MIS Chaper 1 To 3

Page 1 of 24 MIS-Chapter 1, 2 & 3 Chapter 1- INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ORGANIZATION INTRODUCTION Planning for information systems, as for any
other system, begins with the identification of needs. In order to be effective, development of any type of computer-based system should be a response to need--whether at the transaction processing level or at the more complex information and support systems levels. Such planning for information systems is much like strategic planning in management. Objectives, priorities, and authorization for information systems projects need to be formalized. The systems development plan should identify specific projects slated for the future,priorities for each project and for resources, general procedures, and constraints for each application area. The plan must be specific enough to enable understanding of each application and to know where it stands in the order of development. Also the plan should be flexible so that priorities can beadjusted if necessary. King (King, 1995) in his recent article has argued that a strategic capability architecture - a flexible and continuously improving infrastructure of organizational capabilities is the primary basis for a company's sustainable competitive advantage. He has emphasized the need for continuously updating and improving the strategic capabilities architecture. SISP is the analysis of a corporations information and processes using business information models together with the evaluation of risk, current needs and requirements. The result is an action plan showing the desired course of events necessary to align information use and needs with the strategic direction of the company (Battaglia, 1991). The same article emphasizes the need to note that SISP is a management function and not a technical one. The Perspective of Strategic Information Systems Planning In order to put the planning for strategic information systems in perspective, the evolution of information systems according to the three-era model of John Ward, et al.(1990) is pertinent. According to this model there are three distinct, albeit overlapping, eras of information systems, dating back to the 60s. The relationship over time of the three eras of information systems is shown in Table 1:
MIS Chapter Prepared by Mr. K. Narayanan TPC-SSIET |Sources & Courtesy to: Internet | For Educational Use Only
Page 2 of 24 Table 2:
A. Impact Methodologies 1. Value Chain Analysis: The concept of value chain is considered at length by Michael Porter (1984). According to him, every firm is a collection of activities that are performed to design, produce, market, deliver, and support its product. All these activities can be represented using a value chain. Porter goes on to explain that information technology is one of the major support activities for the value chain. Information systems technology is particularly pervasive in the value
Page 3 of 24 chain, since every value activity creates and uses information. .. The recent, rapid technological change in information systems is having a profound impact on competition and competitive advantage because of the pervasive role of information in the value chain. ..Change in the way office functions can be performed is one of the most important types of technological trends occurring today for many firms, though few are devoting substantial resources to it. .. A firm that can discover a better technology for performing an activity than its competitors thus gains competitive advantage (Porter, 1985). A typical value chain is summarized in the figure 2
Once the value chain is charted, executives can rank order the steps in importance to determine which departments are central to the strategic objectives of the organization. Also, executives can then consider the interfaces between primary functions along the chain of production, and between support activities and all of the primary functions. This helps in identifying critical points of inter-departmental collaboration. Thus, value chain analysis: (a) is a form of business activity analysis which decomposes an enterprise into its parts. Information systems are derived from this analysis. (b) helps in devising information systems which increase the overall profit available to a firm. (c) helps in identifying the potential for mutual business advantages of component businesses, in the same or related industries, available from information interchange. (d) concentrates on value-adding business activities and is independent of organizational structure.
Page 4 of 24 Strengths : The main strength of value chain analysis is that it concentrates on direct value adding activities of a firm and thus pitches information systems right into the realm of value adding rather than cost cutting. Weaknesses: Although a very useful and intuitively appealing, value chain analysis suffers from a few weaknesses, namely, (a) it only provides a higher level information model for a firm and fails to address the developmental and implementation issues. (b) because of its focus on internal operations instead of data, it fails to define a data structure for the firm. Critical Success Factor Analysis: Critical success factors analysis can be considered to be both an impact as well as an alignment methodology. Critical Success Factors (CSF) in the context of SISP are used for interpreting more clearly the objectives, tactics, and operational activities in terms of key information needs of an organization and its managers and strengths and weaknesses of the organizations existing systems. Rockart (1979) defines critical success factors as being for any business the limited number of areas in which results, if they are satisfactory, will ensure successful competitive performance for the organization. As shown in figure 3, CSFs can exist at a number of levels. They represent the few key areas where things must go right for the business to flourish. Consequently, critical success factors are areas of activity that should receive constant and careful attention from management. Rockart originally developed the CSF approach as a means to understanding the information needs of CEOs. The approach has subsequently been applied to the enterprise as a whole and has been extended into a broader planning methodology. It has been made the basis of many consulting practices and has achieved major results where it has been used well. CSFs can exist at a number of levels, i.e., industry, organizational, business unit, or managers. CSFs at a lower level are derived from those at the preceding higher level. The CSF approach introduces information technology into the initial stages of the planning process and helps provide a realistic assessment of the ITs contribution to the organization. Hierarchy of CSF given below:
Page 5 of 24 Strengths: CSF analysis provides a very powerful method for concentrating on key information requirements of an organization, a business unit, or of a manager. This allows the management to concentrate resources on developing information systems around these requirements. Also, CSF analysis is easy to perform and can be carried out with few resources. Weaknesses: (a) although a useful and widely used technique, CSF analysis by itself is not enough to perform comprehensive SISP - it does not define a data architecture or provides automated support for analysis. (b) to be of value, the CSF analysis should be easily and directly related back to the objectives of the business unit under review. It has been the experience of the people using this technique that generally it loses its value when used below the third level in an organizational hierarchy (Ward,1990, p.164). (c) CSFs focus primarily on management control and thus tend to be internally focused and analytical rather than creative (Ibid.). (d) CSFs partly reflect a particular executives management style. Use of CSFs as an aid in identifying systems, with the associated long lead-times for developing these systems, may lead to giving an executive information that s/he does not regard as important (Ibid.). (e) CSFs do not draw attention to the value-added aspect of information systems. While CSF analysis facilitates identification of information systems which meet the key information needs of an organization/business unit, the value derived from these systems is not assessed. IdentifyingKey Organizational Objective and Processes and Developing an Information System Abstract-Organizational Objective & Process Development How, and to what extent, do people become involved in an organization and committed to its goals? If an organization is to survive and to function effectively, it must require not one, but several different types of behavior from most of its members, and the motivations for these different types of behavior may also differ. How does a business organization attract the kind of people it needs? How does it hold them? How does it induce both reliable performance and spontaneous innovation an the part of its members? This paper proposes an analytic framework for understanding the complexities of motivational problems in an organization.
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Abstract- Developing an Information System Several classification schemes of research are described and systems development is identified as a developmental, engineering, and formulative type of research. A framework of research is proposed to explain the dual nature of systems development as a research methodology and a research domain in IS research. Progress in several disciplinary areas is reviewed to provide a basis to argue that systems development is a valid research methodology. A systems development research process is presented from a methodological perspective. Software engineering, the basic method is applying the systems development research methodology, is then discussed. A framework to classify IS research domain and various research methodologies in studying systems development is presented. It is suggested that systems development and empirical research methodologies are complementary to each other. It is further proposed that an integrated multidimensional and multimethodological approach will generate fruitful research results in IS research. Information System Devlopment System Development System is a set of components that interact to achieve a common goal. Aninformation system is a collection of hardware, software, data, people and procedures that work together to produce quality information. An information system supports daily, short and long term activities. System development is a set of activities used to build an information system. System Development life cycle (SDLC) The System Development Life Cycle consists of planning, analysis, design, implementation and operation, support and security. Planning is to review and prioritize project requests as well as to form teams. Conducting investigation and perform detailed analysis of activities is part of analysis. Design requires you to acquire hardware and software and to also develop details of the system.
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Implementation is clearly an important part of the life cycle and is when you develop the programs, install and test the program, train the users to use the program and convert to the new system. There are different ways to converting to the new system such as diving right into it or doing it gradually and piece by piece. Monitoring system performance and assessing system security is part of the last part of the system development life cycle.
There are many different participants involved in system development. A system analyst is responsible for designing and developing an information system. The steering committee is the decision making body and vendors install and maintain the operating system software as well as deal with technical support. Application and system programmers convert the system design into the appropriate programming language. The organizations website and web application are created and maintained by the webmaster and web developers. Project management is the process of planning, scheduling and controlling activities during system development. They create a goal which is to deliver an acceptable system to the user in an agreed time frame while maintaining costs. Feasibility Assessment measures how suitable the development of a system will be to the organization. There are many different types of feasibility assessments including: operation, schedule, technical and economic. Operational feasibility measures how well the proposed information system will work. Schedule feasibility measures whether the established deadlines for the project are reasonable. Determining whether the organization has or can obtain the hardware, software and people need to deliver them is technical feasibility and economic feasibility, also called cost/benefit is whether the lifetime benefits of the proposed information system will be greater that its lifetime costs.
Page 8 of 24 User role in Systems Development Process 1. Define requirements, value, and priority. 2. Assist in the design process where user interaction is called for. 3. Assist in testing or confirmation that requirements have been addressed insofar as the user is the one interacting with the IS. Conformance with spec. 4. Assist in testing. Fitness for purpose. The following picture explain the same in detail
Maintainability and Recoverability in System Design. DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABILITY DESIGN CONSIDERATIONS {A} Factors that should be considered when designing for maintainability are provided below. a. Non-Interference of Preventive Maintenance - Preventive maintenance should be minimized and require as little crew time as feasible. b. Flexible Preventive Maintenance Schedule - Preventive maintenance schedules should be sufficiently flexible to accommodate changes in the schedule of other mission activities. c. Redundancy - If maintenance is necessary and system operations will be interrupted, redundant installations should be considered in order to permit maintenance without interrupting system operation.
Page 9 of 24 d. Goals of Designing for Maintainability - The following are goals for optimizing crew involvement in both preventive and corrective maintenance. 1. Reduce training requirements of crew. 2. Reduce certain skill requirements of crew. 3. Reduce time spent on preventive and corrective maintenance. 4. Increase maintenance capabilities during mission (especially corrective maintenance). e. Corrective Maintenance - The following factors should be considered when designing for corrective maintenance tasks. 1. The benefit gained from repair should be worth the time and effort expended on repair. 2. The time and effort involved in corrective maintenance should be weighed against the cost and feasibility of carrying replacement units. 3. Required calibration, alignment, or adjustment should be easily and accurately accomplished. 4. Automate fault detection and isolation tasks whenever possible. 12.3 DESIGN FOR MAINTAINABILITY DESIGN REQUIREMENTS Equipment Design Requirements All flight hardware and software shall be designed to facilitate on-orbit maintenance, checkout and shall be compatible with ground maintenance capabilities. Equipment design shall minimize both complexity and time requirements for maintenance. Equipment design for maintenance shall consider IVA as the prime resource; maintenance by EVA shall be contingency only. General Maintainability Design Requirements General requirements to be followed when designing for maintainability are presented below. a. Growth and Update - Facilities, equipment, and software design shall allow reconfiguration and growth during the mission. b. Independence - Systems and subsystems shall be as functionally, mechanically, electrically, and electronically independent as practical to facilitate maintenance. c. Maintenance Support Services - Maintenance support services ( e.g., electrical outlets) shall be accessible at potential problem locations or at a designated maintenance location. d. Reliability - Equipment design shall reduce to a minimum the incidence of preventive and corrective maintenance.
Page 10 of 24 e. Simplicity - Equipment design shall minimize maintenance complexity. f. Time Requirements - Equipment design shall minimize the time requirements for maintenance. g. Equipment - Maintenance equipment and tools shall be kept to a minimum. h. Hazardous Conditions - System design shall preclude the introduction of hazardous conditions during maintenance procedures. i. Critical Operations - Critical systems shall be capable of undergoing maintenance without the interruption of critical services and shall be maintained. j. Non-Critical Operations - Non-critical systems shall be designed to operate in degraded modes while awaiting maintenance. Degraded mode operation shall not cause additional damage to the system or aggravate the original fault. k. Redundancy Loss - Notification of loss of operational redundancy shall be provided immediately to the crew. l. Connectors - Quick-disconnect connectors shall be used. Recoverability in System Design One year after the 1997 publication of the first edition of this report, its essential finding remains unchanged and substantively unchallenged: The deployment of key recovery systems designed to facilitate surreptitious government access to encrypted data and communications introduces substantial risks and costs. These risks and costs may not be appropriate for many applications of encryption, and they must be more fully addressed as governments consider policies that would encourage ubiquitous key recovery. 1. Access without end-user knowledge or consent -- Few commercial users need (or want) covert mechanisms to recover keys or plaintext data they protect. On the contrary, business access rules are usually well known, and audit is a very important safeguard against fraud and error. Government specifications require mechanisms that circumvent this important security practice. 2. Ubiquitous adoption -- Government seeks the use of key recovery for all encryption, regardless of whether there is benefit to the end-user or whether it makes sense in context. In fact, there is little or no demand for key recovery for many applications and users. For example, the commercial demand for recovery of encrypted communications is extremely limited, and the design and analysis of key recovery for certain kinds of communications protocols is especially difficult. 3. Fast paths to plaintext -- Law enforcement demands fast (near real-time), 24-hour-aday, 365-day-a-year access to plaintext, making it impossible to employ the full range of safeguards that could ameliorate some of the risks inherent in commercial key recovery systems. These special demands significantly increase the risks and costs identified in this report. While key recovery systems designed to meet commercial needs also have associated costs and risks, we address most of our attention to the effects caused by the special demands -rapid, covert access to all encrypted data -- of government-access systems.
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Chapter-2 REPRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF SYSTEM STRUCTURE

1. Mathematical Model Representation A mathematical model is a description of a system using mathematical concepts and language. The process of developing a mathematical model is termed mathematical modelling. Mathematical models are used not only in the natural sciences (such as physics, biology, earth science, meteorology) and engineering disciplines (e.g. computer science, artificial intelligence), but also in the social sciences (such as economics, psychology, sociology and political science) physicists, engineers, statisticians, operations research analysts and economists use mathematical models most extensively. A model may help to explain a system and to study the effects of different components, and to make predictions about behaviour. Mathematical models can take many forms, including but not limited to dynamical systems, statistical models, differential equations, or game theoretic models. These and other types of models can overlap, with a given model involving a variety of abstract structures. In general, mathematical models may include logical models, as far as logic is taken as a part of mathematics. In many cases, the quality of a scientific field depends on how well the mathematical models developed on the theoretical side agree with results of repeatable experiments. Lack of agreement between theoretical mathematical models and experimental measurements often leads to important advances as better theories are developed.
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2. Graphical Model Representation A graphical model is a probabilistic model for which a graph denotes the conditional independence structure between random variables. They are commonly used in probability theory, statisticsparticularly Bayesian statisticsand machine learning. Types of Graphical Model a) Bayesian network If the network structure of the model is a directed acyclic graph, the model represents a factorization of the joint probability of all random variables. More precisely, if the events are then the joint probability satisfies
b) Markov random field A Markov random field, also known as a Markov network, is a model over an undirected graph. A graphical model with many repeated subunits can be represented with plate notation.
Page 13 of 24 3. Hierarchical Model Representation A hierarchical database model is a data model in which the data is organized into a treelike structure. The structure allows representing information using parent/child relationships: each parent can have many children, but each child has only one parent (also known as a 1to-many relationship). All attributes of a specific record are listed under an entity type.
Example of an hierarchical model
Organization Chart An organizational chart (often called organization chart, org chart,organigram(me), or organogram(me)) is a diagram that shows the structure of anorganization and the relationships and relative ranks of its parts and positions/jobs. The term is also used for similar diagrams, for example ones showing the different elements of a field of knowledge or a group of languages.
Page 14 of 24 Tree Diagram

The term tree diagram refers to a specific type of diagram that has a unique network topology. It can be seen as a specific type ofnetwork diagram, which in turn can be seen as a special kind of cluster diagram.
The Information Flow / Data Flow The graphic representation of data collection, data processing, and report distribution throughout an organization. A data flow diagram (DFD) is a design tool to represent the flow of data through an information system. A "context level" DFD can be used to show the interaction between a system and outside entities; it can also show the internal data flows within a system. This version is also called a context diagram. It often shows the information system as a single circular shape with no details of its inner workings: what it shows is its relationships with the external entities.
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Process Flow Definition Creating repeatable business processes is an important part of building and running an effective organization. Well-designed and documented business processes are critical for the success of business activities, whether the company is a small two- or three-person business or a large corporation with hundreds of thousands of employees. Businesses that don't take the time and care to create repeatable processes run the risk of quality and consistency issues.
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Heuristic
In computer science and optimization a heuristic is a rule of thumb learned from experience but not
always justified by an underlying theory. Heuristics are often used to improve efficiency or effectiveness of optimization algorithms, either by finding an approximate answer when the optimal answer would be prohibitively difficult or to make an algorithm faster. Usually, heuristics do not guarantee that an optimal solution is ever found. On the other hand, results about NP-hardness in theoretical computer science make heuristics the only viable alternative for many complex optimization problems which are significant in the real world.
An example of an approximation is one Jon Bentley described for solving the travelling salesman problem (TSP) where it was selecting the order to draw using a pen plotter. TSP is known to be NP-hard so an optimal solution for even moderate size problem is intractable. Instead the greedy algorithm can be used to to give a good but not optimal (it is an approximation to the optimal answer) in a short amount of time. The greedy algorithm heuristic says to pick whatever is currently the best next step regardless of whether that precludes good steps later. It is a heuristic in that practice says it is a good enough solution, theory says there are better solutions (and even can tell how much better in some cases).[1]
Method
In object-oriented programming, a method is a subroutine (or procedure or function) associated with a class. Methods define the behavior to be exhibited by instances of the associated class at program run time. Methods have the special property that at runtime, they have access to data stored in an instance of the class (or class instance or class object or object) they are associated with and are thereby able to control the state of the instance. [1] The association between class and method is called binding. A method associated with a class is said to be bound to the class. Methods can be bound to a class at compile time (static binding) or to an object at runtime (dynamic binding).
Page 17 of 24 Decomposition Decomposition in computer science, also known as factoring, refers to the process by which a complex problem or system is broken down into parts that are easier to conceive, understand, program, and maintain.
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Aggregation
Aggregate function is which performs a calculation or computation on certain set of values rather than on a single value. In computer science all the management and spreadsheet systems support a set of functions that can operate on a set of selected records or cells. Usually aggregate functions include things such as average, count, maximum, median, minimum, mode and sum. These functions are common in database management systems and spreadsheets. In addition aggregate function returns the requested data by retrieving stored values and calculating the remaining values. For instance for return value the same data type as the aggregated variable will be shown. In syntax things such as aggregate, var, using, aggmap, from, fromspec, fromvar and textvar are used.
Page 19 of 24 Information architecture (IA) is the art and science of organizing and labeling websites, intranets, online communities and software to support usability.[1] It is an emerging discipline and community of practice focused on bringing together principles of design and architecture to the digital landscape. Typically it involves a model or concept of information which is used and applied to activities that require explicit details of complex information systems. These activities include library systems and database development.
Application of System Representation to Case Studies. Currently in use by many of the world's largest IT Operations groups, Hyperic's products manage some of the world's most complex Web infrastructures, including those of several Fortune 100 companies. The list below shows some of our customers who are successfully using Hyperic HQ to manage their infrastructure and have allowed their logos to be used on our site.
uis the cloud hosting division of Racks-pace, an industry leader that currently manages over 40,000 servers and devices for customers all over the world. Cloud hosting is the next iteration of hosting and Mosso is a world-class solution. If I had to grow my IT team by 60 percent every three months just to keep up with our traffic growth, the business model simply would not scale. We need our people to be working on special projects, not routine maintenance
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Contegix provides high-level managed hosting solutions for enterprise applications. We deliver proactive, passionate support that is unparalleled in the industry. Contegix is now a national company with a hard-won reputation for reliable hosting, reasonable pricing and expert support that goes beyond managed hosting. We were immediately impressed with Hyperic's Auto-Discovery feature. It provided us with instant monitoring for the majority of our key applicationseven those that spanned virtualized resources.
Chapter 3 SYSTEMS, INFORMATION AND DECISION THEORY

Information Theory In information theory, entropy is a measure of the uncertainty associated with a random variable. The term by itself in this context usually refers to the Shannon entropy, which quantifies, in the sense of an expected value, the information contained in a message, usually in units such as bits. Equivalently, the Shannon entropy is a measure of the average information content one is missing when one does not know the value of the random variable.
Information Content and Redundancy Redundancy of information content in the genome of mammalian species may serve as a genetic protective mechanism by insuring a minimum degree of essential information to remain mutation-free over a given length of time. This type of redundancy can provide protection against mutations caused by either random base modification or by replication errors. If the resultant mutation rate is significant, then the degree of redundancy contained in a genome would be expected to play an important role in determining its functional lifespan which may, in turn, determine the aging rate of the entire organism. The possible correlation between the amount of redundant information and the aging rate of different
Page 21 of 24 mammalian species was evaluated by a comparison of the nucleotide sequence complexity and the redundancy of ribosomal and messenger RNA genes. No clear correlation was found between percentage reiterated nucleotide sequences or the amount of ribosomal gene redundancy and aging rate. However, there does appear to be a general decrease in the percentage usage of ribosomal and transfer RNA genes as a mammalian species' aging rate decreases. In addition, genes only involved in transcribing messenger RNA in the brain tissues of mouse, cow and human were found to increase by an average redundancy value of 1.3, 1.5, and 2.1, respectively. These results are discussed with respect to a unified theory of aging for mammalian species.
Classification
In metadata a classification scheme is a hierarchical arrangement of kinds of things (classes) or groups of kinds of things. Typically it is accompanied by descriptive information of the classes or groups. A classification scheme is intended to be used for an arrangement or division of individual objects into the classes or groups. The classes or groups are based on characteristics which the objects (members) have in common. In linguistics, the subordinate concept is called a hyponym of its superordinate
Compression In Computer Science The process by which data is compressed into a form that minimizes the space required to store or transmit it.
Page 22 of 24 Summarizing Summarization is the restating of the main ideas of the text in as few words as possible. It can be done in writing, orally, through drama, through art and music, in groups and individually. There is extensive research that shows that summarization is among the top nine most effective teaching strategies in the history of education (Marzano, Pickering, and Pollock, 2001). Teachers who start a lesson by summarizing the big points in the day's lesson and end by having students summarize their learning see gains in the retention of the material. Several summarization techniques have been provided. Filtering Computer filters are software programs designed to protect a computer system. They come in two main varieties: parental control filters, which block access to sites or categories of sites from a particular computer, and anti-virus filters, which prevent malicious software from infecting the protected computer. Filters are must-haves for anyone with Internet access; they can prevent computer viruses from stealing personal information, and they can help parents keep inappropriate content away from kids. Inference Inference is the act or process of deriving logical conclusions from premises known or assumed to be true. The conclusion drawn is also called an idiomatic. The laws of valid inference are studied in the field of logic.
Uncertainty The uncertainty principle says that it is impossible to make an unambiguous choice between near-simultaneous events under a deadline. This principle affects the design of logic circuits in computer hardware, real-time systems, and decision systems.
Page 23 of 24 Identifying Information needed to Support Decision Making DECISION MAKING Decision making is the developing concepts leading to the selection of a course of action among variations. Every decision making process produces a final choice It can be an action or an opinion. It begins when we need to do something but we do not know what e.g. Decision to raise a Purchase Order Characteristics and Capabilities of DSS 1. Support for decision makers in semi-structured and unstructured problems. 2. Support managers at all levels. 3. Support individuals and groups. 4. Support for interdependent or sequential decisions. 5. Support intelligence, design, choice, and implementation. 6. Support variety of decision processes and styles. 7. DSS should be adaptable and flexible.
Page 24 of 24 Human Factors Definition: Human Factors is a discipline of study that deals with human-machine interface. Human Factors deals with the psychological, social, physical, biological and safety characteristics of a user and the system the user is in. It is sometimes used synonymously with ergonomics, but ergonomics is actually a subset of Human Factors.
Problem Characteristics and Information System Capabilities in Decision Making.

Decision-Making Problems Realistically, not every decision lends itself to automation and management. As noted previously, in most organizations, theres a spectrum from strategic decisions (where to build the next distribution center, which new product will make the most profit) to operational decisions (cross-sell offers, eligibility). The right approach to supporting these decisions varies, too, from a focus on decision support for knowledge workers to a focus on decision automation, as shown in the following figure. Operational decisions are ideal for automation. Tactical decisions, those falling in the gray area between strategic and operational decisions, might also be good automation candidates but usually for partial automationa guided script, for examplerather than complete automation.

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Page 1 of 24 MIS-Chapter 1, 2 & 3 Chapter 1- INFORMATION SYSTEM AND ORGANIZATION INTRODUCTION Planning for information systems, as for any

Chapter-2 REPRESENTATION AND ANALYSIS OF SYSTEM STRUCTURE

Example of an hierarchical model

Page 14 of 24 Tree Diagram

Chapter 3 SYSTEMS, INFORMATION AND DECISION THEORY

Problem Characteristics and Information System Capabilities in Decision Making.

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