1.

1 2 Atomic Structure
Isotopes are atoms of the same element with different numbers of neutrons. Ion is a positively or negatively charges atom or covalently bonded group of atoms Particle Proton Neutron Electron Relative Mass 1.0 1.0 1/2000 Relative Charge 1+ 0 1-

Different isotopes of the same element react in the same way because chemical reactions involve electrons and neutrons make no difference to chemical reactivity. Ions are charged because they have different numbers of protons and electrons. Ions* only change the number of electrons e.g. for a 3+ ion take away 3 electrons and for a 2- ion just add 2 electrons.

1.1 3 Atomic Masses

Relative Isotopic Mass is the mass of an atom of an isotope compared with one twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon- 12. Same as mass number however we have neglected the contribution that electrons make the mass of an atom and we have taken the masses of proton and neutron to be 1.0 u. (unified atomic mass) Relative Atomic Mass is the weighted mean mass of an atom of an element compared with one twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon- 12. The contribution made by an isotope to the overall mass depends on the percentage abundance of the isotope and the relative atomic mass of the isotope. Worked example A sample of bromine contains 53.00% of bromine-79 and 47.00% of bromine-81. determine the RAM of bromine 53.00/100 x 79 + 47.00/100 x 81.00 = 79.94

Relative Molecular Mass is the weighted mean mass of a formula unit compared with one twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon- 12.

1.1 4 Amount of Substance and the mole

Relative formula Mass is the weighted mean mass of a formula unit compared with one twelfth of the mass of an atom of carbon- 12. A mole is the amount of substance containing as many particles as there are carbon atoms in exactly 12g of carbon- 12 isotope. The Avogadro constant is the number of atoms per mole of the carbon-12 isotope.

1.1 5 Types of Formula

The empirical formula is the simplest whole number ratio of atoms of each element present in a compound. If you wanted to show the formula of sodium chloride using the actual number of ions bonded together it would go into millions and the formula will also depend on the size of each salt crystal. A molecule is a small group of atoms held together by covalent bonds. The molecular formula is the actual number of atoms of each element in a molecule. Tells you the number of each type of atom that make a molecule.

.1 6 Moles and gas volumes

Molar volume is the volume per mole of a gas. Units are dm3 mol-1 and molar volume is 24.0 dm3. Worked example What amount in mol of gas molecules is in 72 cm3 of any gas at RTP? n= v (in cm)/ 24000 = 72/24000 = 0.0030 mol Worked example What is the volume in cm3 of 2.130 x 10_3 mol of gas at RTP? V= n x 24 000 = 2.130 x 10-3 x 24000 = 51.12 cm3

1.1 7 Moles and solutions

The concentration of a solution is the amount of solute in mol dissolved per 1 dm3 of solution. .A standard solution is a solution of known concentration. Standard solutions are normally used in titrations to determine unknown information about another substance. The mass concentration of a solute is the mass dissolved in one dm3 of solution Concentrated a large amount of solute per dm3 Dilute- a small amount of solute per dm3

1.1 8 Chemical equations

A species is any type of particle that takes part in a chemical reaction. A giant structure is formed when many atoms or ions bond together. The number of atoms or ions depends on the size of the crystalline formula and this is why the giant structure is shown by its empirical formula. Worked example Nitrogen+ hydrogen ammonia N2 + H2 NH3 NOT BALANCED N2 +3H22 NH3 BALANCED

1.1 9 Moles and Reactions

Stoichiometry is the molar relationship between the relative quantities of substances taking part in a reaction. The balanced equation tells you: 1. The reacting quantities that are needed to prepare a quantity of a product. 2. The quantities of products formed by reacting together known quantities of reactants.

1.1 10 Acids and Bases

Acid is a proton donor A base is a proton acceptor An alkali is a type of base that dissolves in water forming hydroxide ions (OH-). SODIUM HYDROXIDE: NaOH + aq Na+ + OHWhen an acid is added to water the acid releases H+ ions into solution: HCl + aq H+ + HSO4H2SO4+ aq H+ + HSO4The H+ ion is the active ingredient in acids. A H+ ion is responsible for all acid reactions. Common bases are metal oxides and hydroxides and ammonia is also a base. Bases neutralise acids. Metal oxides: MgO CuO Metal hydroxides: NaOH Mg(OH)2 Ammonia: NH3 amines CH3NH2 Alkalis are any compound that gives a solution with a Ph greater than 7.0 when dissolved in water. Sodium hydroxide: NaOH potassium hydroxide: KOH ammonia: NH3 Alkalis are corrosive even when dilute.

In solution the hydroxide ions from alkalis neutralise the protons from Ammonia dissolves in water to form a weak alkaline solution. Dissolved NH3 reacts with water: acids forming water NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OHH+ + OH- H2O

Ammonia is a weak base because only a small proportion of the dissolves NH3 reacts with water. This is shown by the equilibrium sign.

1.1 11 Salts
A salt is any chemical compound formed from an acid when a H+ ion from the acid has been replaced by a metal ion or another positive ion such as the ammonium ion NH4+ A cation is a positively charged ion An anion is a negatively charged ion. The cation in a salt is usually a metal ion or an ammonium ion. The anion is derived from the acid. Sulfuric acid sulphate salts = H2SO4 K2SO4 potassium sulphate Salts can be produces by neutralising acids with carbonates bases and alkalis Acid + carbonate salt + CO2 + H2O Acid + base salt + water Acid + alkali salt + water

1.1 12 Water of Crystallisation

Hydrated refers to a crystalline compound containing water molecules. Anhydrous refers to a substance that contains no water molecules. Water of crystallisation refers to water molecules that form an essential part of the crystalline structure of a compound. CuSO45H2O copper sulphate penthydrate CoCl26H2O cobalt chloride hexahydrate SALT Hydrated magnesium chloride Hydrated sodium carbonate Hydrated calcium Nitrate EMPIRICAL FORMULA MgCl2H10O5 Na2CH20O13 CaNH8O10 DOT FORMULA MgCl25H2O Na2CO310H2O Ca(NO3)24H2O

You can determine the formula of a hydrated salt by heating it so the water or crystalisation is driven off and evaporates.

1.1 13 Titrations
Titration is a special type of volumetric analysis in which you react a solution of an acid with a solution of a base. Indicator Methyl orange Bromothymol blue Phenolphthalein Colour in Acid red yellow colourless Colour in base yellow blue pink End point Colour Orange green Pale pink

1.1 14 Oxidation Number

Oxidation number is a measure of the number of electrons that an atom uses to bond with atoms of another element. Oxyanions are negative ions that contain an element along with oxygen eg, SO42- NO3Species Uncombined element Combined oxygen Combined hydrogen Simple ion Combined fluorine Oxidation number 0 -2 +1 Charged on ion -1 Examples C Na O2 p4 H2O CaO NH3 H2s Na+ +1 Mg2+ +2 Cl- -1 NaF CaF2 ALF3

1.1 15 Redox Reactions

Oxidation is a loss of electrons or an increase in oxidation number Reduction is gain of electrons or a decrease in oxidation number. A redox reaction is a reaction in which both reduction and oxidation take place. A reducing agent is a reagent that reduces another species An oxidising agent is a reagent that oxidises another species. The substance that is reduced takes electrons from the substance that is oxidised. Reduction must always be accompanied by oxidation. A reaction with both reduction and oxidation is a redox reaction. At electronic level electrons have been transferred from the magnesium atoms to the chlorine atoms: Mg + Cl2 Mg2+ + 2e- oxidation Cl2+2e- 2ClMg is a reducing agent as it has reduced the Cl2 to 2Cl_ by donating its electrons Cl2 is an oxidising agent as it has oxidised Mg to Mg2+ by removing its electrons Metals tend to be oxidised- losing electrons to form positive ions and non metals tend to be reducedgaining electrons to form negative ions. In redox reactions of metals with acids The metal is oxidised forming positive metal ions The hydrogen in the acid is reduced, forming an element of hydrogen as a gas/