Respiratory Physiology

"respiratory system" we usually mean the passages that transport incoming air to the lungs and to the microscopic air sacs called alveoli where gases are exchanged. The term respiration refers to the whole chain of processes from the inhalation of air to the use of oxygen in the cells.

Breathing or Ventilation
We can inhale by lowering the diaphragm to expand the volume of the chest cavity. By the ideal gas law we know that an expanded volume will lower the pressure and allow air to flow into the lungs through the bronchial passages. Exhalation can be accomplished by just relaxing the chest and allowing the elastic recoil of the alveoli to force the air out of the lungs. This elastic recoil is related to the wall tension of the alveoli and behaves according to LaPlace's law.

The above diagram follows the perspective of Thibadeau & Patton. Upon inspiration, the pressure in the alveoli is on the order of 2-3 mmHg below the atmospheric pressure of 760 mmHg. The relaxing of the diagphragm plus the elastic recoil of the alveoli provides a pressure some 3 mmHg above atmospheric pressure to accomplish expiration. At right is a sketch of a lung model used to demonstrate the nature of the breathing process. A rubber membrane simulates the action of the diaphragm.

Respiratory System More inhalation detail

Ideal Gas Law

An ideal gas is defined as one in which all collisions between atoms or molecules are perfectly eleastic and in which there are no intermolecular attractive forces. One can visualize it as a collection of perfectly hard spheres which collide but which otherwise do not interact with each other. In such a gas, all the internal energy is in the form of kinetic energy and any change in internal energy is accompanied by a change in temperature. An ideal gas can be characterized by three state variables: absolute pressure (P), volume (V), and absolute temperature (T). The relationship between them may be deduced from kinetic theory and is called the

n = number of moles R = universal gas constant = 8.3145 J/mol K N = number of molecules k = Boltzmann constant = 1.38066 x 10-23 J/K = 8.617385 x 10-5 eV/K k = R/NA NA = Avogadro's number = 6.0221 x 1023 /mol

The ideal gas law can be viewed as arising from the kinetic pressure of gas molecules colliding with the walls of a container in accordance with Newton's laws. But there is also a statistical element in the determination of the average kinetic energy of those molecules. The temperature is taken to be proportional to this average kinetic energy; this invokes the idea of kinetic temperature. One mole of an ideal gas at STP occupies 22.4 liters.

Internal Energy
Internal energy is defined as the energy associated with the random, disordered motion of molecules. It is separated in scale from the macroscopic ordered energy associated with moving objects; it refers to the invisible microscopic energy on the atomic and molecular scale. For example, a room temperature glass of water sitting on a table has no apparent energy, either potential or kinetic . But on the microscopic scale it is a seething mass of high speed molecules traveling at hundreds of meters per second. If the water were tossed across the room, this microscopic energy would not necessarily be changed when we superimpose an ordered large scale motion on the water as a whole.

is the most common symbol used for internal energy

A state variable is a precisely measurable physical property which characterizes the state of a system, independently of how the system was brought to that state. It must be inherently single-valued to characterize a state. For example in the heat-work example, the final state is characterized by a specific temperature (a state variable) regardless of whether it was brought to that state by heating, or by having work done on it, or both. The kinetic theory of gases is the study of the microscopic behavior of molecules and the interactions which lead to macroscopic relationships like the ideal gas law.

The study of the molecules of a gas is a good example of a physical situation where statistical methods give precise and dependable results for macroscopic manifestations of microscopic phenomena. For example, the pressure, volume and temperature calculations from the ideal gas law are very precise. The average energy associated with the molecular motion has its foundation in the Boltzmann distribution, a statistical distribution function. Yet the temperature and energy of a gas can be measured precisely.

A mole (abbreviated mol) of a pure substance is a mass of the material in grams that is numerically equal to the molecular mass in atomic mass units (amu). A mole of any material will contain Avogadro's number of molecules. For example, carbon has an atomic mass of exactly 12.0 atomic mass units -- a mole of carbon is therefore 12 grams. For an isotope of a pure element, the mass number A is approximately equal to the mass in amu. The accurate masses of pure elements with their normal isotopic concentrations can be obtained from the periodic table. One mole of an ideal gas will occupy a volume of 22.4 liters at STP (Standard Temperature and Pressure, 0C and one atmosphere pressure).

Avogadro's number

Gas Exchange in the Lungs

Gas exchange in the lungs takes place in the tiny air sacs called alveoli in the lungs. The process of inhalation must inflate the alveoli, but it can only do so because of the presence of a surfactant fluid that coats the alveoli and lowers the surface tension of their walls.

The lungs have millions of alveoli (Thibodeau & Patton) and each lies in contact with capillaries. The combination of the alveolar wall, the capillary wall and the basement membrane that lies between them is a very thin barrier across which oxygen and carbon dioxide diffuse readily.

Transfer of oxygen and carbon dioxide across the membranes occurs by diffusion, but the solubility of these gases in the material of the membrane also play a role. The influence of solubility on diffusion in modeled in Graham's law.

LaPlace's Law
The larger the vessel radius, the larger the wall tension required to withstand a given internal fluid pressure.

Index LaPlace's law concepts Balloon example

For a given vessel radius and internal pressure, a spherical vessel will have half the wall tension of a

cylindrical vessel.
Why does the wall tension increase with radius?

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Why does wall tension increase with radius?

Index LaPlace's law concepts Balloon example If the upward part of the fluid pressure remains the same, then the downward component of the wall tension must remain the same. But if the curvature is less, then the total tension must be greater in order to get that same downward component of tension. For equilibrium of a load hanging on a cable, you can explore the effects of having a smaller angle for the supporting cable tension.

Wall Tension

Pascal's principle requires that the pressure is everywhere the same inside the balloon at equilibrium. But examination immediately reveals that there are great differences in wall tension on different parts of the balloon. The variation is described by Laplace's Law.

Once you have established the geometry of the balloon, then the tension, pressure and radius have a definite relationship and could be used to measure tension or pressure. That is, if you have a gauge to measure pressure, then you can calculate the wall tension. In the interesting experiment of putting one end of a balloon into liquid nitrogen, you can collapse one end of it by cooling while the other end stays essentially at its previous radius. This can be taken to imply that the pressure is not diminishing significantly since for a given tension, the pressure is related to the radius.

Index LaPlace's law concepts Reference Shier, et al. Ch 19

Alveoli of the Lungs

The oxygen exchange in the lungs takes place across the membranes of small balloon-like structures called alveoli attached to the branches of the bronchial passages. These alveoli inflate and deflate with inhalation and exhalation. The behavior of the alveoli is largely dictated by LaPlace's law and surface tension. It takes some effort to breathe in because these tiny balloons must be inflated, but the elastic recoil of the tiny balloons assists us in the process of exhalation. If the elastic recoil of the alveoli is compromised, as in the case of emphysema, then it is difficult to exhale forcibly.

The difficulty of inspiration during the baby's first breath is great because all the balloons must be inflated from a collapsed state. Respiratory System HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Fluids

Inflation of alveoli

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Inflating the Alveoli

Inflating the alveoli in the process of respiration requires an excess pressure inside the alveoli relative to their surroundings. This is actually accomplished by making the pressure in the thoracic cavity negative with respect to atmospheric pressure.

The amount of net pressure required for inflation is dictated by the surface tension and radii of the tiny balloon-like alveoli. During inhalation the radii of the alveoli increase from about 0.05 mm to 0.1 mm . The normal mucous tissue fluid surrounding the alveoli has a nominal surface tension of about 50 dynes/cm so the required net outward pressure is:
Index LaPlace's law concepts Reference Shier, et al. Ch 19

The remarkable property of the surfactant which coats the alveoli is that it reduces the surface tension by a factor of about 15 so that the 1 mmHg pressure differential is sufficient to inflate the alveoli. Other factors affecting the remarkable efficiency of oxygen transport across the lung membranes is characterized in Fick's Law.

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Surfactant Role in Respiration

One of the remarkable phenomena in the process of respiration is the role of the fluid coating the walls of the alveoli of the lungs. This fluid, called a surfactant, lowers the surface tension of the balloon-like alveoli by about a factor of 15 compared to the normal mucous tissue fluid in which they are immersed. There appears to be a nearly constant amount of this surfactant per alveolus, so that when the alveoli are deflated it is more concentrated on the surface. Since the surface-tension-lowering effect of the surfactant depends on this concentration, it diminishes the required pressure for inflation of the alveoli at their most critical phase. For a given surface tension, the pressure to inflate a smaller bubble is greater. It is the surfactant which makes possible the inflation of the alveoli with only about 1 mmHg of pressure excess over their surroundings. The baby's first breath depends upon this surfactant and is made more difficult in premature infants by the incomplete formation of the surfactant. HyperPhysics***** Mechanics ***** Fluids
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Index LaPlace's law concepts Reference Shier, et al. Ch 19

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Alveoli and Exhalation

The alveoli of the lungs act much like balloons in that there is some effort involved to inflate them, but when the inflating pressure is released, the recoil of the elastic walls provides the pressure necessary to deflate them. The lungs are suspended in the thoracic cavity which is normally at a slight negative pressure. When the diaphragm is lowered, that pressure becomes more negative and the lungs expand into the cavity. Air from the atmosphere moves into the resulting partial vacuum and inflates the alveoli. One is aware of the effort, but it is not extreme as in the case of the baby's first breath . Once the alveoli are fully inflated, exhalation can be accomplished by merely relaxing the diaphragm, since the wall tension in all the tiny alveoli will act to force the air out of them. By forcing the diaphragm upward, we can exhale forcefully by adding the diaphragm effort to the recoil of the elastic alveoli. In diseases like emphysema, the elasticity of the alveoli is lost and exhalation becomes a laborious process.

Index LaPlace's law concepts Reference Shier, et al. Ch 19