Won Buddhism as a Korean New Religion Author(s): Michael Pye Source: Numen, Vol. 49, No. 2 (2002), pp.

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WON BUDDHISM AS A KOREAN NEW RELIGION

MICHAEL PYE

Summary Won Buddhism was founded in the early 20th century,but although it is one of new religions in modem Korealittle researchhas been undertaken the more important on it to date by non-members.In this introductory study based on field observations and text studies, essential informationis presentedwhich will providea startingpoint for furtherinvestigations.This includes an outline of the historicaldevelopment,set in motion by the founderPak Chung-Bin(1891-1943), and of the generalfeaturesof attentionis given to Won Buddhism'srole in Won Buddhismas a religion. Particular to the questionof genderbalance,and to the sense in which modernisation processes, Won Buddhism should be regardedas a "new religion" on the one hand and as a on form of "Buddhism" the otherhand.Of methodologicalinterestis a sub-discussion the article about the delicate relationshipbetween believers' and running through observers'accountsof a religion. Fourillustrationsare included.

Introduction Won Buddhism, in Korean Won Pulgyo (or Wonbulgyol), is one of the major new religions of modem Korea. It may be said to have originated in the year 1916 when, on 28 April, its founder Pak Chung-Bin (Park Chungbin) experienced an awakening to "the truth." Pak came to be known to his followers as the Venerable Sot'aesan, and the religion which developed under his leadership was later termed Won Buddhism, meaning Perfect Buddhism. The designation "Buddhism" arises because, while his awakening and message were regarded by himself and his followers as being independently authentic, he retrospectively identified them with those of the historical Buddha, dating
system andvariants which may also be found in relevantsources, especially Won Buddhistwritings, are addedin bracketsat the firstoccurrence.For convenience,the accent is omittedfrom "Won"when used in the anglicised propernoun Won Buddhism. ? KoninklijkeBrill NV, Leiden (2002) Also availableonline - www.brill.nl NUMEN, Vol. 49
1 Transliteration from Koreanfollows the McCune-Reischauer

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from more than two thousand years earlier. This identification will be analysed further below. During the course of the 20th century, with all its political sufferings and changes, Won Buddhism has established itself firmly within Korean society, developing a wide range of interesting features. On general historical grounds alone, therefore, it deserves to receive more attention than it has hitherto enjoyed. One looks in vain, however, for any general introduction to this religion in English written by an independent observer.2 While various non-members have visited Won Buddhist institutions and engaged in discussions with representative persons, none seem to have felt called upon to write even a brief general account of the religion. Admittedly even a brief introduction, if it is to be fair, requires somewhat more knowledge than casual impressions alone can provide. The purpose of the present contribution is to fill this gap by giving a short, reliable, observer's account, which can serve as an orientation for more specialised studies in the future. At the same time a few matters of particular interest for the history of religions are raised, such as the role of Won Buddhism in the moderisation of Korea, the question of gender balance in Won Buddhism, and the appraisal of Won Buddhism as a "new religion" on the one hand and as "Buddhism" on the other hand. Won Buddhism has not gone completely unnoticed in surveys of Korean religion. Frits Vos, for example, mentions it very briefly in his substantial history Die Religionen Koreas.3 James Huntley Grayson,
Possibly the first general academic account of Won Buddhism in a western thoughvery short,was my own articlein Germanentitled languageby a non-member, in und Modernitatim Won-Buddhismus" S. Keil, J. Jetzkowitz,and M. "Innovation K6nig (eds.), Modernisierungund Religion in Siidkorea,Koln: WeltforumVerlag, 1998. The presentarticlebuilds on the informationgiven there, providingadditional materialand reflections and a few small corrections.The same volume contains a contributionby Woo Hai-Ran entitled "Die Dialogbewegung aus der Perspektive On nicht-westlicher Religionen. Das Beispiel des Won-Buddhismus." Woo Hai-Ran's recent dissertationand on publicationsfrom the believers' point of view, see note 7 below. 3 Stuttgart1997. 2

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in his wide-rangingand generally excellent work Korea:A Religious History, gives it a little more attention,in fact just enough to throw up one or two problems.4His view that Won Buddhism is "clearly an orthodox Buddhist movement"5is not shared here, as will be clear from the more detailed explorationof the relationbetween Won Buddhism and the general traditionof Buddhismundertakenbelow. Furthermore, as, Grayson'suse of the term "syncretism" in effect, a synonym for synthesis, is not regardedas appropriate the present by writer. Such usage is quite widespreadboth in missiological and in anthropologicalwriting, but it is an equation which makes the term "syncretism"itself redundantand obscures the interesting,dynamic features of syncretisticsituations.6Finally his discussion of possible influence from Christianityon Won Buddhism is plausible, but this question seems to requiremore detailed historical study. It seems a little out of balanceto have raisedit in such a shortaccount,especially when thereare,quiteobviously,innumerable othersourcesof influence on Won Buddhismfrom within East Asian religious culture. There are probablyvariousreasons for the lack of roundedpresentationsof Won Buddhismby specialists in the study of religions. One reasonis undoubtedlythatit has not impactedcontroversially weston ern societies as has, for example, the UnificationChurch,in Korean T'ongil-kyo (Tongil-gyo). Another reason is that, in spite of its notable social significance and influence in Korea, it has not played a controversialpolitical role as have, for example, the Soka Gakkaior Aum Shinrikyo in Japan,the Cao Dai in Vietnam or more recently the Falungongin China.Not a few specialistsin the study of religions feel understandably called upon to provide studies of these religious
4 Oxford 1989, see especially pages 250-254. 5 Ibid. 254. p. 6 See Numen 18 (1971) 83-93; "Synmy articles "Syncretismand ambiguity," cretismversus synthesis,"Methodand Theoryin the Studyof Religion 6 (1994) 217229 (on precisely this point); and "Syncretism: Buddhismand Shint6 on one island," in I. Dolezalova, B. Horyna and D. Papousek (eds.), Religions in Contact: Selected Proceedingsof the Special IAHRConferenceheld in Brno,August23-26, 1994, Bmo 1996, 159-162.

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groups which are constantly referred to in the media for various reasons. This leads to a relative neglect of less controversial groups such as Won Buddhism, even though these are really just as important, if not more so. Such uncontroversial religions may be of interest for a wide variety of reasons, just a few of which are taken up below. In any case we should not overlook that Won Buddhism simply forms part of the overall field of the study of religions, and is therefore worthy of attention by those who specialise in this field. WonBuddhism's self-presentation A rather different reason for neglect of the subject may be, ironically, that Won Buddhism itself has a large number of highly educated representatives who are perfectly capable of presenting their own religion to the wider world. In this regard a particularly important role is played by Wonkwang University (Wonkwang Taehak), an impressive institution of higher learning situated at the religion's headquarters in Iksan City. A quantity of the resultant literature in Korean has recently been analysed in considerable detail by Woo Hai-Ran, a non-member, in a doctoral dissertation.7 The publications promoted by Won Buddhist organisations, and published by its own publishing house, are of course indispensable sources for informing any first acquaintance with the religion. Of fundamental significance here is The Scripture of WonBuddhism (Won
7 This dissertation,entitled Kritische Untersuchungenvon Erklirungsmodellen des was zu Neuen Religionen unter besondererBeriicksichtigung Won-Buddhismus, in submittedsuccessfully at the Universityof Marburg February2001. It is probably the first dissertationdealing with Won Buddhismby someone who is not a member. A significantproportion the thesis is devotedto more generalquestionsin the study of of new religions. One extensive chapteris specifically relatedto Won Buddhism,its main purpose being to analyse Won Buddhist attitudestowardspreviously existing religious traditions in Korea and to other movements in modem Korean society. These particular themes aredocumented,andanalysed,with extensivebibliographical referencesto works in Koreanby membersof the religion, which will surely be of value to future researchers.Other dissertationslocated by a general bibliographical searchseem to derivefrom members.

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in (1988), whichhad appeared an olderEnglishversion PulkyoKyojun) as The Canonical Textbookof WonBuddhism(WonPulkyo Kyojun) (1971).8 The designation of this book as a "scripture," presumably is quite appropriate, by analogy with the "Christian" scriptures, partly because of the fact thatits contentsarepresumedto be normative.This is why such care was taken to provide not only the first translation, but later also a revised version. It is also appropriate because of the for the work is presented as "scriptures" are physical appearance, widely imaginedto appear.It has a formal,darkcover, nicely rounded corers, gilded edges to the pages and an integralcloth bookmark.The containsan overviewof the doctrine,instructions the daily for scripture of the religion, and "The Discourses of the Great Master," practice i.e. the founderPak Chung-Bin,known to believers as the Venerable Sot'aesan. These discourses or sayings are set out, in many cases, in the context of brief narratives dialogues indicatingthe occasion on or which they were delivered. It might be arguedthat thereis hardlya bettergeneralintroduction to Won Buddhism,from the insider'sperspective,thanthe "scripture" itself. Neverthelessit is also interestingto readthe less formalarticles and chronicles, sometimes illustrated, which can be found in the English language journal entitled Won Buddhism, published for a general readershipfrom 1962 onwards. Useful orientationmay be found, too, in the booklet by ChungBong-Kil entitledAn Introduction to WonBuddhism,Wonbulgyo, which the copyrightis held by the of OverseasMissions Bureauof Won Buddhism.9Here are to be found a brief accountof the origins of Won Buddhism,the main outlines of its doctrineand practice,and some selected texts. There are also significanthistorical materialswhich can be freely at inspected in an exhibition room at the Won Buddhistheadquarters Iksan. This exhibition gives not only hagiographical presentationsof
8The 1971 edition was published in Seoul, with 384 pages, by Kyohak-sa Publishing Co. The 1988 edition was published at Iri (now Iksan) by Won Kwang PublishingCo., with 394 pages. 9 Iri, now Iksan, 1994, second correctededition.

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documentssuch as the life of the founderbut also extremelyimportant period.Such documents postersandbooks fromthe early,foundational otherthings,the relationship betweenthe innovatory, illustrate,among moderising thrustof the new religionandcentralthemesof Mahayana Buddhism,a point which will receive furtherattentionbelow. In view of all this informationit may not be immediately clear, especially to believers, what an outside observer can really add. However the informationreferredto in this section is all presented from within the sharedperspectiveof the believers.The more popular presentationsare quite pious and the missionaryintention is usually more or less clear. Although there is no unusual problem about the found withinthe literature Won Buddhism,theredoes of presentations remaina question as to whetherthis alone is a satisfactorysource of informationaboutWon Buddhismfor the wider world. There may be some value,even for believers,in a generalaccountwhich is knownnot to be the presentation a believer.On the otherhand such an account of may also give rise to reflectionswhich may or not be of concernto the for membersbut are appropriate further enquiryin the generalstudyof
religions.

Froma methodologicalpoint of view it is necessaryto be conscious of what I have termed the "tension with believer factor" (TWB factor).10In this case there have not so far been any disturbing problems. However small difficulties may arise. How, for example, should the non-memberhistorianof religions refer to the founderof Won Buddhismand his successors in the highest office? One would not normally, in a historical writing, refer to "The Lord Buddha" or "The Blessed Virgin Mary"or "The Holy Father." Similarly it is doubtfulwhethertitles like "TheVenerableSot'aesan"or "TheGreat in Master"are really appropriate scholarly writing when referringto the founder Pak Chung-Bin. In this article the religious titles and names have in fact been used in some places, in orderto communicate the appropriate No atmosphere. disrespectis intendedin othercontexts
10 Mainly in teaching contexts, by means of a diagram, but also paraphrased elsewhere.

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where, for ease of reading, the religious names are used without the full titles, or where a historicalname alone is used. This usage may seem to fall shortof consistencyboth from a religious and from a nonreligious point of view, thus providinga simple example of the TWB factor. Other examples of this delicate interfacewill occasionally be foundbelow.
Personal impressions

It is of course important,when attemptingto characterisea living religion, to complement these immensely significant documentary materials with direct personal impressions. I would therefore like to note quite explicitly the occasions which lie behind the present account. My first encounterwith Won Buddhism occurredduring a conference of the International Association for Buddhist Studies in in 1993. During a lectureby ProfessorRyu ByungOxford,England, Duk of WonkwangUniversity,all the participantsat the conference appearedto be learningsomethingabout Won Buddhismfor the first time, and I myself had the privilege of serving as interpreterfor ProfessorRyu (via a commonknowledgeof Japanese)duringa lengthy and enthusiasticallyreceived discussion period."lIt was some years of later,in 1991 and in 1997, that I had the opportunity visiting Won Buddhistinstitutionsin Korea.For me, as for most visitors,the starting points then were the WonBuddhistCentrein Seoul, the mainreligious centreof WonBuddhismin the city of Iri (laterrenamedas Iksan),and the already mentionedWonkwangUniversity,in KoreanWonkwang Taehak,the precise meaningof which is "Universityof PerfectLight." 1991 saw the one hundredth of anniversary the birthof the founder, "GreatMaster"Sot'aesan, celebratedat Iri. These celebrationswere presided over by the then "PrimeMaster"Taesan (Daesan), whose
1l Professor Ryu has also published articles in Japanese (as well as much in Korean) on topics such as "Wonbukky6no Kankoku shakai ni oyoboshita eikyo" (The influence of Won Buddhism on Koreansociety) 1984, and "Kankokubukky6 shis6 no tokuch6"(Special featuresof KoreanBuddhistthought) 1998. Full details of the commemorationvolumes in which these appeared,in Japan,are not immediately available.

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appearanceat an open air rally was welcomed rapturously thouby sands of believers. It was during this year that the commemorative hall with its statueof the founderSot'aesanwas inaugurated. Beneath it in the same building is the museum mentionedearlier.At the anniversarycelebrationsa numberof foreign guests took partin a symposium of which the proceedingswere publishedin substantialcommemorativevolumes by the EditorialCommitteefor PapersPresented at the One Hundredth of Anniversary the Birthdayof the GreatMaster
Sot'aesan.'2

In January1997 I was permitted visit the WonBuddhistKangnam to (Gangnam)Temple in Seoul, directedby "DharmaSister" the ReverendPak Chung-Soo(ParkChung-Soo),underwhose guidanceI was also introduced othercentresof WonBuddhistactivityin the capital. to this visit I sharedin the daily routineof the KangnamTemple, During including early morning meditation,and observed the course of the Sunday morning service. ReverendPak and her assistantssparedno effort in introducingme to variousaspects of their daily work, which has a strongsocial component.Following this up with a visit to Iksan, I held conversationswith leading membersof WonkwangUniversity With his help I arrangedby the kind efforts of Dr. Ryu Sung-Tae.13 was also grantedan interviewwith the VenerableChwasan(Jwasan), who had been installedas Prime Masterin 1995. Apartfrom answering my own generalquestions,he dwelt in some detail on the problems of environmental conservationand world peace, emphasisingthat all humanity"inthe west, as in the east"shouldworktogetherfor the solution of these problems.Both of these visits were made possible by the kind supportof Chon Pal-Khn,a "Dharma Sister"who over the long term has played a substantialrole in the international presentationof Won Buddhism.She edited the English languagemagazine WonBuddhism, mentionedabove, of which the collected issues of thirtyyears were publishedin a single volume.14She also played a leading role in
12

Iri, now Iksan, 1991. significanceof his own academicactivity see below in note 29. 14ResearchInstitutefor OverseasMissions, Iksan 1993.
13On the

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preparingThe Canonical Textbook WonBuddhism(WonPulkyoKyof ojun) (1971) and the revised edition, The Scriptureof WonBuddhism (WonPulkyoKyojun)(1988) of which details were given above. The historicaldevelopmentof WonBuddhism Fromthe point of view of Won Buddhiststhemselvesthe historyof the movement is seen as a more or less continuous, steady developof ment, following "generations" 36 years. This developmentis symbolised, in the religious understanding, the formalreligious names by of the founder himself and his (so far) three followers in the topmost leadershipposition, all of which include the element san meanThe ing "mountain." honorifictitles, names and dates of these leaders, startingwith the founderhimself, are as follows: GreatMasterSot'aesan (Pak Chung-Bin1891-1943) Prime Master Chongsan (Song Kyu 1900-1962, Prime Master 1943-1962) Prime Master Taesan (Daesan) (Kim Tae-Go 1910-1998, Prime Master 1962-1995) Prime Master Chwasan (Jwasan) (Yi Kon-Huong 1936-, Prime Masterfrom 1995 onwards). "Great Master"is the standard Won BuddhistEnglish renderingof tae chong sa while "PrimeMaster"standsfor chong sa. These impressive titles could be more closely translated "greatreligious teacher"and as "religiousteacher"respectively,whereby "religious"(chong), as can be seen from the Chinese character used to write it, means something like "standingin the authoritative tradition." relatedformal name The Chusan(Jusan)was conferredon Song To-Song (1907-1946), but he did not take up office as PrimeMasterbecause of illness which led to his early death. The historian of religions, who writes as an observer, does not feel obliged to follow the formalisticidea of generationsof 36 years when analysing historical developments.Nevertheless it so happens that there is a broad appropriateness this presentation,even from in a non-religiouspoint of view. The reason is that the main leadership

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periods bear a strikingrelationshipto three importantphases in the political and social history of modem Korea. The main outlines of the developmentof the religion will thereforebe set out in this way, in all brevity, not for religious reasons, but because such a view is historicallycompelling. The two most recent Prime Masters, Taesan and Chwasan,can be regarded,so far at least, as falling into the same generalhistoricalperiod. Both formativeand normativefor Won Buddhismis the religious experience and teaching of the founderPak Chung-Bin,whose spiritual awakening, as mentioned earlier, is dated to 28th April 1916. Shortly after this, he founded an organisationknown as the Buddhist DharmaResearchAssociation,in KoreanPulpopYonkuHoe (see further below). The designationWon Pulgyo (Won Buddhism)was not introduceduntil 1947 and thereforecan only be applied to this period retrospectively.As presidentof the Buddhist DharmaResearch Association, of which an extremelyinterestinghistoricalposter is on display in the museum, he also launcheda very practicalland reclamationproject.Underlyingthis action was the idea that practicaland spirituallife should go hand in hand, an idea which found expression in a saying of the founderwhich runs:"As materialcivilizationdevelThis saying has been ops, cultivatespiritualcivilization accordingly." as treatedthereafter a key statementand accordinglyis highlightedon 2 of the Scriptureof WonBuddhism(WonPulkyo Kyojun),dipage (see also rectly afterthe symbolic circle, Il-Won-Sang(Ir-Won-Sang) in August 1919 below). The land reclamationprojectwas completed and following that the VenerableSot'aesan withdrewwith nine disciples to Pongnae (Pongrae,Bongrae) Temple at Pyongsan. Here the leading principlesof the teaching and the organisationof the religion the were draftedand his systematicteachingbegan. Not surprisingly, teachingof the founderhimself was subjectto a later systematisation elementswere highlighted.Moreover process, duringwhich important the story of the founder's own life was integratedinto the teaching and into the "canonical"scripture.The maturelydeveloped teaching thereforedisplays both a systematic and a narrativeaspect. Some of

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the features of the teaching of Won Buddhismwill be referredto at variouspoints in the sections which follow. This first period in the development of Won Buddhism, during the life of Sot'aesan himself, was the time of Japanese colonial domination and the two world wars, ending with the liberation of Koreafrom Japaneserule at the end of the second world war, shortly after Sot'aesan's death. Under these conditions it is appropriateto regardWon Buddhism,like the Koreanreligions Tonghak(Donghak) movement and Ch'ontokyo(Chondogyo),as a kind of "revitalisation" in favour of an independent Korean culture. As we have working seen, the "awakening"of Sot'aesan was regarded as autonomous. Fromthis startingpoint the complete truthwas to be proclaimedfrom Korea, and not for example from Japanor from the countriesof the west. Thus Won Buddhismstands firmly within the trendfor Korean self-determination, independentof the western powers, and yet also of Chinaand Japan. independent After Sot'aesan's death in 1943 the SupremeCouncil of the Buddhist DharmaResearchAssociation elected the VenerableChongsan as his successorin the main position of leadership,the "GreatMaster" (tae chongsa) now being followed by a "PrimeMaster" (chong sa).15It was Chongsanwho, in 1947, introducedthe name Won Pulgyo (WonBuddhism),thus providinga compact designationwhich emphasised and the centralpoints of the teachingas being "Buddhist" at the same time "perfect," somehow supersedingotherforms of Buddhism.Under his leadershipthe essential writings of Sot'aesan were collected, toabouthis life and teaching activity.These were getherwith narratives underthe title Kyochon(or Kyojun,cf. the English translapublished tions mentionedabove). In additiona place of educationwas founded for the ever growingmembership,known as WonkwangCollege. This later developed into WonkwangUniversity,which is one of the most respectedinstitutionsof highereducationin Koreatoday.

15 UnfortunatelyI have not yet been able to establishjust when these terms were introduced.

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Although Chongsanassumed the role of Prime Master duringthe world war in 1943, the periodof his leadershipcoincides significantly with the end of the world war, the end of Japanesedominationand the construction of an independent Korea. This may be regarded as the second period in the development of Won Buddhism. The task of trying to rise out of the ruins of the second world war was immensely complicated by the terrible proxy war waged over the Korean peninsula and the consequently hesitant growth of modem democracy.Neverthelesssubstantialprogresswas made and it can be concluded that the systematicdevelopmentof Won Buddhismas the of which it is todaytook place againstthe background the organisation emergenceand stabilisationof an independentmodem Koreanstate. In 1962 the leadershippassed to the VenerableTaesan.The Won Buddhist movement, or organisation,continued to gather strength, contacts and it is from this time onwardsthat significantinternational were sought. Dialogue and cooperation with other religions within Koreaand elsewhere came to be a respectedactivity,while caritative, social and cultural programmeswithin Korea took on ever greater had By proportions. 1995 the membership grownto a million in Korea itself. The numberof assemblyhalls hadgrownto 454. To these figures must be added30 temples in variousforeign countries. The third phase in the history of Won Buddhism, the time of the VenerableTaesan and from 1995 of his successor the Venerable Chwasan,set its own accents which in their turnwere in accord with the national situation. The continuing division of Korea has been a theme of discussion and concern among Won Buddhistsduring this period, and various attempts have been made to provide practical assistance to the population of North Korea, notably for example by DharmaSister Pak Chung-Soo, mentioned above. In spite of the division of the country and in spite of political tensions in South Korea itself during much of the time, there has been relative peace and prosperityas a backgroundagainst which Koreanleaders in all scene. walks of life have soughtto take theirplace on the international The activitiesof Won Buddhismhave thereforereflectedthe needs, the interestsand the possibilitiesof the countryduringthis period.

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of The attractiveness Won Buddhismfor its believers seems to lie above all in the simplicity and clarity of its teaching, in its emphasis on personal commitment and personal activity and in its generous, open and well-balancedethos. Althoughthe teachingin some respects has a mystical quality,value is also placed on rationalclarity,on the and rejectionof "superstition," on personalself-discipline,for example in the prohibitionof tobacco and alcohol. This mixtureseems to have attracted upwardlymobile, professionalpopulationwhich helpedto an establish the religion in influentialsectors of society. Such members respectreligion and educationas a key to the rightuse of scientificand materialprogress,in accordancewith the previouslyquotedstatement. The rationalising trend does not exclude a certain tendency to develop a personality cult around the founder which is reinforced by the extremely high respect paid to his successors. Thus while the Venerable Sot'aesan has been described as "sage of sages" or as "the great sage of creation and grace,"Prime Master Taesan has been describedas "light of the universe."16 During the one hundredth anniversarycelebrations mentioned above, the kindly and slightly and aging figureof PrimeMasterTaesanwas applauded celebratedlike a Catholic pope in modem times. In this way the office of the leader itself becomes a focus of devotionand loyalty,and thus of an authority which transcendsand to some extent suspendsrationality. Neverthelessthe organisationis a little cautious about this aspect, as may be illustratedfrom an incident in 1991. During the centenary celebrationsa statueof the founderwas unveiledin a commemorative hall at Iri (now Iksan) showing him in the meditationalposition of a Buddha.This statue is housed in a raised, roundhall, open invitingly to the front. The walls show depictions of motifs from the life of Sot'aesan.In 1991 the statuewas surrounded a sculptedlotus petal by base enclosed by a firm, smooth edging. This naturallyencouraged most visitors, without thinking, to place their right hand upon it as
16Photos, Buddhism,Iri, now Iksan,WonkwangPublishingCo. 1986. Today'sWon

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they went aroundthe statue in a clockwise direction.In other words around it guided people into performinga kind of circumambulation the statue of the new Buddha, even though such a custom is by no means the kind of thing which Won Buddhismnormallyencourages. the There is no doubtthat the architecture, free-standingstatueitself, and traditionallyrespectful attitudesconspiredto lead to a religious action which is otherwisewell known in Buddhistcontexts. However it is not typical for Won Buddhism.On the contrary,practicesof an are individualkind which could lead to "superstition" frownedupon. the statue and its presentationwas not It appearsthat this effect of really intended. Indeed my impression is that in the meantime the is The presentation aroundthe statuehas been altered.17 arrangement now quite similarto a smallerstatueof Sot'aesan, which can be seen in the museum, on the floor below, along with other exhibits relating to his life. In the last analysis thereforethese statues are intendedto serve as a respectfulmemorialto the founderof the religion andnot as the objects of worshipwhich Buddhastatueseffectively have become in otherforms of Buddhism. The descriptiongiven immediatelyabove could hardlyderivefrom a member and care should be taken that we are not deflected by such secondaryobservationsfrom the main practicesof the members. For them, meditationbefore the symbol Il-Won-Sang is of central importance. This may be carried out privately, but it is also the communalstartingpoint for the daily life of the DharmaSisters, in so far as they live in small groups.Everymorningat five o'clock a seated meditation beforethe Il-Won-Sangsymbolis carriedout, precededand concluded with a short recitation.The complete proceduretakes one hour. Of considerableimportance,too, are the regularassemblies in the local temples or "teachinghalls"(kyotang).These have something
memoryof visitorsgoing roundthe statue,trailingtheir handsrespectfullyon a rim. In 1997 I had the impressionthat any such rim had been floral removed,but it is possible thatthis was due simply to the absenceof a temporary set up duringthe time of the celebrations.It would be interestingto compare display evidence from 1991 and lateryears, if available. photographic
17From 1991 I have a clear

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of the appearanceof a plain Methodist or Presbyterianchurch. The congregationsit on benches like churchpews, while to the front is a raised platform for preaching.Behind the place where the preacher The service consists mainly standsis a large version of I1-Won-Sang. of silent meditation, preaching and hymn singing and is followed by refreshmentsand social interaction.These assemblies evidently strengthenthe community spirit of the participantsand encourage them to order their daily lives in accordancewith the moral aspects of the teaching of Won Buddhism. Apart from the specific symbol and the references to the special tradition of Won Buddhism, the whole procedureof sermon and songs could almost be mistakenby an outsider for a ProtestantChristianservice. The contrastwith the prostrationsof visitors to traditionalBuddhist temples, still normal today in the Chokye (Chogye) denomination,is striking. Moreover the otherwisewidespreadassumptionthatthis-worldlybenefitscan be and ensuredby prostrations by the acquisitionof amuletsis decidedly rejectedin Won Buddhismas "superstition." According to members, the small symbols such as key-rings or mementos hanging in motor cars, which seem to be treatedwith some affection, are not protective amulets but simply reminders of one's own religious orientation. The same applies to the rosaries made of large light brown, roughly surfaced seeds, also used in and thus perhapsreminiscent of India, which include in this case a tiny glassed portrait of the founder Sot'aesanin a focal position.18 A majorcharacteristic the life of the Won Buddhistcommunity of is the social commitmentof its members,which is seen most clearly in the charitableworks of the Dharma Sisters. An exemplary case is the provided by the many-sided activities of Sister Pak ChungSoo of KangnamTemple, mentioned previously, who is to be seen regularlyin a Catholic leprosy hospital and who helps other helpless people in all kinds of ways, both in Korea and abroad,for example in India. Her energy and leadershipin these works is withoutdoubt a works of this kind are greatinspirationto youngerrecruits.Charitable
18The seeds are probablyof a varietyof Elaeocarpus.

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financiallyby the lay members,not a few of whom are well supported situatedand economically successful. The educationalinstitutionsof Won Buddhismare highly regarded not only by believers but also quite widely in Koreansociety. In this connectionWonkwangUniversityplays a crucialrole, being attended not only by believers but also by many non-members.The basic idea that "religion"should not issue in some kind of superstitiousdependence but on the contraryshould help to bring out the independent achievements and contributionsof free and rational people can be tracedback to the influenceof the founder.It is symbolised,for example, by the previouslymentionedland reclamationprogrammewhich has found its way into the highly respected,corporate,narrative memory. Genderparity in WonBuddhism At this point it will be appropriate drawattentionto the relatively to strongrole played by women in Won Buddhism.Since Koreansociety was stronglyinfluencedby Confucianismfor centuries,the traditional relationshipbetween the sexes has usually been one of male predominance. However modemisation processes can involve a shift in the balance between the roles of the sexes and it is thereforeinteresting to note the extent to which a more equitablegenderbalance has been achieved in the context of Won Buddhism,which prides itself on its to contribution these processes. Historically speaking, the first nine disciples of the founder,who together with him made up the round numberof ten, were all men. As the necessity for structured became apparent however, organisation a "supremecouncil"was set up. This institution,establishedin 1931, consisted of nine men and nine women. Thus, if we leave the founder himself out of accountat this point, some kind of equalityof the sexes was institutionalised an early stage in Won Buddhism.There seems at little doubt that this move was intendedto give a sense of paritybetween the sexes, and it is evident to the observerthat this consciousness continuesto prevailamongthe membersof WonBuddhismtoday in daily life.

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This equality is somewhat relativised when we take into account that the "PrimeMasters,"who ensure the religious continuityof Won Buddhismsince the founder'stime, have so far always been men. At the same time it should be noticed that the title "PrimeMaster"is an English versionof the originaltermchong sa which in itself is genderneutral. A second inequality, or at least asymmetry between the sexes comes to the surface in the performanceof professionalroles in the religion. Male pastorsusually wear ordinaryclothes like lay persons, and may marry,while women pastors are supposed to belong to the order of Dharma Sisters, do not marry,and wear a simple uniform and hairstyle.There is no doubt that the DharmaSisters are a major force in the organisation, they may be more influentialcorporately and than the male pastors. The question of discriminationthrough the of differentiation these roles could be workedout in either direction! Some DharmaSisters express the view thatthey could fulfil theirrole as pastors even if they were mothers. Older Dharma Sisters take a more conservativeline, emphasisingthat family life might disturbthe meditationroutine and the social work which arises out of it. It is of course understandable that,as in otherreligions, those who have spent most of theirlives following one set of rulesdo not wish to see them set of aside for the following generation.Thatwould imply a downgrading the discipline to which they originallysubmittedthemselves.Informal reportssuggest thatthe currentPrimeMasterhas excludedany change in these arrangements duringhis own periodof office, which may well last for quite a long time. This guaranteesstability.On the otherhand he has reportedlysaid thatthe matter"shouldbe thoughtover"during his periodof office, so that some kind of change in these arrangements might conceivablybe plannedfor the future. it While these two pointsmightbe regarded problematic, remains as truethatboth the organisationand the membershipof Won Buddhism are characterised an attitudetowardsgenderequalitywhich is hard by to match in the Buddhistworld or in Koreansociety. In general there is no doubtthat the success and respect ascribedto Won Buddhismin Koreansociety is due in no smallpartto the self-confidentandeffective

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activities of the Dharma Sisters, not least the leading personalities alreadymentioned.This is recognisedby the male members,and the impressionis nowheregiven thatmen might for some otherreasonsbe more important. In what sense is WonBuddhisma "newreligion"? If Won Buddhismis "Buddhism," why, and in what sense, is it a "new religion"? Consider first the self-understanding Won Budof dhists themselves. The standardstatementthat the founder's "awakening" at the age of twenty-fivetook place "withoutthe help of any teacher"emphasiseshis independencefrom any of the Buddhisttraditions currentin Korea at the time. In the traditionof Son Buddhism by contrast, the equivalent of Chinese Chan or Japanese Zen Buddhism, the usual assumptionis that the experience of enlightenment is normallyachievedunderthe preliminary guidanceof a teacher,even it cannotbe directlytaught.While "transmitted" enif, paradoxically, identifiedwith the experienceof the hislightenmentis retrospectively torical Buddha,and guaranteed the spirituallineage or genealogy, by in this case it was Pak Chung-Binhimself who decided, on reflection, that among the religions of the world the experience and the teaching of the historicalBuddhawas the most similarto his own. For this and reason,believersregardWon Buddhismas "Buddhism," indeed as and at the same time as a "new religion." "perfect"(won) Buddhism, This may seem to be a paradoxto those who like to distinguishsharply betweenestablishedreligions andnew religions,but it is not a paradox for the membersof Won Buddhism.Thus from the point of view of the comparative studyof religions it providesan interesting,particular within the overall range of religions. It can also be regardedas type a paradigmatic case within a general theory of innovationin religion such as I have attempted outline elsewhere.19 to
19Forthcomingunder the title "Elements of a general theory of innovation in religion,"a papermost recently presentedas a lecture to the Finnish Association for the Study of Religions in Turku,December2000.

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The relationbetween Won Buddhismand MahayanaBuddhismin general is therefore an extremely interestingquestion. Is Won Buddhism a Mahayanasect (in the best possible sense of thatword) which familiarisesmodem people with the original ideas of Buddhismin a new and convenient way? Or is it a new religion in its own right, drawingimportantthemes from MahayanaBuddhismbut making its own contributionwhich leads in a differentdirection?In the second case Won Buddhismwould fall into the category,speakingin termsof the history of religions, of those new religions in East Asia which in their variousways have contributed the regenerationand modemito sationof theircountries.To illustrate,withoutassertingspecific points of comparison, one might adduce a whole string of examples such as Cao-Dai in Vietnam,Tonghakand Ch'ontokyoin Korea, Kurozumiky6, Omotokyo,Rissh6 K6sei-kaiand Soka Gakkaiin Japan.These religions display a varyinglyclose or distantrelationshipto the older traditionsin their surroundings, Confucianism,Buddhismor Shinto. The assertion that Won Buddhism is a new religion can easily be documented.The presentationalwork Photos, Today's WonBuddhism, for example, states firmly: "WonBuddhismis a new religion which goes back to the enlightenmentof its founder,the Venerable We is Sot'aesan."20 have seen that, as far as the self-understanding concerned,thereis no reasonto hesitatein referringto Won Buddhism as a new religion. On the otherhandtherehave been manymovements in and organisations the past which in theirtime seemed to be new and and which yet later have been found a place in the complex creative, Who would say today, historyof the ever unfoldingBuddhisttradition. for example, that Zen Buddhismis not Buddhism?There are reasons for thinkingthatWonBuddhismmay be so regarded by retrospectively thatis, not only by membersbut also by observersor historians. others, on Given this self-understanding the part Won Buddhists and, as may be presumedwith confidence,on the partof the founderhimself, to it would not really be appropriate regardWonBuddhismas a reform movement. There is an element of reform to be observed, in so far
20Op. cit. p. 8.

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as it stands in a dialectical relationshipto the more traditionalkinds of Buddhismin Koreain which ritual action plays a more dominant the role, in particular Chokye School, organisedunderthis name from 1941.21 Although the founderPak Chung-Bindid publish a work on the renovation KoreanBuddhism,which is displayedin the museum of mentioned above, the reform motivation appears not to have been dominantin the foundational period.The impetusof the founder'sown experiencewas too strongfor the movementto presentitself merely as the true or loyal form of an originaltraditionwhich had been overlaid or lost. Had it done so, it would have to be classified, in the context of a general theory of religious innovation,as a reforming"sect,"in the precise, technicalsense of thatword. On the contrary, the terms in of the same theory,Won Buddhismmay fairly be designatedas a new religion. Moreoverthis theoreticalassessmentcoincides with its own The fact that the new religion, Won Buddhism, self-understanding. also identifies itself retrospectivelywith "Buddhism," leads to other which will be questionsaboutits relationto thatmore generaltradition considerednext. and Won-Buddhism the widerBuddhisttradition So how does Won Buddhismrelate itself to the Buddhisttradition in general, and to what extent are its statementsin this connection plausible?The Buddhisttraditionis so widely establishedin so many culturalregions and culturesthat the question frequentlyarises as to whether a particularmovement or organisationis Buddhist or not. Sometimes a movement claims to be "Buddhist," but the claim is questionedby others.And in other,ratherfewer cases a religion which claims to representa new revelationmay offer little but repackaged Buddhistideas. Won Buddhismis a special case in that, as we have at alreadyseen, it claims to be a "new religion"and "Buddhism" one and the same time. The question must be addressedthereforeas to whetherWon Buddhismis "Buddhist" if so, in what sense. and
21For the key points in the modern reorganisationof Korean Buddhism, see Grayson,op. cit. Note 4, chapter13.

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In attendingto this question the term "orthodox," alreadymenas tioned in the introductory section, is ratherunhelpful.The difficultyis that the assertionof "orthodoxy" implies that a decision can be taken on the basis of a normativestandpointwhich is known to the person who makesthejudgement.But this is the prerogative those who, for of a positionwithinthe tradition. The historianof religiousreasons,adopt religion has no such ideal standpoint.A rigorousattemptto apply the to term"orthodox" the historyof Buddhismin termsof an abstracted, normativeideal would probablyleave hardly anythingover. Yet this conclusionwould shock manyBuddhistswho themselvesclaim orthodoxy. Neverthelessit is sometimes necessary,in the general study of religions, to attemptto answer the question as to whethera particular movement may fairly be describedas "Buddhist" not. Sometimes or claims are made which may be spurious,as in the case of the Japanese religion Aum Shinrikyowhich I recently discussed in some detail.22 Such claims need to be assessed. This is really partof a an older and wider discussion aboutthe questionof consistency within historically In extendedreligious traditions.23 disputedcases the questionof relative authenticityhas to be addressedby historiansof religion, but this is a question of historicalcoherence and reasonablenessof claims to which can only be identity.Quite differentis the claim to "orthodoxy" assertedby a religious authorityfrom its own normativepoint of view. Whetherand in what sense Won Buddhismis "Buddhist" will now of be consideredin all brevityon the background these considerations. let it firstbe establishedthat the teachingof Won Speakinggenerally, Buddhism certainly has much in common with the widely current ideas of MahayanaBuddhism. The syllable won, correspondingto a single Chinese character,means rounded, complete and perfect. In the teaching of Won Buddhism it refers to the final "truth"or reality of the cosmos, which is complete and integrated and can
Shinriky6:Can Religious Studies cope?"Religion 26 (1966) 261-273. Systematically introduced in M. Pye and R. Morgan (eds.), The Cardinal Hermeneutics: Buddhismand Christianity Meaning.Essays in Comparative (Religion and Reason 6), The Hague:Mouton 1973. 23
22 "Aum

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Irw6nis the Truth-Buddha , the o D (Dharmakaya), originof all the beingsin the universe, and mind-seal all Buddhas all of sages,at the orignciples and ~sages, the originalnature of all sentientbeings. The Verseon the Truthof Irw6n Beingturnsinto Non-Being and Non-Being into Being, and Turning turning To the Ultimate; Then,Beingand Non-Being Are both Void, But the Void is also Perfect. snd

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to corresponding Koreanas in Fig. 1).

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thereforebe representedby a simple circle. This central symbol of the religion, called Il-Won-Sang,has alreadybeen referredto because of its importancein the practice of Won Buddhism. Il-Won-Sang means literally "the form of one circle," and the Chinese character for "form"used here is the same as that used in Buddhist tradition for the characteristics qualitiesof existence. So we may understand or thatthe circle (which, incidentally,is not in itself a Chinese character) allows us to symbolise the ultimatecharacterof existence in the best possible way. In his work A Diagramfor Practice of the Doctrine of WonBuddhism,issued by Prime Master Taesan, we find that I1That Buddha are shown together.24 Won-Sang and the Dharmakaya means that Il-Won-Sangis identical with the inexpressible,ultimate of Buddha-nature, which the variousindividualBuddhasin Mahayana Buddhismarebutrepresentations appearances. or Muchmorecould be said in the interpretation Il-Won-Sang,of course, as we see in the of second partof the Scriptureof WonBuddhism(WonPulkyo Kyojun), but thatwould lead too far afield at this point. On the other hand it is to be expected that the normativeposition ascribed to the founder, Venerable Sot'aesan, will not be simply accepted by other Buddhists. After all, he put himself on the same level as the historicalBuddha,which mustat least appearas something of a challenge for a traditionalBuddhist,even taking account of the idea that there has been a sequence of Buddhas through time. The expectationof a futureBuddha,Maitreya,is as well knownin Koreaas elsewhere. In fact one of the most substantialbuildings at the temple near Iksan, is a hall with a large image of Maitreya, Kuimsan-sa, and Sot'aesan spent a month here while thinking over where the of headquarters the new religion shouldbe located. In otherwords the futureBuddhaMaitreyawas an availableconcept, and yet the newly enlightenedSot'aesanwas not identifiedwith him. Apart from its clear relationshipto Buddhisttradition,Won Buddhismhas a decidedlyuniversalistmessage for the whole of humanity. Not only does it teach that all humanbeings are equal regardlessof
24

Iri, now Iksan,WonkwangPublishingCo. 1988, p. 1.

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race or gender, it also teaches that all religions are in principle one. It is on this basis that Chon Pal-Khncalled for the establishmentof a "UnitedReligions" in orderto spreadthese values, regardedas spiritual values, throughoutthe world.25Although it might be said that these ideas are at least implied by MahayanaBuddhism,they are not really Buddhistteachingsas such, in a directsense. Indeed,Buddhism in its older forms was far from announcing the equality, let alone the unity of all religions. On this backgroundWon Buddhism's social and culturalcall to "unity"among humankindcan be seen as a forwardthrustwhich goes beyond the teachings of traditionalBuddhism. Won Buddhismillustratesin its own particular way the close relawhich can exist between religious innovationand reflection tionship about the possible relations between religions in their plurality.It is a normalfunction of new religions, emergingin a world which is already occupied by variousexisting religions, to reflect on the way in which these various religions do or could relate to each other. Won Buddhism's founder Sot'aesan spent the first part of his life thinking deeply about the problems of human existence. He made a positive appraisalof Buddhism,or at least of the historicalBuddha,but
his thought as transmitted to us in The Scripture of Won Buddhism

(Won Pulkyo Kyojun)is replete with observationson the other religions currentin Korea duringhis time, especially Confucianismand Tonghak("theeasternteaching").This featureof his thoughtprovided the startingpoint for the active interreligiousdialogues which have been promotedby the laterleadership.26 otherwords, we can see in In this example a close relationshipbetween the push towardsan innovative message, the recognitionthat religions exist in plurality,and the
25"Toward organizationof United Religions," WonBuddhism6/6 (1989) 8-12. This idea was also put forwardduringthe centenarycelebrationsin 1991. Since then, the apparentlywithoutdue acknowledgement, idea of a "UnitedReligions"has been organisationally developed by a group based in the United States. It seems to me that more credit should be given to Chon Pal Khn in this regard. 26Cf. the article Woo Hai-Ran (1998) mentionedin note 2 above. by

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of Figure3. Portrait Pak Chung-Binas displayedin the museumat Iksan.

attemptto thinkdeeply over the innermeaningof religions.This comof binationpermitsthe self-confidentannouncement a new solutionto what the historianmight indeed view as a long perceivedproblem.

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Figure 4. Poster for the "BuddhistDharma Research Association" as displayed in the museum at Iksan.

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The tension between innovationand the appropriation Buddhist of ideas can also quite easily be documentedby reference to exhibits in the museum mentioned earlier. Here we see displayed writings by the founder with titles (translatedfrom the Korean) like "The Reformof KoreanBuddhism," "TheCorrectCanonof Buddhism," or "Rulesof the BuddhistDharmaResearchAssociation."27 These alone tell us that Sot'aesan thought carefully about the state of Buddhism in Korea at the time. Yet if we look closely at a poster for the "Buddhist DharmaResearchAssociation,"exhibitednear a frequently reproduced photographof Sot'aesan himself, it can be seen that even then quite originalelements played an equally important role for him. Withoutany precise connectionbeing made to Buddhistsources, we see for examplethat"theessentialway of humanity" (insaeng utiyoto) is presentedschematicallywith varioussubordinate features. This view of the relationshipbetween Won Buddhism and Buddhism in general was confirmedfor me by the present Prime Master Chwasan.28 arose from the Accordingto him, westernChristianity root of Judaism,and Buddhismfrom the root of Brahmanism.However, Won Buddhismdoes not stand in a similarrelationshipto Buddhism, he said. Rather,the teaching arose on the basis of the great of enlightenmentof Sot'aesan.The special character Won Buddhism, accordingto Chwasan,lies in the fact that it emphasisesnot so much the past as the present and the future,and for this reason it is a new and independentreligion. However,on accountof the great similarity which the founderhimself recognisedbetween his own teaching and that of the Buddha, the teaching was later designated as Won Buddhism. PrimeMasterChwasanthus reassertsthe relationshipbetween
27 This name could alternatively be translated "Society for the Study of the

for Buddhadharma," it was a religiously committed study group rather than an independent research institute, but "Buddhist Dharma Research Association" is in literallycorrectand preferred Won Buddhistcircles. 28I am grateful to Choi Seong-Hee for translatinghandwrittennotes in Korean made by Dr. Ryu Sung-Taeduringthe interviewwith PrimeMasterChwasan.

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Won Buddhismand Buddhismwhich is generallycurrentin the tradition. The questionof the relationshipbetween Won Buddhismand Budin at dhisttradition generalcould be investigatedfurther variouspoints. is ratherdistinctive, for example, The commentaryon Il-Won-Sang while there is also a finely balanced relation between teaching and practicewhich is obviouslyinfluencedby the style of Buddhism.Many nuancesin the texts need to be weighed up carefully,takingaccountof widely currentEast Asian and more specifically Koreanassumptions and allusions. Naturally,these mattersare also analysed in detail by Won Buddhistacademicswritingwithin the tradition,such as Dr. Ryu Sung-Taementionedabove.29 In its teaching and its practice alike Won Buddhism displays an active ability both to select and to integrate. On the basis of this therefore to categorise creative development it is not inappropriate Won Buddhismas a "new religion,"even while it explicitly includes the word Buddhism in its name. For the history of religions, the categorisationpreferredby the membersat any one time may not be In the most appropriate. this case, however, it is difficult to come to any conclusion which is better than that of the membersthemselves, namely thatWonBuddhismis at one and the same time a new religion this and a formof Buddhism,howeverparadoxical may seem to others. This double designation representsa challenge, at once critical and to peaceful, to traditionalforms of Buddhism,and in particular those which continue to be currentin Korea.In this sense it is a sign of the of thoroughlymodem character Won Buddhism.
FG Religionswissenschaft MICHAELPYE

4 Landgraf-Philipp-Strasse 35032 Marburg, Germany pye@mailer.uni-marburg.de

29See for wa example Sung-Tae Ryu, Wonpulkyo tongyangsasang ("Won Buddhism and EasternThought"),Iksan 1995; and Tongyanguiisuyangron("Theoryof PersonalityFormationin EasternThought"),Iksan 1996.