Materials Science and Engineering A336 (2002) 249 262 www.elsevier.

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Texture control by thermomechanical processing of AA6xxx Al Mg Si sheet alloys for automotive applications a review
Olaf Engler *, Jurgen Hirsch
VAW aluminium AG, Research and De6elopment, P.O. Box 2468, D-53014 Bonn, Germany Received 25 April 2001; received in revised form 5 December 2001

Abstract The properties of Al-alloys for car body applications are largely controlled by microstructure and crystallographic texture of the nal sheets. In this paper, the impact of texture on formability and, in particular, on surface appearance of the sheets is reviewed. The paper summarizes the principles of microstructure and texture evolution during the main steps of the thermomechanical processing of age-hardenable AlMgSi sheets (6xxx series alloys). The most important parameters that may be used to modify the textures and hence to improve the resulting properties are outlined. 2002 Elsevier Science B.V. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Aluminum 6xxx alloys; Rolling; Recrystallization; Texture; Formability; Ridging

1. Introduction The demands for weight reduction in automotive construction have led to increasing interest in sheets made from aluminum alloys for autobody applications so as to increase fuel efciency and reduce vehicle emissions (e.g. [13]). In this regard the interest in heat-treatable 6xxx series alloys has increased markedly in the last years [4 9]. Heat-treatable alloys achieve their nal strength only during the paint bake cycle of the nal automotive construction. Thus, they combine the good formability of the solution-treated state (T4 temper) with the increased service strength of the age hardened state (T6 or T8 temper). These alloys are well suited for automotive skins where high dent resistance is required. Alloys of 6xxx series contain magnesium and silicon, both with and without additions of copper. Compared to other Al-alloys, including the 5xxx and 2xxx series alloys, 6xxx sheets stand out by a combination of good formability, good corrosion resistance and satisfactory strengthening potential during paint bake cycles at sufciently high temperature. The potential 6xxx alloys
* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 49-228-552-2792; fax: + 49-228552-2017 E-mail address: olaf.engler@vaw.com (O. Engler).

that are in use for autobody sheets include AA6009, AA6010, AA6016, and AA6111; recently, alloy AA6181A was introduced for recycling aspects (Table 1). Among these alloys, US carmakers favor the higherstrength alloy AA6111, while European car companies prefer the high formability alloy AA6016. In commercial production of AA6xxx sheets the material goes through a specic thermomechanical treatment before reaching the nal gauge. Such a sequence is shown schematically in Fig. 1. Property control depends on most of these process steps individually as well as in their rather complex interaction. The alloys are DC-cast as large ingots with dimensions up to 600 mm thick, 2 m wide and 49 m in length (Fig. 1a). The ingots are scalped on their (later) rolling surfaces in order to remove surface blemishes. In preparation for the hot rolling, the ingots are preheated to a temperature between 480 C and 580 C, in a cycle which may last up to 48 h (Fig. 1b). During the preheating the material is homogenized, short-range intercellular segregation (coring) is reduced and soluble phases in the material are dissolved. The hot ingots are then transferred to the rolling line which, in modern production lines, typically consists of a reversible breakdown mill (Fig. 1c), followed by a high-speed multi-stand tandem mill (Fig. 1d). In the breakdown mill the ingots are reversibly rolled in a number of

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Table 1 Chemical composition (wt.%) of the most important AA6xxx alloys used for automotive sheets Alloy AA AA AA AA AA 6009 6010 6016 6111 6181A Mg 0.40.8 0.61.0 0.250.6 0.51.0 0.61.0 Si 0.61.0 0.81.2 1.01.5 0.61.1 0.71.1 Cu 0.150.60 0.150.60 B0.2 0.50.9 B0.25 Fe B0.5 B0.5 B0.5 B0.4 0.150.5 Mn 0.20.8 0.20.8 B0.2 0.10.45 B0.4 Zn B0.25 B0.25 B0.2 B0.15 B0.3 Ti B0.1 B0.1 B0.15 B0.1 B0.25

passes to a transfer gauge of 25 40 mm. The multistand hot rolling reduces the thickness of the slab in 3 or 4 steps of approximately 50% thickness reduction to a strip with a thickness between 3 and 6 mm at a dened exit temperature. The strain rates during tandem rolling may approach levels in excess of 100 s 1. The hot band is coiled and allowed to cool before it is cold rolled to its nal gauge of around 0.8 1.2 mm (Fig. 1e). In order to obtain both maximum age hardening response and good formability, the material is then solution treated. The sheet is unwound from the coil and passed through a continuous annealing line (Fig. 1f). In this line the material is rapidly heated to temperatures between 500 and 570 C to dissolve the hardening phases and then quenched to retain the corresponding alloying elements in solid solution. During the heating period recrystallization of the as-deformed microstructure takes place. After the nal anneal the sheets are leveled, possibly pre-aged for stabilization and improved age hardening response [10], and generally pre-lubricated or pre-coated before being supplied for blanking and stamping. The nal in-service strength of the manufactured parts is achieved after the forming operations through age hardening, preferably during the nal automotive paint baking cycles, which consist of annealing for 20 30 min at temperatures between 160 and 200 C. The plan of the present paper is as follows. In Section 2, we will highlight the importance of the crystallographic texture on the properties of the sheets in the nal T4 temper. After a short review on texture analysis in Al-sheet alloys, we will summarize the evolution of texture and microstructure during the main steps of the thermomechanical processing of 6xxx sheets (Section 3). The characteristic texture changes will be outlined and illustrated by means of new examples obtained in industrial production facilities. The key parameters that may be used to modify the resulting textures will be addressed. Furthermore, the characteristic textures observed in the 6xxx series alloys are compared to the well-established texture evolution in standard not-heat treatable Al-alloys, like Al Mg Mn alloys of the 3xxx and 5xxx series (Section 4).

2. Texture and formability of AA6xxx sheet alloys The formability of standard steel sheet is generally superior to that of Al-automotive alloys, as indicated by forming limit diagrams and other formability tests, including limiting dome height and Erichsen depth (e.g. [11]). This is in part due to the principle difference in the crystallographic texture between (fcc) aluminum and (bcc) steel sheets. Thus, in general, formability can be improved by a proper texture control. It is well established that texture affects the plastic anisotropy of the nal recrystallized sheets like the wall thickness reduction (R-value) and the earing properties during deep drawing. Furthermore, texture controls the forming behavior in terms of affecting forming limit diagrams [12,13], although these correlations are not yet completely claried. It has repeatedly been described that a pronounced Goss orientation {0 1 1}1 0 0 in the recrystallization texture leads to poor formability [1417]. By contrast, there is a discord as to how the cube orientation {0 0 1}1 0 0, the typical texture

Fig. 1. Schematic diagram illustrating the typical steps of thermomechanical processing of AA6xxx sheet alloys.

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ferred to as ridging or roping has been linked to the presence of bands of similar orientation in the sheets [1820]. This is illustrated in Fig. 2a, which shows an optical micrograph with strong texture banding in AA6016 in condition T4 after anodical oxidation. In Fig. 2b, the corresponding roughness plot after 20% tensile deformation perpendicular to the rolling direction is displayed, which reveals the ridging tendency of this particular material. Bands of similar crystallographic orientation will deform collectively and thus tend to form elevated or depressed band-like regions. Because of the typically very strong cube recrystallization texture of material that reveals ridging, the occurrence of ridging has been attributed to the existence of cube bands in the recrystallized state (e.g. [19]). More recently, however, Baczynski et al. [20] have stressed the importance of the Goss orientation in provoking ridging. On the other hand, the characteristic cube recrystallization texture is usually accompanied by strong rotations about the rolling direction i.e. toward Goss (e.g. [21]). Thus, with regard to the ridging phenomenon, a discrimination between cube and Goss orientation may be unnecessary. In a more general context this means that the presence of a pronounced cube recrystallization texture, including the typical rotations toward Goss, is detrimental to the use of Al-sheets by promoting the occurrence of paint-brushes lines. Vice versa, in order to avoid ridging, the texture sharpness of the sheet in T4 temper needs to be weakened using appropriate processing schedules.
Fig. 2. On the appearance of ridging in conventionally processed AA6016 sheet (T4 temper): (a) optical micrograph showing strong texture banding; (b) waviness, W, (smoothed roughness prole) after 20% tensile deformation perpendicular to the rolling direction, for two textures with different sharpness, f(g)max, illustrating the inuence of texture on ridging.

3. Evolution of texture and microstructure during the processing of AA6xxx sheet alloys

3.1. Determination and representation of texture data

For texture analysis several pole gures were measured by standard X-ray diffraction techniques [22] and used to compute the three-dimensional orientation distribution functions (ODF) f(g) by the series expansion method [23]. The ODFs were corrected with respect to the so-called ghost error following the method of Lucke et al. [24]. All ODF calculations were performed under the assumption of orthotropic sample symmetry as dened by the rolling direction, RD, the transverse direction, TD, and the normal direction, ND, of the rolled sheets. Therefore, ODF representation was conned to the familiar subset of the Euler space with 00 (1, F, 2)0 90. Table 2 lists the Miller-indices, {h k l}u 6 w, and Euler angles, 1, F, 2, of the most commonly observed orientations of rolled and recrystallized 6xxx sheets. An important consideration in analyzing the textures of 6xxx sheets like in many other rolled sheet prod-

component of recrystallized Al-sheets, affects formability (see Refs. [12,15,17]). Both experimental investigations and FEM simulations conducted by Bryant et al. have shown that a weak, widely scattering cube recrystallization texture signicantly increases the limiting dome height [14], yet this difference is not readily apparent from the forming limit diagrams. Finally, texture, more precisely, the local distribution of specic grain orientations (i.e. the microtexture) has been identied as the main reason for the appearance of the so-called paint-brush lines on the sheet surface during forming operations. These defects may serve as a strain concentration during forming, which would limit the sheet formability [18]. Much more severely, these effects are still visible in the automotive component after painting. Hence, such parts are objectionable and not generally usable for exterior automotive applications. This phenomenon which is commonly re-

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ucts is the occurrence of variations in texture and microstructure through the thickness of the sheets. Therefore, pole gures were systematically determined at different through-thickness layers of the rolled specimens. For this purpose, the layer of interest was prepared by careful grinding and polishing, followed by an etching treatment in dilute sodium hydroxide (NaOH) so as to remove the demolished surface layers. In the following, the position of the layer within the plate or sheet along the normal direction is indicated by the parameter s which is dened by s= 2Dt/t0 (t0, sheet thickness; Dt, distance from the center). Thus, s = +1 and s= 1 denote the upper and lower surface of the sheet, and s =0 identies the sheet center at mid thickness. The layer that is most representative of the average sheet texture, and hence of the overall sheet properties, is the quarter thickness (s = 0.5). Thus, if not explicitly stated otherwise, all textures shown in this paper are taken from this intermediate layer.

3.2. Hot rolling transfer slab

Hot rolling is a key step in the production process that may contribute signicantly to the development of the properties of the nal sheet. The starting material, conventional DC-cast ingots, comprises a fairly coarse grained cell structure (Fig. 3a). During the solidication, very irregularly shaped coarse Al(Fe,Mn)Si-constituent particles with a size of 2 20 mm and a spatial density of 103 104 mm 2 form at the grain boundaries of the initial cell structure (Fig. 4a). (In view of the fact that these primary particles reduce the Si-contents of the matrix, the alloys must contain excess Si to enable the maximum precipitation of the stochiometric Mg2Si hardening phase.) Since the grain size is controlled by grain renement, the crystallographic texture of the as-cast material is almost random. As illustrated on Fig. 1, the DC-cast material is reheated and then subjected to a series of hot deformations, including numerous rolling passes in a reversing

breakdown mill followed by multi-stand hot rolling. After the breakdown rolling, the microstructure typically comprises slightly elongated recrystallized grains with a size of the order of 200 mm (Fig. 3b). Because of the high deformations and temperatures involved in the breakdown rolling, the primary phases break up and develop a more spherical shape (Fig. 4b). Fig. 5 shows the texture of the transfer gauge material. The ODF given in Fig. 5a was derived from a sample taken in the short transverse plane (i.e. TD/ND) and subsequently rotated in the standard sheet plane (RD/TD). Thus, this ODF represents the integrated texture over the full plate thickness. In agreement with the recrystallized microstructure, a quite well dened cube recrystallization texture with strong scatter, mainly about the ND, prevails. However, in contrast to the deformation of thin sheet, the roll gap geometry during breakdown rolling is such that the resulting deformation eld is much more non-uniform. The arc of contact is usually much less than the plate thickness. Frictional effects induced by the work rollsas well as temperature gradients contribute to inhomogeneous deformation. In the center-plane, where the deformation state is fairly symmetric, the texture, after recrystallization, is characterized by a symmetric cube orientation (Fig. 5b). Away from the center-plane, in contrast, shear strains develop as a consequence of the boundary conditions [25]. This essentially results in a rotation of the plane strain rolling texture orientations about the TD (Fig. 5c). Further homogeneous deformation of the rotated cube orientation may lead to further ND-rotations towards the cube orientation, thus supplying potential nuclei for the cube recrystallization texture [26]. As a matter of fact, the hot rolling texture of the plate surface displays a cube texture with strong rotations about both TD and ND (Fig. 5c). As pointed out by Nes et al. [27], a sufciently large number of cube nuclei must be present in the microstructure of the transfer slab in order to obtain strong cube textures in the hot band.

Table 2 Miller indices and Euler angles of the most important orientations of Al and Al-alloys after rolling and after recrystallization (approximated) Designation Miller Indices{h k l}u 6 w Euler angles 1 C S B Goss Cube CubeRD CubeND R P {1 1 2}1 1 1 {1 2 3}6 3 4 {0 1 1}2 1 1 {0 1 1}1 0 0 {0 0 1}1 0 0 {0 1 3}1 0 0 {0 0 1}3 1 0 {1 2 4}2 1 1 {0 1 1}1 2 2 90 59 35 0 0 0 22 53 65 F 30 34 45 45 0 22 0 36 45 2 45 65 0/90 0/90 0/90 0/90 0/90 60 0/90 Rolling Textures Components

Recrystallization Texture Components

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Fig. 3. Evolution of the grain structure during the thermomechanical processing of AA6016 sheets.

3.3. Hot rolling hot band

During the following multi-stand hot rolling, the process parameters change drastically. The rolling temperature drops, whereas strain and strain rates increase greatly. Accordingly, the microstructure of the hot band, especially at the mid thickness position (s= 0), is comprised of a highly elongated band structure characteristic of a deformed material (Fig. 3c). While the constituent phases are largely unaffected by hot rolling, additional secondary particles with size of the order of 1 mm may form (Fig. 4c). These secondary phases may include small Al(Fe,Mn)Si precipitates with size 50 500 nm, excess Si particles with sizes of up to several mm and plate-like Mg2Si precipitates with lengths (i.e. diameters) of up to 1 mm (e.g. [28]). In contrast to the primary constituents, some of these secondary particles, especially Mg2Si, can re-dissolve during the further thermomechanical treatment. Accordingly, size and density of the secondary phases strongly depend on the details of the thermomechanical processing, as will be addressed later in more detail. The cube recrystallization texture of the transfer slab

is transformed into a typical fcc (copper-type) rolling texture. In such textures, most orientations are assembled along the so-called b-ber, that runs through the Euler angle space from the C orientation {1 1 2}1 1 1 through the S orientation {1 2 3}6 3 4 to the B orientation {0 1 1}211 (Fig. 6a, Table 2; see Ref. [29]). Because of the above-mentioned changes in process parameters reduced deformation temperature, increased strain and strain ratethe energy stored in the material upon deformation increases. Dynamic recrystallization is not typically observed in commercially processed Al-alloys. However, recrystallization can take place between passes and, particularly, during the cooling period after deformation is completed. This so-called post-dynamic recrystallization accounts for the more or less strongly developed cube orientation {0 0 1}1 0 0 that frequently accompanies the b-ber rolling texture orientation in the hot band textures (e.g. Fig. 6a). Fig. 6b displays a subset of Fig. 6a, namely the 2 = 45 ODF section. This section comprises most of the characteristic fcc rolling and recrystallization texture components, viz. the cube, C and B orienta-

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tions (Table 2). The relative amount of the cube orientation with regard to the rolling texture orientations critically depends on the processing parameters. For instance, an increase in strain and strain rate and/or a decrease in deformation temperature all enlarge the stored energy. Accordingly, the potential for post-dynamic recrystallization increases. Vice versa, however, at hot band end temperatures below the solubility limit for the Mg2Si phase the formation of Mg2Si precipitates may strongly impede post-dynamic recrystallization, which is reected in a weakened cube texture e.g. (Fig. 6c). Deformation and/or temperature gradients accompanying the practical hot rolling operations may likewise lead to differences in the degree of post-dynamic recrystallization (Fig. 6d). Nonetheless, the overall texture gradients, including the tendency for forming the rotated cube (shear) orientation {0 0 1}1 1 0, generally diminish because of the high thickness reductions in excess of 80% that are typically achieved during multi-stand hot rolling. In conventional processing lines, the hot band is then coiled and allowed to cool down to ambient temperature. During this cooling period heavy precipitation of ne dispersoids, mostly Mg2Si precipitates, may occur. Fig. 7 shows a TEM micrograph of the cooled hot band, showing several dispersoids of 0.1 0.5 mm to-

gether with a multitude of nely dispersed Mg2Si platelets. As will be addressed later, these dispersoids may strongly interfere with the progress of recrystallization. Accordingly, control of the thermomechanical hot rolling is an essential tool in optimizing the texture and, ultimately, the formability of 6xxx sheet material.

3.4. Cold rolling

After the cold rolling, the sheets comprise a highly elongated, deformed microstructure (Fig. 3d). The rolling texture of the hot band sharpens signicantly (Fig. 8a, see Fig. 6a), whereas the through-thickness texture gradients diminish further. Nonetheless, the sheet center usually comprises a stronger B orientation than the outer layers. In order to illustrate the rolling texture gradients in more detail, it is very convenient to plot the maximum orientation densities f(g) along the b-ber versus the corresponding Euler angle 2 (e.g. Fig. 8b). Though the overall texture features remain constant, it is obvious that with increasing distance from the sheet center, i.e. with increasing parameter s, the C orientation increases at the cost of the B orientation. The thickness reduction applied in commercial cold rolling is typically of the order of 7080%. Though this

Fig. 4. Evolution of the precipitation state during the thermomechanical processing of AA6016 sheets.

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Fig. 5. Texture of the transfer gauge material: (a) ODF of the integral texture as derived from the short transverse section (ND/TD); (b) {1 1 1} pole gure derived at the center layer (s= 0); (c) {1 1 1} pole gure derived at the surface (s =1).

reduction is evidently sufcient to increase the sharpness of a rolling texture that pre-exists in the hot band (Fig. 6), it is not enough to get rid of a very strong initial cube texture that may exist in the hot band. In what follows we will illustrate this point which becomes important with a view to hot band annealings so as to modify the nal recrystallization textures (see below). Fig. 9a shows the texture of a hot band after an additional solution annealing in the form of the 2 = 0 and 45 ODF sections. The texture consists of a sharp cube orientation with characteristic RD-rotations; rolling texture orientations are negligible. The textures of the 2 mm (50%) and 1 mm (75%) cold rolled sheets are given in Fig. 9 b and c. Although the cube intensity decreases signicantly (2612 7), it still has the maximum texture intensity, while the b-ber sharpens only slowly. It is noted that this effect is masked by the high

symmetry of the exact cube orientation [22] which tends to feign overly large sharpness. Considering the actual volume fractions of the textures in Fig. 9 would put more emphasis on the b-ber orientations.

3.5. Recrystallization 3.5.1. Recrystallization textures in 6xxx alloys The nal step of thermomechanical processing of 6xxx sheets consists of a heat treatment in a continuous annealing line (Fig. 1f). Since this solution heat treatment is required to achieve a re-dissolution of the secondary phases that have precipitated during the various preceding steps of thermomechanical processing (Figs. 4 and 7), it has to be carried out at a very high temperature, preferably in excess of 540 C. Accordingly, the solution treatment is accompanied by recrys-

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tallization, leading to a typical recrystallized microstructure consisting of ne, slightly elongated grains with a size of 2030 mm (Fig. 3e).

The textures observed in recrystallized 6xxx sheets reported in the literature are essentially similar in that they are composed of the same groups of orientations,

Fig. 6. Texture of the hot band. (a) Hot band texture showing some recrystallization (cube) texture intensities besides the rolling texture components C, S and B (s =0.5); (b) 2 = 45 section of the ODF in (a); (c) texture of a hot band rolled with a lower nishing temperature, showing less cube texture (s = 0.5; 2 = 45 section); (d) texture of the center layer of the hot band shown in (a), (b) (s= 0; 2 =45 section).

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Fig. 7. TEM micrograph of the coiled hot band, showing several dispersoids of size 0.1 0.5 mm plus numerous nely dispersed plate-like Mg2Si precipitates.

viz., the cube orientation, sometimes accompanied by strong scattering or rotations, together with intensities of the former rolling texture S orientationcommonly referred to as R componentand the P orientation {0 1 1}1 2 2 (Table 2). As an example, Fig. 10a shows the recrystallization texture of a laboratory-processed 6xxx alloy in which all characteristic recrystallization texture orientations are present with about equal intensity. However, the intensity and volume fraction of the different recrystallization texture components critically depends on the details of the preceding thermomechanical processing in so far that the cube texture may be much more pronounced (Fig. 10b) or, vice versa, may be so weak that it no longer forms a distinct peak (Fig. 10c).

side of a preexisting grain boundary into the deformed matrix on the other side beyond this boundary. Consequently, this mechanism leads to orientations similar to the rolling texture [34,35]. During the subsequent growth, R oriented grains prevail to the disadvantage of other, competing rolling texture orientations, since they stand out by a fast growing orientation relationship to the other three symmetrically equivalent components of the S orientation in the rolling texture [33].

3.5.2. Nucleation of the cube and R orientation The recrystallization textures of most rolled Al-alloys, including the 6xxx series alloys, are characterized by the cube orientation with strong scattering about the RD towards the Goss orientation (Fig. 10a and b). It is widely established by now that nuclei with cube and RD-rotated cube orientations form in band-like structures which are already present in the as-deformed microstructure, the so-called cube bands (e.g. [3032]). During the subsequent growth, grains with the exact cube orientation prevail, which is caused by their favorable growth conditions into several components of the deformation texture by means of compromise growth effects [31,33]. Besides the cube bands, the grain boundaries may serve as nucleation sites. Nucleation at the grain boundaries proceeds by growth of subgrains on one

3.5.3. Recrystallization in the presence of particles In two-phase, particle-containing Al-alloys, recrystallization is further inuenced by the precipitation state. Large particles with sizes larger than 1 mm can promote recrystallization by introducing additional nucleation sites. This particle stimulated nucleation (PSN) takes place in the so-called deformation zones that form around the particles through the interaction between slip dislocations and particles [36]. The resulting recrystallization textures are typically very weak and often appear to be almost random. Accurate ODF analysis, however, has established the occurrence of some characteristic intensities of the so-called P orientation {0 1 1}1 2 2 and a signicant rotation of the cube orientation by 20 30 about the ND towards {0 0 1}3 1 0 (Fig. 10c) [31,37]. Small particles like the Mg2Si precipitates in Fig. 7 strongly impede the progress of recrystallization (Zener drag). Under extreme circumstances large volumes of nely dispersed particles and very high strainsall motion of high-angle grain boundaries is suppressed, such that the entire dislocation energy that is stored in the microstructure during the preceding deformation

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can merely be released by extended recovery reactions, which is referred to as continuous recrystallization or recrystallization in situ [35,38,39]. In less severely pinned cases the Zener inhibition may affect different recrystallization texture components in a different manner which is attributed to the different microstructural characteristics of the corresponding nucleation sites. In particular, it has been shown that dispersoids may selectively inhibit PSN, which, in turn, gives rise to a pronounced cube recrystallization texture notwithstanding that large particles are present in the material [37,40,41]. The ability of large particles to act as nucleation sites depends on the particle size, p, the driving pressure for recrystallization, pD, and the Zener drag due to dispersoids, pZ [42]. Considering further that the size of the deformation zone, u, is about twice of that of the particles, p, it follows that only particles with a size in excess of p* will be able to initiate PSN: 1 2kGB p* = ucrit = 2 pD pZ (1)

Fig. 8. Texture of the nal gauge. (a) Texture of the cold rolled sheet showing a typical rolling texture characterized by the b-ber rolling texture (s= 0.6); (b) intensity variations along the b-ber for various through-thickness layers, indicated by parameter s.

(kGB, specic grain boundary energy). It follows from Eq. (1) that for an increasing Zener drag, pZ, the critical nucleus size, ucrit, increases. For PSN, ucrit will eventually exceed the size p of the constituent particles present in a given material, so that PSN can no longer occur. Nucleation at the cube bands is less affected by the dispersoids, by contrast, since the subgrains within the cube bands are easily able to exceed the critical nucleus size even in case of a strong Zener drag [37]. Thus, although the large constituent particles are in general basically unaffected by the preceding thermomechanical history, their efciency in initiating recrystallization through PSN greatly depends on the precipitation state of the Mg2Si dispersoids size, volume and, in particular, degree of dispersion. The material whose nal recrystallization texture is shown in Fig. 10b was produced by using standard processing parameters as outlined beforehand. Here, the dispersoids that form during the coiling of the hot strip (Fig. 7) efciently suppress PSN, so that recrystallization is dominated by the cube oriented grains. In the example shown in Fig. 10c the material was pre-treated so as to precipitate Mg2Si in the form of particles that were too coarse to exert a signicant Zener drag. Accordingly, PSN could prevail, leading to the characteristic PSN recrystallization texture [43]. Obviously, Fig. 10a represents an intermediate state with limited Zener drag, resulting in a mixture of cube and PSN recrystallization texture orientations. Means on how to vary the dispersion state and, hence, optimize the textures and properties of the nal recrystallized sheets through changes in the thermomechanical processing will be presented in a subsequent paper [44].

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Fig. 9. (a) Texture of the solutionized hot band, showing a strong cube recrystallization texture; (b) texture after 50% cold rolling; (c) texture after 75% cold rolling (s= 0.5; 2 = 0 and 45 sections).

Fig. 10. Variety of recrystallization textures in AA6xxx series alloys after the solutionizing annealing (T4 temper, s = 0.5). (a) Texture of a thermomechanically treated material, showing cube, P and R orientations with about equal intensities; (b) conventionally processed material, showing a strong cube recrystallization texture; (c) material pre-treated so as to coarsen Mg2Si particles, resulting in a characteristic weak PSN recrystallization texture (see text for details).

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4. Comparison of the texture evolution in 6xxx series alloys with that of conventional non-heat treatable Al-alloys The overall texture evolution observed in the present 6xxx series alloys is in line with results from other Al-alloys that are produced according to comparable production cycles, like the conventional non-heat treatable 3xxx and 5xxx series alloys used e.g. for beverage cans and can ends, respectively (e.g. [45 47]). The main differences are caused by the Mg2Si particles that may readily precipitate during the thermomechanical processing of 6xxx alloys in dependence on the details of the time/temperature history. Whereas the transfer slab textures after re6ersing hot rolling (at temperatures \400 C) are very similar as those observed in corresponding transfer gauge of nonheat treatable alloys (Fig. 5), the hot strip discloses a signicant impact of the Mg2Si particles. Most nonheat treatable alloys containing Mg readily recrystallize at the typical hot mill exit temperatures, so that coiled hot strip of these alloys usually undergoes complete recrystallization during the cooling period (self annealing). In 6xxx alloys, in the same temperature regime Mg2Si particles form (Fig. 7), which impede the progress of recrystallization. Accordingly, for hot band coiling temperatures between 300 and 350 C the 6016 hot band textures display signicant amounts of rolling texture orientations (Fig. 6a and b); at hot band coiling temperatures below 300 C the hot strip is almost completely unrecrystallized (Fig. 6c). In order to achieve full recrystallization, much higher temperatures are required. The textures forming during cold rolling of a 6016 hot band that was fully recrystallized by applying an additional hot band anneal strongly resemble those observed in conventional Al-alloys (Fig. 9), while sheets processed according to standard practices (i.e. with unrecrystallized hot band) showed a much stronger rolling texture (Fig. 8). This difference can readily be attributed to the texture prior to cold rolling, i.e., the hot band texture. Recrystallized hot bands typically display a fairly mild cube texture that, upon further cold rolling, will slowly rotate towards the characteristic rolling texture b-ber. The unrecrystallized hot band, by contrast, already contains a pronounced rolling texture (Fig. 6). During additional rolling the main texture characteristics will remain unchanged, whereas the overall texture will sharpen further (Fig. 8). Recrystallization during the nal solutionizing cycle has a great impact on texture and properties of the resulting sheet. In general, the recrystallization textures of 6xxx series alloys are composed of the same components that are well established from other Al-alloys (Fig. 10a): the cube orientation that evolves from the cube bands, the R orientation nucleating at the former

grain boundaries and the random component due to PSN [31]. With a view to the nucleation sites, it should be noted that the cube orientation is typically accompanied by pronounced RD scatter towards Goss (e.g. Fig. 10b). As for nucleation through PSN, although the resulting textures are very weak, they do display some characteristic features, viz., a signicant rotation of the cube orientation about the ND plus characteristic intensities of the P component (Fig. 10c). From Fig. 10 it appears that intensity and volume fraction of the various recrystallization texture components especially of the cube orientation critically depend on the details of the preceding thermomechanical processing. Finely dispersed Mg2Si particles strongly interfere with the progress of recrystallization and, hence, play a key role in controlling strength and type of the nal recrystallization texture. It has been shown that ne dispersoids may selectively inhibit PSN to the advantage of the cube recrystallization texture [40,41]. Thus, an increasing volume of nely dispersed Mg2Si particles may shift the recrystallization texture from one being entirely controlled by PSN (Fig. 10c) over an intermediate case (Fig. 10a) to one where PSN is completely suppressed, resulting in a pronounced cube texture (Fig. 10b).

5. Summary and conclusions It is well established that the formability of AA6xxx sheets for car body applications is largely controlled by the crystallographic texture of the sheets in nal T4 temper. In general, a too strong recrystallization texture must be avoided so as to improve formability and, in particular, to prevent the formation of paint-brush lines (ridging; see Fig. 2). The present paper shows how the texture evolves during the thermomechanical processing of 6xxx series alloy sheets from the pre-heating all the way down to the nal recrystallized state. Also, means have been addressed that my be used to modify the resulting textures. In particular, control of the state of Mg2Si precipitation offers a valuable tool in controlling the texture and, therewith, improve the ultimate properties of the sheets. Regarding alloy composition, elements like Fe and Mn form large constituents particles. These particles are important in that they tend to weaken the recrystallization texture and rene the grain size in the nal T4 state by providing nucleation sites for PSN. Moreover, Mn-bearing particles restrict grain growth upon the nal solutionizing treatment that is typically carried out at temperatures of as much as 520540 C. However, too high concentrations of such elements must be avoided since they degrade formability. During homogenization, non-dissolvable constituent particles are spherodized and soluble phases in the

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material, mainly Mg2Si, are dissolved. Obviously, the rate of homogenization critically depends on annealing time and temperature, with temperatures in excess of 540 C being necessary to dissolve most Mg2Si. Laboratory scale experiments have shown that pre-heating at lower temperatures results in incomplete dissolution of Mg2Si [44]. Hence, the volume of the harmful Mg2Si dispersoids that may form during the subsequent thermomechanical processing is reduced, resulting in weaker recrystallization textures [43] and, consequently, improved formability and surface appearance (no ridging). However, lowering of the homogenization temperature reduces the age-hardenability of the material [8] which counteracts the favorable effect of a weakened texture. Hot rolling parameters like rolling speed and exit temperature control the level of energy stored during hot deformation and, therewith, the progress of recrystallization during the cooling period of the coiled hot strip (Fig. 6). Furthermore, precipitation of Mg2Si at exit temperatures below say 350 C may strongly impede post-dynamic recrystallization of the hot band (e.g. Fig. 7). Both the degree of recrystallization and the precipitation state of the coiled material may be altered through an additional annealing treatment [40,41,44]. Thus, hot band anneals represent an efcient way in controlling texture and property of the nal sheet in condition T4. The main variable in cold rolling is the strength of the resulting rolling texture. Here, the initial texture, that is the hot band texture prior to the cold rolling, and the strain applied during cold rolling are of importance (Figs. 8 and 9). Among other factors, the rolling texture strength relates to the sharpness of the nal recrystallization texture. Thus, hot band annealing (see above) or intermediate annealing may be applied to weaken the rolling texture and, consequently, the T4 recrystallization texture, resulting in improved formability [48,49]. The mechanism of recrystallization during the nal solution annealing and the resulting textures and grain sizes are governed by the precipitation state. Large volumes of nely dispersed Mg2Si-particles selectively inhibit PSN and, therewith, favor the formation of a strong cube recrystallization texture (Fig. 10) [40,41,44]. Thus, in conclusion, control of the state of Mg2Si precipitation during the entire chain of thermomechanical processing is required so as to achieve a weak nal recrystallization texture with good formability and good surface appearance (no ridging effects) in 6xxx sheets.

Keller, Dr D. Wieser (all VAW aluminium AG), Prof. A.J. Beaudoin (Univ. of Champaign-Urbana, IL) and Dr J.D. Bryant (Reynolds Metals) are gratefully acknowledged.

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