FAULT CONDITIONS IN TRANSFORMERS Transformers are subject to a variety of faults.

. The most common being the winding to core faults because of weakening of insulation. Phase faults inside the transformer are rare. However, such faults may take place outside the transformer, on the transformer terminals, which fall within the transformer protection zone. The variation of fault current with respect to fault location within the transformer depends upon the type of transformer connection, the method of grounding the transformer neutral and whether the current is being referred to the primary or the secondary side of the transformer. Power distribution transformers are generally provided with on-line tap changing (OLTC) gear this is another major source of faults. All large transformers are of the oil-immersed type. There is a possibility of low level of oil due to leakage. In such cases, an alarm must be raised and the transformer may eventually have to be shut down. Transformers experience large inrush currents at the time of switching if they happen to be unloaded. This is neither an abnormal condition nor a fault as far as the transformer is concerned. Inrush current needs special attention while designing the protection for a transformer. A transformer may develop inter-turn faults giving rise to hot-spots within the winding. Seen from the terminals, such inter-turn faults may not cause appreciable currents. Hence, inter-turn faults are difficult to detect by 'electrical means. These are best detected by nonelectrical methods. Transformers may suffer from over-fluxing (also called over-excitation) due to under frequency operation at rated voltage. Over-fluxing may also be caused when the transformer is subjected to over-voltage at the rated frequency. Since large transformers usually operate at their design limits, over-fluxing can be dangerous and needs immediate protection.

CATEGORIZATION OF FAULTS Winding and terminal faults o Occur due to changes in source impedance, neutral earthing impedance, transformer leakage reactance, fault voltage and winding connection. Phase to phase faults are rare in transformers. Core faults o Core insulation damage due to excess eddy currents can cause damage to the windings as well. Tank and transformer accessory faults o Loss of oil through tank leak will produce a dangerous condition by reducing winding insulation or overheating. On-load tap changer faults Abnormal operating conditions o Overload o System faults o Overvoltage o Reduced system frequency Sustained or uncleared external faults

TRANSFORMER PROTECTION OVERVIEW

Figure 1: Faults types and protection used

TRANSFORMER OVERCURRENT PROTECTION Fuse Fuses are adequate for small transformers. Normally up to 1 MVA at distribution voltages. No circuit breaker is provided then. The requirement of using fuses is that the fuse should have a rating above the max transformer load current in order to withstand short duration overloads. Larger transformers require relays and CBs to handle the fault capacity. Also they should withstand magnetizing inrush currents when the transformer is energized.

Figure 2 : fuse ratings

Overcurrent relays Distribution transformers can be protected by overcurrent trips. These are controlled by time limit fuses connected across secondary windings of in-built CTs. Also relays connected to CTs on primary side can provide protection. Overcurrent relays are also used on larger transformers with

standard circuit breaker control. Sometimes an earth fault tripping element is provided in addition to overcurrent protection. To discriminates with circuit protection on 2ry side time delay characteristic should be chosen. For high speed clearance of primary terminal short circuits , highset instantaneous relay element is often provided such that the current setting avoids operation for a secondary short circuit. RESTRICTED EARTH FAULT PROTECTION Usual earth fault protection using overcurrent elements fails to give adequate protection for transformer windings, especially in star-connected winding with an impedance-earthed neutral. The protection can be increased with restricted earth fault protection scheme. There are two types of REF protection High impedance type o The residual current of three line CTs is balanced against the output of a current transformer in the neutral conductor

Figure 3: Earth fault protection

Biased low impedance type o The three phase currents and neutral current become the bias inputs to a differential element.

REF protection is often applied even when the neutral is solidly earthed. Because fault current then remains at a high value even to the last turn of the winding complete cover for earth faults is obtained. Earth fault protection applied to a delta-connected or unearthed star winding is naturally

restricted. No zero sequence components can be transmitted through the transformer to other windings. Both windings of a transformer can be separately protected this way. A high impedance relay is normally used for fast operation and phase fault stability. DIFFERENTIAL PROTECTION To cover the whole transformer a differential protection scheme can be used. The principle is as shown in following figure.

Figure 4 : Differential protection

Basic considerations for differential protection in transformers Correction for possible phase shift across the transformer windings(phase correction) Filtering of zero sequence currents Ratio correction Magnetizing inrush during initial energization. Over fluxing

Normally ratio and phase correction were done by using external Interposing CTs as a second repetition of main CT windings. Also delta connection of main CTs to provide phase correction is used. BUCCHOLZ PROTECTION Buchholz protection is normally provided on all transformers fitted with a conservator. The Buchholz relay is contained in a cast housing which is connected in the pipe to the conservator.

A typical Buchholz relay will have two sets of contacts. One is arranged to operate for slow accumulations of gas, the other for bulk displacement of oil in the event of a heavy internal fault. An alarm is generated for the former, but the latter is usually direct-wired to the CB trip relay. The device will therefore give an alarm for the following fault conditions, all of which are of a low order of urgency. hot spots on the core due to short circuit of lamination insulation core bolt insulation failure faulty joints interturn faults or other winding faults involving only lower power infeeds loss of oil due to leakage

When a major winding fault occurs, this causes a surge of oil, which displaces the lower float and thus causes isolation of the transformer. This action will take place for: all severe winding faults, either to earth or interphase loss of oil if allowed to continue to a dangerous degree

An inspection window is usually provided on either side of the gas collection space. Visible white or yellow gas indicates that insulation has been burnt, while black or grey gas indicates the presence of, dissociated oil. In these cases the gas will probably be inflammable, whereas released air will not. A vent valve is provided on the top of the housing for the gas to be released or collected for analysis. Transformers with forced oil circulation may experience oil flow to/from the conservator on starting/stopping of the pumps. The Buchholz relay must not operate in this circumstance. PROTECTION AGAINST OVERFLUXING Whenever there is an over-voltage (frequency remaining constant), the transformer core is subjected to a higher value of flux in order to be able to support the higher applied voltage. By design, power transformers operate at the knee of the saturation curve at normal voltage. Any increase in applied voltage, and the consequent increase in flux density, drives the transformer deeper into saturation. Then the transformer will draw an excessive magnetization current. This

condition is described as over-excitation which will increase the core loss and overheating of the transformer. Also the saturation of the core causes the flux to flow into adjacent structures, causing high eddy current losses in the core and adjacent conducting materials. Such an operating condition cannot be allowed to continue for long and the transformer should be tripped if there is a lingering over-excitation. over-excitation can be detected by measuring the V/f ratio by a so-called volts/hertz relay. TANK EARTH PROTECTION This is also known as Howard protection. If the transformer tank is nominally insulated from earth (an insulation resistance of 10 ohms being sufficient) earth fault protection can be provided by connecting a relay to the secondary of a current transformer the primary of which is connected between the tank and earth. PRESSURE RELIEF DEVICES All faults below oil in an oil-immersed transformer result in localized heating and breakdown of the oil; some degree of arcing will always take place in a winding fault and the resulting decomposition of the oil will release gases. When the fault is of a very minor type, such as a hot joint, gas is released slowly, but a major fault involving severe arcing causes a very rapid release of large volumes of gas as well as oil vapor. The action is so violent that the gas and vapor do not have time to escape but instead build up pressure and bodily displace the oil. When such faults occur in transformers having oil conservators, the fault causes a blast of oil to pass up the relief pipe to the conservator Devices responding to abnormally high oil pressure or rate-of-rise of oil pressure are also available and may be used in conjunction with a Buchholz relay.

EARTHING TRANSFORMER PROTECTION

Figure 5: Earthing transformer protection

Earthing transformers not protected by other means can use the scheme shown in Figure 5. The delta connected current transformers are connected to an overcurrent relay having three phase-fault elements. The normal action of the earthing transformer is to pass zero sequence current. The transformer equivalent current circulates in the delta formed by the CT secondaries without energizing the relay. The latter may therefore be set to give fast and sensitive protection against faults in the earthing transformer itself.