Dr. Kutsi. S. ERDURAN: Conceptual Knowledge

27.09.
2010
1
Cl ass No:02-03
20102011 Fall Lecture Notes CVE240FLUID MECHANICS AUSCivil Engineering Department
Dr. Kutsi. S. ERDURAN
Conceptual Knowledge
Define density, specific gravity, viscosity, surface tension,
vapor pressure, and bulk modulus of elasticity.
Describe the differences between absolute viscosity and
kinematic viscosity.
Describe how shear stress, viscosity, and the velocity
distribution are related
distribution are related.
Describe how viscosity, density, and vapor pressure vary
with temperature and/or pressure.
Procedural Knowledge
Look up fluid property values from figures, tables; know
when and how to interpolate.
Calculate gas density using the ideal gas law.
27.09.2010
2
A FLUID HAS CERTAIN CHARACTERISTICS BY WHICH ITS
PHYSICAL CONDITION MAY BE DESCRIBED THESE
PHYSICAL CONDITION MAY BE DESCRIBED. THESE
CHARACTERISTICS ARE CALLED FLUID PROPERTIES OF
THE FLUID.
FLUID PROPERTIES
1. Mass Density
2. Specific Weight
4. Viscosity 8. Bulk
Modules
9. Surface
Tension
10. Vapor
Pressure
3. Specific Gravity
Modules
Of
Elasticity
Tension
Pressure
5. Specific Heat
6. Specific Internal Energy
7. Specific Enthalpy
Definition: The mass of substance per unit volume,
(M: mass, : volume)
Symbol : Greek Symbol, (rho)
Units: Kilograms per cubic meter
Pounds mass per cubic foot
3
3
kgm ,
m
kg

lbm
M
Pounds-mass per cubic foot
Dimensions:
Typical Values: Water at 4 C 1000
Air at 20 C & standard atmospheric pressure
1.2
For air, it changes significantly with temperature and pressure
For water, it decreases slightly with increasing temperature
3
ft
3
ML
3
kgm
3
kgm
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3
Definition: Weight per unit volume or
Gravitational force per unit volume of fluid
(g: gravitational acceleration)
Symbol : Greek Symbol, (gamma)
Units: Newtons per cubic meter
3
3
Nm ,
m
N

Mg
Dimensions:
Typical Values: Water at 20 C 9790
Air at 20 C & standard atmospheric pressure
11.8
Relationship between specific weight and density
2 2
T ML

3
Nm
3
Nm
g =
(p
atm
= 1.0 atm = 101.3 kPa = 14.70 psi)
Definition: The ratio of the specific weight of a given fluid
to the specific weight of water at the standard
temperature 4 C
Symbol : S
Units: None
C at water
fluid
C at water
fluid

=
Dimensions: 1 (dimensionless)
Typical Values: Standard temperature for water is 4
o
C
Specific Gravity of Mercury : 3.6
kNm 9.81
kNm 133
S
3
3
Hg
= =

3
C 4 at water
Nm 9810

=
LARGE CHANGE LARGE CHANGE
INCOMPRESSIBLE INCOMPRESSIBLE
CONSTANT DENSITY CONSTANT DENSITY
DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS DIFFERENT SOLUTIONS
CHANGES THE DENSITY CHANGES THE DENSITY
NNonhomogeneous onhomogeneous fluid fluid
27.09.2010
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Used to calculate density
p: Absolute pressure [Nm
-2
]
: Volume [m
3
]
n: Number of moles
R
u
: Universal gas constant [8.314 kJ/kmol-K
T: Absolute temperature [K]
M: Molecular Weight
M: Molecular Weight
R: Gas constant
T nR p
u
=
T n
p
u
=

=
n
R
R
u
= RT p =
WHEN IT OCCURS
- moving fluids contact a solid boundary
Very important for real fluid flow problems, WHY ?
BECAUSE, it causes energy loss, resistance to flow
- different zones of fluid are flowing in different
velocitites
Flow
Solid Boundary
Flowing water in a pipe
IN LIQUIDS: the cohesive forces between the molecules
keep them in place and
the molecules form a lattice - like structure with
holes and the molecules seem to be in a cage, that
can be thought to be an energy barrier.
There is also some
molecular
A rate of strain is applied to a fluid and thus
caused to move. Resulting shear stress, t, helps a
molecule in overcoming the energy barrier. Hence,
the molecule moves into a next hole. The magnitude
of these energy barriers is related to viscosity.
molecular
interchange
between the
layers
27.09.2010
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IN GASES:
The cohesive forces are weak as they are so
far apart. The cohesion does not play an important
role on the viscosity as in the liquids. But,
Here, there is continuous exchange of
molecules (momentum exchange).
Molecules of slower layer move to faster layers
causing a drag, while molecules moving the other
way exert an acceleration force.
This momentum exchange can lead to Newton
law of viscosity.
IN GASES: when the temperature increases, the
momentum exchange between the layers will
increase thus increasing viscosity, resistance to
shear
IN LIQUIDS: When the temperature increases, the
cohesive forces decreases
Reducing cohesive forces reduces shear stress and
so the viscosity.
Definition: Viscosity is the measure of fluid resistance (due
to cohesion and interaction between molecules)
to shear deformation
For Newtonian fluids (water, air) shear stress is
directly proportional to velocity gradient. The
coefficient of proportionality is called dynamic
viscosity or absolute viscosity
viscosity or absolute viscosity.
dy
dV
=
:Velocity gradient
V : Fluid Velocity
dy
dV
27.09.2010
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t
small for
y
u
t
or
y
ut
tan a = =
dy
du
=
t

Velocity gradient ;dV/dy
at the boundary is finite and
shear stress is maximum
becomes less step with distance
from the boundary and the shear
t d
y : Distance from solid
surface
: Dynamic viscosity
t : Shear stress
stress decreases.
NO - SLIP CONDITION
The velocity is zero at the
stationary boundary.
Velocity of fluid = velocity of the
surface of the solid boundary.
No slip occurs between the fluid
and the boundary.
Symbol : (mu)
Units: Newton seconds per square meter or
ance ist velocity/d
force/area
strain shear of rate
stress shear
dy
dV
= = =
p q
Kilograms per meter per second
Dimensions:
Typical Values: Water = 10
-3
Nsm
-2
, Air = 10
-5
Nsm
-2
1
= s kgm
m
Ns
1
2
1
T ML
1
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Many equations in fluid mechanics include the ratio /,
hence, the ratio is given a name kinematic viscosity
Symbol : v (nu)
Units: Square meters per second
1 2
2
s m
Nsm

Units: Square meters per second
Dimensions:
Typical Values: Water = 1.14x10
-6
m
2
s
-1
, Air = 1.46x 10
-5
m
2
s
-1
3
s m
kgm

= = =
1 2
T L
Liquid: Oil
Increasing temperature
Decreasing viscosity
(remember: reducing
cohesive forces)
Not known Not known
Gases: Air
Increasing temperature
Increasing viscosity
(remember: increasing
momentum exchange)
C & b : Empirical constants
T : Temperature
|
.
|
\
|
=
T
b
Ce
p
C & b can be evaluated by
using viscosity data at two
different temperatures
27.09.2010
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Newtonian Fluid:
Shear stress is
proportional to shear
strain
Dynamic viscosity is
equal to the slope of
th li f N t i
S
h
e
a
r
S
t
r
e
s
s
the line of Newtonian
fluid in Figure
The line is linear and
passes through the
origin.
e.g. water and oil,
glycerin etc.)
Shear Strain
Shear-Thinning:
ratio of shear stress
to shear strain
decreases as shear
strain increases
e.g. tomato catsup,
i t
S
h
e
a
r
S
t
r
e
s
s
paint
Remember: ratio of
shear stress to shear
strain is dynamic
viscosity
Dynamic viscosity
decreases, less
resistance to flow Shear Strain
Shear-Thickening:
ratio of shear stress to
shear strain increases as
shear strain increases
e.g. Clay slurries, corn
starch in water.
S
h
e
a
r
S
t
r
e
s
s
Dynamic viscosity
increases, more
resistance to flow
The larger the applied
shear rate trying to mix
water with corn starch,
more resistance will be
encountered. Shear Strain
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Bingham Plastic:
acts like a solid for
small values of shear
stress and then
behaves as a fluid at
higher shear stress
t th t
S
h
e
a
r
S
t
r
e
s
s
e.g toothpaste,
drilling mud
Shear Strain
Would it be easier to walk
through a 1m pool of water or
oil?
Water
Why?
Less friction (resistance drag
force) in the water
force) in the water
Rate of deformation
Water moves out of your way
at a quick rate when you
apply a shear stress (i.e.,
walk through it)
Oil moves out of your way
more slowly when you apply
the same shear stress
VISCOSITY
RESISTANCE TO FLOW
LOSS OF ENERGY
ADD MORE ENERGY TO
OVERCOME
What is the viscosity of
water at 80 C (Table
A.5)?
How does the kinematic
viscosity of SAE 20W
change from 100 F to
150 F (Figure A.3?
What is the Gas
Constant (R) for
methane (Table A.2)?
Look in the textbooks
appendices.
27.09.2010
10
amount amount
deformation deformation elasticity elasticity
=
d
E dp
v
0 0 <
>
d
dp
incompressible incompressible
2 v
m
N
d
dp
d
dp
d
dp
E = = =

d d
d d dm m =
= + = = 0
Gases are compressible
p RT
d
dp
E RT
d
dp
V
= = = =
Definiton: material property whereby a liquid at a material
interface , usually liquid-gas, exerts a force per
unit length along the surface
Symbol : o (sigma)
Units: Nm
-1
Dimensions:
Typical Values:
2
MT
A molecule in the interior of a liquid is under

attractive forces that are equal in all
directions.
However, a molecule at the surface of a liquid
is acted on by a net inward cohesive force
that is perpendicular to the surface. Hence it
requires work to move the molecule to the
surface against this opposing force and
surface against this opposing force and
surface molecules have more energy than
interior ones
Equal forces down below
Higher forces of attraction at surface
Creates a membrane effect
27.09.2010
11
Due to the property of cohesion liquids
can resist small tensile force at the
interface between liquid and air.
Due to the imbalance of
molecular forces acting on a molecule
at free surface in a vertical pipe a
curved surface called meniscus is
formed. The shape of this surface
depends on strength of cohesive and
adhesive forces.
Rise and fall of liquid in a capillary tube is
caused by surface tension. Capillarity
depends on the relative magnitudes of the
cohesion of the liquid to walls of the
containing vessel.
When the adhesive forces between liquid
and solid are larger than the liquid's
Concave u < 90
0
Wetting
Water, u = 0
0
and solid are larger than the liquid s
cohesive forces, the meniscus in a small
diameter tube will tend to be concave
(Rise).
If adhesive forces are smaller than
cohesive forces the meniscus will tend to
be convex, for example mercury in glass
(fall).
Convex u > 90
0
Non-
Wetting , Mercury, u = 130
0
A distinction is usually made between an adhesive
force, which acts to hold two separate bodies together
(or to stick one body to another) and
a cohesive force, which acts to hold together the like or
unlike atoms, ions, or molecules of a single body.
27.09.2010
12
0 W F
z ,
=
h r Cos r 2
2
=
r
Cos 2
h =
h or Ah = height of capillary rise
h or Ah = height of capillary rise
(or depression)
o = surface tension
u = contact angle
= specific weight
R or r = radius of tube
Fo,
Z
W
h
h r gAh
g mg W
2
=
= = =
Definition: for a given temperature, the pressure at which
the liquid will boil is called as vapor pressure.
Liquid boils when local pressure = vapor pressure
To boil the liquids, either rise the temperature or reduce the
pressure.
In localized low-pressure zones, bubbles start growing and
they collapse when they move with flow into the regions of
higher pressure, this phenomenon is known as cavitation
which can result in a damage of a hydraulic structure or
machinery.
Cavitating propeller
in a wind tunnel
Cavitation damage
on a blade
27.09.2010
13
Higher the pressure, higher the temperature to boil the water
Air at standard sea-level pressure (p = 101 kN/m
2
) has a temperature of
4C. What is the density of the air?
Problem Definition
Situation: Air with a known temperature and pressure.
Find: Density (kg/m
3
)
Find: Density (kg/m
3
).
Properties: Air, 4C, p at 101 kN/m
2
; Table A.2, R = 287 J/kg K.
Plan
Apply the ideal gas law, , to solve for density,
Solution
p = 101 kN/m
2
= 101x10
3
N/m
2
K = C+273.15= 4+273.15=277.15
RT p =
3
3
kgm 1.27
287x277.15
101x10
RT
p
~ = =
27.09.2010
14
2
2
3
J
kg N
K
kgK
J
m
N
kgm
RT
p
=
= = =
3 2
2
m
kg
Nm
kg
m
N
J m
= =
Dimensional analysis
The dynamic viscosity of water at 20C is 1.00 10
-3
Ns/m
2
, and the
viscosity at 40C is 6.53 10
-4
N s/m
2
.
Using an equation for the variation of liquid viscosity with temperature,
estimate the viscosity at 30C.
Problem Definition
Situation: Viscosity of water is specified at two temperatures.
Find: The viscosity at 30C by interpolation.
y y p
Properties:
(a) Water at 20C, = 1.00 10
-3
N s/m
2
.
(b) Water at 40C, = 6.53 10
-4
N s/m
2
.
Plan
1. Linearize the equation by taking the logarithm.
2. Interpolate between the two known values of viscosity.
3. Solve for ln C and b in this linear set of equations.
4. Change back to exponential equation, and solve for at 30C.
|
.
|
\
|
=
T
b
Ce
Solution:
1-
2
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
+ =
|
.
|
\
|
T
b
C
e C
T
b
ln ln
ln ln ln
| | b
EQUATION 1
EQUATION 2
TWO LINEAR EQUATIONS AND TWO UNKNOWNS
( )
( )
( )
( )
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
|
|
.
|
\
|
+
+ =
0 273
b
lnC x10 ln
20 273
b
lnC 1x10 ln
3
4
5 . 6
4
27.09.2010
15
Solution:
EQUATION 1
EQUATION 2
b = 1936 (K) &
0.00319b lnC 7.334
0.00341b lnC 6.908
+ =
+ =
b 0.00022 426 . 0 =
At 30,
6 13.51 lnC
1.357x10 C e e
13.51 6.602 6.908 lnC
36 0.00341x19 lnC 6.908

= =
= =
+ =
2 4 30) (273
1936
6
Nsm 8.08x10 e 1.357x10

|
|
.
|
\
|
+
= =
A board 1 m by 1 m that weighs 25 N slides down an inclined
ramp (slope = 20) with a velocity of 2.0 cm/s. The board is
separated from the ramp by a thin film of oil with a viscosity of
0.05 Ns/m
2
. Neglecting edge effects, calculate the space between
the board and the ramp.
Problem Definition
Problem Definition
Situation: A board is sliding down a ramp, on a thin film of oil.
Find: Space (in m) between the board and the ramp.
Assumptions: A linear velocity distribution in the oil.
Properties: Oil, = 0.05 Ns/m
2
.
Sketch of the problem Free body diagram of the board
27.09.2010
16
Plan
1. Draw a free body diagram of the board, as shown in
sketch.
For a constant sliding velocity, the resisting shear force is equal
to the component of weight parallel to the inclined ramp.
Relate shear force to viscosity and velocity distribution.
y y
2. With a linear velocity distribution, dV/dy can
everywhere be expressed as AV/ A y, where A V is the velocity of
the board, and A y is the space between the board and the ramp.
3. Solve for A y.
Solution
1-
A
dy
dV
Wsin20
A Wsin20
F F
shear tangential
=
=
=

2- Substitution of dV/dy as AV/ Ay
3- Solution for Ay
dy
A
y
V
Wsin20
A
A
=
A
= A
Wsin20
VA
y mm 0.117 m 0.00017
25sin20
1 0.05x0.02x
y = = =

To what height above the reservoir level will water (at 20C) rise in
a glass tube, such as that shown in Figure below, if the inside
diameter of the tube is 1.6 mm?
d = 1.6 mm?
27.09.2010
17
Problem Definition
Situation: A glass tube of small diameter placed in an open
reservoir of water induces capillary rise.
Find: The height the water will rise above the reservoir level.
Sketch: See Figure.
Properties: Water (20 C), Table A.5, = 0.073 N/m; = 9790 N/m
3
.
Plan
1. Perform a force balance on water that has risen in the tube.
2. Solve for Ah.
Solution
1. Force balance: Weight of water (down) is balanced by surface
tension force (up).
0 W F
z ,
=
d
2
Because the contact angle for water against glass is so small, it
can be assumed to be 0; therefore cos 1. Therefore:
h
4
d
Cos d A =
d
d
d
h h
4
d
d
2
2
4 4
= = A A =
18.6mm m 0.0186
x9790 1.6x10
4x0.073
d
h
3
= = = = A

4
m
Nm
m
x
m
N
mxN/m
N/m
d
4
h
3
3
= = = =
Nm m mxN/m d

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27.09.

20102011 Fall Lecture Notes CVE240FLUID MECHANICS AUSCivil Engineering Department

A molecule in the interior of a liquid is under

20102011 Fall Lecture Notes CVE240FLUID MECHANICS AUSCivil Engineering Department

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