instant fault occurs there is a
sharp change in the phase angle of the current flowing in the lines. The current waveform
becomes highly unsymmetrical due to presence of harmonics, noise and the dc offset.

Figure 16: Voltage waveform during fault.

Figure 17: Current waveform during fault.


3.7 THE PROPOSED ALGORITHM FOR THE DETECTION OF THE FAULTED
LINE

Figure 18: Algorithm for detection of faulted line.

At the central protection centre the data from all the areas where PMU are installed are
obtained. The positive sequence voltage magnitudes are compared and minimum value is
found out. The minimum value of the voltage will give the area nearest to the fault. After
analyzing the prefault and the post fault conditions, a threshold value of the voltage is set, if
the voltage drops to that threshold value, there is a fault in the power system.
To determine which line connected to that area is the faulted line, the absolute value of the
change in the phase angle at the instant of the fault is compared for all the lines connected to
that area and the maximum value is found out.
The line giving the maximum value is the faulted line.
The next step is to take decision to isolate the line by tripping the circuit breakers at the end
of the lines as per the relaying algorithm.


3.8 ASYNCHRONOUS TRIPPING IN CONVENTIONAL RELAYING SCHEME

In the conventional relaying schemes without PMU there is a delay provided for different
zones of protection. Due to this delay the tripping of the circuit breakers at both the ends of
the transmission line is not synchronous this is a very big disadvantage as the fault should be
cleared as soon as possible to maintain power system stability.

Figure 19: Three zones of protection and the delays.

When the fault lies close to A, it will be detected in zone 1 of R1 and Zone 2 of R2. R1 will
trip instantaneously but R2 will trip after delay according to the zone 2 setting. Thus this
tripping will be asynchronous.

Using PMU and and a communication channel, this delay can be minimized and the tripping
of the circuit breakers can be made to synchronize as close as possible.


3.9 THE PROPOSED PMU BASED RELAYING SCHEMES ZONES

Figure 20. The proposed PMU based relaying scheme zones

When the fault is detected by the PMU at A to be within 80-90% of the line and the PMU at
B will report that the fault is beyond the 80-90% setting of line BC the line AC will be
isolated by sending the trip command to the circuit breakers at both ends of the line at the
same instance.
If the fault detected by the PMU at B is within its 80-90% setting and the PMU at B reports
that the fault is beyond its setting, the decision will be to trip the line BC.
If both the PMUs report that the fault is beyond their 80-90% setting, this will mean that the
fault is very close to the bus C, hence the decision made will be to isolate bolth the lines by
sending trip command to all the four circuit breakers.


3.10 SETTING THE RELAY TO PROTECT 80-90% OF THE TRANSMISSION LINE

Figure 21: Transmission line with PMU at one end

To set the relay at 1 to protect the 80-90% of the line it is required to obtain a threshold value
corresponding to the fault at 80-90 % of the transmission line length. We shall denote this
value by K. It is obtained by taking the ratio of positive sequence voltage magnitude to the
ratio of positive sequence current magnitude flowing through the line when the fault is
simulated at 80-90 % of the line.
After detection of the fault, this ratio is calculated at the bus 1 and compared with the value
K, if it is less than K; it means that the fault is within 80-90 % of the transmission line length.


3.11 PROPOSED ALGORITHM FOR SYNCHRONIZED RELAYING

Za= abs(Va positive sequence)/abs(Iac positive sequence)
Zb= abs(Vb positive sequence)/abs(Ibc positive sequence)
Determine the faulted line connecting the area with the
neighboring area.
Determine the Area nearest to the fault
Is Za<Ka

Is
Zb<Kb ?
Is Zb>Kb

ISOLATE LINE A-C
ISOLATE LINE B-C
ISOLATE BOTHLINES
ERROR

Foult is witbin 8o-o
Foult is witbin 8o-o
Foult is >o of botb tbe lines
bence very close to tbe bus C



After detecting the faulted line, the next step is to make decision regarding the tripping of the
lines. The relay at A is set to detect any fault within 80-90% of the line AC and the relay at B
is set to detect any fault within 80-90 % of the transmission line length of line BC. When the
fault is within 80-90% of any line it will check if the other PMU is reporting fault beyond 80-
90 % of its observed line. If it is true then the tripping of that particular line will take place. If
the fault is very close to the bus C, both the PMUs will report that the fault is beyond 80-90%
of both the lines hence the decision will be to isolate both the lines.

The circuit breakers at both the end of the lines will be given the trip command at the same
instance, however practically there will be some delay due to the communication channel
between the two PMUs. The channel may be wireless, optical fiber or cable; delays will be
different for each case.


CHAPTER 4

CASE STUDY, RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The following six bus network is taken for the case study. MATLAB/SIMULINK package is
used to simulate the network and the proposed algorithm is implemented and investigated.

Figure 22: The six bus network undertaken for study.



4.1 PLACEMENT OF THE PMUs

Figure 23: Placement of the PMU on the 6 bus network.

The placement of the PMU is based on the fault observability as discussed in chapter 3. Out
of the two solutions obtained we have taken the locations as 2, 4 and 6. The other placement
could be at the buses 1, 3, and 5.



4.2 THE SIMULINK MODEL

Figure 24: The SIMULINK model of the 6 bus network

4.3 DETAILS OF THE CASE STUDY

1) Three phase to ground fault is simulated.
2) Line 4-1 is the faulted line.
3) The PMU at bus 4 is nearest to the fault.
4) The fault is simulated within 90% range of PMU at 4.
5) The purpose is to detect and isolate line 4-1 and continue power flow through line 2-1.



4.4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The comparison of the positive sequence voltage magnitude is shown below.

Figure 25. comparison of positive sequence voltage magnitude from all the PMUs
The area nearest to the fault is the area 4. From the figure it can be seen that the PMU located
at 4 is showing the minimum voltage.

Next to identify the line connecting area 4 with the neighbouring area in which fault has
taken place, the absolute value of the difference of phase angles of the current through each
line connected to area 4 is made. There are two lines connected to the bus 4. The comparison
is shown is the following figure:

Figure 26: Comparison of the absolute difference of current phase angles of all the lines
connected to bus 4.

The comparison clearly shows that the line 4-1 in which the fault has taken place is giving the
maximum change of phase angle.


Status of the trip signal

The status of the signal to trip the lines 4-1 and 2-1 is shown in the figure:

Figure 27: Status of the trip signal

The proposed algorithm has successfully identified the faulted line as 4-1 and the trip signal
has been generated for isolating the same. The trip signal for the line 2-1 is still 0.


4.5 COMPARISON OF ASYNCHRONOUS AND SYNCHRONOUS TRIPPING OF
CIRCUIT BREAKERS

Figure 28. Comparison between conventional relaying and the proposed scheme.

To compare the conventional relaying and the proposed synchronized relaying scheme, the
tripping of the circuit breakers at both the end of the line was also made according to the
conventional 3 zone protection scheme .The delay for the zone 2 operation is usually 0.2-0.4s
but the delay was scaled down to four cycles for the purpose of simulation in MATLAB.

From the comparison made, it can be seen that the tripping of one circuit breaker takes place
after the zone 2 delay, which a very big disadvantage is considering the stability of the power
system.
However when the relaying scheme is based on the PMU, this delay can be minimized and
limited to the delay caused by the communication channel.


CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION

The proposed scheme has successfully identified the faulted line on a large power
interconnected system. The idea is based on sharing the data from many PMUs. The scheme
has proposed an optimal placement of PMUs in a power system for better observation of fault
location. The proposed scheme is simple yet efficient and economical in application. The idea
is implemented and investigated using the powerful MATLAB/SIMULINK package. The
modeling for PMU was also done which can be used in modeling of any network in
SIMULINK .The power system configuration, fault detection; tripping and isolation of the
line were performed through MATLAB program.

5.1 SCOPE FOR FURTHER WORK

Further work includes classification of the fault and identification of the faulted phase. The
effects of arcing phenomenon, power swings, and transients on the reliability of the proposed
scheme are yet to be studied.


REFERENCES

[1] IEEE power system relaying working group, Synchronized Sampling and Phasor
Measurements for relying and Control, IEEE Transaction on Power delivery, Vol.9, pp442-
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[2] IEEE Standard for synchrophasor for Power Systems, IEEE Std 1344-1995 (R2001).
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[4] K.Mazlumi,H.Askarian Abyaneh,S.H.H.Sadeghi,and S.S.Geramian,"Determination of
Optimal PMU placement fo Fault-Location Observability",DRPT2008 6-9 April 2008
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[5] Moustafa, Mohammed Eissa and Masoud, Mohammed El-Shahat, A Novel Wide Area
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[8] Phadke, A. (2002). Synchronized Phasor Measurements a historical over view. Virginia
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Pmu Based Relaying

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