Option H: Hormonal Control;

HORMONES: chemical messengers secreted by endocrine glands into the blood and transported by the blood to specific target cells
I. Chemical signaling A. A chemical signal secreted by a cell either: a) binds to a receptor protein on the surface of a target cell, triggering a signal-transduction pathway b) penetrates the target cells plasma membrane and binds to a receptor inside the cell II. Signal-transduction pathway: a series of molecular changes that convert an extracellular chemical signal to a specific intracellular response. A. Reception of signal 1. Signal receptor located in the plasma membrane B. Transduction is the second step which might involve phosphorylation by a kinase or the generation of a second signal using cyclic AMP (cAMP) 1. In any case, a second signal or secondary message is generated C. Third event is a cellular response. III. Types of Hormones A. Catecholamine hormones (Tyrosine derivatives: cells in the adrenal medulla synthesize the catecholamines, norepinephrine, and epinephrine from the amino acid tyrosine) 1. thyroxin B. Steroid hormones: able to pass through plasma membrane 1. From the gonads a. Testosterone b. Estradiol (an estrogen) c. Progesterone (a progestin) 2. From the adrenal cortex a. Cortisol b. Aldosterone C. Peptide hormones: act through signal-transduction pathways 1. Oxytocin (posterior pituitary gland) 2. ADH (posterior pituitary gland) 3. Calcitonin (thyroid gland) 4. Insulin 5. FSH 6. LH IV. Hypothalamus and pituitary glands A. Pituitary gland: located at the base of the brain and surrounded by bone 1. Posterior pituitary (neurohypophysis) a. Extension of the hypothalamus b. Neurosecretory cells secrete ADH and oxytocin, which travel down axons to the posterior pituitary where they are stored and released upon stimulation. 2. Anterior pituitary (adenohypophysis) a. Neurosecretory cells in the hypothalamus secrete releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones into a capillary network located above the stalk of the pituitary. b. Capillaries drain into portal vessels, which are short blood vessels that subdivide into a second capillary bed within the anterior pituitary. c. In this way, hypothalamic hormones have direct access to the gland they control B. Hypothalamus: helps integrate the vertebrate endocrine and nervous systems 1. Neurosecretory cells: secrete hormones; compose endocrine organs and tissues a. Posterior pituitary i. Secrete antidiuretic hormone (ADH) and oxytocin ADH binds to target cells in the kidneys Oxytocin binds to target cells in the mammary glands and uterus ii. ADH and oxytocin are transported down the axons to the posterior pituitary where they are stored. iii. The posterior pituitary releases them upon into the blood circulation upon stimulation. b. Anterior pituitary i. Secrete releasing hormones and inhibiting hormones into a capillary network located above the stalk of the pituitary. ii. The capillaries drain into portal vessels (short blood vessels that subdivide into a second capillary bed) within the anterior pituitary iii. In this way, hypothalamic hormones have direct access to the gland they control. V. Binding of signal to surface receptor A. Steroid hormones are able to pass through the plasma membrane. B. Hormones like estrogen and testosterone bind to a receptor protein in the cytosol, activating it C. The receptor-hormone complex enters the nucleus and bines to a specific gene D. The bound protein stimulates the transcription of the gene into mRNA E. The mRNA is translated into a specific protein F. Basically, when a signal is bound to an intracellular receptor, the receptor acts as a transcription factor, causing a change in gene expression. G. The binding of signals to a surface receptor can lead to either a change in gene expression or a change in cytoplasmic activity. VI. Hormonal control (ADH) of the kidney by negative feedback circuits A. Antidiuretic hormone (ADH) enhances fluid retention by making the kidneys permeable to water B. Neurosecretory cells in the supra-optic nucleus of the hypothalamus synthesize ADH, transport it down their axons, and store it in nerve endings in the posterior pituitary gland C. The release of ADH is triggered when osmoreceptor cells in the hypothalamus detect an increase in the osmolarity of the blood. D. So if the plasma becomes too concentrated, impulses are passed to the ADH-secreting neurosecretory cells. E. Neurosecretory cells convey the impulses to their nerve endings in the posterior pituitary F. The impulses secrete the release of ADH into the blood from the stores in the nerve endings G. ADH causes a reduction in the concentration of the blood plasma, by stimulating the kidney to produce hypertonic urine. H. In this situation, the osmoreceptor cells also promote thirst. I. Drinking reduces the osmolarity of the blood, which inhibits the secretion of ADH, completing the feedback circuit. J. If the osmoreceptor cells detect that the concentration of blood plasma is too low, the neurosecretory cells are not simulated to release ADH and the blood ADH levels rapidly drop.

DIGESTION
1. Digestion Overview Four main stages of food processing A) Ingestion- taking in food. -mouth, teeth, tongue B) Digestion- breaking down into absorbable molecules -food comes in large polymers (proteins, fats, carbs(starch), other polysaccharides) -enzymatic hydrolysis cleaves macromolecules into monomers (used by body to make own molecules or as fuel for cellular activities. -enzymes secreted as digestive juices by glands (salivary, stomach and small intestine, pancreas) -enzymes raise rate of digestion at body temperature C) Absorption- take up small molecules (amino acids, simple sugars) from digestive compartment. -Assimilation- becomes part of tissues D) Elimination- undigested material passes out -cellulose, lignin, bacteria, cells, breakdown products of red blood cells 2. Digestive System -alimentary canal (gastrointestinal tract) -mouth, pharynx (food, fluid, air), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine -Peristalsis- rhythmic waves of contraction by smooth muscle push food along -sphincters- ring-like valves at some junctions -accessory organs -assist in breakdown of food. -teeth, tongue, pancreas, liver and gallbladder, salivary organs -secrete digestive juices into the canal through ducts 3. Exocrine glands- secrete substances via a duct -secrete digestive juices through exocytosis -secretory cells -one-cell thick (the layer) -invagination and branching of cell layer -acinus- group of secretory cells clustered around end of a duct Distinctive features i)1-2 prominent nucleoli inside nucleus -produce ribosomes ii) extensive area of rough e.r. for protein synthesis iii) golgi apparatus -processing proteins iv)many secretory granules -store substances to be secreted -transport them to plasma membrane -densely stained because of great protein concentration v) mitochondria -provide ATP for protein synthesis and other activities 4.Alimentary Canal a) Saliva Contains: 1. mucin- slippery glycoprotein (carbohydrate-protein complex) -protects soft lining of mouth from abrasion -lubricates food for easier swallowing 2. pH buffers -prevent tooth decay by neutralizing acid in mouth 3. antibacterial agents (lysozyme) in saliva -kill many of the bacteria that enter the mouth with food 4. salivary amylase -starch as substrate -works at pH of 7.0 -produces maltose (glucose+glucose) -all dissolved in water b) Pharynx, "throat" -opens to both esophagus and trachea ("windpipe") -during swallowing, top of trachea moves up so that its opening, the glottis, is blocked by the epiglottis, a cartilaginous flap. -bobbing of the Adam's apple c) Esophagus -from pharynx through diaphragm to stomach -passageway for food -peristalsis moves bolus of food down esophagus to stomach d) Stomach -store food -preliminary digestion -"J" shaped -upper abdominal cavity, just below diaphragm -food is churned or mixed -takes 2-6 hours after a meal for the stomach to empty -Rugae and very elastic wall -can accommodate 2 liters of food and fluid -deep pits in epithelium lining secrete gastric juice -3 types of gastric cells

1.mucus cells- secrete mucus, lubricate and protects cell lining Mucus -defense against self-digestion -gastric mucosa protects itself from gastric acid w/ layer of mucus, its secretion stimulated by certain prostaglandins -helps, but lining constantly eroded -enough cells generated to replace lining every 3 days 2.chief cells- secrete pepsinogen, inactive form of pepsin 3.parietal cells- secrete hydrochloric acid (HCL) -HCL -gives gastric juice a pH of 2 (dissolve iron nails) -kills bacteria swallowed w/ food -denatures protein, increasing exposure of their peptide bonds to digestive enzyme pepsin -converts pepsinogen to pepsin by exposing active site by removing small portion of molecule ****pepsinogen and HCL do not mix until they enter stomach lumen -disrupts extracellular matrix that binds cells together in meat and plant material -Pepsin (activated by HCL from pepsinogen) -works best at pH of 2 -substrate=proteins -result=hydrolysis of proteins by breaking peptide bonds (smaller polypeptide chains) -is a protease -once pepsinogen activated by acid, activation occurs at increasingly rapid rate because pepsin can activate more pepsinogen. -Ulcers -antacids give temporary relief -Causes -helicobacter pylori -acid-tolerant bacterium -treated by antibiotics -chronic inflammation -caused by toxins -60% of gastric ulcers -90% of duodenal ulcers -results in defect in regulation of gastrin production by that part of the stomach (either decreases or increases) -gastrin stimulates production of gastric acid by parietal cells. If H. pylori stimulates gastrin, the increase in acid can contribute to erosion of mucosa and therefore ulcers -releases proteases and other enzymes that damage stomach lining -NSAID use (non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs(aspirin)) -block the function of cyclooxygenase 1 (cox-1) -cox-1 is essential for production of prostaglandins that secrete mucus that protects gastric mucosa -Chyme (nutrient-rich broth) -splashes back from stomach to esophagus (heart burn reflex) -pyloric sphincter regulates passage of chyme into intestine -Epidemiology -Western countries prevalence roughly = age (i.e. 20% at age 20, 30% at age 30, etc.) -Third-world countries=higher prevalence -transmitted by food, contaminated groundwater, human saliva -History -1958 John Lykoudis, GP in Greece, treated patients with antibiotics -1982 H. pylori rediscovered by 2 Australian scientists, Warren and Marshall (badass) as cause of ulcers -hypothesis was poorly received, so mr. badass drinks a petri dish of organisms from a patient and developed gastritis. -he published his work in 1984 -1997 CDC launched educational campaign -2005 Nobel prize to Marshall and Warren -Stomach cancer -growth of tumors in wall of stomach e) Small intestine -diameter is smaller than large intestine. -most of enzyme hydrolysis of food macromolecules -most of nutrient absorption into blood -huge surface area of 200 sq. meters (tennis court) Three subdivisions 1. duodenum -first 25 cm -acid chyme from stomach mixes with digestive juices from pancreas, liver, gallbladder, and gland cells of intestinal wall itself. 2. jejunum 3. ileum

Enzymes built into membranes and extracellular matrix covering intestinal epithelium a) disaccharidases hydrolyze disaccharides (i.e. maltose (maltase), sucrose (sucrase), and lactose (lactase)) b) dipeptidases split small peptides c) aminopeptidase splits off one amino acid at a time, starting with the free amino acid d) nucleotidases and nucleosidases that first break nucleotides down to nucleosides and then nitrogenous bases, sugars, and posphates -complete digestion process -not secreted -remain in plasma membrane of epithelium cells of villi -active sites exposed to food in small intestine -can digest substrates, then digestion products can be immediately absorbed -epithelium cells lost from tips of villi by abrasion -membrane-bound enzymes continue to work as they mix w/ food in small intestine Villus Structure 1.epithelium -1 thin layer of cells -plasma membranes linked together by tight junctions -prevent molecules from leaking 2.microvilli -1 um long and 0.1 um wide. -lipids and other foods easily pass through -hydrophobic center of epithelium cells absorbed by simple diffusion 3.protein channels in microvilli membranes -allow rapid absorption of foods by facilitated diffusion -pumps -allow rapid absorption by active transport -glucose, amino acids, mineral ions (Na+, Ca++, Fe) -fructose and other hydrophilic food substances at reduced concentration inside body are absorbed by facilitated diffusion -steep concentration gradient for absorption by diffusion, but need help to pass through membrane (channel proteins) 4. Mitochondria in epithelium cells -provide ATP for active transport 5. Pinocytotic vesicles -formed by endocytosis -many of them, especially near microvilli -each contains small droplet of fluid from lumen of ileum -membranes are formed from plasma membrane -contain channels for facilitated diffusion and pumps for active transport -digested foods can be absorbed from vesicles into cytoplasm 6.Blood capillaries inside villus -very close to epithelium so distance for diffusion of foods is very small 7.lacteal -branch of lymphatic system -center of villus -carries away fats after absorption Conclusion -digestion thanks to enzymes, mostly in duodenum -this leaves the jejunum and ileum for absorption as described before -assimilation of nutrients (amino acids, fatty acids, etc.) occurs when the molecules become part of the tissues of the body, when they're converted to other macromolecules. f) large intestine or colon Structure -connected to small intestine at T-shaped junction where sphincter (muscular valve) controls movement of material -main branch of colon shaped like upside down U about 1.5 m long -terminal portion called rectum -feces stored until they can be eliminated -between rectum and anus are 2 sphincters, one involuntary and other voluntary Function -reclaim water that entered alimentary canal as solvent of various digestive juices -reabsorb 90% -feces -cellulose, lignin, bile pigments (from breakdown of erythrocytes), salts -contain bacteria and some intestinal cells that have become detached -gut bacteria (i.e. Escherichia coli) produce gases, including methane and hydrogen sulfide -some produce vitamins (biotin, folic acid, vitamin K, several B vitamins) -absorbed into blood 5. Accessory Organs 1) Pancreas- soft triangular gland -extends from spleen to duodenum -both endocrine (ductless glands) function (produces insulin and glucagon) and an exocrine (with ducts), enzyme-producing function. -produces whole spectrum of hydrolytic enzymes which secretes in an alkaline fluid into duodenum through pancreatic duct Pancreatic juice

-very alkaline -high concentration of bicarbonate ion (HCO3-1) neutralizes acidic chyme entering duodenum from stomach, enabling pancreatic and intestinal enzymes to operate at optimal pH a.Pancreatic lipase -substrate-triglycerides (fats and oils) -products = fatty acids and glycerol -optimum pH=7 b.Pancreatic amylases -substrate=hydrolyzes starch, glycogen, and small polysaccharides -products = disaccharides c.Trypsin and chymostrypsin -enzymes specific for peptide bonds adjacent to certain amino acids -break large polypeptides into shorter chains (like pepsin!) -these three enzymes are endopeptidases bc they hydrolyze bonds within a protein, breaking large polypeptides into smaller ones -carboxypeptidase splits off one amino acid at a time, starting with end of polypeptide that has free carboxyl group -both carboxypeptidase and aminopeptidase (from small intestine) are exopeptidases that pancreas links at the ends of peptide chains, releasing single amino acid d.Trypsinogen -inactive form of trypsin, a protein-digesting enzyme -enteropeptidase (aka enterkinase, found in small intestine)converts trypsinogen to trypsin -trypsin then activates other inactive protein-digesting enzymes 2) Liver -largest gland -located inferior to diaphragm -hides stomach from view -Four lobes -digestive function to produce bile, cholesterol, and plasma proteins. -plasma proteins -fibrinogen (clotting), albumin, globulins (antibodies, defense) -bile -mixture of substances stored in gallbladder until needed -contains no digestive enzymes -does contain bile salts -act as detergents that aid in digestion and absorption of fats -coat tiny fat droplets and keep them from coalescing through emulsification -contains pigments that are by-products of red blood cell destruction in liver -eliminated from body with feces -Bile secretion sequence of events: i) fat-rich food enters the duodenum -hormonal stimulus causes gallbladder to contract -stored bile is released and made available to duodenum ii) bile continually made by hepatocytes (liver cells). -flows through tiny canals (bile canaliculi) which run between adjacent liver cells toward bile duct branches iii) when digestive activity isn't occurring, bile backs up to cystic duct and enters the gallbladder. -it's stored here until needed for the digestive process -Problem w/ fats: -lipase=enzyme that digests fat -breaks fats into triglycerides and glycerol**************** -almost all fat reaches small intestine undigested -fat hydrolysis is a problem bc fat molecules are insoluble in water -lipid molecules tend to coalesce and are only accessible to lipase at lipid-water interface -lipase is water soluble so it dissolves in pancreatic digestive juices -but has an active site to which hydrophobic substrate binds -bile molecules have a hydrophilic end and lipophobic (hydrophobic) end, preventing lipid droplets from coalescing with each other -maximum surface is exposed to lipases -so, problem is fixed w/ bile salts -Blood Flow i)TO the liver through: 1.hepatic artery- a branch of the aorta, bringing oxygenated blood from the heart and lungs 2.hepatic portal vein- brings nutrient-rich (variable amounts****), deoxygenated blood from stomach and intestines -hepatic portal vein divides up into sinusoids or vessels -wider than normal capillaries and have porous walls of a single layer of very thin cells with many pores or gaps between the cells and no basement membrane -blood flowing along the sinusoids are in close contact with surrounding hepatocytes -the sinusoids drain into wider vessels that are branches of the hepatic vein -hepatic artery supplies liver with oxygenated blood -branches of hepatic artery join with sinusoids at various points along their length, providing liver cells with oxygen that they need for aerobic cell

respiration ii) FROM the liver through: 1.hepatic vein brings deoxygenated blood to the right side of the heart via the inferior vena cava -Nutrient Level Regulation and Storage a)regulates levels of nutrients before the blood flows on to the rest of the body -because the blood brought by the haptic portal vein has variable levels of nutrients depending on the amount of digested food that is being absorbed. -high levels of glucose and other nutrients could cause damage to body organs, especially the brain. b)liver cells absorb and store excess nutrients from blood, release them when levels are low -i.e. blood glucose high= insulin stimulates hepatocytes to absorb glucose and convert it to glycogen -i.e. blood glucose low= glucagon stimulates liver cells to break down glycogen and release glucose into the blood. c)iron (used in hemoglobin), retinol (vitamin A) and calciferol (vitamin D) stored in the liver -Other Functions a)synthesis of plasma proteins -rough e.r. produces 90% of the proteins in blood plasma -proteins=albomins (osmotic balance-attracts water), globulins (defense) and fibrinogen (clotting) b)synthesis of cholesterol -synthesized and used in production of bile -the rest is transported by the bile for use elsewhere in the body c)breakdowns of RBCs (erythrocytes) Steps 1. RBC plasma membrane becomes fragile and ruptures, releasing hemoglobin into the blood plasma 2. Kupffer cells in the walls of the sinuoids absorb hemoglobin in the liver through phagocytosis 3. Inside Kupffer cells, hemoglobin is split into heme groups and globins 4. Globins are hydrolyzed to amino acids, then released into the blood 5.Iron is removed from the heme groups, leaving a yellow-colored substance called bile pigment or bilirubin 6. The iron and bile pigment are released into the blood. Iron goes to bone marrow where it is used in the production of hemoglobinin new red blood cells. -bile pigment is absorbed by hepatocytes and forms part of the bile -Alcohol -the liver breaks down alcohols into acetyldehyde with alcohol dehydrogenase, then into acetic acid by the enzyme acetaldehyde dehydrogenase -acetate is converted into fats or carbon dioxide and water -chronic drinkers tax this metabolic pathway -fatty acids build up as plaques in the capillaries around liver cells and those begin to die, leading to cirrhosis Effects by dosage: -Euphoria (BAC= 0.03 to .12%) -Lethargy (BAC= 0.09 to 0.25%) -Confusion (BAC= 0.18 to 0.30%) -Stupor (BAC= 0.35 to 0.50%) -liver cells absorb alcohol and concert it to other substances to detoxify it -fatty deposits build up and can cause hepatitis (liver inflammation) -nausea and jaundice are symptoms -chronic-can cause cirrhosis, normal tissue replaced by scar tissue -liver cells gradually die and are not replaced. -liver function decreases, then death from liver failure Control of Digestive Juice Secretion by Nerves and Hormones Steps 1.We see, smell, taste food, causing nerves to send impulses from brain to stomach to initiate secretion of gastric juice 2.gastrin, a hormone, is released by the stomach wall into the circulatory system, stimulated by certain substances (chemoreceptors and stretch receptors) in the food 3.gastrin stimulates further secretion at mealtime as it gradually recirculates in the blood stream back to the stomach wall, followed by a sustained secretion that continues to add gastric juice to the food for some time.

TRANSPORT/VENTILATION
1. The Cardiac Cycle- one complete sequence of pumping and filling A. Note: *Systole=contraction *Diastole=relaxation *Average cycle= 0.8 seconds (pulse of 65-75 bpm) *7/8ths of the time atria are relaxed and filling with blood from veins. 1. Pulse- pressure wave created by alternating expansion and recoiling of an artery that occurs with each beat of the left ventricle -Influenced by: 1. level of activity 2. emotions 3. changes in posture 2. Blood pressure- pressure blood exerts against the inner walls of the blood vessel -Influenced by: 1. chemicals 2. diet 3. temperature 4. neural factors (fear) 5. renal factors B. Steps 1. Atrial systole, Relaxation phase (diastole) -lasts 0.4 seconds -Blood returning from large veins flows into aria and ventricles. -ventricles 70% full 2. Ventricular systole, Atria contract (atrial systole) -lasts 0.1 seconds -blood forced into ventricles -ventricles now 100% full 3. Atrial Diastole, Ventricles contract (ventricular systole) -lasts 0.3 seconds -forcing blood forced into large arteries. C. Cardiac output =volume of blood per minute that flowed from ventricle pumps into the systemic circuit *Can increase 5x during heavy exercise *Depends on two factors: 1. Rate of contraction 2. Stroke volume =amount of blood pumped by left ventricle in each contraction -average is 75ml, with heart rate of 70 bpm and cardiac output of 5.25 L/minute -Equivalent to total volume of blood in human body 2. Pressure: Atria, Ventricles, and Aorta A. Atria -Pressure greatest during contraction (atrial systole) -Immediately before ventricular contraction when semilunar valves are closed and AV valves open B. Ventricles -Pressure greatest during contraction (ventricular systole) *closes AV valves *opens aortic semilunar valve C. Aorta -Pressure greatest during VENTRICULAR contraction (ventricular systole) 3. Volume: Atria, Ventricles, and Aorta A. Atria -Volume greatest immediately before contraction (atrial systole) B. Ventricles -Volume greatest during filling (relaxed, diastole) -AV valves open -Volume lowest during contraction (systole) *AV valves closed *Aortic valve open -At rest=70% -Atria contract=30% added C. Aorta -Volume greatest when ventricles contract (ventricular systole) 4. Electrocardiogram -Graphs electrical conduction in the heart during: *the stimulus for ventricular contraction *repriming the ventricles -P wave- caused by atrial systole -QRS wave- caused by ventricular systole -T wave coincides with ventricular diastole 5. Heart Sounds =closing of the valves 1. First heart sound=recoil of blood against the closed AV valves (tricuspid/bicuspid). -The valves and heart walls vibrate -ventricular systole 2. Second heart sound=recoil of blood against the closed semilunar valves -atrial and ventricular diastole, everything is relaxed

-Tools: A. Stethoscope B. Phonocardiogram -shows where the sounds are made during the cardiac cycle 6. Control of The Heartbeat and Conduction System of The Heart *The ability of cardiac muscle to contract is intrinsic -its a property of the heart itself and doesnt depend on extrinsic nerve impulses(myogenic heart) *Activity depends on 2 factors: 1. The nerves of the involuntary nervous (autonomic) which can act as brakes or accelerators. 2. The intrinsic conduction system or nodal system that is built into the heart tissue. Nodal System of Conduction A. Consists of specialized muscle tissue but is noncontractile -Cardiac cells that initiate and distribute impulses throughout the heart so that the myocardium contracts in an orderly sequence. B. Nerves and hormones can transmit messages to the pacemaker -One nerve carries messages from the brain to the pacemaker to speed up beating -Second nerve carries messages from the brain to slow down contractions C. Adrenaline -tells the pacemaker to increase the beating of the heart -carried to the pacemaker in the blood Nodes 1. Pacemaker or Sinoatrial (SA) Node -area that initiates each heartbeat -Generates electrical impulses. -Spread rapidly through walls of the atria, making them contract in unison because cardiac muscle cells are electrically coupled through gap junctions. 2. Atrioventricular (AV) Node *relay point *in the wall between the right atrium and right ventricle *signals delayed for about 0.1 second when atria empty into the ventricles 7. Specialized muscle fibers *Bundle branches and Purkinje fibers -Conduct the signals to the apex of the heart and throughout the ventricular wall -signals trigger wave of powerful contractions of both ventricles from apex toward atria, driving blood into large arteries 8. Cardiovascular Disease: Disease of the Heart and Blood Vessels 1. Heart Attack (myocardial infarction) =death of cardiac muscle caused by prolonged blockage of one or more coronary arteries (supply oxygen-rich blood to the heart) -patches of dead cells, blood has to go around 2. Stroke =death of nervous tissue in the brain caused by rupture or blockage of arteries in the head 3. Thrombus =clot that can clog an artery *may form in : 1. a coronary artery (heart attack/myocardial infarction) 2. an artery in the brain (stroke) 3. somewhere else in the circulatory system and reach the heart, brain, or lungs via the blood stream *this transported clot = embolus -can become lodged in an artery too small for the clot to pass -blocks blood flow -can form anywhere -shouldnt sit in one place for two long, in danger of having blood pool and form deep-vein clots 4. Atherosclerosis =narrowing of the arteries -chronic cardiovascular disease of the arteries which leads to 3 previous diseases: heart attack, stoke, thrombus *this lining should be smooth and can be damaged as a result of: a) untreated high blood pressure (hypertension) b) smoking- will irritate and damage the lining c) diet rich in animal fat d) abnormally high concentration of cholesterol in the blood *results in plaque =narrowed areas, buildup of lipids like cholesterol *phagocytes release growth factors at the damaged site of all connective tissues -stimulate the muscle and fibrous tissue in the artery wall to thicken and become infiltrated with circulating, low-density lipids (cholesterol) *calcium deposits can harden plaque, causing in arteriosclerosis (hardening of the arteries) -no longer as expansive -no recoiling, -no contracting -only cure is Ornish diet, almost all vegetarian, protein=condiment, high fiber *arteries become narrowed, embolus likely to become trapped *common sites of thrombus formation Risk Factors 1. Increasing age: old age leads to less flexible blood vessels 2. Being male: estrogen is protective for women until menopause

3. Obesity: strains the heart 4. Physical inactivity: correlated with obesity 5. Diet *High salt-increases blood pressure *Excessive alcohol-stresses cardiovascular system *Increased levels of low density lipoproteins (LDL), increased levels of triglycerides (fats) in the blood -also could be from genetic factors *Trans. fat and sat. fat intake: positively correlated. -casual link substantiated with trans fat but not sat. fat. *cholesterol intake (check book) 6. Having a parent (or other close relative) who suffered a coronary at an early age (heredity/genetic factors) -hypercholesterolemia -dominant gene -cant avoid it, all you can do is minimize risks -untreatable, not even anticholesterol meds 7. Hypertension: damages blood vessels 8. Smoking: raises blood pressure because nicotine causes vasoconstriction -also damages blood vessels 9. Stress 10. Negative correlation-promotes heart health: cis-unsaturated fatty acid intake (olive oil, oily fish like salmon).

Ventilation: create negative pressure and draw air inside; everything diffuses passively 1. Partial Pressure A. Atmospheric pressure =downward force exerted by air on the earths surface -at sea level, equivalent to force of a column of mercury at 760mmHg high B. Partial pressure of oxygen =0.21 x 760mm = 160 mmHg. -atmosphere is 21% oxygen by volume -portion of atmospheric pressure contributed by oxygen C. Partial pressure of CO2 -CO2 carried: 1.) dissolved in plasma (7%) 2.) bicarbonate ions (70%) 3.) as carbaminohemoglobin (25%) -at sea level, 0.23 mmHg -CO2 in blood is temporarily converted to carbonic acid -catalyzed by carbonic anhydrase =enzyme in red blood cells -dissociates (ionizes) into H+ ions and bicarbonate ions -as H ions increase, pH decreases -many of the H+ combine with hb or other plasma protein buffers -pH buffering system to keep you from dropping dead when exercising -as bicarbonate ions accumulate inside the RBC, some of them diffuse into the plasma, down their concentration gradient (facilitative diffusion) 2. Dissolved Gasses -proportional to: -their partial pressure in the air -their solubility in water -Diffusion -from region of higher partial pressure to low partial pressure ex. Blood arriving at lungs has lower PO2 and higher PCO2 than air in alveoli -diffusion of gases in tissues works the same way -oxygen transport -at normal body temperature (98.6 degrees F, 37 degrees C) and air pressure, only 4.5 ml of oxygen can dissolve into a liter of blood -during exercise, a person can consume almost 2L oxygen per minute leading to a need for 500 L of blood to be pumped per minute, unrealistic (you only have 6-8 L in you) -respiratory pigments -special proteins bound to transported oxygen in most animals, instead of dissolved in solution -2 types 1) hemoglobin (4 polypeptide chains) -4 subunits, each with cofactor called heme group -each heme group has an iron atom at its center -each hemoglobin can carry 4 molucules of O2. -must bind oxygen reversibly, loading oxygen in lungs and unloading in other parts of the body -most oxygen in your body attached to hemoglobin 2) myoglobin (1 polypeptide chain) -Peer pressure among O2 molecules -cooperativity in subunits =binding of oxygen to one subunit so that their affinity for oxygen increases -when one subunit unloads its oxygen, the other three follow quickly because of a conformation change that lowers their affinity for oxygen 2. Oxygen Transport 3. Oxygen Dissociation Curve -show relationship between % saturation of hemoglobin and partial pressure of oxygen 1. Normal conditions: a) when pO2 is high, hemoglobin binds with large amounts of oxygen and is almost fully saturated b) when pO2 is low, hemoglobin is only partially saturated and oxygen is released from hemoglobin c) therefore in pulmonary capillaries a lot of oxygen binds with hb but in tissue capillaries where the p02 is lower, hb does not hold as much oxygen and the oxygen is released for diffusion into tissue cells. d) note that at a pO2 of 40 mmHg, the average p02 of tissue cells at rest only 25% of the available oxygen splits from hb and is used (big reserve of oxygen) e)several other factors influence the affinity of hb for oxygen, the strength of the hb-02 binding. Keep in mind that metabolically active cells need oxygen and produce: 1) acids 2) CO2 3) heat 2. Effects of Acidity -Bohr Effect -in an acid environment, hemoglobins affinity for oxygen is lower and oxygen splits more readily from hemoglobin -when H+ ions bind to certain amino acids in Hb, they alter its structure and decrease its oxygen-carrying capacity this makes more O2 available for tissue cells 3. Temperature -as temperature increases, so does the amount of ocygen released from hemoglobin. -temperature rises as a result of activity and infection

4. Fetal hemoglobin -fetal hemoglobin differs from adult hemoglobin in structure and in affinity for oxygen -so when pO2 is low, fetal Hb can carry up to 30% more oxygen -as maternal blood enters the placenta, ocygen is readily transferred to fetal blood. -this is good because oxygen saturation in maternal blood in the placenta is low 5. Chloride Shift -in exchange, chloride ions (Cl-) diffuse from plasma into the RBCs. This exchange of negative ions maintains the ionic balance between plasma and RBCs and is known as the chloride shift. -the net effect of these reactions is that CO2 is carried from tissue cells as bicarbonate ions in plasma. Low pH can also result from lactic acid, a by-product of anaerobic metabolism within muscles. Acclimatization -red blood cell production is stimulated by the hormone, erythropoietin -ventilation rate increases -muscles produce more myoglobin -people living permanently at high altitudes have greater lung surface area and larger lung capacity than those living at sea level -might even have variant hemoglobin 6. Acute Mountain Sickness (High altitude sickness) a) as a person ascends in altitude, the atmospheric pO2 decreases, the alveolar pO2 decreases correspondingly, and less oxygen diffuses into the blood. -ex. At sea level, pO2 is 160mmHg -at 10,000 ft, it decreases to 110mmHg -at 20,000 ft to 73 mmHg -at 50,000 ft to 18mmHg b)symptoms of altitude sickness -shortness of breath -headache -fatigue -insomnia -nausea -dizziness Exercise -leads to increased metabolic activity and therefore an increase in carbon dioxide output which lowers blood pH -this change in pH is detected by chemosensors in the carotid arteries and aorta that send impulses to the breathing center of the brain. -nerve impulses are then sent to the diaphragm and the intercostal muscles to increase contraction or relaxation rates Myoglobin -consists of 1 heme group attached to a globin -used to store oxygen in muscle -myoglobin has higher affinity for oxygen than hemoglobin -at moderate pO2, hb releases oxygen and myoglobin binds it -myoglobin does not release oxygen to tissue until the pO2 is very low in tissues -delays the shift to anaerobic cell respiration asthma -chronic, inflammatory disorder that produces sporadic narrowing of airways -attacks are brought on by spasms of the smooth muscle in the walls of the smaller bronchi and bronchioles, causing the passageways to close partially or completely (bronchoconstriction) -symptoms include periods of coughing, difficulty breathing, and wheezing -the patient has trouble exhaling and air may be trapped in the alveoli during expiration -during the early phase of an acute response, there is excessive secretion of mucus that may clog bronchi and bronchioles and worsen the attack. -in the alte phase (chronic response), inflammation continues, accompanied by fibrosis, edema, and necrosis (death) of bronchial epithelial cells -causes of asthma attack -airways of people with asthma are hyperactive to a variety of stimuli that normally do not trigger bronchoconstriction: allergens such as pollen, house dust mites, mold, or particular food -other common triggers: emotionally upset, aspirin, sulfating agents (used in wine and beer and to keep greens fresh at salad bars), exercise, and breathing cold air or cigarette smoke -effect on ventilation: breathing problems, coughing, and shortness of breath The Bohr effect is the change in an environment that allows for H+ ions to bind to certain amino acids in hemoglobin, altering its structure and decreasing its oxygen-carrying capacity, making more O2 available for tissue cells.