Lecture 1 INTRODUCTION Three of four fundamental elements in Greek mythology (Earth, Air, Fire and Water) involve fluids.

In engineering applications, understanding fluid flow is necessary for the design of aircraft, ships, cars, pipe lines, pumps, valves, heat exchangers, air-conditioning systems, dams, spillways, and irrigation systems. It is also essential to the prediction of weather, ocean currents, pollution levels, and greenhouse effects. All life-sustaining bodily functions involved fluid flow since the transport of oxygen and nutrients throughout the body is governed by the flow of air and blood. Fluid flow is crucially important in shaping the world around us, and its full understanding remains one of the great challenges in physics and engineering. Nature of Fluids Liquids and gases are both fluids. Difference between Solids and Fluids Fluids can flow and change shape. When subject to a shear stress, a fluid experiences a continuing and permanent distortion. When subject to a normal stress, a fluid will flow in the other two directions. Definition of Fluids A fluid can be defined as a material that deforms continuously and permanently under the application of a shearing stress, no matter how small. The inability of fluids to resist shearing stress gives them their characteristic ability to change shapes or to flow.

Lecture 1 Stresses in Fluids Normal Stresses Stresses that give rise to forces acting normal to the surface of the fluid particles Shearing Stresses Stresses that produce forces acting tangential to the surface of the fluid particles Bulk Modulus (corresponding to Young's modulus in solids) relates the normal stress on a fluid particle to its change of volume. Viscosity (corresponding to shear modulus in solids) measures a fluid's ability to resist a shear stress. Pressure pressure is a normal stress. It produces a force that acts in a direction normal to the surface on which it acts.
p = lim F , A 0 A

The force due to a pressure p acting on a small element of surface dA r r defined by a unit normal vector n is given by -p n dA. pressure at a point in a fluid is independent of the orientation of the surface passing through the point. pressure at a point in a fluid at rest is independent of direction (Pascals Law). pressure is a scalar (i.e., isotropic) and it always acts at right angle to a given surface.

Lecture 1 Consider a small wedge-shaped fluid element. The fluid element is in equilibrium under the action of forces due to pressure and its own weight.
z p2dydz p1dA dz dx gdxdydz

p3dxdy x

Fx = 0 gives, Fx = p2dydz p1dA sin = 0, p2dydz = p1dy

dz sin, p2 = p1 sin

Fz = 0 gives, Fz = p3dxdy gdxdydz p1dA cos = 0, p3dydz = gdxdydz + p1dy p3 = gdz + p1, Therefore, p3 = p2 = p1 The pressure is the same at all points on a horizontal plane in a given fluid regardless of geometry, provided that the points are interconnected by the same fluid. When the pressure is uniform throughout the fluid, the resultant force acting on a fluid particle is zero. The resultant forces due to pressure will appear only if there is a pressure variation within the fluid, i.e., when pressure gradients exist.

dx cos, cos p 3 = p1 (as dz 0)

Lecture 1 Pressure Transmission through a Fluid Pascals Law The pressure applied to a confined fluid increases the pressure throughout by the same amount.

p 2 = p1

F1 F2 = A1 A 2

F2 = F1

A2 A1

Hydraulic Level

Hydraulic Brake System

Lecture 1 IMPORTANT PROPERTIES OF FLUIDS Continuum We assume that all the fluid characteristics vary continuously throughout its content. Density () Density is defined as the mass per unit volume.
= m V

Density of water at 4 C is 1000 kg/m3.

Specific Gravity () Specific Gravity is defined as the density of other material relative to that of water.

H 2 O at 4C

mass of a given volume of subs tan ce mass of an equal volume of water

Bulk Modulus The force due to pressure acts to compress the fluid particles. The type of strain is called a bulk strain, and it is measured by the fractional change in volume.
dp = K dV V

K: bulk modulus 1 d dV d(m / ) = = d = (m / ) V

V=

m ,

dp = K

K value depends on how fluid is compressed (isothermally, adiabatically, or isentropically)

Lecture 1 Viscosity

When a shear stress is applied to a solid, it deforms by an angle (shear angle). When a shear stress is applied to a fluid confined between two parallel plates, the shear stress is not related to the magnitude of the shear angle as in solids, but to the rate at which the angle is changing. = d dt
: dynamic viscosity [Ns/m2]

ut y x

y ut
du = dy =

u du = t y dy

: kinematic viscosity [m2/s]

Fluids which obey a linear relationship between stress and strain rate are called Newtonian fluids. Fluids which have a nonlinear relationship between stress and strain rate are called non-Newtonian fluids. Examples of non-Newtonian fluids: tar, glass and tooth paste.
Surface Tension is due to unbalanced cohesive forces acting on the liquid molecules at the liquid surface.

Surface tension phenomena are due to the attractive forces that exist between molecules. The forces fall off quickly with distance (of the order of 5 m). This distance forms the radius of a sphere around a given molecule, and only molecules contained in this sphere will attract the one at the center.

Lecture 1

is defined as the intensity of the molecular attraction (tensile force) per unit length along any line in the fluid surface. its magnitude depends on temperature as well as the other fluid it is in contact with at the interface.
Meniscus and Capillarity

A curved surface is formed when a liquid is in contact with a solid. Due to capillarity, a liquid can rise or fall inside a clean glass tube of a small radius. F = 0 gives,
gr2h = 2rcos,

h=

2 cos gr

whereis the contact angle. A liquid is said to wet the surface if is less than 90.For pure water on clean glass, is approximately zero, and various metal surfaces, it lies between 3 and 11. For mercury on glass, its value varies between 130 and 145. The capillary rise/fall h is inversely proportional to the tube radius.

Lecture 1 Example The piston of a vertical piston-cylinder device has a mass of 60 kg and a cross-sectional area of 0.04 m2. The local atmospheric pressure is 97 kPa and the gravitational acceleration is 9.81 m/s2. Determine (a) the pressure inside the cylinder, (b) the pressure inside the cylinder if some heat is transferred to the gas inside and its volume is doubled.
Patm

Force balance F = 0 PA = PatmA + W (a) P = Patm +

mg (60 )(9.81) 1 = 97 + = 112 kPa A 0.04 10 3
W P

(b) The volume change has no effect on the force balance, therefore, the pressure inside the cylinder will remain the same.

Example What diameter of a clean glass tube is required so that the rise of water at 20 C inside the tube due to capillary action is less than 1 mm?
h= 2 cos gr

r=

2 cos gh

For water at 20 C, 0, = 0.0728 N/m and = 998.2 kg/m3. r= 2(0.0728 )(1) = 0.0149 m (998.2)(9.81)(0.001)

D = 2r = 0.0298 m = 2.98 cm