Chapter 1 Introduction

A paper battery is a flexible, ultra-thin energy storage and production device formed by combining carbon nanotube with a conventional sheet of cellulose-based paper. A paper battery acts as both a high-energy battery and super capacitor , combining two components that are separate in traditional electronics . This combination allows the battery to provide both longterm, steady power production and bursts of energy. Non-toxic, flexible paper batteries have the potential to power the next generation of electronics, medical devices and hybrid vehicles, allowing for radical new designs and medical technologies. Paper batteries may be folded, cut or otherwise shaped for different applications without any loss of integrity or efficiency . Cutting one in half halves its energy production. Stacking them multiplies power output. Early prototypes of the device are able to produce 2.5 volt s of electricity from a sample the size of a postage stamp. The devices are formed by combining cellulose with an infusion of aligned carbon nanotubes that are each approximately one millionth of a centimeter thick. The carbon is what gives the batteries their black color. These tiny filaments act like the electrode s found in a traditional battery, conducting electricity when the paper comes into contact with an ionic liquid solution. Ionic liquids contain no water, which means that there is nothing to freeze or evaporate in extreme environmental conditions. As a result, paper batteries can function between -75 and 150 degrees Celsius. One method of manufacture, developed by scientists at Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute and MIT, begins with growing the nanotubes on a silicon substrate and then impregnating the gaps in the matrix with cellulose. Once the matrix has dried, the material can be peeled off of the substrate, exposing one end of the carbon nanotubes to act as an electrode . When two sheets are combined, with the cellulose sides facing inwards, a supercapacitor is formed that can be activated by the addition of the ionic liquid. This liquid acts as an electrolyte and may include salt-laden solutions like human blood, sweat or urine. The high cellulose content (over 90%) and lack of toxic chemicals in paper batteries makes the device both biocompatible and

environmentally friendly, especially when compared to the traditional lithium ion battery used in many present-day electronic devices and laptops. Widespread commercial deployment of paper batteries will rely on the development of more inexpensive manufacturing techniques for carbon nanotubes. As a result of the potentially transformative applications in electronics, aerospace, hybrid vehicles and medical science, however, numerous companies and organizations are pursuing the development of paper batteries. In addition to the developments announced in 2007 at RPI and MIT, researchers in Singapore announced that they had developed a paper battery powered by ionic solutions in 2005. NEC has also invested in R & D into paper batteries for potential applications in its electronic devices. Specialized paper batteries could act as power sources for any number of devices implanted in humans and animals, including RFID tags, cosmetics, drug-delivery systems and pacemakers. A capacitor introduced into an organism could be implanted fully dry and then be gradudally exposed to bodily fluids over time to generate voltage. Paper batteries are also biodegradable, a need only partially addressed by current e-cycling and other electronics disposal methods increasingly advocated for by the green computing movement. The field of MEMS and bio MEMS is emerging as an important technology of he new millennium with the capability of creating complex, autonomous and low cost engineering systems [1].

Fig1.1 Schematic diagram of a urine activated battery:a Cu film, a CuCl doped filter paper and a Mg film are stacked and laminated between two transparentlaminatig films. Two slits are made to contact urine to the paper and remove air from the battery
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As more MEMS devices are integrated with electronic circuits, the development of micropower sources for microsystems becomes exigent and challenging [3]. A huge amount of research effort has been focused on micro power generation for the past decade by using micro fuel cells that utilized oxygen, hydrogen or other fuels to target continuous power supply in the range Others have investigated the possibility of fabricating low cost and high capacity solar cells [5].

However, these micropower sources commonly require complicated micromachining processes that hinder A portion of this paper was presented at The 4th International Workshop on Micro and Nanotechnology for Power Generation and Energy Conversion Applications (PowerMEMS 2004), 2830 November, 2004, Kyoto, Japan. the possibility of an integration process with MEMS for selfsustained microsystems. Micropower sources meeting the operation lifetime of disposable devices are attractive, in contrast to the long-operation, miniature power sources of micro internal combustion engines [6] or rechargeable, thin-film lithium microbatteries [7]. Disposable on-demand, acid- and wateractivated microbatteries using chemical reactions in a cavity [8, 9] were demonstrated for bioMEMS and microdevices

Fig1.2 Workimg principle of the urine-activated paper battery (a) before activation and (b) after activation All these fabrication processes for power sources [49] use micromachining technologies such as the bulk or surface micromachining process based on silicon wafer. The silicon wafer-based
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processes hinder compatibility with bioMEMS devices or medical systems that are fabricated by using the plastic process. Currently urine [10] is chemically analyzed for health screening and/or for the diagnosis of diseases. Everyday ahealthy adult produces approximately 1.2 l of urine, which is mainly made up of a watery solution of metabolic waste such as urea (2535 g) and uric acid (0.41.0 g), dissolved salts such as sodium chloride (15 g), and organic materials. Most of these chemicals in urine can be used for health check purposes and for the diagnosis of diseases. For instance, glucose concentration in blood can be used as a marker for the diagnosis of diabetes and it could be detected by means of glucose oxidase (GOD) [11]. Over the past few decades,researchers havedeveloped several means of monitoring the urine glucose concentration [11], multianalyte sensors [12] for the detection of hypoxanthine, xanthine and uric acid and an enzyme sensor for urea detection .

Fig1.3 (a) Preparation of the CuCl-doped filter paper. (b) After soaking, the copper chloride-doped filter paper is dried in air and cutinto small pieces

This current work demonstrates the feasibility of using a simple, cheap, plastic lamination technology to fabricate human urine-activated paper batteries as a power source to drive the onboard biosensors for healthcare screening ofurine. The fabrication process and the batterys performance evaluation are described and discussed in detail in this paper.

1.1 Battery theory

Figure 1 shows the schematic diagram of a urine-activated paper battery consisting of a copper
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(Cu) layer, copper chloride (CuCl)-doped filter paper and a magnesium (Mg) layer. The whole assembly is sandwiched between two plastic layersand later laminated into a urine-activated paper battery by passing it through heated rollers at 120 C. Figure 2 shows the operation principle of the urine activatd battery. Magnesium and copper chloride are used asthe anode and the cathode, respectively. The Cu layer acts as an electron-collecting layer. When a droplet of human urine is added to the battery, as shown in figure 2, the urine soaks through the paper between the Mg and Cu layers. The chemicals dissolve and react to produce electricity. Even though urine contains other minor electrolyte chemicals such as uric acid [10], CuCl, as shown in figure 2, is the major chemical used for the generation of electric power in these batteries. The chemical reactions for the battery at the anode (oxidation) and cathode (reduction) are represented as equations (1) and (2), respectively [9, 10]: Mg Mg2+ + 2e- (1) 2CuCl + 2e- 2Cu + 2Cl- (2) and the overall reaction is Mg + 2CuCl MgCl2 + 2Cu. (3)

The theoretical voltage of this battery is a direct function of the anode and cathode materials. The standard potential can be calculated as 2.49 V from the standard electrode potentials as the sum of the anode potential and the cathodepotential [9, 14].
Battery or voltaic cell is a combination of many electrochemical Galvanic cells of identical type to store chemical energy and to deliver higher voltage or higher current than with single cells.

The battery cells create a voltage difference between the terminals of each cell and hence to its combination in battery. When an external electrical circuit is connected to the battery, then the battery drives electrons through the circuit and electrical work is done. Since the invention of the first Voltaic pile in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, the battery has become a common power source for many household and industrial applications, and is now
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Fig1.4 Batteries

a multi-billion dollar industry. An electrical battery is one or more electrochemical cells that convert stored chemical energy into electrical energy. Since the invention of the first battery in 1800 by Alessandro Volta, batteries have become a common power source for many household and industrial applications. Batteries are represented symbolically as

Fig. 1.5(a) Symbolic view

Fig. 1.5(b) conventional battery

Electrons flow from the negative terminal towards the positive terminal. Based on the rechargeable nature batteries are classified as a. Non rechargeable or primary cells b. Rechargeable or secondary cells Based on the size they are classified as a. Miniature batteries b. Industrial batteries Based on nature of electrolyte a. Dry cell b. Wet cell

1.2 History
The name "battery" was coined by Benjamin Franklin for an arrangement of multiple Leyden jars ,an early type of capacitor after a battery of cannon. The common usage includes a
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single electrical cell in the definition. An early form of electrochemical battery called the Baghdad Battery may have been used in antiquity. However, the modern development of batteries started with the Voltaic pile, invented by the Italian physicist Alessandro Volta in 1800.

1.3 The Flow Chart

1780, Italian anatomist & physiologist Luigi Galvani noticed dissected frog's legs would twitch when struck by a spark from a Leydan jar, an external source of electricity

1786, noticed, twitching would occur during lighting storms. Learned how to produce twitching without any external source of electricity.

1791, published a report on an animal electricity. Created an electrical frog's legs and A & B two different metals circuit. Produced AFL-B-A-FL-B circuit.

Studied the phenomenon of capacitance which required the measurements of electric charge and electrical potential.

Frog's moist tissues replaced with cardboard soaked in salt water & frog's muscular response replaced by another form of electrical detection.

In modern terms: Frog's legs as electrolyte & sensor. Metals served as electrode.

Able to detect electric current through his system, Galvanic cell.

1800, Volta invented the battery by placing many oltaic cells in series, literally by piling one above other

Starting with Daniell cell in 1836. Batteries provide more reliable currents and were adopted by industry

Near end pf 19th century, dry cells batteries were invented

Fig1.6 Flow Chart

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1.4 Terminologies

1.4.1 Accumulator - A rechargeable battery or cell

1.4.2 Ampere-Hour Capacity - The number of ampere-hours which can be delivered by a battery on a single discharge.

1.4.3 Anode - During discharge, the negative electrode of the cell is the anode. During charge, that reverses and the positive electrode of the cell is the anode. The anode gives up electrons to the load circuit and dissolves into the electrolyte.

1.4.4 Battery Capacity - The electric output of a cell or battery on a service test delivered before the cell reaches a specified final electrical condition and may be expressed in ampere-hours, watt- hours, or similar units. The capacity in watt-hours is equal to the capacity in ampere-hours multiplied by the battery voltage.

1.4.5 Cutoff Voltage final - The prescribed lower-limit voltage at which battery discharge is considered complete. The cutoff or final voltage is usually chosen so that the maximum useful capacity of the battery is realized.

1.4.6 C - Used to signify a charge or discharge rate equal to the capacity of a battery divided by 1 hour. Thus C for a 1600 mAh battery would be 1.6 A, C/5 for the same battery would be 320 mA and C/10 would be 160 mA.

1.4.7 Capacity - The capacity of a battery is a measure of the amount of energy that it can deliver in a single discharge. Battery capacity is normally listed as amp-hours (or milli amp-hours) or as watt-hours. 1.4.8 Cathode - Is an electrode that, in effect, oxidizes the anode or absorbs the electrons. During discharge, the positive electrode of a voltaic cell is the cathode. When charging, that reverses and the negative electrode of the cell is the cathode.
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1.4.9 Cycle - One sequence of charge and discharge.

1.4.10 Cycle Life - For rechargeable batteries, the total number of charge/discharge cycles the cell can sustain before its capacity is significantly reduced. End of life is usually considered to be reached when the cell or battery delivers only 80% of rated amperehour capacity.

1.4.11 Electrochemical Couple - The system of active materials within a cell that provides electrical energy storage through an electrochemical reaction.

1.4.12 Electrode - An electrical conductor through which an electric current enters or leaves a conducting medium

1.4.13 Electrolyte - A chemical compound which, when fused or dissolved in certain solvents, usually water, will conduct an electric current.

1.4.14 Internal Resistance - The resistance to the flow of an electric current within the cell or battery.

1.4.15 Open-Circuit Voltage - The difference in potential between the terminals of a cell when the circuit is open (i.e., a no-load condition).

1.4.16 Voltage, cutoff - Voltage at the end of useful discharge. (See Voltage, end-point.)

1.4.17 Voltage, end-point - Cell voltage below which the connected equipment will not operate or below which operation is not recommended.

1.5 Principal of Operation of cell

A battery is a device that converts chemical energy directly to electrical energy.
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It consists of a number of voltaic cells. Each voltaic cell consists of two half cells connected in series by a conductive electrolyte containing anions and cations. One half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which anions (negatively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the anode or negative electrode. The other half-cell includes electrolyte and the electrode to which cations (positively charged ions) migrate, i.e., the cathode or positive electrode. In the redox reaction that powers the battery, cations are reduced (electrons are added) at the cathode, while anions are oxidized (electrons are removed) at the anode. The electrodes do not touch each other but are electrically connected by the electrolyte. Some cells use two half-cells with different electrolytes. A separator between half cells allows ions to flow, but prevents mixing of the electrolytes.

Fig. 1.7 Principle Operation Each half cell has an electromotive force (or emf), determined by its ability to drive electric current from the interior to the exterior of the cell. The voltage developed across a cell's terminals depends on the energy release of the chemical reactions of its electrodes and electrolyte. Alkaline and carbon-zinc cells have different chemistries but approximately the same emf of 1.5 volts. Likewise NiCd and NiMH cells have different chemistries, but approximately the same emf of 1.2 volts. On the other hand the high electrochemical potential changes in the reactions of lithium compounds give lithium cells emf of 3 volts or more.

1.6 Types of batteries

Batteries are classified into two broad categories. Primary batteries irreversibly (within limits of practicality) transform chemical energy to electrical energy. When the initial supply of reactants is exhausted, energy cannot be readily restored to the battery by electrical means. Secondary batteries can be recharged. That is, they can have their chemical reactions
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reversed by supplying electrical energy to the cell, restoring their original composition.

1.6.1 Primary batteries: This can produce current immediately on assembly. Disposable
batteries are intended to be used once and discarded. These are most commonly used in portable devices that have low current drain, are only used intermittently, or are used well away from an alternative power source, such as in alarm and communication circuits where other electric power is only intermittently available. Disposable primary cells cannot be reliably recharged, since the chemical reactions are not easily reversible and active materials may not return to their original forms. Battery manufacturers recommend against attempting recharging primary cells. Common types of disposable batteries include zinc-carbon batteries and alkaline batteries.

1.6.2 Secondary batteries: These batteries must be charged before use. They are usually
assembled with active materials in the discharged state. Rechargeable batteries or secondary cells can be recharged by applying electric current, which reverses the chemical reactions that occur during its use. Devices to supply the appropriate current are called chargers or rechargers.

Fig. 1.8(a) Primary cell

Fig. 1.8(b) Secondary cell

1.6.3 Alkaline batteries

Alkaline batteries have a higher energy density and longer life which alkalines commonly compete against in button cells.

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Alkaline batteries and alkaline cells a battery being a collection of multiple cells are a type of disposable battery or rechargeable battery dependent upon the reaction between zinc and manganese (IV) oxide ,Zn/MnO2. Capacity of an alkaline battery is larger than an equal size or zinc-chloride cell because the manganese dioxide anode material is purer and denser, and space Fig1.9 Alkaline Battery

taken up by internal components such as current collectors is less. An alkaline cell can provide between three and five times as much operating time. capacity of an alkaline battery is strongly dependent on the load. The nominal voltage of the alkaline battery cell is 1.5 V. Multiple voltages may be achieved with series of cells. The effective zero-load voltage of a non discharged alkaline battery varies from 1.50 to 1.65 V, depending on the chosen mangan dioxide and the contents of zinc oxide in the electrolyte. The average voltage under load depends on discharge and varies from 1.1 to 1.3 V. The fully discharged cell has a remaining voltage in the range of .8 to 1.0 V.

1.6.4 Lead-Acid Battery

Lead-acid oldest battery. batteries, of are the

type

rechargeable having the

Despite

second lowest energy-to-weight ratio and a correspondingly low energy-to-volume ratio, their

ability to supply high surge currents means that the cells maintain a relatively large ratio make Fig1.10Lead-Acid Battery

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them attractive for use in motor vehicles to provide the high current required by automobile starter motors. Battery has one major advantage over other chemistries. It is relatively simple to determine the state of charge by merely measuring the specific gravity (S.G.) of the electrolyte, the S.G. falling as the battery discharges. Separators are used between the positive and negative plates of a lead acid battery to prevent short circuit through physical contact, mostly through dendrites, but also through shedding of the active material. Separators obstruct the flow of ions between the plates and increase the internal resistance of the cell. Large backup power supplies for telephone and computer centers, grid energy storage, and off-grid household electric power systems. Lead-acid batteries are used in emergency lighting in case of power failure. Lead acid batteries designed for starting automotive engines are not designed for deep discharge. They have a large number of thin plates designed for maximum surface area, and therefore maximum current output, but which can easily be damaged by deep discharge. Repeated deep discharges will result in capacity loss and ultimately in premature failure, as the electrodes disintegrate due to mechanical stresses that arise from cycling. A common misconception is that starting batteries should always be kept on float charge. In reality, this practice will encourage corrosion in the electrodes and result in premature failure. Starting batteries should be kept open-circuit but charged regularly ,at least once every two weeks to prevent sulfating. Specially designed deep-cycle cells are much less susceptible to degradation due to cycling, and are required for applications where the batteries are regularly discharged, such as photovoltaic systems, electric vehicles ;forklift, golf cart, electric cars and other and uninterruptible power supplies. These batteries have thicker plates that can deliver less peak current, but can withstand frequent discharging. The capacity of a lead-acid battery is not a fixed quantity but varies according to how quickly it is discharged. An empirical relationship exists between discharge rate and capacity, known as Peukert's law.When a battery is charged or
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discharged, this initially affects only the reacting chemicals, which are at the interface between the electrodes and the electrolyte. With time, these chemicals at the interface, which we will call an "interface charge", spread by diffusion throughout the volume of the active material. Excessive charging of a lead-acid battery will cause emission of hydrogen and oxygen from each cell, as some of the water of the electrolyte is broken down by electrolysis. This process is known as "gassing" Currently attempts are being made to develop alternatives to the lead-acid battery (particularly for automotive use) because of concerns about the environmental consequences of improper disposal of old batteries and of lead smelting operations.

1.6.5 Nickel-Cadmium Battery

The nickel-cadmium battery is a type of rechargeable battery using nickel oxide hydroxide and metallic cadmium as electrodes. two types of NiCd batteries: sealed and vented Sealed NiCd cells may be used individually, or assembled into battery packs containing two or more cells. Small NiCd dry cells are used for portable electronics and toys, often using cells manufactured in the same sizes as primary cells. When NiCds are substituted for primary cells, the lower terminal voltage and smaller ampere hour capacity may reduce performance as compared to primary cells. Specialty NiCd batteries have a niche market in the area of cordless and wireless telephones, emergency lighting, model airplanes, as well as power tools. Nickel-cadmium cells have a nominal cell potential of 1.2 V The batteries are more difficult to damage than other batteries, tolerating deep discharge for long periods. In fact, NiCd batteries in long-term storage are typically stored fully discharged commercially available and cheaper NiCd cells are available in the same general-purpose physical sizes as alkaline batteries, from AAA through D, as well as several multi-cell sizes, including the equivalent of a 9 volt battery
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The maximum discharge rate for a NiCd battery varies by size. For a common AA-size cell, the maximum discharge rate is approximately 18 amps; for a D size battery the discharge rate can be as high as 35 amps. NiCd batteries can charge at several different rates, depending on how the cell was manufactured. The charge rate is measured based on the percentage of the amp-hour capacity the battery is fed as a steady current over the duration of the charge. Regardless of the charge speed, more energy must be supplied to the battery than its actual capacity, to Fig 1.11 Nickel-Cadmium Battery

account for energy loss during charging, with faster charges being more efficient. NiCd batteries contain cadmium, which is a toxic heavy metal and therefore requires special care during battery disposal.

1.6.6 Paper Battery

A paper battery is a battery engineered to use a paper-thin sheet of cellulose infused with aligned carbon nanotubes. nanotubes act as electrodes; allowing the storage devices to conduct electricity Functions as both a lithium-ion battery and a supercapacitor, can provide a long, steady power output comparable to a conventional battery, as well as a supercapacitors quick burst of high energy Integrates all of the battery components in a single structure, making it more energy efficient. Paper battery extreme flexibility; the sheets can be rolled, twisted, folded, or cut into numerous shapes with no loss of integrity or efficiency, or stacked, like printer paper (or a Voltaic pile), to boost total output.
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Can be made in a variety of sizes, from postage stamp to broadsheet. The paper-like quality of the battery combined with the structure of the nanotubes embedded within gives them their light weight and low cost, making them attractive for portable electronics, aircraft, automobiles, and toys Ability to use electrolytes in blood make them potentially useful for medical devices such as pacemakers & do not contain any toxic materials and can be biodegradable; a major drawback of chemical cells.

1.6.7 Super Charge Ion Battery

A fast-charging battery designed to recharge to 90% capacity within 10 minutes. Fig1.12 Super Charge Ion Battery

1.6.8 Atomic battery

Atomic battery used to describe a device which uses the emissions from a radioactive isotope to generate electricity. Have extremely long life and high energy density, and so are mainly used as power sources for equipment that must operate unattended for long periods of time, such as spacecraft and automated scientific stations in remote parts of the world. Using the energy of radioisotope decay to provide long-lived power, 10-20 years are being developed internationally. Conversion techniques can be grouped into two types: thermal and non-thermal The thermal converters, whose output power is a function of a temperature differential, include thermoelectric and thermionic generators. The non-thermal converters whose output power is not a function of a temperature difference A thermionic converter consists of a hot electrode which thermionically emits electrons over a space charge barrier to a cooler electrode, producing a useful power output. Caesium vapor is used to optimize the electrode
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work functions and provide an ion supply (by surface contact ionization) to neutralize the electron space charge. Non-thermal converters extract a fraction of the nuclear energy as it is being degraded into heat. Their outputs are not functions of temperature differences as are thermoelectric and thermionic converters. Non-thermal generators can be grouped into three classes.

1.6.9 Daniell cell

The Daniell cell also called the gravity cell or crowfoot cell was invented in 1836 by John Frederic Daniell, Consists of a central zinc anode dipping into a porous earthenware pot containing zinc sulfate solution The porous pot is, in turn, immersed in a solution of copper sulfate contained in a copper can, which acts as the cell's cathode. The use of a porous barrier prevents the copper ions in the copper sulfate solution from reaching the zinc anode and undergoing reduction. This would render the cell ineffective by bringing the battery to equilibrium without driving a current.

1.6.10 Lemon battery

A lemon battery is a device used in experiments proposed in many science textbooks around the world. It is made by inserting two different metallic objects, for example a galvanized nail and a copper coin, into a lemon. The copper coin serves as the positive electrode or cathode and the galvanized nail as the negative electrode or anode. These two objects work as electrodes, causing an electrochemical reaction which generates a small potential difference.

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the energy for the battery does not come from the lemon or potato, but rather the energy comes from the metals. The metals are oxidized, and the energy released provides the power. The lemon or potato not merely provides an environment where this can happen, and they are used up in the process, proof of it happens when there are several lemons in a serial connection of lemons. Potatoes,apples, or any other fruit or vegetable containing acid or other electrolyte can be used, but lemons are preferred because of their higher acidity.

1.6.11 Opto-electric Battery

An opto-electric nuclear battery is a device that converts nuclear energy into light, which it then uses to generate electrical energy. A beta-emitter such as technetium-99 or strontium-90 is suspended in a gas or liquid containing luminescent gas molecules of the excimer type, constituting a "dust plasma." consist of an excimer of argon, xenon, or kryptonin a pressure vessel with an internal mirrored surface, finely-ground radioisotope, and an intermittent ultrasonic stirrer, illuminating a photocell with a bandgap tuned for the excimer. High price of the radionuclides.

1.6.12 Printed Battery

Printed electronics is a set of printing methods used to create electrically functional devices. Paper has been often proposed to be used as substrate but due the rough surface and high humidity absorption other materials such as plastic, ceramics and silicon has been applied more widely. Several printing processes have been piloted and printing preferably utilizes common printing equipment in the graphics arts industry, such as screen printing, flexography, gravure, offset lithography and inkjet.

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1.6.13 Water-Activated Battery

A water-activated battery is a disposable reserve battery that does not contain an electrolyte and hence produces no voltage until it is soaked in water for several minutes. Specifically designed to be more environmentally friendly due to an absence of heavy metals. Most commonly in radiosondes which cannot contain heavy metals because they regularly fall to the ground or ocean surface and remain there indefinitely.

1.6.14 AA battery
An AA battery is a dry cell-type battery commonly used in portable electronic devices. An AA battery measures 51 mm in length The capacity of rechargeable AA batteries varies with the technology used.

1.6.15 Rechargeable Battery

A rechargeable battery is a group of one or more secondary cells. Use electrochemical reactions that are electrically reversible. Come in many different sizes and use different combinations of chemicals. Can offer economic and environmental benefits compared to disposable batteries. rechargeable battery types are available in the same sizes as disposable types

1.6.16 Starte Battery

car battery is a type of rechargeable battery that supplies electric energy to an automobile To power the starter motor, the lights, and the ignition system of a vehicles engine. Describe a traction battery used for the main power source of an electric vehicle. Fig 1.13 Starte Battery

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1.7 Recent developments

Recent developments include batteries with embedded functionality such as USBCELL, with a built-in charger and USB connector within the AA format, enabling the battery to be charged by plugging into a USB port without a charger USB Cell is the brand of NiMH rechargeable battery produced by a company called Moixa Energy. The batteries include a USB connector to allow recharging using a powered USB port. The product range currently available is limited to a 1300 mAh.

Fig. 1.14 USB cell

1.8 Life of battery

Even if never taken out of the original package, disposable (or "primary") batteries can lose 8 to 20 percent of their original charge every year at a temperature of about 2030C. [54] This is known as the "self-discharge" rate and is due to non-current-producing "side" chemical reactions, which occur within the cell even if no load is applied to it. The rate of the side reactions is reduced if the batteries are stored at low temperature, although some batteries can be damaged by freezing. High or low temperatures may reduce battery performance. This will affect

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the initial voltage of the battery. For an AA alkaline battery this initial voltage is approximately normally distributed around 1.6 volts. Rechargeable batteries self-discharge more rapidly than disposable alkaline batteries, especially nickel-based batteries a freshly charged NiCd loses 10% of its charge in the first 24 hours, and thereafter discharges at a rate of about 10% a month. Most nickel- based batteries are partially discharged when purchased, and must be charged before first use.

1.9 Hazards related to batteries

1.9.1 Explosion

A battery explosion is caused by the misuse or malfunction of a battery, such as attempting to recharge a primary (non-rechargeable) battery, or short circuiting a battery. 1.9.2 Corrosion Many battery chemicals are corrosive, poisonous, or both. If leakage occurs, either spontaneously or through accident, the chemicals released may be dangerous 1.9.3 Environmental pollution The widespread use of batteries has created many environmental concerns, such as toxic metal pollution. Battery manufacture consumes resources and often involves hazardous chemicals. Used batteries also contribute to electronic waste. Americans purchase nearly three billion batteries annually, and about 179,000 tons of those end up in landfills across the country. 1.9.4 Ingestion Small button/disk batteries can be swallowed by young children. While in the digestive tract the battery's electrical discharge can burn the tissues and can be serious enough to lead to death.

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Fig 1.15 Electronic waste

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Chapter2 PAPER BATTERY

Energy has always been spotlighted. In the past few years a lot of inventions have been made in this particular field. The tiny nuclear batteries that can provide energy for 10 years, but they use radioactive elements and are quite expensive. Few years back some researchers from Stanford University started experiments concerning the ways in which a copier paper could be used as a battery source. After a long way of struggle they, recently, concluded that the idea was right. The batteries made from a plain copier paper could make for the future energy storage that is truly thin. The anatomy of paper battery is based on the use of Carbon Nanotubes tiny cylinders to collect electric charge. The paper is dipped in lithium containing solution. The nanotubes will act as electrodes allowing storage device to conduct electricity. Its astounding to know that all the components of a conventional battery are integrated in a single paper structure; hence the complete mechanism for a battery is minimized to a size of paper. One of the many reasons behind choosing the paper as a medium for battery is the welldesigned structure of millions of interconnected fibers in it. These fibers can hold on carbon nanotubes easily. Also a paper has the capability to bent or curl. You can fold it in different shapes and forms plus it as light as feather. Output voltage is modest but it could be increased if we use a stack of papers. Hence the voltage issues can be easily controlled without difficulty. Usage of paper as a battery will ultimately lead to weight diminution of batteries many times as compared to traditional batteries. It is said that the paper battery also has the capability of releasing the energy quickly. That makes it best utilization for devices that needs burst of energy, mostly electric vehicles. Further, the medical uses are particularly attractive because they do not contain any toxic materials.

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Chapter3 CARBON NANOTUBES

Carbon nanotubes (CNTs) are allotropes of carbon with a cylindrical nanostructure. Nanotubes have been constructed with length-to-diameter ratio of up to 132,000,000:1, significantly larger than any other material. These cylindrical carbon molecules have novel properties, making them potentially useful in many applications in nanotechnology, electronics, optics, and other fields of materials science, as well as potential uses in architectural fields. They may also have applications in the construction of body armor. They exhibit extraordinary strength and unique electrical properties, and are efficient thermal conductors. Their name is derived from their size, since the diameter of a nanotube is on the order of a few nanometers (approximately 1/50,000th of the width of a human hair), while they can be up to 18 centimeters in length (as of 2010). Nanotubes are categorized as single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) and multi-walled nanotubes (MWNTs). In theory, metallic nanotubes can carry an electric current density of 4 109 A/cm2 which is more than 1,000 times greater than metals such as copper, where for copper interconnects current densities are limited by electro migration. In paper batteries the nanotubes act as electrodes, allowing the storage devices to conduct electricity. The battery, which functions as both a lithium-ion battery and a super capacitor, can provide a long, steady power output comparable to a conventional battery, as well as a super capacitors quick burst of high energy and while a conventional battery contains a number of separate components, the paper battery integrates all of the battery components in a single structure, making it more energy efficient. Carbon nanotubes have been implemented in Nano electromechnical systems, including mechanical memory elements(NRAM being developed by Nantero Inc.)

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Fig 3.1 Carbon nanotubes

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Chapter 4 FABRICATION OF PAPER BATTERY

The materials required for the preparation of paper battery are a. Copier paper b. Carbon nano ink c. Oven The steps involved in the preparation of the paper battery are as follows Step 1: The copier paper is taken. Step 2: carbon Nano ink which is black in color is taken. Carbon nano ink is a solution of nano rods, surface adhesive agent and ionic salt solutions. Carbon nano ink is spread on one side of the paper. Step 3: the paper is kept inside the oven at 150C temperature. This evaporates the water content on the paper. The paper and the nano rods get attached to each other. Step 4: place the multi meter on the sides of the paper and we can see voltage drop is generated.

Fig 4.1 Fabrication process After drying the paper becomes flexible, light weight in nature. The paper is scratched and rolled to protect the nano rods on paper.
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Chapter 5 WORKING OF PAPER BATTERY

The battery produces electricity in the same way as the conventional lithium-ion batteries that power so many of today's gadgets, but all the components have been incorporated into a lightweight, flexible sheet of paper. The devices are formed by combining cellulose with an infusion of aligned carbon nanotubes. The carbon is what gives the batteries their black color. These tiny filaments act like the electrodes found in a traditional battery, conducting electricity when the paper comes into contact with an ionic liquid solution. Ionic liquids contain no water, which means that there is nothing to freeze or evaporate in extreme environmental conditions. As a result, paper batteries can function between -75 and 1500C.The paper is made conducting material by dipping in ink. The paper works as a conductive layer. Two sheets of paper kept facing inward act like parallel plates (high energy electrodes). It can store energy like a super capacitor and it can discharge bursts of energy because of large surface area of nano tubes.

Fig.5.1 working of a paper battery

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Chlorine ions flow from the positive electrode to the negative one, while electrons travel through the external circuit, providing current. The paper electrode stores charge while recharging in tens of seconds because ions flow through the thin electrode quickly. In contrast, lithium batteries take 20 minutes to recharge.

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Chapter 6 Uses
The paper-like quality of the battery combined with the structure of the nanotubes embedded within gives them their light weight and low cost, making them attractive for portable electronics, aircraft, automobiles, and toys (such as model aircraft), while their ability to use electrolytes in blood make them potentially useful for medical devices such as pacemakers. The medical uses are particularly attractive because they do not contain any toxic materials and can be biodegradable; a major drawback of chemical cells However, Professor Sperling cautions that commercial applications may be a long way away, because nanotubes are still relatively expensive to fabricate. Currently they are making devices a few inches in size. In order to be commercially viable, they would like to be able to make them newspaper size; a size which, taken all together would be powerful enough to power a car.

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Chapter 7 ADVANTAGES
The flexible shape allows the paper battery to be used small or irregularly-shaped electronics: One of the unique features of the paper battery is that it can be bent to any such shape or design that the user might have in mind. The battery can easily squeeze into tight crevasses and can be cut multiple times without ruining the battery's life. For example if a battery is cut in half, each piece will function, however, each piece will only contain 1/2 the amount of original power. Conversely, placing two sheets of paper battery on top of one-another will double the power. The paper battery may replace conventional batteries completely:

By layering sheets of this paper, the battery's voltage and current can be increased that many times. Since the main components of the paper battery are carbon nanotubes and cellulose, the body structure of the battery is very thin, "paper-thin". Thus to maximize even more power, the sheets of battery paper can be stacked on top of one another to give off tremendous power. This can allow the battery to have a much higher amount of power for the same size of storage as a current battery and also be environmentally friendly at the same time. Supply power to an implanted pacemaker in the human body by using the electrolytes in human blood: An improvement in the techniques used in the health field can be aided by the paper battery. Experiments have taken place showing that batteries can be energized by the electrolyte emitted from one's own blood or body sweat. This can conserve the usage of battery acid and rely on an environmental friendly mechanism of fueling battery cells with the help from our bodies. The paper battery can be molded to take the shape of large objects, like a car door:

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As stated earlier, the key characteristics that make the paper battery very appealing are that it can be transformed into any shape or size, it can be cut multiple times without damaging it, and it can be fueled through various ways besides the typical harmful battery acid that is used in the current day battery.

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Chapter 8 LIMITATIONS

Presently, the devices are only a few inches across and they have to be scaled up to sheets

of newspaper size to make it commercially viable. Carbon nanotubes are very expensive, and batteries with large enough power are unlikely

to be cost effective. Cutting of trees leading to destroying of the nature.

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Chapter 9 APPLICATIONS

Pace makers in heart (uses blood as electrolyte)

Used as alternate to conventional batteries in gadgets

Powered smart cards RF id tags

Smart toys, children sound books

E-cards, greetings, talking posters Girls/boys apparel

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Chapter 10 Future And Scope

10.1 Future
The discussion above describes the current state of the TF/printable battery market. It seems likely that printable battery firms in the future will focus on:

Further developing their battery technology to meet specifications of important applications and increase energy density Improving manufacturing processes used to make the batteries, possibly employing printing for all parts of the battery Establishing relationships with device manufacturers (customers), especially those that are developing devices made via printing and especially those that could lead to early volume production.

More capacity will also need to be put in place to manufacture cells with emerging chemistries. As we have already mentioned, thin-film batteries are not likely to grow into a substantial and profitable industry until high-volume production can be justified. But this will mean a call on equity investors and/or bankers for significant amounts of capital. This will be especially challenging in the current economic environment, although we note that there has been some VC money going into the TF/printable battery sector in the past year. Still, so far investments in this sector have mainly been small and the new generation of batteries discussed here does not seem to have attracted the attention of the best-known VC firms, although there are a few important strategic investors in this space.

10.2 Objectives and Scope of this Report

The main goal of this report is to determine in which applications a substantial business case can be made for thin-film and printable batteries. In order to reach this goal we have:

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Analyzed and quantified the opportunities for TF/printable batteries in a broad range of applications for which they are claimed to be suited. For each of these applications, we examine the requirements for power sources and compare current and future performance of TF/printable batteries with the other power sources that may be used for each application.

Examined critically, the business case stories being told by the leading manufacturers of TF/printable batteries to ascertain the degree to which they jibe with market realities Analyzed the likely evolution of materials and battery chemistries used in the novel batteries discussed in this report. This analysis covers both the electrodes and electrolyte. We have also reviewed the progress being made with manufacturing processes.

This report brings together NanoMarkets deep experience in the thin-film, organic and printable electronics sector with its analysis of the latest developments in the battery field including new products, technology breakthroughs, new licensing, financial and marketing arrangements and recent M&A activity. And while the main objective of this report is to focus on the evolving opportunities in TF/printable batteries, it will also seek to explain where there have been apparent failures and analyze why these have occurred.

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Chapter 11 CONCLUSION
We have discussed the various terminologies, principle of operation of a battery and recent developments related to it. The life of a battery is an important parameter which decides the area of application of the battery. Increased use of batteries gives rise to E-waste which poses great damage to our environment. In the year 2007 paper battery was manufactured. The technology is capable of replacing old bulky batteries. The paper batteries can further reduce the weight of the electronic gadgets. The adaptations to the paper battery technique in the future could allow for simply painting the nanotube ink and active materials onto surfaces such as walls. These surfaces can produce energy.

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REFERENCES

Thin, Flexible Secondary Li-Ion Paper Batteries Liangbing Hu, Hui Wu, Fabio La Mantia, Yuan Yang, and Yi Cui Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Stanford University, Stanford, California 94305.

David Linden Handbook of batteries

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