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Faculdade de Engenharia da Universidade do Porto

MPPT for a Photovoltaic Micro-Inverter

Telmo de Sousa Lima

Project Report Written in the Scoop of Integrated Master in Electrical and Computer Engineering Major in Automation

Advisor: Prof. Dr. Antnio Pina Martins

February 2012

 Telmo de Sousa Lima, 2012

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Resumo

Este relatrio sobre o desenvolvimento de solues de converso de energia eficientes para painis fotovoltaicos. Diferentes solues so apresentadas e uma perspectiva global mostrada. Desde as caractersticas dos painis fotovoltaicos at rede de energia, todos os aspetos so mencionados brevemente. O propsito deste relatrio dispor o conhecimento necessrio para uma investigao mais aprofundada.

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Abstract

This report is about the development of efficient power conversion solutions for photovoltaic panels. Different solutions are presented and an overall perspective is shown. From the characteristics of the photovoltaic panels to the power grid all aspects are mentioned briefly. Propose of this report is to introduce the necessary knowledge for further investigation.

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Acknowledgments

I will always be grateful to my parents.

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Table of Contents

Resumo ........................................................................................ iii Abstract ........................................................................................ v Acknowledgments ........................................................................... vii Table of Contents ............................................................................ ix List of Figures ................................................................................. x List of Tables ................................................................................. xi Abbreviations and Symbols ................................................................ xii Chapter 1 ....................................................................................... 1
Introduction ....................................................................................................... 1 1.1 Objectives ................................................................................................. 1 1.2 Planning.................................................................................................... 2

Chapter 2 ....................................................................................... 4
Background and Literature Review ........................................................................... 4 2.1 Photovoltaic Panels ...................................................................................... 4 2.2 Micro-Inverters ........................................................................................... 6 2.3 DC-DC Converters ........................................................................................ 7 2.4 DC-AC Inverters .......................................................................................... 8 2.5 Power Decoupling ........................................................................................ 9 2.6 Maximum Power Point Tracking Methods .......................................................... 10 2.7 Conclusions .............................................................................................. 11

References ....................................................................................12

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List of Figures

Figure 1 - Annual world PV production (1988-2005) [2] ......................................................................... 1 Figure 2 - Characteristic curves of a PV module (a) I-V curve and (b) P-V curve [4] ................................ 5 Figure 3 - Equivalent circuit of the PV cell with one diode ..................................................................... 5 Figure 4 Equivalent circuit for the double diode PV cell model ........................................................... 6 Figure 5 - Micro-inverter with power decoupling capability [6] ............................................................. 6 Figure 6 - Taped-inductor boost converter [7] ....................................................................................... 7 Figure 7 - Non coupled-inductor based topology example [7] ............................................................... 7 Figure 8 - High step-up converter with switched-capacitors [8] ............................................................. 7 Figure 9 - High step-up converter with general multi-level cell [8] ........................................................ 8 Figure 10 - High step-up interleaved boost converter with coupled inductor and switched capacitor [8] ...................................................................................................................................................... 8 Figure 11 - Single-phase inverter architecture [9] .................................................................................. 9 Figure 12 - Input and output power waveforms [6] ............................................................................... 9 Figure 13 - Power flow on the PV system [9] ......................................................................................... 9 Figure 14 - Typical current-voltage curve for a PV array [13] ............................................................... 10 Figure 15 - Simulation model for MPPT evaluation [11] ...................................................................... 10 Figure 16 - Flowchart of the incremental conductance method [11] ................................................... 11

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List of Tables

No table of figures entries found.

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Abbreviations and Symbols

List of abbreviations AC CAD DC MPP MPPT PCB PV alternate current computer assisted design direct current maximum power point maximum power point tracking printed circuit board photovoltaic

List of symbols I I0 IL RP RS V VT W Angular frequency Ohm electric current (A) diode saturation current (A) photocurrent (A) lumped shunt resistance () lumped series resistance () voltage (V) thermal voltage watt (Power)

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Chapter 1 Introduction
The energy provided by the Sun has been ignored for decades as a source for electricity production [Figure 1]. Major developments on the energy conversion have been accomplished and although photovoltaic (PV) panels are still far from high efficiency power conversion is already an issue [1].

Figure 1 - Annual world PV production (1988-2005) [2]

In conventional solar installations, PV modules are wired in series and then connected to a string inverter producing alternate current (AC) power from 2kW to 5kW average. A new perspective is gaining popularity by using small inverters connected in parallel. Microinverters maximise energy harvest and increase system reliability because they do not have the time degrading components that string inverters do. By using one inverter per PV panel, approximately 250W, power production can be split and maximum power point tracking (MPPT) better used [1]. On this report it is presented an approach to the PV systems direct current (DC) conversion. A three-state commutation cell boost converter will be studied. It provides high DC gain, few electronic switches and transformer based gain ratio.

1.1 Objectives
The objectives are mainly divided into project and implementation of the system: a) Create a thermal and electric model of the PV module; a. Using a real PV module and measuring equipment

b) Project and simulation of a low power (~250W) DC/DC converter system; a. Using PowerSim and/or Matlab c) Create a prototype of the DC/DC converter; a. Using electrical computer assisted design (CAD) software such as MultiSim and Ultiboard d) Implementation and testing of the developed system. a. Implementation using designed PCBs and testing using measuring equipment

1.2 Planning
Planning is globally divided into the next points:

Background and literature review about the subject Modelling of the thermal and electrical characteristics of a photovoltaic panel
Systematization and evaluation of electrical power conditioning systems for low power photovoltaic panels including simulation

Two weeks

One week

Four weeks

Writing of the dissertation

Project and implementation of the selected topology

Six weeks

Energetic testing and characterization of the implemented system

Four weeks

Table 1 - Planning

4 Background and Literature Review

Chapter 2 Background and Literature Review

This chapter will introduce the technologies and developments on the photovoltaic systems, from the panel to the inverter including control methods and algorithms.

2.1 Photovoltaic Panels

Photovoltaic panels are the interface with the primary energy. Although they are a master key on the energy conversion they will just be look at as a source of electrical energy. Improvements to the panels will not be discussed since it is not the scoop of this project. Being an electrical source they have a peculiar behaviour related to the solar radiation and temperature [Figure 2]. That relation is intrinsic to the construction of the PV module and can be modelled as an equivalent electrical circuit. Several models can be found on the literature, ones more computationally complex others less. Simple models are the preferred choice in engineering due to the ease of use. Although they have errors those can be estimated and their impact weighted [3]. The experimental measure of the characteristic curve can be carried out by connecting a variable load to the module output and increase the load from open-circuit to short-circuit. This load is implemented by an electronic converter [4].

Figure 2 - Characteristic curves of a PV module (a) I-V curve and (b) P-V curve [4]

2.1.1 Single diode PV cell model

One of the most popular models is the equivalent circuit with a single diode [Figure 3]. It is simpler than double-diode models discarding low voltage and low irradiance operation introducing the diode modified factor n.

IPV
RS IO D RP

VPV

Figure 3 - Equivalent circuit of the PV cell with one diode

Current-voltage relation is according to the following equation:

Eq 1

Eq 1 is evaluated at the short circuit, open circuit and maximum power points in order to trace the I-V curve of the evaluated PV module. VT refers to the thermal voltage of the module and will define how the module reacts to temperature changes.

2.1.2 Double diode PV cell model

The double diode model of a PV cell is shown in Figure 4. It is known for its accuracy at lower irradiation levels. Since the single diode model produces erratic series resistance at lower irradiation, the double diode model introduces a specific dependency with the second diode [5]. Its current-voltage relation is given by the following equation

Eq 2

Where ID1S is the saturation current at D1 and ID2S the saturation current at D2 and the last term is the current at the load resistance RP.

IPV
RS IO D1 D2 RP

VPV

Figure 4 Equivalent circuit for the double diode PV cell model

2.2 Micro-Inverters
Micro-Inverters are compact low power inverters developed to provide low loss power conversion while boosting reliability. Efficiency is a major concern since every watt matters in low power systems. Recent developments on micro-inverter topologies include power decoupling techniques on the inverter circuitry such as active power decoupling circuits [Figure 5].

Figure 5 - Micro-inverter with power decoupling capability [6]

2.3 DC-DC Converters

Since DC is the output of the photovoltaic panels either a single stage inverter is used or a DC link will exist. Therefore DC-DC converters are included on PV systems with multi-stage topologies and DC link. Micro-inverters require high step-up voltage gain which is difficult to achieve with traditional topologies pushing the project to more complex DC-DC converters. [2]

2.3.1 Transformer or coupled-inductor based converters

Transformer based solutions provide high voltage gain and efficiency while sometimes they introduce losses on the transformer and difficulties to wind. Coupled-inductor based converters like on Figure 6 also have high voltage gain due to the properties of the inductors. Drawback is the difficulty to build such inductors.

Figure 6 - Taped-inductor boost converter [7]

2.3.2 Non coupled-inductor based converters

Recent developments have contributed with new topologies such as step-up. Both inductors in Figure 7 are charged in parallel with the input voltage and discharged in series resulting in a high step-up gain. The main drawback is the use of inductors and their known implications.

Figure 7 - Non coupled-inductor based topology example [7]

2.3.3 Switched-capacitor circuits

Switched capacitor circuits have high voltage gain and efficiency but can not regulate the output, they should be combined with dc-dc converters to get higher global efficiency [7]. Figure 8 shows a converter with switched-capacitors technology and their high number of necessary switches which reveal their complexity.

Figure 8 - High step-up converter with switched-capacitors [8]

2.3.4 Multi-level boost converter

Figure 9 is an example of high step-up converter with the general multi-level cell. Each basic cell is composed of a clamp capacitor and two switches. This circuit is a high efficiency converter [8].

Figure 9 - High step-up converter with general multi-level cell [8]

2.3.5 Interleaved converters

There are several interleaved topologies proposed in the literature. Interleaved topologies implement most of the previously described technologies to produce a more advanced converter. Figure 10 is an example of such integration.

Figure 10 - High step-up interleaved boost converter with coupled inductor and switched capacitor [8]

2.3.6 Other DC-DC converter topologies

Many other DC-DC converter topologies can be found in literature. Several of them can be found in [8] and in its references.

2.4 DC-AC Inverters

Inverters must be used to interface the PV system with the power grid. Although their study is not a direct objective of this project it is important to state that their construction can be conducted respecting the decoupling and voltage elevation issues. Inverter topology can handle the power decoupling and elevate voltage. A PV system that is projected as a single system and not as a joint of parts is likely to have a better performance, efficiency and reliability. Inverter topologies can be classified into single-stage and multi-stage inverters. Single-stage inverters implement the step-up voltage conversion and sine waveform modulation in one single power stage. Multi-stage inverters usually adopt DC or AC buses which allow several different system configurations and better power handling.

2.5 Power Decoupling

Low power systems usually run under the single phase interface to the grid. Single phase power transfer is time varying thus blocking power generated by the PV panels. This results into an instantaneous power transfer problem which requires energy to be stored between the PV panels and the grid. [9]

Figure 11 - Single-phase inverter architecture [9]

The instantaneous power consists of two terms: the average output power, which is constant and a second term which is time varying [Figure 12]. Since the output from PV panels is desired to be constant, average output power from the inverter must be equal to the power coming from the PV panel thus leaving the time varying power to be handled. If the pulsating power is not handled properly the efficiency of the MPPT algorithm will be greatly reduced thus reducing the global efficiency.

Figure 12 - Input and output power waveforms [6]

2.5.1 Power Decoupling Techniques

The most basic form of decoupling is the use of a capacitor. Capacitors are widely available on the market are cheap and simple to use and can handle the pulsating power. Main drawback of capacitors is their degradation by influence of temperature. This leads to a major reliability issue of the power converters. Decoupling can be implemented on the DC (PV) side or on the AC side of the inverter or both [Figure 13]. It can also be in series or parallel connection. [6, 10]

Figure 13 - Power flow on the PV system [9]

2.6 Maximum Power Point Tracking Methods

Maximum power point (MPP) refers to the point at which a system works with its maximum efficiency and thus power output [Figure 14]. Tracking methods consist of algorithms that push the system to the MPP so that it can work at its best efficiency. Such algorithms bring some intelligence to the systems and intelligence brings efficiency and reduced costs. MPPT algorithms are widely used on PV systems being separated into direct and indirect methods. The most widely used are the direct ones such as the perturb-andobserve or incremental conductance. Other algorithms include constant voltage and current; pilot cell; parasitic capacitance or model based methods. [11-12]

Figure 14 - Typical current-voltage curve for a PV array [13]

2.6.1 The perturb-and-observe algorithm

Works as the name suggests, voltage is perturbed and the resulting power output is measured. If the change in power has the same sign as the voltage then the operating point has moved closer to the MPP, if the sign is different it means it has moved further away and opposite change in voltage should be applied. It is a very simple method and easy to implement [Figure 15]. Some drawbacks are the difficulty to read small changes and erratic behaviour under rapid changes in radiation.

Figure 15 - Simulation model for MPPT evaluation [11]

2.6.2 Incremental conductance algorithm

In the incremental conductance algorithm the derivative of the MPP on the power versus voltage slope is tracked to be equal to zero (Eq 3). By using this method the direction of

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change can be determined and the actual MPP can be calculated. One advantage over P&O algorithm is that is can work under rapid radiation changes.

Eq 3

The incremental conductance algorithm, in its basic form, works as suggested by the next figure:

Figure 16 - Flowchart of the incremental conductance method [11]

2.7 Conclusions
There are several different topologies of converter circuits and MPPT algorithms. Algorithms can always be improved by the cost of complexity and computer power. Topologies can be combined to extract the best from each other carrying their particular drawbacks and advantages. There is always the factor cost and reliability when trying to produce the most efficient system a balance is required and that is what makes a challenge for engineering. The main challenge of this project will be project of the DC/DC converter using the mentioned balance between efficiency, reliability and cost.

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12 Background and Literature Review

References
[1] [2] [3] [4] [5] S. Ahmad, "Power to the people," Engineer, vol. FEBRUARY, pp. 38-40, 2011. L. Quan and P. Wolfs, "A Review of the Single Phase Photovoltaic Module Integrated Converter Topologies With Three Different DC Link Configurations," Power Electronics, IEEE Transactions on, vol. 23, pp. 1320-1333, 2008. M. A. De Blas, J. L. Torres, E. Prieto, and A. Garca, "Selecting a suitable model for characterizing photovoltaic devices," Renewable Energy, vol. 25, pp. 371-380, 2002. E. D. Aranda, J. A. Gmez Galan, M. S. de Cardona, and J. M. Andjar Mrquez, "Measuring the I-V curve of PV generators: Analyzing different dc-dc converter topologies," IEEE Industrial Electronics Magazine, vol. 3, pp. 4-14, 2009. D. S. H. Chan and J. C. H. Phang, "ANALYTICAL METHODS FOR THE EXTRACTION OF SOLAR-CELL SINGLE- AND DOUBLE-DIODE MODEL PARAMETERS FROM I-V CHARACTERISTICS," IEEE Transactions on Electron Devices, vol. ED-34, pp. 286-293, 1987. S. Harb, H. Haibing, N. Kutkut, I. Batarseh, and Z. J. Shen, "A Three-port Photovoltaic (PV) Micro-Inverter with Power Decoupling Capability," in Twenty-Sixth Annual IEEE Applied Power Electronics Conference and Exposition - APEC 2011, 6-11 March 2011, Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2011, pp. 203-8. J. C. Rosas-Caro, J. C. Mayo-Maldonado, R. Salas-Cabrera, A. Gonzalez-Rodriguez, E. N. Salas-Cabrera, and R. Castillo-Ibarra, "A family of DC-DC multiplier converters," Engineering Letters, vol. 19, 2011. W. Li, X. Lv, Y. Deng, J. Liu, and X. He, "A review of non-isolated high step-up DC/DC converters in renewable energy applications," 2009, pp. 364-369. H. Hu, S. Harb, N. Kutkut, I. Batarseh, and Z. J. Shen, "Power decoupling techniques for micro-inverters in PV systems-a review," 2010, pp. 3235-3240. C. Yaow-Ming and L. Chein-Yao, "Three-port flyback-type single-phase micro-inverter with active power decoupling circuit," in 2011 IEEE Energy Conversion Congress and Exposition (ECCE 2011), 17-22 Sept. 2011, Piscataway, NJ, USA, 2011, pp. 501-6. G. M. S. Azevedo, M. C. Cavalcanti, K. C. Oliveira, F. A. S. Neves, and Z. D. Lins, "Comparative evaluation of maximum power point tracking methods for photovoltaic systems," Journal of Solar Energy Engineering, Transactions of the ASME, vol. 131, pp. 0310061-0310068, 2009. V. Salas, E. Olas, A. Barrado, and A. Lzaro, "Review of the maximum power point tracking algorithms for stand-alone photovoltaic systems," Solar Energy Materials and Solar Cells, vol. 90, pp. 1555-1578, 2006. D. P. Hohm and M. E. Ropp, "Comparative study of maximum power point tracking algorithms," Progress in Photovoltaics: Research and Applications, vol. 11, pp. 47-62, 2003.

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