Being chased by a bear ? (An overview of yarn dyeing from the perspective of a textile auxiliary supplier) 1 .

Size and Importance of the Textile Industry The Textile Industry is still one of the industries in the world economy that is common to almost all countries. The Textile Industry is one of the major battlegrounds between industrialised countries and developing countries, and its importance can be measured by its size in billions of US dollars (1). This only serves to illustrate how competitive our industry is.

2. The Bear In the competitive field of textile exports , textile manufacturers continually search for markets with lower labour costs and higher productivity. (2)

Source: Werner International

Labour costs still vary widely between textile and garment producing countries, but technological progress tends to reduce the impact of labour related costs, and factors like response time, import duty benefits and incentives can offset marginally higher labour costs. (3) There is a saying : "If you are being chased by a bear you don't need to run fast - just faster than the man next to you "

3. Package Dyeing of Yarn - Why package dyeing ? Available statistics have generally indicated that yarn dyeing accounts for a relatively small proportion of coloration processes - of the order of 15% of the total material dyed. Yarn can be dyed either in hank form or as packages, packages being dyed in either vertical or horizontal spindle-type machines. The advantages and disadvantages of the different techniques have been stated as (4) :

Hank dyeing
yarn has fuller bulk and handle - loft tangling may occur reeling and back-winding costly and potentially wasteful levelness often inferior to package methods machine loading is less for a given machine size.

Package Dyeing
leaner yarn, but this gives stitch clarity in finished fabric

larger (and consistent) machine loadings for a given machine size faster back-winding and less waste high levelness and reproducibility even with dyes possessing high fastness savings in energy, water etc. and space.

A contributory reason for the success of package dyeing relative to hank dyeing is the almost infinite extent to which the operation can be automated , removing the need for manual intervention and reducing the impact of labour costs. Robotisation of raw material warehousing, loading and unloading of the spindles of the dyeing machine, transporting of dyeing frames from one machine to another, hydroextraction, drying, and finished product warehousing , is increasingly commonplace (5) (6) (7) High flow rate pump development, design of new circulation systems for flow reversal, automation , and multifunction microprocessor controls, have made possible drastic reductions in cycle times and new operating techniques. These techniques depend on the principle of blind dyeing, which in turn involves complete control over all aspects of the operation, including :
limits of accuracy of temperature control, dispensing of dyes and chemicals, quality of water, dyes and chemicals, control of the weight, density and uniform dyeability of the dyeing packages.

4. Developments in package dyeing technology The developments that have taken place in package dyeing technology have largely focused on quality differentiation at the same time as productivity (8), and those producers that are "running faster than the man next to them" have made quality improvements with respect to:
Surface appearance productivity per machine and man-hour improving cost effectiveness Off-winding properties Levelness Shade consistency

Having established that the only way to stay in business is to perform better than your competitors, how can these quality improvements be made ? 4.1 Surface appearance Automated variable flow control has been introduced in package dyeing of yarn using the principle behind developments to reduce energy transmission to the substrate proposed by Carbonell (9). As has been done in rope dyeing of fabric on a jet dyeing machine, the liquor flow may be changed at different stages in the preparation and dyeing process. Thus a high flow rate will be used at the more critical stages, and the pump flow will be reduced at the less critical stages. This results in a lower energy transmission to the yarn and therefore a smoother , less hairy, surface appearance and less yarn breakages in subsequent use. The general liquor flow rate for a package dyeing is approximately 30 litres/kg/minute. The liquor circulations or number of contacts per minute may be calculated as follows : Interchanges per minute = Flow Rate Liquor Ratio for conventional liquor ratio machines ( 10:1 ) = approx. 3 for Ultra Low Liquor Ratio machines ( 5:1 ) = approx. 6. Dye liquor interchange through the free volume of the package will be approximately 8 - 12 times per minute when processing cotton yarn. Beckmann and Hoffmann (10) found that flow reversal every 4 - 8 circulations gave superior levelness during the exhaustion phase, but was of little benefit during the migration phase of package dyeing . 4.2 Productivity per machine and man-hour

Before the 1940's the only instruments fitted to yarn dyeing machines were mercury-in-steel or bourdon thermometers, and simple timers for reversing flow. Metal cams operated the first rate-of-rise temperature controllers, like the Bristol Dyemaster. During the 1960's more sophisticated digital controllers such as the Celcon became available, but all these have now been replaced by the new generation of computer controllers. Productivity improvements have focused on : Automation - automation of dye process - automation of total dyeing operation Shortened Processing Techniques Package Dyeing Technology 4.2.1 Automation of the Dye Process Recent developments have seen the introduction of microprocessor controlled addition of dye and chemicals, and the advent of multifunctional microprocessors has allowed dye cycles to be shortened by virtue of their ability to permit several operations at the same time, e.g. temperature rise , dye & chemical addition, flow rate change , etc. rather than in one step at a time as was previously the rule. 4.2.2 Automation of total dyeing operation Clever computer control also makes possible bleaching processes that achieve considerable water/effluent savings ( up to 70% is claimed) by re-using both the water and energy content of the peroxide bleaching rinsing baths by recycling the treatment and/or the rinsing liquors.. Conventional machines must be fitted with several liquor storage tanks to make this possible (11).

4.2.3 Shortened Processing Techniques

Time, water and energy savings are also made possible by high temperature peroxide bleaching of cotton, instead of bleaching at the boil. Techniques involving combined microprocessor cooling and rinsing can be used so that by the time the machine has been cooled from 115 deg C to 80 deg C, the cotton yarn has had the equivalent of two discreet fresh water rinses. With hot water supply at 50 C and 70 C for controlled rinsing, it is possible to complete the optimised high temperature preparation, reactive dyeing, and rinsing processes in 6 hours (12)(13)

Shortening the total dyeing process is impossible without the control needed to minimise non-dyeing time, filling, emptying , heating and cooling etc. Increasing productivity by blind dyeing necessitates a high degree of reproducibility of shade and levelness, impossible without a uniform preparation.

In some dyehouses it is common practice to pre-scour only before dyeing rather than prebleach, perhaps 80% of production being in shades not requiring a bleach. The Nearchimica Minimum Prepare Scour makes possible a rapid process for pre-scouring and dyeing cotton with reactive dyes. Scour/dye methods have failed in the past because they have reduced dye yield, given poor penetration, precipitation of calcium and magnesium salts, and perhaps dye spots. The Nearchimica Minimum Prepare makes no attempt to remove paraffin wax lubricants or the natural lubricants found in cotton, and relies on the hot dyeing process to remove these using the excellent emulsifying properties of Lubrifil LAF in the dyebath. The typical target process time for Minimum Prepare can perhaps save 2 hours compared to conventional pre-scouring at the boil.

4.2.4 Package Dyeing Technology It is often said that "Well prepared is half dyed" , and in yarn package dyeing, if preparation includes winding , that is certainly true.(14) Advances in package dyeing technology that have led to productivity improvements include: Precision Winding Digital or Step Winding New package centres Automation } see section 3. above Robotics } With traditional wild or random cross winders the winding angle remains the same, the number of revolutions per traverse reducing, as the package diameter increases. The length of yarn per traverse is constant, producing an even package density. Advantages Disadvantages + stable package - areas of ribboning are possible + constant winding density ( usually approx. 350 g/l) - liquor flow characteristics not optimum + low capital cost

Precision Winding In "Precision Winding" the winder reduces its surface speed as the package increases in size, so maintaining a fixed number of threads per traverse.

In Precision Winding the winding traverse tends to increase as the package diameter grows. This results in the ends of the package forming a concave profile, which in turn leads to the column of packages requiring some compression when using interlocking centres to achieve a good seal. Advantages + no ribboning + good liquor flow characteristics Disadvantages - fragile package, must be handled with care - density varies from inside to outside ( but higher compared to random - 400-450 g/l ) - high capital cost. Digital or Step Winding

Digital Precision Winding was pioneered by Schweiter with their Digicone system and is characterised by a drive system with a microprocessor speed controlled drum.

Initially a precision winding is produced, but as the diameter of the package increases, the crossing angle is reduced. When a certain minimum value of the crossing angle is reached, there is an instant transition to a smaller winding ratio. The package is built in layers, each having a slightly lower crossing angle than the previous, and each layer having a different but constant winding ratio, between 20 and 40 layers building up to form a single package. Digital precision wound packages , with a constant package traverse, are designed to have flat ends, which permit a minimum of compression Advantages + good liquor flow characteristics ( soft shoulder by periodically varying traverse) + no ribboning + stable homogeneous package without pattern zones + uniform, homogeneous density with excellent off-winding properties (400-450 g/l) +/- moderate capital cost. The increased package density, 20 - 25% higher loading on the package, larger package weights and consequent higher weight machine loadings , gives lower liquor ratios and consequent increases in productivity and cost savings . New Package Centres More modern centres, designed to increase machine loading and improve off-winding performance, are gradually replacing conventional centres such as the 4 20 stainless steel cone with spacers and compressible stainless steel springs.

Plastic centres interlock on compression making a seal and avoiding the use of spacers. Up to 20-25% higher loading is made possible The rigid reusable, or axially compressible non-reusable polypropylene centres usually feature a protected yarn reservoir, which facilitates off-winding and reduces waste. Liquor flow through the package must be uniform in order that preparation and dyeing is uniform. The 4 20' conical packages are the least suitable for level dyeing from a hydraulic flow point of view, whilst the parallel sided package gives more uniform liquor flow (15). Going back to our analogy of being chased by a bear, the optimum economic benefits will result from uniformly wound packages, at the highest densities feasible, on centres that give columns without leakages and present the best chance of a level dyeing.

4.3 Levelness 4.3.1 Blame the auxiliary ! From the standpoint of the textile auxiliary supplier , the important considerations regarding winding technology and package centres are the common dyeing problems resulting from the presentation of a poor package for dyeing which may wrongly be attributed to the choice of auxiliary . Such problems (14) include : Poor 'batch-to-batch' reproducibility high levels of reproducibility only possible using same raw materials and process conditions liquor flow rate must be same from batch to batch Package deformation and yarn abrasion winding density must be the same from package to package and within a package packages must be well wound and tube perforations covered pressed density of compressed tubes must be the same leakage and package deformation can arise due to damaged tubes, faulty spacers and defective locking caps. leakage between packages can be caused by shrinkage and deformation of plastic tubes subjected to high temperatures. Use self locking caps with follow down devices. No differential pressure yarn carrier and packages may be leaking winding density may be too soft for the differential pressure control Exploding warp beams faulty beam density and patterning - for 100 % cotton beam suggest winding density - 360 - 400 g/l winding tension - 35 - 40 g/m traverse - 4 - 6 mm Uneven dyeing caused by too low a liquor flow increase flow rate or reduce package density check for leaking package columns Pressure and lustre marks on inner yarn layers. too high winding density or pressed density ( or high residual shrinkage) careful control needed for yarn tension and package build cover tube or cone with paper or non-woven sleeve before winding Leakage in the package column fit properly sealing cap, spring loaded or self locking. plastic or metal tubes must be stable to process temperature and pressure in pressed systems compression of 10 - 35% should be used reduce height of column Package to package colour variation mixed batches or blends large variation in package to package density Difference in shade inside - to - middle - to - outside uniformity of winding and pressed density select correct liquor flow rate for the packages used. On the other hand - the choice of auxiliary product can sometimes make all the difference between a level dyeing and an unlevel dyeing.

4.3. 2 NEARGAL LU-SRV - a levelling agent for dyeing cotton In package dyeing of 100% cotton yarn, the problem most often encountered must surely be levelness from inside - to - middle - to - outside of the package, which shows itself as shade variation when panels are knitted with a single feeder knitting machine from the different regions of the package. In considering level dyeing it is proposed that we must first consider the mechanism by which cotton is dyed with anionic dyes, and , in particular, why we add electrolyte to a cotton dyeing. There are 3 principal reasons :

(1) Anionic dye molecules will tend to repel each other, and because the cellulose molecule tends to take on a small negative charge when immersed in water, there will be a natural repulsion of the anionic dye by the similarly charged fibre. Adding electrolyte , e.g. sodium chloride, to the system, will flood the system with both negatively charged and positively charged particles , and will form a compact electrical double layer on the dye ion so that it is electrically neutral towards a second ion. It will mask the negative charge on the cellulose, effectively eliminating the repulsion effect.

(2) Solubility. If we make it more difficult for the dye to remain dissolved in the bath by dissolving more salt in the bath, we shift the equilibrium in favour of the fibre, and the dye will prefer to absorb onto the cellulose.

(3) Aggregation. Perhaps most important from the point of view of level dyeing is the aggregation of the dye. Addition of electrolyte influences the aggregation of cotton dyes, increasing the extent to which hydrogen bonds form between neighbouring dye molecules, and creating larger, less mobile, less soluble particles, long planar more hydrophobic particles with more affinity for the fibre than the parent monomolecular form.

Here we see a typical, simple direct dye and the possible mode of aggregation encouraged by the addition of electrolyte. If we examine a solution of any reactive dye with a UV-VIS spectrophotometer, the trace will show two peaks, one for the monomolecular form of the dye, one for the n-mer or aggregate of the dye.

If we add common salt to the dye solution we can see that the amplitude of the n-mer or aggregated peak is increased with respect to the peak of the monomolecular form. Similarly, if we add urea , there is more of the monomolecular form of the dye, and less of the aggregate.

If we now compare a dye solution to which we have added the Nearchimica levelling agent, Neargal LU-SRV, we see that the effect on aggregation is similar to that given by urea, there being more of the monomolecular form of the dye relative to the aggregated form.

We have begun with the knowledge from practical experience in production that Neargal LUSRV does indeed function as a levelling agent, and we have sought to explain the mechanism by which it functions. We think this disaggregating effect is significant, and explains why we should observe greater penetration of the substrate, and more migration . However, the disaggregating effect cannot be permanent because the final exhaustion is the same with the levelling agent as without. Neargal LU-SRV has no restraining effect.

This migrating effect is most easily demonstrated in the laboratory with vat dyes. If we begin with a yarn package composed of half vat dyed yarn and half undyed yarn, we can clearly see the extent to which Neargal LU-SRV improves migration from the dyed to the undyed fibre (16). Untreated packages of yarn made with undyed cotton and cotton dyed with 2% C.I. Vat Red 13 Same yarn after attempt to level packages using 4 g/l Neargal LU-SRV at 60 C for 45 25 ml/l caustic soda 38 B liq. minutes 10 g/l sodium hydrosulphite

With reactive dyes , we can show the effect of adding Neargal LU-SRVRD to a package dyeing in production , knitting yarn from the inside of a package next to yarn from the outside, and comparing with a batch dyed with a competitor's agent.

4.4 Shade consistency

Testimonials from a major Nearchimica customer dyeing knitted cotton fabric on jet dyeing machines with reactive dyes, support the claim that colour difference from piece to piece within one dye lot can be considerably improved by incorporation of Neargal LU-SRV in the dyeing recipe . Total colour differences of less than Delta E - 0.5 have been attained consistently. A useful check list has been proposed where problems of poor 'batch-to-batch reproducibility' are encountered (14) : Only by using the same raw materials and the same dyeing process can high levels of shade reproducibility be obtained Check that the substrate to be dyed has the same dye affinity as the previous batch. Ensure preparation is standard. The liquor ratio must be the same from batch to batch. The liquor flow rate must be the same from batch to batch . If a different batch or source of dyestuffs or auxiliaries is used, check in laboratory. Avoid standing times during the process, be sure that necessary dyes and auxiliaries are prepared ready for addition at the right time. When dyeing with vat dyes, any oxygen in the system must be neutralised by addition of Hydros, or displacement with nitrogen. For each cu. metre of air add: 1.7 kg Hydros 1.7 litres caustic soda 38 B 5. Summary It has been shown that the textile industry of today is still a significant world-class, but highly competitive industry. Developments in package dyeing technology include moves to higher machine loading, higher package density, lower liquor ratio, and shortened preparation and dyeing cycles. All of these offer significant economies and productivity benefits, but all require careful consideration of the textile auxiliary products involved if shade reproducibility and level dyeing are not to be sacrificed. Nearchimica would propose that in whichever stage of wet processing improvements are sought, we have products that are worthy of consideration. The bear that is chasing all of us is the bear of competition. Sometimes lower price competition. Trying to ensure that we differentiate our production in terms of improving quality, efficiency, and productivity is the only way that each of us can run faster than the man running next to us and escape from the bear.

References

1. OECD / Gherzi Organisation, Zurich 2. Gesamttextil / Gherzi Organisation, Zurich 3. Werner International / Gherzi Organisation , Zurich. 4. Chaplin, Park, Thompson, JSDC Vol 96 Nov. 1980 5. E.Bocus, JSDC Vol. 107 May/June 1991. 6. J.F.Gaunt, JSDC Vol.109 Jul/Aug 1993. 7. Knitting International Feb. 1989, Fully Robotic Yarn Dyeing. 8. P.S.Collishaw, D.T.Parkes , AATCC symposium , Apr 1990 .World Overview of package dyeing. 9. Carbonell , Hasler, Walliser, & Knobel, Melliand Textilberichte.,54, Jan.1973 10. Beckmann & Hoffmann , AATCC Conference 1976. 11. B.Seidl , Sympotex 96 - South Africa 12. P.S.Collishaw , AATCC Conference 1997. 13. Heetjans JH, Thies GmbH, International Dyer, Vol 181, Nov. 1996 14. Heetjans & Tindall. A Handbook for the Yarn Dyer.Thies GmbH. 15. Denton, J.T.I., 54 . 1963 16. R.Gordon. Nearchimica Sales Aid , Neargal LU-SRV.