CE 303 Transportation Engineering

Highway Engineering Lecture 10 - Pavement Design Introduction to highway engineering Transportation planning and traffic planning are the initial stages of transportation engineering pertaining to road transport. Having planned highways, the next stage is the construction of the highways. The roads have to be constructed in different ground conditions and in different environments. The conditions and environments pose complex issues in highway construction. In Sri Lankan context, these issues are, (1) Congestion on urban roads (2) Accidents (3) Major roads running through built up areas (Cities and townships) (4) Narrow roads (5) Structural inadequacy of pavements (6) Poor geometrical design (7) Small structures such as bridges (8) Funding for maintenance and rehabilitation (9) Funding for expansion and new facilities (10) Environmental pollution These issues provide the following challenges to the highway engineer. (1) Challenges of design, construction, rehabilitation, reconstruction and expansion (i.) Design and reconstruct using modern technologies (ii.) Redesign older facilities to meet todays demands. (iii.) Secure budget provisions. (iv.) Adopt cost effective and environmentally sound solutions. (2) Challenges of safety and environment (i.) Identify necessary safety requirements of the road system especially, to protect vulnerable road users. (ii.) Implement regulations controlling noise, air and water pollution. 10.2 Pavement Design The main purpose of a pavement is to provide a means of reducing the stress due to the wheel load to a value bearable to ground under the pavement. Fig. 10.1 shows how the high stress that exists at the point of wheel contact is reduced down the pavement structure until the stress is brought down to a level acceptable to the less competent naturally existing ground called the subgrade.
High stress at wheel contact

Road surface
dep th

Reduced stress on natural ground

Formation level

Natural ground (Subgrade)

Fig. 10.1 Distribution of wheel load to the ground 1

St re

ss r e

duc in

Pavement

ga

long

The pavement may be a single layer of one material or multiple layers of different material. There are three types of pavements, which are, 1. Flexible pavements 2. Rigid pavements 3. Composite pavements Flexible pavements are constructed using granular material and bitumen. They can be subdivided into two types, conventional flexible pavements which consist of two or more layers of different material and full depth flexible pavements which have only one layer. Rigid pavements are constructed of Portland cement concrete (PCC) Composite pavements have a base layer of PCC and a surface layer of hot-mix asphalt. They have strength of rigid pavements and smooth surface of flexible pavements. There are two factors which lead to the development of layered flexible pavement construction. They are (i.) the stresses from vehicles travelling on the road are highest near the surface (ii.) a smooth riding surface is necessary to reduce fatigue due to varying stresses on surface.

Carriageway Wearing course Kerb Basecourse Camber Roadbase Sub-base Formation Subgrade
Fig. 10.2 A typical section through a flexible pavement Fig. 10.2 shows a typical cross section of a flexible pavement. The functions of the different layers of flexible pavement are as follows, 1. Wearing course (a) Withstands direct traffic loading. (b) Provides smooth riding (c) Provides skid resistant surface (d) Waterproofs the pavement 2. Basecourse (a) Supports wearing course (b) Assists protecting layers below 3. Roadbase (a) Main load spreading layer of the pavement structure 4. Sub-base (a) Assists load spreading (b) Assists subsoil drainage (c) Acts as temporary road for construction traffic 2

Walkway Backfill

The design of a flexible pavement is based on, (i.) The strength of the subgrade. California Bearing Ratio (CBR) is one measure of subgrade strength. (ii.) The number of wheel load applications on the pavement during the design life. (iii.) An empirical relationship, layer thicknesses have with CBR value of subgrade and number of wheel load applications. (iv.) Locally available materials for construction. 10.2.1 Selection and properties of materials used in pavement layers To design the pavement layers it is necessary to select the materials for the pavement construction. The different layers can be constructed with the materials described below, Sub-base 1. Granular sub-base, Type 1 2. Graded Granular sub-base, Type 2. (Crushed rock, slag or other hard material.) Smaller size material than Type1. Therefore, natural sands and gravels.) Table 10.3 Grading of sub-base materials Percentage passing Sieve size Type 1 Type 2 75 mm 100 100 37.5 mm 85-100 85-100 10 mm 40-70 45-100 5 mm 25-45 25-85 8-22 8-45 600 m 0-10 0-10 78 m Type 1 is stronger. It has good particle distribution and hence good interlocking quality. Roadbase can be made of the following materials, 1. Wet mix macadam Crushed rock graded and mixed with 2-6% water. Laid in 200 mm layers and compacted or rolled. 2. Dry bound macadam 37.5 mm to 50.0 mm single size crushed rock laid in 75-100 mm thick layers and rolled. A 25mm thick 4.7mm down crushed rock layer is laid on top and vibrated into the course layer. Repeat until no more smaller material can be worked in. Excess fines removed and additional course layers are laid to build the required thickness of roadbase. 3. Dense bituminous macadam Crushed rock (fines <3.35 mm 38%) mixed with bitumen (10 pen to 200 pen, 50 58oC ect). Good load spreading properties 4. Rolled asphalt Well graded crushed rock (35% fine aggregate and 65% coarse aggregate) plant mixed with 50 70 % pen grade bitumen. 5. Lean concrete

6. Cement bound roadbase 7. Soil cement and cement bound granular road base. Mixtures of soil or granular material and cement, laid full depth in one layer and rolled. 3

Surfacing has either the wearing course only or wearing course with a base course. 1. Wearing course (a) Bituminous surface dressing and a layer of chippings <10 mm. Rolled and excess chippings removed. (b) Double bituminous surface treatment. Tack coat, aggregate layer, rolled. Bitumen layer, aggregate later rolled followed by bituminous surface dressing. (c) Hot rolled asphalt. The Strongest and durable. Made of high fines. Laid 40 mm thick with 20 mm coated chippings rolled into the surface for better skid resistance. 2. Basecourse (a) Open textured macadam. Coarse graded, no fines <3.35 mm. Thickness 60 80 mm for 40mm. Thickness 35 50 mm for 20mm. (b) Dense basecourse Well graded crushed rock (35% fine aggregate and 65% coarse aggregate), Thickness 60 80 mm for 40mm. Thickness 50 60 mm for 28 mm. Thickness 35 50 mm for 20mm. (c) Rolled asphalt basecourse. 50 75 mm layer of rolled asphalt C B R Test CBR test is an indirect test for the determination of the strength of a soil. The test is carried out by subjecting a sample of the soil held in a mould to the load of a standard plunger. The plunger penetrates into the soil. Fig.10.3 (a) and (b) show schematic arrangement of test equipment for a CBR test. The test compares the loads on the plunger to penetrate 2.5 mm into the soil sample and a standard sample of crushed rock. The surcharge load applied using a steel disc represents the loading condition above the subgrade after laying of pavement. CBR value is an undefined index of strength which depends on the soil condition at the time of testing. It is given by the ratio expressed as percentage of load for 2.5mm of penetration in soil sample to load for same penetration in standard crushed rock sample. Fig. 10.4 shows details of mould, plunger and test procedure. Load is applied at the penetration rate of 1.27 mm per min. Fig. 10.5 shows load vs penetration graphs. An upward convex graph is expected as shown for sample A. Sometimes the graph behaves as shown for sample B. In this case a correction is required to the graph and the graph is shifted by the amount x shown. x is the point at which the tangent to the curve of sample B meets the x axis. The tangent is drawn to get an approximate correction to the curve.

Load Plunger

Surcharge weight Penetration Sample

Load P lunger

S urcharge weight P enetration Crushed rock

(a) Penetration in sample (b) Penetration in standard crushed rock Fig. 10.3 Schematic arrangement of test equipment for CBR test. 10.2.3 Wheel load applications 4

The other required data for pavement design is the number of times wheel loads are applied to the pavement. This is based on the design life, the anticipated number of different types of vehicles using the pavement during the design life and the conversion (equivalent) factors for each vehicle type which converts an axle loading to a standard axle loading. Table 10.1 gives these equivalent factors which are based on the empirical relationship, .

AxleLoad Equvalent Factor ( Ef ) = 8160

4 .5

(10.1)

10.2.3.1

Estimation of the amount of traffic and the cumulative number of equivalent standard axles (esa)

Base year traffic flow is the Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT) of the base year. The no of vehicles is converted into equivalent standard axles (esa) using the equivalent factors given in Table 10.1. Base year esa (esabase) = AADT x 365 x Ef (10.2)

Plunger 49.6 mm dia end.

CBR Test

Surcharge Weight equivalent to weight of pavement

152 mm

1. Rate of penetration is 1.27mm/min. 2. Record load at penetration intervals of 0.25 mm up to 7.5 mm. 4. Determine moisture content 3. Plot Load Vs Penetration.

height = 51 mm

Collar
height = 127 mm

Mould

Note: 1. Maximum particle size is 19.05 mm 2. Soil compacted in the mould in three layers using 61 blows per layer with a rammer weighing 2.5 kg. Fig. 10.4 Details of mould, plunger and test procedure

Load on plunger Vs Penetration for Standard crushed stone

5

Load on plunger (kN) Penetration (mm)

11.5 2.0

17.6 4.0

22.2 6.0

26.3 8.0

30.3 10.0

33.5 12.0

Standard crushed stone

13.24 Load in kN CBR of A = 7.15 x 100 13.24 Sample A

Examples

Sample B 7.15 5.70 CBR of B = 5.70 x 100 13.24 x 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 x 2.5 Penetration in mm

Fig. 10.5 The Load on plunger Vs Penetration graphs Table 10.1 Equivalent factors for different axle loads Single and dual Wheel Load (103 kg) Axle Load (103 kg) Equivalent Factor (Ef) 1.5 3.0 0.01 2.0 4.0 0.04 2.5 5.0 0.11 3.0 6.0 0.25 3.5 7.0 0.50 4.0 8.0 0.91 4.5 9.0 1.55 5.0 10.0 2.50 5.5 11.0 3.83 6.0 12.0 5.67 6.5 13.0 8.13 7.0 14.0 11.30 7.5 15.0 15.50 8.0 16.0 20.70 8.5 17.0 27.20 9.0 18.0 35.20 9.5 19.0 44.90 10.0 20.0 56.50 Example: Base Year Equivalent Standard Axles (esa) Axle load of vehicle class AADT of vehicle class Equivalent Factor(Ef) Base year esa 6

3.0 450 4.0 380 5.0 250 6.0 100 7.0 85 8.0 75 9.0 40 10.0 35 11.0 25 12.0 15 Use growth factor(r) for each vehicle class and the assigned design esa.

0.01 1643 0.04 5548 0.11 10038 0.25 9125 0.50 15513 0.91 24911 1.55 22630 2.50 31938 3.83 34949 5.67 31043 life (n years) to calculate cumulative (10.3)

esacum = esabase

(1 + r ) n 1
r

Thus, the wheel load applications during design life are calculated as follows, Assess base year traffic flow by classes of commercial vehicles Determine the axle loads and growth rate of each vehicle class Apply the equivalent axle load factors and growth rates to base year traffic flow to determine the pavement damaging effect [equivalent standard axles, (esa)] during the design life. The esacum can be directly used to find the thicknesses of pavement layers if the design charts of Road Note 29 are employed. In order to use the design charts of Road Note 31 Table 10.2 Traffic and subgrade strength classes. Traffic Classes Subgrade Strength Classes 6 Traffic Class 10 esa Range Subgrade Strength Class Range of CBR % T1 <0.3 S1 2 T2 0.3 0.7 S2 3-4 T3 0.7 1.5 S3 5-7 T4 1.5 3.0 S4 8-14 T5 3.0 6.0 S5 15-29 T6 6.0 10.0 S6 30 T7 10.0 17.0 T8 17.0 30.0 It is necessary to convert the esacum into Traffic Classes and CBR values into subgrade strength classes as given in Table 10.2. Example. Calculation of cumulative esa Growth Factor Design life Cumulative esa Axle load of vehicle class Base year esa (%) (n years) (esacum) 3.0 1643 4 10 19726 4.0 5548 3 10 63602 5.0 10038 3 10 115074 6.0 9125 4 10 109556 7.0 15513 5 10 195121 8.0 24911 5 10 313328 9.0 22630 3 10 259428 10.0 31938 4 10 383451 11.0 34949 4 10 419601 12.0 31043 5 10 390456 Total 2269343

The traffic class is T5

10.2.4 Road Note 31

Overseas Road Note 31- A guide to the structural design of bitumen-surfaced roads in tropical and sub tropical countries published by Transport Research Laboratory (TRL), United Kingdom gives a simple but adequate design procedure for most Sri Lankan roads. The charts give directly the pavement layer thicknesses for different combinations of Traffic and Subgrade strength classes. Please refer to Charts 1 to 8. Fig. 10.6 gives a flow chart leading to the design of flexible using steps discussed in this note. Fig. 10.7 gives the legend of description of pavement materials necessary to refer Charts 1 to 8.

Assess geotechnical problems

Survey Possible Routes

Search for sources of materials Search for sources of materials Measure traffic volume by class

Assess Traffic

Measure axle load Choose design life Calculate cumulative traffic loading

Measure Subgrade Strength

Assign climatic regime Test soils Define uniform sections Design earth works

Select Pavement Materials

Locate sources Test properties Accept reject or modify Assess severe sites

Select Pavement Structure Build

Cost analysis Review local experience Risk analysis (or full appraisal )

Design drainage
Fig. 10.6 Flow chart for the construction of a highway pavement

Double surface dressing Flexible bituminous surface Bituminous surface (Usually a wearing course WC and a basecource BC ) Bituminous roadbase RB Granular roadbase GB 1 - GB3 Granular sub-base GS Granular capping layer or selected subgrade fill GC Cement or lime -stabilised roadbase 1 CB1 Cement or lime -stabilised roadbase 2 CB2 Cement or lime -stabilised sub -base CS
Fig. 10.7 Legend of definitions of pavement materials for use with Charts 1 to 8

Chart 1 GRANULAR ROADBASE / SURFACE DRESSING

T1
SD 150

T2
SD 150 225*

T3
SD 200 200

T4
SD 200

T5
SD 200

T6
SD 225

T7

S1

175

250*

300 *

325*

300

300

300

300

300

300

SD SD 150 200 200 SD 200 SD 200 225* 150 200 175 200 200 200 200 SD 225 200 275* 300* SD 200 225

S2

SD 150

SD

SD

S3

SD 150 200

SD 150

SD 200

200

250

225

275*

325*

350*

SD

S4

SD 150 125

SD 150 175

SD 200 150

SD 200

SD 200

225

275 200 250 SD

S5

SD 150 100

SD 150 100

SD 175 100 SD 175

SD 200 125 SD 200

SD 225 150 SD 225

250 175 SD 250

S6
Notes

SD 150

SD 150

* Up to 100mm of sub-base may be substituted with selected fill provided the sub-base is not reduced to les than the roadbase thickness or 200mm whichever is the greater. The substitution ratio of sub-base to selected fill is 25mm-32mm. A cement or lime stabilized sub-base may also be used. 10

Chart 2 COMPOSITE ROADBASE (UNBOUND AND CEMENTED) / SURFACE DRESSING

T1
SD

T2
SD 150 175

T3
SD 150 200

T4
SD 150 225

T5
SD 150

T6
SD 150 125 275 150

T7
SD 150 125 175

S1

150 150

300

300

300

300

300

300

300

SD 125

SD 150 150 200

SD 150 175 200

SD 150 200

SD 150 250

SD 150 125 125

SD 150 125 175 200 SD 150 125 150 150 SD 150 125 175 SD 150

S2

150 200

200

200 SD 150

200 SD 150 125

S3

SD 125 150 100

SD 125 150 125

SD 150 150 125

SD 150

225 175 150 SD 150 200 250 150 SD 150

125 150 SD 150 125 125

S4

SD 125 150

SD 125 175

SD 150 175

SD

SD 125 125

SD 150 125

SD 150 150

SD 150 175

SD 150 200

S5

125 125

250 SD 150 175

SD

S6

SD 150

SD 150

SD 175

SD 200

SD 225

150 150

Note

Sub-base to fill substitution not permitted

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Chart 3 GRANULAR ROADBASE / SEMI-STRUCTURAL SURFACE

T1

T2

T3
50 175

T4
50 175 250*

T5
50 175

T6
50 200

T7

S1

200

300*

325*

300

300

300

300

50

50 175

50 175

50 200

S2

175 175

225*

275*

300*

200

200

200 50 175

200 50 200

50

50 175 275*

S3

175 225

325*

350*

50

50 175

50 175 250

50 200

S4

175 150

275*

200 50 175 150 50 200 50 200

50 150

50 175 125 50 175

S5 S6
Notes 1 2

100 50 150

175 50 225

* Up to 100mm of sub-base may be substituted with selected fill provided the sub-base is not reduced to les than the roadbase thickness or 200mm whichever is the greater. The substitution ratio of sub-base to selected fill is 25mm-32mm. A cement or lime stabilized sub-base may also be used.

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Chart 4 COMPOSITE ROADBASE / SEMI-STRUCTURAL SURFACE

T2

T3
50 150

T4
50 150

T5
50 150

T6
50 150 125

T7
50 150 125 150

T8
50 150 150 150

S1

175

200

250 125

300

300

300

300

300

300

50

50 150 200

50 150 225

50 150 125 125

50 150 125 150

50 150 150 150

S2

150 175

200

200

200

200 50 150

200 50 150 125

200 50 150 150 125 150 50 150 150 150 50 150 125

50

50 150 150 150

50 150 200 150

S3

150 150 125

250 125 150 150 50 150 125

S4

50 150 150

50 150 175

50 150 225

50 150

250

150 50 150 225 50 150 150

S5

50 125 125

50 150 125

50 150 150

50 150 175

125 50 150 150

S6
Notes 1

50 150

50 175

50 200

50 100 150

Sub-base to fill substitution not permitted

13

Chart 5 GRANULAR ROADBASE / STRUCTURAL SURFACE T2 T3 T4 T5 T6

100 200

T7
125 225

T8
150

250

S1
225 * 225 250

350

350

350

150

S2

100 200

125 225 250

225 *

225

250

200

200

200 150

S3

100 200

125 250 225

250

250

275

S4
100 200 125 225

150

250

175

175

175

S5
100 200 100 125 225 100

150

250 100 150

S6
100 200 125 225

250

Notes

1 2

* Up to 100mm of sub-base may be substituted with selected fill provided the sub-base is not reduced to les than the roadbase thickness or 200mm whichever is the greater. The substitution ratio of sub-base to selected fill is 25mm-32mm. A cement or lime stabilized sub-base may also be used. 14

Chart 6 COMPOSITE ROADBASE / STRUCTURAL SURFACE

T2

T3

T4

T5

T6
100 150

T7
125 150

T8
150 150 125

S1

200

250 125

350

350

350

125 100 150 200 150 250

150 150 125 125

S2

200

200

200 150 150 225 125 150

100

125 150

S3

150 175 125 200 125

100

125 150 200 150 225

S4

150 175

100

125 150 150 125 100 150

150 150 150 150 100 150

S5

150 150 100 100

S6
Notes 1 Sub-base to fill substitution not permitted

150

15

Chart 7 BITUMINOUS ROADBASE / SEMI-STRUCTURAL SURFACE

T2

T3

T4
SD 150

T5
50 125 225*

T6
50 150 225*

T7
50 175 225*

T8
50 200

S1

200

250*

350

350

350

350

350

SD 150

50 125 225*

50 150 225*

50 175 225*

50 200

S2

200

250*

200 SD 150

200

200 50 150 275*

200 50 175

200 50 200

50 125 250

S3

250

275*

275*

SD

50 125 200

50 150 200

50 175 200 50 175 125 50 175

50 200

S4

150 175 SD

200 50 200 125 50 200

50 125 125

50 150 125 50 150

S5

150 125 SD

S6
Notes 1

50 125

150

* Up to 100mm of sub-base may be substituted with selected fill provided the sub-base is not reduced to less than the roadbase thickness or 200mm whichever is the greater. The substitution ratio of sub-base to selected fill is 25mm-32mm. A cement or lime stabilized sub-base may also be used.

16

Chart 8 CEMENTED ROADBASE / SURFACE DRESSING

T1
SD

T2
SD

T3
SD

T4
SD

T5
SD

T6
SD

T7
200 250

150

150 175 350

175 175 350

200 200

200 225

S1

150

350

350

350

350

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

SD

S2

150 150 225

150 175 225

175 175 225

200 175 225

SD

200 225 225

SD

200

275 225
SD

SD

SD

SD

150

150 150 125

175 150 125

200 175 125

SD

200 200 125

SD

200 225 125

SD

S3

150 125

S4

SD

SD

SD

200 100

200 150 100

SD

200 200 100

SD

150 150

150 150

175 150
SD

100
SD

S5

SD

SD

175 175 100

SD

200 175
SD

200 200
SD

150 100
SD

150 100
SD

150
SD

S6
Notes

150

150

175

200

225

250

A granular sub-base may also be used.

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