Marty Gandelman

December 14, 2007

Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

South African Jews: A Group in Perpetual Exile

A Jewish presence in South Africa long preceded even the beginning rumblings of apartheid in

South Africa. Jewish involvement in South Africa, one of the ten largest sites of Diaspora Jews, dates

back to the first European encounters in the region. The South African Jewish narrative truly began in

the second half of the nineteenth century with worldwide mass emigration of Jews out of Central and

Eastern Europe. During this wave of immigration, almost eighty percent of the South African Jewish

immigrant population came from the Eastern provinces of Lithuania.1 Following the First Zionist

Congress in 1897, the national liberation movement aimed at the self-determination of the Jewish

people began to spread quickly throughout the European community. Among the Jewish traditions

brought to the cape of Africa was the budding Jewish nationalism, or Zionism, movement at the turn of

the twentieth century. This overwhelmingly Zionist character and ardor for a Jewish homeland would

prove to be the most distinctive feature of the South African Jewry.2 Following the emigration of

many of South Africa’s Jews in the 1990s, it was this group’s connection to Israel and Judaism that

allowed them to reestablish communities in Israel, the United States, and the United Kingdom. The

Jews were forced into exile as they left worsening conditions in Eastern Europe and continued to live

as a group in exile in South Africa and abroad.

The efforts of the Worldwide Zionist Organization would culminate in 1948, a watershed year

for all Jews, but for South African Jews in particular. In the same year as the establishment of a Jewish

homeland in Palestine, the National Party promoting a racial biased platform came into power in South

Africa. Just months apart, two “new” nations were created out of existing boundaries, but with new

1
Aleck Goldberg, Profile of a Community: South African Jewry, (Johannesburg: The Rabbi Aloy Foundation
Trust, 2002): 5.
2
Jocely Hellig, “REVIEW: Hellig on Shimoni, Community & Conscience: The Jews in Apartheid South
Africa,” H-NET BOOK REVIEW 31 Oct. 2007, 4 April 2005 http://h-net.msu.edu/.
1
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

governments with nationalist goals. One aimed at promoting a white African State and the other a

Jewish State. Both countries governed by a minority group in their region and were surrounded by

hostile nations. Although, South Africa was one of the first nations to develop an open relationship

with Israel, the relationship between the two has been quite turbulent. Peaking at 120,000 in the

1970s, about four percent of the total population, this minority group managed to live unaffected in a

politically charged situation.3 Once the political situation changed, however, and South Africa’s

relationship with Israel deteriorated, South Africa’s Jews, one of the Jewish communities most

committed to a Jewish State, began to leave en masse. Finally, it was the South Africans long history

of Zionism and a connection to the state of Israel that made Israel a viable option for emigration. In

the end, in the 1990s over one-third of the South African Jews that decided to leave felt Zionism was

their true identity and moved to Israel, once and for all ending their exile.4 The two-thirds that went

elsewhere were able to maintain their sense of community and promote their most valued cultural

ideals.

In her book The Vision Amazing on South African Jewish Zionism, Marcia Gitlin states, “For

the Eastern European Jews of South Africa, news of [Theodore] Herzl came like a flash light in a dark

world.”5 Zionism would be the guiding light that would allow for significant advancements in the

South African Jewish community. Zionism developed in South Africa at the same time as it did

internationally, at the turn of the twentieth century. In 1897, the Transvaal Zionist Association was

established, signifying the first Zionist society, as part of the international movement, in South Africa.

The following year, an Association of Zionist Societies embracing all South African Zionist

3
Shula Marks, “Apartheid and the Jewish Question,” Journal of Southern African Studies 30 (2004): 888.
4
Alice A. Dubb, Building Cocoons: South African Jewish Émigrés Abroad, (Cape Town: University of Cape
Town, 1993): 1.
5
Marcia Gitlin, The Vision Amazing: The Story of South African Zionism, (Johannesburg: Menorah Book
Club, 1950): 18.
2
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

organizations was formed.6 This Association was the precursor to the South African Zionist

Federation, the umbrella organization that would represent and look after the country’s Jewish

population. According to Gitlin, by 1898, “Zionism had taken hold in South Africa from the Cape to

the Zambesi.”7 This, however, is not intended to imply that the South African Jewish community was

solely Zionist. Founded in 1900, the Yiddisher Arbeter Bund, a powerful anti-Zionist socialist

workers’ movement, was transplanted from East Europe to both Johannesburg and Cape Town. The

group did little to distract the Jewish community, and in 1907 the group disbanded.8

In South Africa, as the Jewish population was booming so was the number of Zionist

organizations. By 1905, the Federation recognized over sixty Zionist societies throughout the

country.9 It is at this point that the Zionist movement within South Africa began to set the it sights on

paving the way for a Jewish State in the Holy Land. To help make the goal a reality, the Federation set

up the Jewish Colonial Trust to purchase land and set up farms in Palestine.10 Around the same time,

the Federation began to understand the importance of a Jewish education in fostering the Jewish

cultural ideals the South African Jewish community valued. Above all, the community valued

Zionism, so the Federation invited various Jewish organizations to discuss the significance of a Jewish

education. The conference resulted in the creation of Boards of Jewish Education in the Transvaal and

Cape Town.11 The boards were intended to be independent from the Federation, but it would prove to

be impossible to be independent from Zionism in South Africa. According to historian Gideon

6
Aleck Goldberg, (2002): 20.
7
Marcia Gitlin (1950): 30.
8
Gideon Shimoni, Jews and Zionism: The South African Experience, (Cape Town: Oxford University Press,
1998): 53.
9
Aleck Goldberg, (2002): 21.
10
Aleck Goldberg, (2002): 20.
11
Gideon Shimoni (1998): 30.
3
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

Shimoni, one of the foremost experts on South African Jewry, the Boards were highly influenced by

the Zionist fervor:

“Although these Boards became independent communal institutions, the influence of

the Zionist representatives [from the Federation] remained paramount and the
ideological premises of Jewish Education which they fostered were distinctly Zionist.
Hence Jewish education was not conceived purely as a function of the synagogue, but
aimed rather at an integrated Zionist and traditional mode of Jewish identity; a
reflection in fact of the normative mode which characterized South African Jewry as a
whole.”12
From an early age, South African Jews would now attend Jewish days schools that continually

ingrained in them the importance of Judaism, but more importantly a Jewish State. The Jewish day

schools would prove to be greatly successful in fostering a sense of Zionism in the youth. By 1911

there were eleven Young Israel Societies affiliated with the Federation, and by 1920 the number rose

to thirty-three. Jewish communities around the world have always stressed the importance of

education, but the emphasis the South African Jewish community put on the youth to value Zionism is

unique to this community. Despite the advances of the movement in South Africa and internationally,

Zionism had yet to crossover into mainstream world politics, but that would all change with the

signing of the Balfour Declaration in 1917.

In 1916, members of the World Zionist Organization, WZO, the umbrella organization for the

international Zionist movement, contacted the Prime Minister of South Africa, PM Jan Christiaan

Smuts, for support. Following this meeting, Prime Minister Smuts lobbied for and was an author of

the Balfour Declaration in 1917, the document that paved the way for an eventual Jewish State in

Palestine. The Jewish people were given a way out of exile, like all other nations they were finally

given the right to self-determination.

12
Gideon Shimoni (1998): 45.
4
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

The bond between Smuts and Zionism was so strong that during the First World War he

proudly stated, “Great as are the changes wrought by this war, the great world war of justice and

freedom, I doubt whether any of these changes surpass in interest the liberation of Palestine and its

recognition as the Home of Israel.”13 Referred to by the President of the WZO as one of three men who

could bring about a Jewish homeland, Smuts was an open supporter of Zionism.14 Publicly, Smuts

proclaimed that his steadfast support for a Jewish Homeland stemmed from his Christian and Boer

background. Thus, for example he declared:

“As for me, a Boer with vivid memories of the recent past. The Jewish case appealed
with peculiar force. I believed with all my heart in historic justice however long
delayed. I also had the strong feeling that something was due from the Christians to the
Jews, not only as compensation for unspeakable persecutions but as the people who
produced the divine leader to whom we Christians of the highest allegiance.”15

In this quote, Smuts discusses that part of his connection to Zionism stems from the similarities

between the Dutch Boer experience and Zionist Jews. Coming from their Calvinists outlook, the

Dutch Boers respected the Old Testament, or Hebrew Bible, and in turn held Jews in high esteem. The

Boers’ respect for Jews also came out of them identifying themselves with the Israelites from biblical

times. Like the ancient Israelites, who were in exile after liberating themselves from oppression, the

Boers went into exile in the wilderness to liberate themselves from British oppression.16 This

connection between these nations of people based on mutual respect allowed for a prosperous Jewish

community to grow.

The “gentile Zionist”, however, was not driven solely by altruistic motives. As would happen

13
Aaron Klieman, The Rise of Israel, (London: Garland, 1987): 16.
14
The other two were Winston Churchill and Franklin Roosevelt.
15
Gideon Shimoni (1998): 45.
16
Aleck Goldberg, (2002): 27.
5
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

throughout this turbulent relationship, there were political gains for South Africa to support a Jewish

State. Smuts strongly believed that support for a Jewish State in the Middle East was a matter of

significant interest for the British Commonwealth. In order to guarantee security surrounding the Suez

Canal, the South African PM contended that there needed to be a British-sponsored Jewish Homeland

along the Canal. Smuts also viewed this situation as an opportunity to win over support from the

international Jewish community; a group, which he viewed, was integral to the success of British

foreign policy.17

Besides being a major player on the international stage, Smuts was a major factor in the

development of the Zionist movement in South Africa. Far from Europe and America, the South

African Jewish community needed a bridge to the Worldwide Zionist movement. As a close friend of

Chaim Weizmann, the President of the WZO, Smuts not only acted as the facilitator between the local

and international movement, but also personally fundraised for South African Zionist organizations.18

Smuts emphasized that his support of Zionism did not mean the he “wished the Jews out of South

Africa.”19 Unlike later South African administrations, Smuts never used South African Jews’ ardor for

Zionism to accuse them of disloyalty to the South African State.

Smuts’ support for Israel was so great that the day after the establishment of the State of Israel

Weizmann, now the first President of Israel, wrote, “I bethought myself of one surviving author of the

Balfour Declaration and addressed a cable to General Smuts and it was closely followed by South

African recognition of Israel.”20 As Weizmann correctly recalled, just days after Israel’s establishment

17
Gideon Shimoni (1980): 47.
18
Jane Hunter, Israeli Foreign Policy: South Africa and Central America, (New York: South End Press, 1987):
21-22.
19
Gideon Shimoni, Community and Conscience: The Jews in Apartheid South Africa, (Cape Town: Brandeis
University Press, 2003): 11.
20
Fred Skolnick, Encyclopedia Judaica, 2nd ed., (New York: MacMillan, 2006): 53.
6
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003
21
Smuts, in accordance with his Zionist sympathies, granted Israel de facto recognition.

Unfortunately, in this same month the man the South African Zionist Record identified as the

“veritable pillar of strength to the movement throughout the country” was replaced by D.F. Malan and

the Nationalist Party, ushering in the a new era of a South African history.22

Unlike Smuts, the Nationalists were not involved in the Zionist movement, and based on their

anti-Semitic platform during World War II one would assume that South Africa’s support for Israel

would cease. The National Party, however, continued Smuts’s long history of support of Israel and

Zionism by voting for the admission of Israel to the United Nations in 1949. South Africa’s immediate

support for Israel was, however, highly suspect considering the National Party promoted anti-Semitic

immigration laws throughout World War II. To combat accusations of anti-Semitism in the late 1940s,

future South African PM Dr. Malan consistently maintained that his party would not discriminate

against Jewish citizens of South Africa; that his only objection was to any further Jewish immigration

and that he wished to stem anti-Semitism. Malan claimed he “harbored nothing against the Jewish

race and that it was his conviction that in this country we cannot discriminate against the Jewish race

or any other race. All who are white in this country deserve to stand on an equal footing politically

and otherwise.”23

From the beginning of their regime, the Nationalist Party recognized that for apartheid to work

they needed to win over all sectors of the white population.24 The National Party was only concerned

with creating firm links with Israel in order to keep their Jewish population content with the status quo.

As a sign of goodwill following the establishment of Israel, PM Malan renewed the special permission

21
Aleck Goldberg (2002): 28.
22
Gideon Shimoni (1980): 52.
23
Gideon Shimoni (1980): 119.
24
Gideon Shimoni (2003): 5.
7
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

for the Zionist Federation to send money, food and clothing to Israel.25 A betterment of relations

continued with the establishment of an Israel consulate-general in Johannesburg and an Israel embassy

in Pretoria. Good relations continued with PM Malan’s visit to Israel in 1952, making him the first

head of state to do so.26

A relationship that began with such great optimism was soured in the 1950s as Israel joined the

Afro-Asian bloc in taking a stand against apartheid in South Africa. Until now the South African

government and the Afrikaans press were in full public support of Israel. In July 1961, however, the

amicable relationship was shattered when Israel voted and made statements against South Africa’s

racial policies on the floor of the United Nations. At the UN, the Israel representative called apartheid

“disadvantageous to the interests of the non-white majority of the land…being reprehensible and

repugnant to the dignity and rights of peoples and individuals.”27 At this time, as relations worsened,

the Nationalists tried to force South African Zionist organizations to exert pressure on the Israeli

government, a move PM Smuts would have never attempted. Interestingly, the government attempted

to attack Israel by punishing local Zionist organizations. The special permissions awarded to the

Zionist Federation by Malan just a decade ago were repealed.28 The Zionist organizations refused to

threaten Israel’s sovereignty by pressuring their decisions. This in turn resulted in the South African

government and media questioning the loyalty of its Jewish citizens, an accusation that has troubled

Jews throughout history.29

Tensions cooled and relations improved between the nations following Israel’s colossal victory

25
Shula Marks (2004): 890.
26
Fred Skolnick (2006): 53.
27
Richard P. Stevens, “ Zionism, South Africa and Apartheid: The Paradoxical Triangle,” Phylon, Vol. 32
(1971): 133-134.
28
Shula Marks (2004): 897.
29
Aleck Goldberg (2002): 21.
8
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

in the Six-Day war in 1967. In South Africa, public support for Israel poured out as Israel was

attacked by and defeated four of its Arab neighbors. Following the war, the Arab bloc and most

African nations completely severed all ties with Israel. This desertion by most of the Afro-Asian

continent forced Israel into the by then all-too-willing arms of South Africa because of South African

increasing isolation from the international community of nation.30 Relations further improved

following the 1973 Yom Kippur War as South Africa and Israel began military cooperation. Beginning

in the 1970s, South Africa and Israel started sharing military personnel and technology, possibly

including nuclear weapons technology.31 Warm relations continued in 1976 with South African PM

Vorester’s visit to Israel and upgrading diplomatic relations with Israel to ambassadorial level.32

During the 1980s, as relations improved between the right wing governments of both nations,

relations with Israel and the future black government continued to deteriorate. Sympathetic to the

similar circumstances of the Palestinians in Israel, the black population of South Africa identified with

them. Sympathies for the Palestinian population in combination with the increasing military and

diplomatic ties between the countries, however, had a negative impact on the relationship between the

South Africa’s black majority and Israel.33 The political alliance between the nations caused distrust

for both governments by many black South Africans, which contributed to South Africa’s radical

change in attitude towards Israel following the first free democratic elections in 1994. Although the

relationship between Israel and South Africa under apartheid was turbulent, the constant concern by

each state not to upset one of their few allies afforded the Jews of South Africa the opportunity to live

in relatively comfortable and unnoticed on the periphery. It was not until the national mood towards

30
Gideon Shimoni (2003): 126.
31
Fred Skolnick (2006): 53.
32
Goldberg (2002): 28.
33
Skolnick (2006): 53.
9
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

Israel shifted that the Jewish population questioned their future on the African continent.

Nelson Mandela is credited with many great achievements, but one thing he had a negative

impact on was his country’s relationship with Israel. In 1990, following his release from prison after

27 years, Mandela undertook a tour of a number of African countries. During a stopover in Zambia, he

met with Palestinian Liberation Organization leader Yassar Arafat. Mandela greeted the known

terrorist warmly and embraced Arafat in front of the international media. Photographs and articles of

this monumental event made its way to the South African press causing great concern throughout its

Jewish community. The Jewish population was shocked that the foremost leader of the African

National Congress was not only sympathetic to the Palestinian cause, but was willing to work with a
34
deadly enemy of Israel, a man responsible for countless murders of Jews. Jewish fear grew even

more when Mandela expressed no regret and publicly stated the alliance between the liberation

movements of Black South Africans and Palestinians. This resulted in concerns that the freedom to

practice a full Jewish life, the right to pursue Zionist activities and the continuation of relations

between South Africa and Israel would cease. It was at this point that the root cause of Jewish

migration from South Africa ceased to be violence between the Nationalist government and the Black

majority, but due to the failing relationship between the government and the Jewish population.

Also, at this point the goal of local South African Zionist groups shifted their support of Israel

from fundraising to promoting aliyah35.

For most of the Jewish population in South Africa there were only two options for emigration;

either move to an Anglo-Saxon country or make aliyah to the State of Israel. About two-thirds of the

34
Goldberg (2002): 30.
35
Aliyah is a Jewish concept that refers to Jewish immigration to the State of Israel; under Israel's Law of
Return, not only do all Jews automatically receive Israeli citizenship, but they also receive immigration
and settlement assistance.
10
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

emigrating population made the “natural choice” and went to the United States, Canada, England or

Australia.36 For many it was the natural choice because these countries provided an option that was

unquestionably secular and democratic that would present no language barriers or require a difficult

acculturation process. Israel on the other hand, was a mix of a developed and undeveloped nation and

was a completely different culture with a new language and mounting terrorist violence.

Nevertheless, one-third of South African Jewish émigrés still wanted to move immediately to

Israel. The reason why many chose to battle to obstacles stemmed back to the community’s ardent

support for Zionism and eventually the State of Israel. In a 1993 study, the overwhelming reason for

emigration to Israel was to live in a Jewish State. These people shared the common belief that only in

Israel could a Jew be a free and complete person. The other, albeit, more practical reasons to chose

Israel were that it was the only option for those who could not meet immigration criteria for other

countries and Israel provided financial and other assistance for integration and absorption.37 The South

African Jews that decided to leave had the option to live in countries that would have given them more

opportunities, but still tens of thousands chose Israel because of a connection to their homeland that

had been embedded in them by ancestors and had been long supported by both South Africa and Israel.

Still, tens of thousands of South African Jews made the natural choice by choosing to come to

the United States and other Anglo-nations. Included in this group of South African Jewish émigrés to

the United States are two Jewish South African Americans, Kimberly Sarembock and Tyrone Schiff.

Both Kim and Tyrone immigrated to the United States in the 1990s from South Africa. Although both

were relatively young at the time of the emigration, their insight provides on emigration and South

African Jewish communities abroad, a group that continues to live in exile.

36
Alice A. Dubb (1993): 2.
37
Alice A. Dubb (1993): 4.
11
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

Born outside of Johannesburg in 1986, Kim’s family left South Africa for Orange County,

California in 1991. Kim was young too young to remember the political situation at the time of her

departure, but she has shed some light on what it means to be a South African émigré and what

remains important to the South African Jewish communities no matter where they are located. When

asked about her transition to living in the United States, Kim stated, “The transition was flawless, we

walked into an existing South African Jewish social scene.” Kim went on to say that not only were

there “tons” of South African Jews in her new community, but also family members that left South

Africa a few years before. Moreover, Kim explains that her transition to the United States was

“flawless” because they did not have to reestablish themselves as a part of a new community; the

Sarembock family was able to find a replanted South African Jewish community in Orange County.

When asked about she continues her connection to her birthplace, Kim said, “I only knew Jewish

South Africans, so my only connection to South Africa was through the Jewish community.”

Being so young when she left South Africa, one would assume that her connection to Zionism

and Judaism would have developed in the US. Kim, however, says her connection to her religion was

brought with her from South Africa. “South Africa has much stronger Jewish values, the only people

we mixed with were Jews so being Jewish was the socially acceptable thing.” Interestingly, Kim

believes her connection to Israel and Zionism developed in Jewish day school once in the US, but

credits this because she emigrated before attending South Africa’s elite Jewish day schools. Kim,

however, went on to say that her passion for Zionism was reinforced during her first visit back to

South Africa in 1997. Reflecting on her visit Kim stated, “When I went back, everyone there was so

much more religious and connected to Israel…it made being Jewish look cool and Israel an attractive

12
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

destination.” Since her visit to South Africa in 1997, Kim has been to Israel four times, including a

semester abroad as an undergraduate, and plans to spend some significant time there after graduation.38

Unlike the Sarembocks, Tyrone and his family immigrated to the United States after the end of

apartheid and the first free democratic elections. Tyrone says he has vivid memories of Nelson

Mandela and the ANC’s victory in the first free elections in 1994, but does not remember Mandela’s

release or his meeting with Yassar Arafat. Along with his mother and sister, Tyrone left Morning

Hill, a suburb outside of Johannesburg where he was born in 1987, and immigrated to Chicago, Illinois

in October of 1998. Like Kim, Tyrone said the transition to the US was made extremely easy because

of well-established South African Jewish community in the Chicago suburbs. When asked about his

new community, Tyrone stated:

“We found each other because of South Africa, but our Jewish culture is what sustained
us. Our absolute foundation, when we got here [Chicago] was our South African Jewish
connection, our initial social network were South African Jews émigrés, and remains to
be to this day. We get together for Passover Seders, go to the same synagogues and
meet regularly”

When asked how this differed from community life in South Africa, Tyrone responded, “Not at

all…it’s the same as it was there, I didn’t really know any South African Christians.”

While on the topic of life in South Africa, Tyrone claimed that the Jewish community in South

Africa’s emphasis on education was the only major difference between from life in the US. In South

Africa, Tyrone attended the prestigious King David Jewish Day School, one of the schools created by

the Boards of Jewish Education. When Tyrone came to the US he also attended a Jewish day school,

but was disappointed by what his new school emphasized. In the US, Tyrone said the emphasis was on

learning the Hebrew language and mastering prayers, whereas in South Africa there was much more of

38
Kimberly Sarembock (2007).
13
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

an emphasis on Jewish culture, particularly Zionism. It is from his days in the King David School that

Tyrone traces back his connection to Zionism; however, he says his zeal for Zionism was cemented on

his first trip to Israel this past summer. When asked how his visit to Israel changed how he identifies

himself, Tyrone proudly stated, “My trip to Israel really made me reassess my priorities. As a result, I

have recently began to identify myself as a Jewish South African, rather than a South African Jew. I

feel like I am half South African and half American, but the only thing consistent throughout my life is

my religion and the importance of Israel.”39

After living prosperously in South Africa for over a century, the Jewish population is currently

half of what it was at its peak in the 1970s, with 1,800 Jews continuing to leave South Africa

annually.40 Despite the fact that Jews lived much more comfortably in South Africa than in other

Jewish communities worldwide, the country’s Jewish community felt less connected to their home due

to the increasingly anti-Israel and anti-Zionist stance of the ANC government.41 Following growing

ties between the ANC and the PLO, many Jews felt there was nothing holding them to South Africa

anymore and decided to continue their exile. As one can see through conversations with young

members of the international South African Jewish community, no matter where the communities

reside they remain intact and exhibit issues that continue to be important to South African Jews. South

African Jewry has suffered many sudden changes in location and lifestyles, but as Tyrone Schiff

stated the only thing consistent for this group was the importance of Judaism and a steadfast

commitment to Zionism.

39
Tyrone Schiff (2007).
40
Aleck Goldberg, (2002): 27.
41
Gideon Shimoni (2003): 251.
14
Marty Gandelman
December 14, 2007
Professor Ellen Poteet
History 396.003

Works Cited

Dubb, Alice A. Building Cocoons: South African Jewish Émigrés Abroad. Cape Town: University of
Cape Town, 1993.

Gitlin, Marcia. The Vision Amazing: The Story of South African Zionism. Johannesburg: Menorah
Book Club, 1950).

Goldberg, Aleck. Profile of a Community: South African Jewry. Johannesburg: The Rabbi Aloy
Foundation Trust, 2002.

Hellig, Jocely. “REVIEW: Hellig on Shimoni, Community & Conscience: The Jews in Apartheid
South Africa.” H-NET BOOK REVIEW. (4 April 2005). 31 Oct. 2007 <http://h-net.msu.edu/>.

Hunter, Jane. Israeli Foreign Policy: South Africa and Central America. New York: South End Press,
1987.

Klieman, Aaron. The Rise of Israel. London: Garland, 1987.

Marks, Shula. “Apartheid and the Jewish Question.” Journal of Southern African Studies 30.4 (2004):
888-907.

Sarembock, Kimberly. Personal Interview. 12 Dec. 2007.

Schiff, Tyrone. Personal Interview. 12 Dec. 2007.

Shimoni, Gideon. Jews and Zionism: The South African Experience. Cape Town: Oxford University
Press, 1998.

Shimoni, Gideon. Community and Conscience: The Jews in Apartheid South Africa. Cape Town:
Brandeis University Press, 2003.

Skolnick, Fred. Encyclopedia Judaica, 2nd edition. New York: MacMillan, 2006.

Stevens, Richard P. “Zionism, South Africa and Apartheid: The Paradoxical Triangle.” Phylon 32.2
(1971): 123-142.

15