Citrus Cultivation

Booklet No.75 Fruit Production: FPS-13 Contents Preface I. Introduction II. Area of Distribution III. Nutritional Importance IV. Climate V. Soil VI. Varieties VII. Propagation VIII. Planting IX. Fertilizers and Manures X. Irrigation XI. Training and Pruning XII. Intercropping XIII. Harvesting and Yield XIV. Storage and Marketing XV. Economics of Citrus Cultivation Preface Next to the mango and the banana, the citrus fruits represent the third largest fruit industry of India, occupying about six per cent of the total area under fruits. Besides having nutritional importance, citrus consists of a number of species and varieties under them, which are made available throughout the year, making their cultivation remunerative. In this booklet, the author has described in detail about the cultivation practices required for successful growing of a citrus orchard along with their economics of cultivation, which will be helpful for the people working for the socio-economic development of the rural poor i farming classes: scheduled castes, scheduled tribes and women. Dr. K.T. Chandy, Agricultural and Environmental Education, I. Introduction Citrus consists of a group of fruits belonging to the family Rutaceae to which belong the bael (Aegle marmelos), wood apple (Feronia lemonia) and the ornamental shrub kamini (Murraya paniculata) with sweet smelling flowers. The special feature of citrus fruits is the presence of juice sacs in them. Unlike most other fruits they lack a firm pulp and are either sucked or made into beverages. The citrus fruits such as oranges, lemons and limes have been cultivated in South China, Malaysia and the sub-Himalayan parts of Assam from time immemorial. From there they spread to other tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world possessing a suitable climate. There are many kinds of citrus fruits found in the world. These breed with each other in nature freely and produce new types which come up from time to time. In India, a rich array of these types is found growing semi- : wild. Most of these types are indigenous to India I and have

originated in the Assam area. The most important among them is rough lemon (Citrus jambhiri) the commonest rootstock in India. The other indigenous species are satkara (Citrus macroptera) Citrus indica and, Ada Jathir found in Assam, gajanimma (Citrus pennivesiculata) and kichili (Citrus maderaspatana) found in South India. None of the above species is cultivated as a table fruit except kichili: 'The important com.mercial citrus fruits grown m IndIa are definitely not indigenous to this : country. The most important is the mandarin orange, santara or kamla orange (Citrus reticulata). This is a looseskinned orange and is often erroneously called orange, which in the English language denotes the tight skinned orange (Citrus sinensis). The sweet orange (Citrus sinensis) is indigenous to China. It is believed to have been introduced into South India. The present cultivated varieties are recently introduced from abroad. Indian name of some of its varieties like mosambi (Mozambique), malta and batavian (found in South India) suggest their introduction from foreign countries. Kinnow is also - a latest introduction from America. The other important commercial citrus fruits are the lemon and the kagzi lirne which are also not indigenous to India, but have become well established here. Pickles of limes and lemons are popular allover India. An ornamental citrus plant found in India is the Calamondin, China orange or Hazara (Citrus modurensis). It bears. small ornamental fruits, which continue to hang on the tree for months. All the citrus fruits, commercially grown in India, are given in Table 1 along with their botanical names and local names. Table 1: Citrus fruits grown in India Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 English name Lime Lemon Citron Sour orange Sweet lime Sweet orange Mandarin orange Grape fruit Shaddock Pumello Botanical name Citrus aurantifolia Citrus lemonia Citrus medica Citrus aurantium Citrus limettioides Citrus sinensis Citrus reticulata Citrus paradisis Citrus maxima Citrus grandis Other names Kagzi nimbu, Elumichai, Nimma, Lebu, Nyomb Bara nimbu, Jambira, Bijori, Bijapura, Galgal etc. Mahaphala, Rusaka, Lungammu Bitter orange, Khatta, Naranga Mitha nimbu, Kolumichai, Chinka Sathgudi, Sweet lime, Malta, Mosambi, Battayi,etc. Orange, Santara, Kamala Satsuma, Tangerine, Mandarin, Kichi. Paradese, Biri nimbu Forbidden fruit, pumella, Chakotara, etc. Pumalli, Kumguat

II. Area of Distribution Next to mango and banana, citrus fruits represents the third most important fruits of India. According to the statistical studies carried out by Directorate of Horticulture, Ministry of

Agriculture, Government of India in 1986-87, the area under citrus fruits cultivation was 262.32 thousand hectares and the total production was about 2,530.60 thousand tonnes. This amounts to about 8 % area under fruits. With the reorganization of states Maharashtra now leads in citrus production followed by Andhra Pradesh, Assam, and Punjab. Mandarin (C. reticulata) is the most important commercial crop. It occupies about 39% of the area under citrus cultivation. The chief centres of production are Nagpur, Assam and Coorg. The sweet orange comes next to mandarin, occupying about. 12 % of the area, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Punjab and Rajasthan are being its principal centres. The other fruits grown commercially are kichili (C. maderaspatana) in Andhra Pradesh, sweet lime (C. limettioides) in Punjab and Tamilnadu, kinnow (hybrid) in Punjab and pummelos (C. grandis) scattered all over the country. III. Nutritional Importance The very name citrus forms in our minds several images: a mouth watering acid sweet taste, a refreshing flavour, a soothing drink in fever and illness and, of course, the thirst quenching lemonades of hot summer. They may not be able to match the appeal of Dashehari or Alphanso mango or the energy giving qualities of banana, but they have a place of their own. They are a rich source of vitamin-C and protect a person from scurvy a dreaded disease causing body sores, bleeding gums, etc. The citrus fruits also contain vitamin K, which keeps the small blood vessels in our body in healthy condition and helps in assimilation of vitamin C. The oranges of the reticulatus group are good sources of beta-carotene or vitamin A. Citrus fruits also have fair amounts of most mineral nutrients like calcium. Perhaps that is why citrus is important in diets of sick and convalescents. All the citrus fruits supply a large amount of potassium and calcium. The important sugars in citrus fruits are sucrose, g1ucose and fructose occurring in a ratio of 2:1:1 respectively. Thus, they are good energy food too. The acidity of these fruits is mainly due to citric acid. In the sweet varieties, acidity comes down upon ripening and at the same time fruit's sugars increase. Most citrus fruits have trace of bitterness which is due to the presence of flavonoid compounds. The aromatic principle in these fruits js due to a chemical substance called limonene and other essential oils. All these chemical compounds present in citrus fruits are found to have extensive uses in industry, pharmaceuticals and food processing. Different nutrients available in various citrus fruits are shown in Table 2. Table 2: Nutrients in various citrus fruits Sl.N o 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 Fruits/100 (g) Nimbu Mosambi Orange Sweet lime Lemon Pumello Grapefruit Energy (cals) 59 40 48 35 57 44 30 Calcium (mg ) 90 30 26 30 70 30 20 Phosphorus (mg) 20 30 20 20 10 30 20 Iron (mg) 0.3 1.0 2.3 2.3 0 Potassium (mg) 490 210 270 Carotene (mg) 15 1104 0 120 Vit-C (mg) 63 50 30 54 39 20 31

IV. Climate Sweet and mandarin orange differ from each other to some extent in their .climatic requirements: The sweet , oranges thrive better In sub-tropical, dry climate having well-defined summer and winter seasons and low rainfall, whereas the mandarins prefer more humid and tropical summer, warmer winter and higher rainfall. The production of sweet oranges seems to be largely favored by the sub-tropical or dry arid conditions, prevailing during a good part of year With distinct summer and winter seasons and a low rainfall like that found in Cuddapah, Kurnool, Chittoor, Rayalseema, northern Circars, Guntur, Krishna districts of Andhra Pradesh and Deccan regions of Maharashtra, some parts in Gujarat, Punjab and V.P. Atmospheric humidity also has a bearing on the successful production of oranges. Thinner and smoother skinned fruits with more juice are usually associated with an atmosphere of rich humidity and rainfall rather than with the drier regions, though taste may be superior in the latter. Thus the sweet oranges are found at their best on the drier plains. In more humid regions, the trees are subject to the attack of parasites such as lichens and loranthus. Climatic factors other than frost, rarely prevent the growth of fruits but they may greatly influence the quality of the fruits and the choice of the varieties, and also, to some extent the cost of production. Rainfall, for example, seems to be unimportant if irrigation is provided. Exposure to strong winds, whether hot or cool, is very harmful. Therefore, where wind is a problem, the citrus trees should be protected by wind- breaks. High temperature, except in desert regions where exposure to very hot sun prove harmful, is of little consequence. Little growth takes place when the mean temperature is below 55 F or above 97F. However, sweet oranges have been grown successfully from 40F to 180F in Deccan and even up to 118 F in parts of northern Rajasthan and western Uttar Pradesh. It would thus, appear that the cultivation of sweet oranges can be recommended in the drier or less humid regions of India, with a rainfall well under 30 inches, with variations between the day and night temperatures. Santras grow and fruit well along with the sweet oranges in the dry districts of the Deccan plateau and Hyderabad at altitudes between 1,500 to 2,500 feet, with a rainfall between 20 and 30 inches, and temperature between 40F and 108F. One of the largest and most important centres of santra cultivation in India is the tract around Nagpur and adjacent districts at an altitude about 1,025 feet. This is a dry hot region, with an average annual rainfall of about 45 inches, between June and September, with relative humidity of about 53 % and temperature ranging from 43 to 117F. In this tract the world famous. mandarin oranges, popularly known as Nagpur santra, is grown. For kinnow santra too, subtropical climate is suitable but as compared to other santras, it can successfully thrive in very cold season. In North Indian plains where winter temperatures goes down excellent colour development and sugar formation in Kinnow fruits take place. It can also thrive well in mountainous valleys and sub- mountainous regions of North India. From above points it can be, thus, assumed that santras grow successfully in all tropical parts in India and i can be grown successfully in Peninsular India, in the submountain regions of northern and eastern India at elevations between 2000 and 3,500 feet and with rainfall ranging from 30 to 100 inches. V. Soil

The sweet and mandarin oranges can be grown successfully on a wide range of soils, but the ideal soil is medium or lighter loam with a slightly heavier sub-soil. The deep, alluvial loams of the Indo-Gangetic plains, the coarse, friable black soils of Madhya Pradesh and similar soils of the Deccan are considered to be excellent for growing the sweet as well as santra oranges. In Madhya Pradesh, most of the best orchards of Nagpur santra are established on the coarse, free-working, well-drained, black loamy soils. They are about 182 cm deep and are overlying a bed of soft mauram or coarse sand mixed with lime nodules. Shallow soils such as those found on hills in the south are unsuitable, because the trees remain stunted and die in their prime stage for want of nutrition and limited root spread. Soils which are very rich in lime such as those occurring in undulating plains of the Deccan are definitely toxic and prove harn1ful to orange orchard. For the cultivation of kinnow santra loam or sandy loam soils with good sub-surface drainage are necessary as stagnation of water in the orchard adversely affect the growth and development of the trees. Generally, pH of the soil should range from 6 to 8. Orange trees are particularly sensitive to high concentration of salt and cannot stand waterlogged conditions for any length of time. Such situations should, therefore, be avoided. The first three feet of soil are most important in orange growing as they form the major feeding root zone of the tree. For the successful growing of sweet orange, the pH of the soil should range from 6 to 8, whereas for santra trees, pH range from 5-8 is more ideal. The rainfed santra trees can tolerate more soil acidity up to pH 4. In Assam, the santra orange do best on soils with pH 5.5. to 6.5. Sandy or gravelly soils in the dry climates of northern India and the Deccan are not suitable, as they tend to dry out the surface roots in times of drought. But these soils are highly suitable in the high rainfall areas like the Khasi hills of Assam and Darjeeling as they are very efficient in draining away the excess water. In Coorg and Wyanad, santra oranges flourish in deep but well-drained, red loamy soils. Thus citrus fruits can be grown on a very wide range of soils, varying from alkaline to acid from heavy clays to very light sandy soils, under proper soil management. VI. Varieties In India the loose-skinned oranges or mandarins are often called oranges and the sweet orange is called malta. This causes confusion since the English word orange refers to the sweet orange. Among mandarins, there are three important types; Coorg, Khasi and Nagpuri. The Nagpuri is propagated as budded plant and the other two as seedlings. They are all of the Ponkan type of China and their fruits and plants show little difference. The seedlings are more vigorous, spiny and erect. All the three have an excellent fruit quality. The recent introduction includes "Butwal" and "Kinnow" which grow well in Punjab and other submountainous regions of North India. "Kinnow" is a hybrid between "King Orange" and "Willow Leaf Mandarine". It is reported to be resistant against sun burn and have richer juice quality. The varieties of a species of citrus, unlike those of mango, are not easy to identify. Among the sweet oranges the most important variety is 'Mosambi' from Maharashtra. It is a distinctive furrowed fruit with a smooth circular areole, and juice with very low (0.3 %) acidity. It is similar in taste to 'Sauccari' orange of Egypt. Another variety is Sathgudi or Chini of Andhra Pradesh. It has a good flavour but does not develop a proper skin colour or flavour under the humid conditions of South India. A cultivar grown in the coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh is Batavian. It is similar to Sathgudi but less sweet. 'Pineapple' is also a recent introduction which

is successfully grown in Punjab. Its fruit has a smooth deep bright orange skin, the pulp is highly flavoured and sweet, and good yield, but it has bold seeds, Another successful variety is Malta Common. 'Joppa' and 'Vanille' are also good. 'Humlin' is popular due to its earliness, but it shows a high percentage of dry granulated fruits on the rough lemon rootstock. 'Valencia' bears well but ripens too late in the seasons. Another important variety is Blood Red grown in the dry tracts of Punjab and Rajas- than. Washington Navel develops a large fruit which lacks both juice and quality. Among sour limes (Citrus aurantifolia) none is weIl established. In India it is known as kagzi lime. It has two kinds of fruits-egg shaped called Aghayapuri lime and the other is round shaped. Some other varieties grown in U.P. are "Pramalini" 'Vikram' and 'Kagzi Nimbu Mutant'. Pramalini and Vikram are reported to be resistant against citrus canker. Coorg Lime is also a new variety developed through clonal selection. There is one more variety of lime known as 'Tahati lime'. Its fruits are relatively large and seedless. Among lemons (Citrus limon) there are several varieties such as Italian, Malta, Hill, Lisban, Lucknow Bedana, Mayar Eureka, Nepali Oblong, Willowprenca and Geneva which are introductions from abroad except Lucknow Bedana. Malta, Italian and Nepali oblong are popular in South India, while Eurecka, Lucknow Bedana and Kagzi Kala are grown in North India. A new variety Pant Lemon-l is increasingly getting popular in North India. It has been developed through selection from 'Kagzi Kala'. Fruits are medium sized, round and juicy. It flowers thrice a year. Rajamundri and 'Kagzi Kala' are supposed to be hybrids of Kagzi lime and lemon. Important varieties of grape fruits are Duncan, Marsh Seedless, Foster, Rubi, Saharanpur Special, New Liland (Poorman Orange), Thompson and Ecceliar. These varieties have been introduced to India from abroad. Pumellow does not have any special variety in India. But the shape of the fruits and colour of the juice differ from region to region. Some fruits have pinkish colour of flesh (juice) while some have whitish colour. VII. Propagation Citrus can be propagated either by seeds or by vegetative methods. Trees raised through seeds are more resistant and longer living than those raised through vegetative propagation method. In vegetative propagation methods, cutting, layering and budding are practiced. Both kinds of propagation practices are discussed separately. A. Propagation by seeds Most of the species of citrus contain polyembryonic seeds that is occurrence of more than one embryo in the seed. In these seeds, generally, only one embryo is sexual and others are asexual. There are certain citrus species such as Pumellow and Citron which are monoembryonic. When seeds of polyembryonic varieties are sown, sexual embryo does not germinate or the seedlings are very weak. These seedlings are later on removed. Trees raised through asexual propagation bear fruits later than the trees raised through vegetative propagation. In India, santra is grown through seeds in Coorg (Karnataka) and Assam regions. Plants of kagzi nimbu and sathgudi malta can also be raised by seeds. Trees raised through seeds are free from viral diseases and resistant against frost. Seeds are also used for raising rootstocks. For this 1 purpose, good quality seed is necessary. Seed should be \obtained from healthy trees and from well mature fruits. After extracting seeds from fruits, they are properly washed 1 and dried in shade and they should be

sown as early as possible since seeds dried in sunshine and stored for a long period lose their viability. If limited number of plants are to be raised, they can be raised in steel trays or wooden boxes but for a larger plant population, nursery sowing is necessary. Nursery site for seedling sowing should be quite away from the old citrus orchards. Loam soil with good drainage is excellent for seedlings raising. In dry regions, seedbed is prepared in shade but it is not necessary in humid regions. Proper arrangement should be made for the watering of seedbed. Seeds are sown in spring season, when the soil temperature rises over 12.7C, seeds start germinating. The optimum average daily temperature of the germination of citrus seeds is 12.7C to 14.oC. The nursery beds should have sufficient moisture while sowing seeds. Seeds should be sown at 2.5 cm depth with 2.5 cm spacing. After sowing of seeds, seed bed may be covered with sand as it prevents the formation of hard surface layers and reduce the chance of damping off disease in nursery plants. It also facilitates the germination of the seeds. If the favourable conditions are available, germination of seeds begins after two weeks of sowing. Small seedlings must be protected from damping off disease. Excess moisture, prolonged shading and dense plant population are among the factors responsible for the disease developments. For protection against this disease, nursery soil should be treated with Thiram 2 %. Seed treatment with Thiram may also be done. Plants as high as 9 to 10 cm are not so susceptible to this disease. Seedlings remain in the nursery for two years. When plants achieve a thickness of 0.5 to 1.0 cm, they are re-transplanted in different beds. While re-transplanting, weak, abnormal and diseased plants should be discarded. When the seedling plants attain proper shape and size, they can be used for budding purpose. B. Vegetative propagation Vegetative propagation used for citrus crops are explained here. 1. Cutting Propagation of lemon, lime and sweet lime may be II done by cutting. For cutting three kinds of branches are used: mature, semi-mature and soft. In case of lemon and lime, 15-20 cm long mature branch is selected. In those places where mist chamber is available, semi-mature or soft branches may be used. Healthy branches should be selected for this purpose. The cutting should be made 2 mm below the bud and the cut should be straight. These cuttings are planted in well-prepared beds. While planting, care should be taken that about 3/4th portion of the cutting is inserted into the ground and about 1/4th portion should remain above ground. September is the best time for planting cuttings and the results are improved by treatment with Seradix-A or IBA-500 ppm. 2. Air layering In Assam, air layering of mandarin, sweet lime and mosambi gives success varying from 90 to 100 per cent. It is done in Feb-March or June-July. 3. Budding This is the simplest and most accepted method of propagation of citrus plant. T-budding and patch budding are quite successful. Budding is generally done either in spring or in AugustSeptember in North India. There is up to 85 % success in the budding of sweet orange in June. Budding in mid-winter or early rains is also advocated. In western India, budding can be done

any time when the plant is in active growth stage, which is normally in the spring and in the beginning of the rainy season. However, October-December is the best season here. In South India, July-September is the best time for budding. Shield budding or T-budding are easy to perform. The root-stock is generally budded at a height of about, 9 inches. Often the scion of the budded plants in the field comes in contact with the soil due to deep planting or flooding of the field. Soil borne diseases can thus enter the scion, even though the rootstock is resistant to them. Budding at greater height is, therefore, desirable. The rootstock of pencil thickness is suitable. Bud wood is chosen from the rounded basal portion of semi-mature shoots of the current seasons growth. The leaf blades are not cut off retaining the leaf-stalks around the buds. Angular bud wood is avoided. Two cuts are given in the bark of the stem of the rootstock at a proper height to form a 'T'. The vertical cut of the 'T' is about 4 cm long and the horizontal cut goes about half-way around the stem of the rootstock. Flaps of bark in the crouch of the 'T' are lifted with a knife on both sides. The bud is removed from the scion of equal thickness either by a single incision from bottom to top or by cutting the bark as a patch around the bud with a knife and lifting of bark. The bud is pushed down in the 'T' cut on the rootstock and tied with banana fibre. Now-a-days, polythene tape is commonly used for this purpose. Normally, the bud sprouts in about 4 weeks. At this stage the rootstock is cut off from about 15 cm above the bud union. When the bud has grown about 15 cm, the root stock is cut back further to about two inches from the union. All other shoots from the stocks are rubbed off. Rootstocks for different citrus trees are given in Table 3. Table 3: Suitable rootstocks for different citrus species varieties Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 VIII. Planting The budded plants are ready for planting in the field "after one year, when their height is about two feet. They are dug out with a ball of earth and the top of the plant I is pruned so that it does not dry out due to excessive loss of moisture from the leaves. [n most cool places the plants are dug out with bare roots or with small ball of earth. The land for planting is ploughed and pits of the size 1m x 1m x 1m are dug. These pits are filled, one month before planting, with a mixture of soil (from the pit itself), 50 kg well-rotten cow dung manure and 2 kg superphosphate along with 150 g Aldrin dust. After filling the pits, watering is necessary so that the soil is well settled. Afterwards, the planting is done and care should be taken that only that portion of the plant should be embedded which was already in the nursery. Then the soil is pressed well. Planting is preferably done either on some cool day or in the evening. The best Rootstocks Jatti Khatti (C. jambhiri) Karna Khatta (C. karna) Rangpur lime Citrus (C .medica) Hajara (C. trifoliate) Suitability for For mandarin and oranges, Kagzi nimbu, Kinnow excluding N-India. Kinnow (only N.India, good for moist and heavy soils, good for Valentia and Malta, etc. To get Tristeza virus resistant seedlings. For getting early saleable plants, otherwise worthless rootstock. To get dwarf plants

period for planting of citrus fruits is June-July. Planting in March - April is done where artificial irrigation is available. As far as planting distance for different citrus orchard is concerned, it varies according to the local climate and the vigour of the rootstocks. Generally 10 m planting distance is maintained for malta and santra, 4.5-6 m for lemon and lime, and 6-7.5 m for pumello and grape-fruit. IX. Fertilizers and Manures Citrus requires heavy manuring and in India it does not receive the quantity of fertilizers it needs. Of the major nutrients, nitrogen is definitely required to be replenished. The general feeling among citrus growers is that the farmyard manure is better than chemical nitrogenous fertilizers. This may be due to the presence of other nutrients besides nitrogen in it. According to a study, citrus trees remove 21 kg N, 5 kg P2Os, 41 kg K2O, 19 kg Ca, 3.6 Kg Mg, 2-3 kg S, 45 g B, 9 g Cu, 50 g Fe, 13 g Mn, and 13 g Zn from field for producing a crop of 180 quintal. Besides, there is loss of nutrients from the soil due to leaching, erosion, etc. Thus, these trees require quite a substantial quantity of nutrients. Nigtrogen, phosphorus and potash are required in relatively larger quantities. Nutrients required for different age groups of citrus trees is given in Table 4. Table 4 : Nutrient requirement for citrus trees of different age group Sl.No 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 Age (in year) 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 & above Nitrogen (g) 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Phosphorus (g) 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500 Potash (g) 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500

Apart from these major nutrients, application of some micro-nutrients is also very important. Indian soils are especially deficient in zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), and boron (B). Zinc deficiency is observed in almost all the parts of India. To supplement it foliar spray of 0.5 % ZnSO4 (Zinc sulphate) should be applied. Three sprayings should be carried out in the months of April, June and September. Half of the quantity of nitrogen and potash is applied in June-July. Fertilizers are scattered in the surrounding of the tree and mixed well with the soil. Whole amount of phosphorus is applied in the spring season at least days before the beginning of the plant growth. For application of P20s, a 15 cm deep and 20 cm wide ring leaving 60 cm space from the main trunk is prepared. Fertilizers (phosphatic ones) are applied in this ring. After the application of fertilizers ring is covered with the soil and a light irrigation is done.

X. Irrigation Irrigation of citrus orchards especially in summer, is important. The young plants are irrigated by basin or ring system and the adult plantations generally by flooding. However, flooding requires too much water and I furrow irrigation may be better. No irrigation is required during the rainy months. The critical period for irrigation during the period is more useful, since it lowers soil temperature and raises humidity. In some places up to 20 irrigations are recommended. In hilly areas there are no facilities for the irrigation for mandarins, therefore, in summer the trees suffer from serious shortage of water. Frequent irrigation in winter lowers the soil temperature, hampers the functioning of roots and is, therefore, harmful. The irrigation water should not directly touch the trunk in summer. Otherwise there is danger of infection of diseases. Generally, citrus orchards should be irrigated at one month interval in winter and 10 days interval in summer. Irrigation water should be free from different harmful salts. XI. Training and Pruning During the initial years of tree growth, the main objective of pruning is to have strong and well-balanced framework. This is important especially with the lemons and vigorous upright growing orange varieties. The grapefruit, naval orange and other citrus cultivars develop relatively satisfactory framework requiring a minimum training treatment. In early days of citrus cultivation, the head used to be kept as high as 1.25 to 1.5 meters. This helps carrying out various orchard operations. But, on the other hand, as the high headed trees are more susceptible to frost injury coupled with added cost of spraying, now-a-days this system is simply avoided. In growing habit, most of citrus species/cultivars are upright growing. However, some of the limes, lemons, grapefruits etc. have lesser tendency to grow upright. The citrus branches are regarded as the most upright growing. The terminal part of the upright branches has marked effect of dominance on its lower buds which fail to sprout and give laterals. As a result of bearing, these branches assume horizontal form and it is at this time II' that many laterals would arise. One of these laterals, located near the terminal part of the main branch, assumes upright position. This lateral in many cases grows as vigorous that the growth of the original branch is checked. This lateral again on its sub-laterals would bow down. This cycle is continued as a result of this growth pattern. As the tree advances in age, its lower portion is filled up with weak and declining wood. This necessitates the under-cutting in citrus. Under sub-tropics where the seasonal and daily temperature variations are wide, the occurrence of upright branches is more pronounced. Further, their growth is comparatively more vigorous in young trees and as the trees grow older, the vigour of these shoots also decline. The pruning in various citrus species differ significantly. A brief discussion is given in respect of some of the important citrus species. 1. Pruning of sweet orange Very little pruning is done in orange. The lower r limbs are pruned in order to keep the tree free from dead and unproductive parts. Further, under wet conditions i.e. where annual rainfall is high, the lower part of tree needs to be well-exposed and aerated for quick drying up.

The tops are also to be maintained at manageable height. The continuous growth in the top portion of the plant is retained at the cost of the development in lower parts. The orange trees, when full grown on a particular soil and managed with particular cultural practices, a balance between top and root is established. The roots at this equilibrium will not support any increase in the canopy. The bearing surface will, therefore, record a declining trend in the absence of new growth. The only alternative left at this point is to prune-off some of the older parts so as to enable the tree to make sufficient renewal growth. The interior of the orange trees must be kept open and for this, right from the beginning only three to four scaffold limbs are selected. In full grown trees, the tops are lightly pruned to let the interior of the trees get sufficient light. Anyhow, too much pruning is harmful and should be avoided. The water sprouts, in general, are vigorous and upright branches and need to be removed right in the beginning. However, if they have grown long and are present in the upper part of the tree, they may be retained. The removal of large sucker tops from older trees is considered as mistake. 2. Pruning of mandarins The mandarins are considered to be over-bearers and also alternate bearers, to some extent. The pruning in mandarins is, therefore, done with the objective growth. The pruning-off some of the shoots certainly removes a part of the fruiting area and helps maintaining regular cropping. The dried up branches found in the lower part of the plant too are removed. 3. Pruning of grapefruit The grapefruit plants are spreading in nature. The formation of upright branches is negligible. The foliage is quite dense. The only precaution to be taken is to check or thin out the dense foliage to the extent sufficient for letting the light and air enter the interior part of the plant. 4. Pruning of lemons Among various citrus species, the highest response to pruning is reduced in lemons. Certain amount of pruning must be applied to the lemon tree in order to keep it compact. No doubt the un-pruned lemons produce more crop than the pruned ones, but the chance of losing main branches due to breakage etc resulting in a significant setback to its productivity are not uncommon. The lemons have a characteristic type of growth pattern where a large amount of water sprout type of growth is produced. Further, new growth in lemons is produced more rapidly than on other citrus species. Some of the water sprouts need to be thinned out if they are misplaced. Whereas others are headed back to keep the plants compact. Under wet subtropics, the lemons have been noted to add growth for a longer part of the year, this necessitates the need to follow regular pruning. The maturity of lemons has been found to be advanced by pruning. Further, in unpruned trees a large number of fruits ripen even before reaching picking size, whereas in pruned plants this disorder is not recorded. In general, the lemons from pruned plants are superior to those from unpruned plants, although in latter case, the total yield may be higher. XII. Intercropping At the initial stage of the growth till they are not tall grown trees, certain crops can be grown in the spaces left unutilized in citrus orchards. Most of the horticultural scientists hold the idea that intercropping in citrus orchards should be stopped as soon as trees begin flower- ing.

Some orchardists think that intercropping is harmful to citrus orchards. It is a wrong impression. If inter crops are carefully selected, they are beneficial to the growing trees. Intercropping is harmful only when the intercrops remain for a longer time and they are highly nutrients removing crops. Generally, intercrops are grown out of the periphery of the orchard trees and they should be given additional nutrition as per their need. Clean cultivation is more harmful than intercrops in citrus orchards. Due to clean cultivation, soil pan become hard, fertility of the soil is weakened and there is damage to the roots of the citrus tree. Such soils are also very poor in natural drainage of stagnating water. It is report- ed that deterioration of santra orchards in Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu is mainly due to deep ploughing of the orchard soils. Intercrops for citrus orchards are selected according to the climate, soil, quantity and distribution of rainfall and sources of artificial irrigation available in a particular place. Generally, intercrops should be shallow rooted, early maturing and high yielding. They should also be efficient in preventing soil erosion and retaining soil moisture. They should not compete for water and nutrients with main crop i.e. citrus, papaya, nursery plants, vegetables, grasses for animals and pulse crops are quite suitable for growing as intercrops in citrus orchards. Orchard soils which are deficient in nitrogen and other organic matters are suitable for growing pulse crops like gram, pea, guar, lobia, etc. Areas receiving less annual rainfall are not suitable for intercropping in citrus orchards as it requires frequent irrigation which may prove harmful to citrus trees. Cereal crops like wheat, barley, etc. are unsuitable as intercrops. In the regions where annual rainfall is high and soils are prone to erosion, soil protecting crops such as lobia, guar, sunhemp, dhaincha, etc. should be grown as intercrops in citrus orchards. XIII. Harvesting and Yield The fruit ripens in about nine months after flowering. The harvesting season varies in different parts of the country. In North India the fruits ripen in winter, but their demand is more in summer. Consequently, huge quantity of sour lime comes every summer from Andhra Pradesh to North India. In the South, the crop mature at different times and take fewer months to mature. Limes and lemons flower several times a year and their fruits mature in about six months. In some places, kagzi lime fruits are available almost throughout the year. How- ever, the main harvesting season is March-April in the Circars, April-June in the Guntur and Nellore area, JuneAugust in North Arcot, and July-September in Rayalseema and western India. Sweet limes ripen early and I there is a tendency to harvest them even earlier. The I Valencia orange ripens late. But its harvesting is done ! early to vacate orchards. In both cases, the result is poor Ii fruit quality. This is mostly due to the fact that standing crop is sold to the contractors, who are anxious to take the advantage of the early market to quit the orchard as soon as possible. Harvesting time of different citrus species are given in Table 5. Table 5: Harvesting period of different citrus species Sl.No 1 Crop Malta Harvesting Flowering begins in March April and fruits are ready for harvesting after 9-12 months of flowering Flowering is in the months of March-April, July and September. Fruits are borne Yield Approximately 500 fruits per tree per year can be obtained in the commercial bearing stage of the tree. 1000 to 1500 fruits per tree per year when the tree is in commercial bearing stage

Santra

3 4 5 6

Grape Kagzi lime Sweet lime Lemon

in November-December, March-May and July-August Flowering in March-April and bearing in NovemberDecember Flowering in March-April and June-July. Fruits are ready in November-December Flowering in March-April, bearing in August-September Flowering in Feb-March, JuneJuly and October-November, fruits are ready in July-August, November-December and February-March as per flowering season.

Around 300 fruits per tree per year from commercial bearing tree. Average 500 fruits per tree per year are obtained Average 500 fruits per tree per year are obtained

The fruit is generally harvested when it begins to change its colour. However, colour is not a good criterion for harvesting. In high rainfall areas and in areas with a warm winter, the skin colour in citrus fruits does not develop properly. The sathgudi orange in the south rarely develops the yellow colour when it is -harvested. The mosambi in Poona areas develops only a pale yellow : colour, but it is harvested even earlier to catch the early market. Another reason for harvesting early in South India is, to escape the attack of the fruit sucking moths. This results in poor quality of fruits. The oranges and mandarins should have at least 8 % sugars at the time of harvesting. The acidity in most Indian varieties varies from 0.3 % to 0.8 %. Mandarins should be harvested as soon as they ripen, but sweet oranges can be left on the tree for one or two months after they are ripe. However, if granulation of the fruit is a problem, it should be harvested early. Limes and lemons are harvested when mature but still green, so that their acidity is at the highest level. The fruit is generally not clipped carefully from the tree. To avoid damage to other fruits, the citrus fruits should be clipped carefully close to the skin with a clipper. But in case of kinnow fruits should be pricked along with a little shoot attached to it. Budded sweet orange trees give a commercial crop in about five years. Mandarins may take one or two years more. Seedling trees take about eight years to come to bearing. The life of budded trees is about 35 years and that of seedling about 60 years. XIV. Storage and Marketing Handling of citrus fruits should be done carefully at i all stages from picking to marketing. If not, there is possibility of a large scale damage of fruits. Santras are quickly perishable. They lose their freshness, shrink and deteriorate in quality sooner than sweet oranges. Sweet oranges can be kept for more than a week without any quality deterioration but they also lose their marketable appearance if stored at ordinary temperature. In North Indian conditions, Malta can be stored for a month after harvesting, but it is not possible with santra. In normal temperature these fruits are very vulnerable to spoilage but they can be stored for quite a long time in cold storage conditions. Cold storage temperature and relative humidity for storage of these fruits is given in the Table 6.

Table 6: Storage temperature and relative humidity for citrus species Sl. No 1 2 3 Variety Lemon Lime Santra (a) Coorg (b) Nagpur Punjab Malta (a) Blood red (b) Malta common Valencia late Mosambi Sathgudi Temperature (C) 7.2-8.8 8.33-10.00 3.88-5.5 2.22-3.88 2.22-3.88 2.22-3.88 3.88-5.55 3.88-5.55 5.5-7.22 5.5-7.22 Relative humidity (%) 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 85-90 Storage period (months) 2-3 1.5-2 2.5-3 2.5-3.5 1-1.5 4.25 4.25 5.25 4.25 4.25

5 6

Rubi and Marsh Bedana, varieties of grapefruits grown in North India can be kept at 8.9 to 10.6C temperature for around 5 months. Kagzi nimbu can be stored for about 3 months at 7.2 to 8.9C temperature. Before storage, kagzi nimbu fruits should be treated with 2 % solution of hypocloride to prevent fungal attack. Kinnow fruits can be stored after waxing (6 %) for 40 days in cold storage and if these waxed fruits are kept in polythene bags, they can be kept even for 85 days. In India, citrus fruit growers sell their orchards to contractors and these contractors sell these fruits through forwarding agents. These fruits reach big cities from main growing centers and from there they are sent to different small towns and places. This way through different means, ultimately they reach to consumers. But, this is a faulty way of marketing citrus fruits in India. Both the grower as well as the consumers are at the disadvantaged ebb. The growers should sell their produce to cooperative agencies. If they are not existing in growing centers, the growers should form them. The growers can maximize remunerations from their produce only when they sell through co-operative agencies. Generally, these fruits are transported to different places by rail wagons or trucks. These fruits are packed in wooden or bamboo baskets. In other countries, after harvesting, these fruits well washed first with clean water and then dried in shade. afterwards, they are wrapped in tissue paper and packed in wooden cartons. This is a safer way of transporting fruits to long distances. XV. Economics of Citrus Cultivation Most of the citrus growers do not maintain farm records or accounts properly. So it is very difficult to work out whether the orchard is running in loss or profit. This is due to the ignorance of proper methods of cost-benefit calculations. Besides, cost of citrus cultivation differs from region to region and variety to variety. Availability of fruits according to season also influences the economics of citrus production. For example, citrus fruits available in summer fetches higher prices than those available in rainy or winter season. Presence of some other

fruits in the market like mango and banana may equally influence profitability of citrus cultivation in a particular region. Given below is a format for determining the cost- benefit of citrus orchard from which a farmer can calculate the exact economics of his citrus orchard according to the facts applicable to his locality. A. Fixed costs 1. Cost of the land 2. Cost of farm building and storage Rs. structure 3. Cost of fencing/walls Rs. 4. Cost of clearing, levelling, and bunding of lands Rs.. 5. Cost of wind breaks Rs. 6. Cost of layout Rs. 7. Cost of digging and filling pits Rs.. 8. Cost of purchasing machines, implements, instruments and other accessories Rs. 9. Cost of constructing roads and paths in the orchard and from the orchard to main road to facilitate transportation Rs 10. Cost of permanent irrigation structure Rs. 11. Cost of other permanent/semi permanent structures such as places for watering, storage etc. B. Recurring costs 1.Cost of fertilizers and manures Rs.. 2. Cost of plant protection measures i.e. insecticides, fungicides, Weedicides Rs. 3. Cost of farm power. (a) Diesel, petrol, electricity Rs. ,... (b) Livestock and their feeds Rs. 4. Transportation expenditure Rs. 5. Cost of farm labour (paid and unpaid) Rs. (a) Cost of land preparation Rs. (b) Irrigation Rs. (c) Weeding Rs. (d) Application of fertilizer and manures Rs. (e) Other intercultural operations such as weeding, pruning, thinning, etc Rs. ,. (f) Harvesting Rs. , (g) Processing Rs. (h) Storing and packing Rs. (i) Marketing Rs. , 6. Interest(10%) Rs. 7. Rent or revenue paid for land Rs.. 8. Depreciation Rs. (a) Farm implements Rs. (b) Farm structure Rs. Total recurring cost Rs. C. Income 1. Yield of fruits Rs. 2. Firewood from pruning Rs. 3. Any other sources of income from the orchard such as grass, vegetables, etc. Rs. Net profit = Gross income -Total recurring cost

Purchase value-Junk value Depreciation = ------------------------------------Life span Note-Junk value is calculated only on those articles which are saleable after their span. Life span of building and machinery is 15 and 10 years respectively. %%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%%