BLOCK DIAGRAMS Block diagrams are ways of representing relationships between signals in a system using unidirectional blocks that

represent the transfer function of the variables of interest. The block diagram model is very useful in the analysis of large systems. Block diagrams are combinations of mathematical and schematic models of the system. As such, they not only give the equations of each of the parts of the system, but also show how these parts are interconnected. Block diagrams can, therefore, be used to represent the composition and interconnection of a system. They can also be used, together with transfer functions, to represent the cause-and effect relationships throughout the system. Block diagrams offer considerable insight into the system structure and provide all necessary information to determine the system equations or transfer function. Therefore, they provide the analyst with a graphical representation of the interrelationships of controlled and input variables. System analysis by the method of block diagram reduction affords a better understanding of the contribution of each component element than is possible to obtain by the manipulation of equations. Furthermore, the designer can readily visualize the possibilities of adding blocks to the existing system block diagram to alter and improve system performance. In summary, block diagram models: 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Help to visualize input-output relations. Are useful in the design and realization of (linear) systems. Help with the understanding of the flow of information between internal variables. Are equivalent to a set of linear algebraic equations (of rational functions). Are mainly relevant where there is a cascade of information flow.

COMPONENTS OF A BLOCK DIAGRAM X(s) (a) Signals Y(s) X1(s) + + X(s) Input Y(s) = G(s)X(s) (b) System X(s) X(s) X(s) X(s) (d) Pick-off point
Note: (i) Signal transmission is assumed only possible in the direction of arrows. (ii) X(s) is the Laplace transform of the input, Y(s) is the Laplace transform of the output, and G(s) is the transfer function. And this relation is assumed to hold regardless of what is connected to the output of the block. Such an assumption is equivalent to neglecting all loading effects.

+
-

Y(s)

G(s)

Y(s) output

X2(s) X3(s) Y(s) = X1(s) + X2(s) X3(s) (c) Summing junction (summer)

Figure 1. Components of a block diagram for a linear, time-invariant system.

CTS210 Control Systems 2 Lecture Notes K. Kanyimba

A system is represented as a block with an input, an output and a transfer function. Many systems are composed of subsystems. When multiple subsystems are interconnected, a few more schematic elements must be added to the block diagram. These new elements are summing junctions (summers) and pick-off points. All component parts of a block diagram for a linear, time-invariant system are shown in Figure 1. The characteristic of the summing junction shown in Figure 1 (c) is that the output signal is the algebraic sum of the input signals. The figure shows three inputs, but any number can be present. A pick-off point as shown in Figure 1(d), distributes the input signal, undiminished, to several outputs. Figure 2 shows a block diagram of a typical control system. Each block in the block diagram establishes a relationship between signals. The relationships for this particular system are:

E(s) = U(s) - Y(s) This relationship is for the summer.

Figure 2. Block diagram of typical control system

W(s) = KE(s) This shows how W(s) - the control effort that drives the system being controlled, G(s), - is related to the error. The controller is probably an amplifier - probably a power amplifier that provides an output to drive the plant, G(s).

Y(s) = G(s)W(s) This shows how the output, Y(s), is related to the control effort that drives the plant (system being controlled ) with a transfer function, G(s).

Next, all of those relationships can be combined to get an overall relationship between the input and the output in the system:

Note that Y(s) = G(s)W(s) Note that W(s) = KE(s), and using that in the equation for Y(s) gives: o Y(s) = G(s)W(s) = G(s)KE(s)
o

Note that the error is given by E(s) = U(s) - Y(s), and using that in the equation for Y(s). o Y(s) = G(s)W(s) = G(s)KE(s) = G(s)K[U(s) = Y(s)]
o

Now, solving for Y(s) yields: o Y(s) = U(s)KG(s)/[1 + KG(s)]

The final relationship will allow the computation of the output given knowledge of the system components and the input.

CTS210 Control Systems 2 Lecture Notes K. Kanyimba

Figure 3 shows a block diagram of a slightly more complex system.

Figure 3. A description of this system is as follows.

The plant being controlled includes a pump motor. The output is the height of a liquid in a tank. o It takes some threshold voltage on the pump to get it started. After the voltage exceeds the threshold, the flow rate into the pump depends upon the amount by which the threshold is exceeded. o In the block diagram model above, the threshold voltage (VT) and attendant effects are modelled using another summer. The controller has a transfer function, GC(s). The sensor has a transfer function, GS(s). The mathematical relationships that exist in this block diagram are: o Y(s) = GP(s)[W(s) - VT(s)] o Y(s) = GP(s)[GC(s)E(s) - VT(s)] o Y(s) = GP(s)[GC(s)(U(s) X(s)) - VT(s)] o Y(s) = GP(s)[GC(s)(U(s) - GS(s)Y(s)) - VT(s)] Now, solving for Y(s) yields: U ( s)G p ( s )Gc ( s ) VT ( s )G p ( s ) o Y (s) = 1 + G p ( s)Gc ( s )Gs ( s ) 1 + G p ( s)Gc ( s )Gs ( s )

The output has two components. One of those components is due to the input - something we know about. The other component of the output is due to the threshold voltage - something we might not have expected. Actually, representing offsets and thresholds like this is a particularly good way to incorporate some simple non-linearities into our block diagram algebra even though the block diagram representation was originally used only for linear systems. It's not hard to incorporate these off-sets into the analysis. The procedure is as follows:

1. A complete block diagram must be generated for the system and all the off-sets must be incorporate in
the block diagram model. 2. Using the block diagram model, the algebraic equations are written for each block. 3. The equations are solved to determine the output of the system (or the error if that is the variable of interest). Note that the output will probably depend upon the input and all of the off-set quantities added. 4. The solution is now used to determine numerical values for the output. Of interest are, oftenly, the steady-state solutions (DC solutions) and these can be determined by using DC gains with s = 0 in the transfer functions.
CTS210 Control Systems 2 Lecture Notes K. Kanyimba

CONTROL SYSTEM COMPONENTS

Figure 4 shows a typical control system. These components are found in the vast majority of control systems. The relationships are as follows: Summer relationships: In the summer, the output is actually the difference between the input signal and the sensor output signal. E(s) = U(s) - X(s) Controller relationships: In the controller, the output is determined by the transfer function of the controller and the input to the plant which is the error. W(s) = GC(s)E(s) This shows how W(s) - the control effort that drives the system, GP(s) - is related to the error. The controller is probably an amplifier - probably a power amplifier - that provides an output to drive the plant, GP(s). Plant relationships: In the plant, the output is determined by the transfer function of the plant and the input to the plant. Y(s) = GP(s)W(s) This shows how the output, Y(s), is related to the control effort that drives the plant (system being controlled ) with a transfer function, GP(s). Sensor relationships: In the sensor, the output is determined by the transfer function of the sensor and the output of the system which is an input to the sensor. X(s) = GS(s)Y(s) This shows how the sensor output, X(s), is related to the output of the system, Y(s). There are many sensors that have dynamics that need to be accounted for with a transfer function. For example:
o o

Figure 4. Typical control system

Temperature sensors have thermal time constants and don't respond immediately to a sudden temperature change. Gyroscopes - used to measure attitude in aircraft, submarines, etc. - are second order systems with natural frequencies, damping ratios, etc. 4

CTS210 Control Systems 2 Lecture Notes K. Kanyimba

SYSTEMS WITH SEVERAL VARIABLES UNDER CONTROL To represent a system with several variables under control, an interconnection of blocks is utilized, e.g. the system shown in Figure 5 has two input variables and two output variables. R1(s) SYSTEM R2(s) Y2(s) Y1(s)

Figure 5. General block representation of a two-input, two-output system. Using transfer function relations simultaneous equations for the output variables are: Y1(s) = G11(s)R1(s) + G12(s)R2(s) Y2(s) = G21(s)R1(s) + G22(s)R2(s) Where Gij(s) is the transfer function relating the ith output to the jth input variable. The block diagram representing this set of equations is shown in Figure 6.

R1(S)

G11(S)

+ +

Y1(S)

G21(S)

G12(S)

+ R2(S) G22(S) + Y2(S)

Figure 6. Block diagram of interconnected system.

CTS210 Control Systems 2 Lecture Notes K. Kanyimba

In general, for J inputs and I outputs, the simultaneous equation matrix is written as follows: Y1 ( s) G11 ( s ) Y ( s ) G ( s ) 2 21 . . = . . . . YI ( s) GI 1 ( s ) or simply ... ... G1J ( s) R1 ( s ) G 2J ( s ) R2 ( s ) . . . G IJ ( s ) RJ ( s )

...

[ Y ] = [ G ] [ R]
Here the Y and R matrices are column matrices containing the I output and the J input variables, respectively and G is an I x J transfer function matrix. The matrix representation of the interrelationship of many variables is particularly valuable for complex multi-variable control systems. The block diagram representation of a given system can often be reduced by block diagram reduction techniques to a simplified block diagram with fewer blocks than the original diagram. BLOCK DIAGRAM REDUCTION TECHNIQUES 1. SERIES CONNECTION X(S) W(S) Y(S)

G1(s)

G2(s)

Y(s) = G2(s)W(s),

but W(s) = G1(s)X(s), and

Y (s) = G1(s)G2(s) X (s)

therefore, Y(s) = G2(s)G1(s)X(s) Note: G2(s)G1(s) = G1(s)G2(s)

X(s)

G1(s) G2(s)
Y (s) = G2(s)G1(s) X (s) Figure 7

Y(s)

CTS210 Control Systems 2 Lecture Notes K. Kanyimba

2. PARALLEL CONNECTION Y(s) = U(s) + W(s) = G1(s)X(s) + G2(s)X(s) = [G1(s) + G2(s)]X(s) Y (s) = G1(s) + G2(s) X (s) Y(s) X(s) W(s) Figure 8 Y(s)

G1(s)

U(s) + + +

X(S)

G2(s)

G1(s) + G2(s)

3. FEEDBACK CONTROL SYSTEMS

+ X(s) + -

E(s)

G(s)

Y(s)

U(s)

H(s)
Y(s) = G(s)E(s) = G(s)[X(s) U(s)] = G(s)[X(s) H(s)Y(s)] = G(s)X(s) G(s)H(s)Y(s) Y(s) + G(s)H(s)Y(s) = G(s)X(s) Y(s)[1 + G(s)H(s)] = G(s)X(s) Y (s) G ( s) = X ( s) 1 + G ( s) H ( s ) Figure 9 X(s) G (s) 1 + G (s) H (s) Y(s)

CTS210 Control Systems 2 Lecture Notes K. Kanyimba

4. BLOCK DIAGRAM ALGEBRA FOR PICK-OFF POINTS The figure below shows block diagram algebra for pick-off points - equivalent forms for moving a block R(s)G(s)
G(s)

R(s)G(s) R(s)

R(s)

R(s) R(s)

R(s)

G(s)

1 G(s)

1 G (s )

R(s)

(a) to the left past a pick-off point;

R(s)G(s)
G(s)

R(s)G(s)

R(s)
G(s)

R(s)G(s) R(s)G(s) R(s) R(s)G(s)

G(s) G(s)

R(s)G(s)

(b) to the right past a pick-off point.

CTS210 Control Systems 2 Lecture Notes K. Kanyimba