SOLAR TECHNOLOGY

SEMINAR CONTENTS
What is solar electricity? Components for solar system Electricity 101 Details of components Components capacity Hybrid electricity Sizing of solar system Precautions

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SOLAR PANEL PRODUCTION TECHNOLOGY What is solar panel Materials needed Capacity determination Do it now Dos and donts

Wind turbine guide. Solar electricity is created by using Photovoltaic (PV) technologyby converting solar energy
into solar electricity from sunlight. Photovoltaic systems use sunlight to power ordinary

electrical equipment, for example, household appliances, computers and lighting. The photovoltaic (PV) process converts free solar energy - the most abundant energy source on the planet - directly into solar power. Note that this is not the familiar "passive" or Solar electricity thermal technology used for space heating and hot water production. A PV cell consists of two or more thin layers of semi-conducting material, most commonly silicon. When the silicon is exposed to light, electrical charges are generated and this can be conducted away by metal contacts as direct current (DC). The electrical output from a single cell is small, so multiple cells are connected together and encapsulated (usually behind glass) to form a module (sometimes referred to as a "panel"). The PV module is the principle building block of a PV system and any number of modules can be connected together to give the desired electrical output. PV equipment has no moving parts and as a result requires minimal maintenance. It generates solar electricity without producing emissions of greenhouse or any other gases, and its operation is virtually silent. What is PV power used for? PV systems supply solar electricity to many applications in the UK, ranging from systems supplying power to city buildings (which are also connected to the normal local solar power network) to systems supplying power to garden lights or to remote telecom relay stations. The main area of interest in the UK today is grid connect PV systems. These systems are connected to the local solar electricity network. This means that during the day, the solar electricity generated by the PV system can either be used immediately (which is normal for systems installed on offices and other commercial buildings), or can be sold to one of the electricity supply companies (which is more common for domestic systems where the occupier may be out during the day). In the evening, when the electrical system is unable to provide the electricity required, power can be bought back from the network. In effect, the grid is acting as a Solar electricity energy storage system, which means the PV system does not need to include battery storage. Grid connect PV systems are often integrated into buildings. PV technology is ideally suited to use on buildings, providing pollution and noise-free solar power without using extra space. The use of photovoltaics on buildings has grown substantially in the UK over the last few years, with many impressive examples already in operation.

PV systems can be incorporated into buildings in various ways. Sloping rooftops are an ideal site, where modules can simply be mounted using frames. Photovoltaic systems can also be incorporated into the actual building fabric, for example PV roof tiles are now available which can be fitted as would standard tiles. In addition, PV can also be incorporated as building facades, canopies and sky lights amongst many other applications. Stand-alone photovoltaic systems have been used for many years in the UK to supply solar electricity to applications where grid solar power supplies are unavailable or difficult to connect to. Examples include monitoring stations, radio repeater stations, telephone kiosks and street lighting. There is also a substantial market for PV technology in the leisure industry, with battery chargers for boats and caravans, as well as for powering garden equipment such as solar electricity fountains. These systems normally use batteries to store the solar power, if larger amounts are required they can be combined with another source of power - a biomass generator, a wind turbine or diesel generator to form a hybrid power supply system. PV technology is also widely used in the developing world. The technology is particularly suited here, where electricity grids are unreliable or non-existent, with remote locations often making PV power supply the most economic option. In addition, many developing countries have high solar radiation levels year round. Types Monocrystalline of PV Silicon Cell Cells:

Made using cells saw-cut from a single cylindrical crystal of silicon, this is the most efficient of the photovoltaic (PV) technologies. The principle advantage of monocrystalline cells are their high efficiencies, typically around 15%, although the manufacturing process required to produce monocrystalline silicon is complicated, resulting in slightly higher costs than other technologies.

Multicrystalline

Silicon

Cells:

Made from cells cut from an ingot of melted and recrystallised silicon. In the manufacturing process, molten silicon is cast into ingots of polycrystalline silicon, these ingots are then sawcut into very thin wafers and assembled into complete cells. Multicrystalline cells are cheaper to produce than monocrystalline ones, due to the simpler manufacturing process. However, they tend to be slightly less efficient, with average efficiencies of around 12%., creating a granular texture

Thick-film

Silicon:

Another multicrystalline technology where the silicon is deposited in a continuous process onto a base material giving a fine grained, sparkling appearance. Like all crystalline PV, this is encapsulated in a transparent insulating polymer with a tempered glass cover and usually bound into a strong aluminium frame.

Amorphous

Silicon:

Amorphous silicon cells are composed of silicon atoms in a thin homogenous layer rather than a crystal structure. Amorphous silicon absorbs light more effectively than crystalline silicon, so the cells can be thinner. For this reason, amorphous silicon is also known as a "thin film" PV technology. Amorphous silicon can be deposited on a wide range of substrates, both rigid and flexible, which makes it ideal for curved surfaces and "fold-away" modules. Amorphous cells are, however, less efficient than crystalline based cells, with typical efficiencies of around 6%, but they are easier and therefore cheaper to produce. Their low cost makes them ideally suited for many applications where high efficiency is not required and low cost is important.

Other

Thin

Films:

A number of other promising materials such as cadmium telluride (CdTe) and copper indium diselenide (CIS) are now being used for PV modules. The attraction of these technologies is that they can be manufactured by relatively inexpensive industrial processes, certainly in comparison to crystalline silicon technologies, yet they typically offer higher module efficiencies than amorphous silicon. New technologies based on the photosynthesis process are not yet on the market. Typical PV System Configuration The components typically required in a grid-connected PV system are illustrated below.

The PV array consists of a number of individual photovoltaic modules connected together to give the required power with a suitable current and voltage output. Typical modules have a rated power output of around 75 - 120 Watts peak (Wp) each. A typical domestic system of 1.5 2 kWp may therefore comprise some 12 - 24 modules covering an area of between 12 - 40 m2, depending on the technology used and the orientation of the array with respect to the sun.

Most PV modules deliver direct current (DC) electricity at 12 volts (V), whereas most common household appliances in Nigeria run off alternating current (AC) at 230 V. An INVERTER is used to convert the low voltage DC to higher voltage AC. Numerous types of inverter are available, but not all are suitable for use when feeding power back into the UK mains supply. Good suppliers and installers of grid-connect PV systems will be able to offer advice on suitability of commonly available models. Other components in a typical grid-connected PV system are the array mounting structure and the various cables and switches needed to ensure that the PV generator can be isolated both from the building and from the mains. Again, good suppliers and installers of grid-connect PV systems will be able to offer advice on these aspects of the PV system.

COMPONENTS OF SOLAR ELECTRICITY. The components needed for setting up solar electricity are: 1.Solar panels 2.deep cycle batteries 3.inverter4.charge controller.5 cables

Solar panel

inverter

battery

charge SIZING OF COMPONENTS

GENERAL SIZING FOR SOLAR POWER In sizing an electric system using solar power the first two factors we consider are the sunlight levels (insolation values) from your area and the daily power consumption of your electrical loads. Orientation of a solar array is best at true south. True south is slightly different than a magnetic reference or compass

south. The more an array is situated off of true south the less the total insolation value. A quick way to determine solar south is to divide the span of time between sunrise and sunset in half. Step 1 Calculate your AC and DC loads. List wattage and hours of use per week (or other period) for all loads in the spaces provided. Multiply Watts by Hours/Week to get Watt-Hours per Week (WH/Wk.) for each load. Then add up all the watt hours per week to determine total Watt Hours Per Week. For total home systems that have a grid-connected electrical history you can simply use the kWh per month from your bill and convert this into a weekly figure, where the monthly kWh (X) divided by 4.3 times 1000 equals your average weekly watt-hours per week.

2. INVERTER SELECTION
Inverters are rated in continuous wattage and surge watts. Continuous watts is the total watts the inverter can support indefinitely. So a 4000 watt inverter can power up to 4000 watts continuously. Surge watts is how much power the inverter can support for a very brief period, usually momentary. So a 4000 watt inverter rated at 7000 surge watts can handle up to 7000 watts momentarily while starting such loads as motors - which usually require more than normal power to get started.

3. Solar Array Sizing

To find average sun hours per day in your area (line 3), check local weather data, or go to the Solar Energy Maps page. If you want year-round reliability, it's best to use the lowest of the figures or "smooth" the data. The peak amperage of the module you will be using can be found in the module specifications. You can also get close enough for this basic understanding if you divide the modules wattage by the peak power point voltage, usually (17 to 18.5.

4. Battery Size Work

Battery size is measured in AMP-HOURS. This is a measure of battery capacity. All lead-acid batteries have a nominal output of 2 volts per cell. Actual cell voltage varies from about 1.7 volts at full discharge to 2.4 volts at full charge. 12 volt lead-acid batteries are made of 6 separate cells in one case. 6 volt batteries are made of 3 cells in one case. Industrial 2 volt singlecell batteries are also used in a series for larger applications. Series connections are where the positive terminal of one battery is connected to the negative terminal of another, resulting in increased voltage. Putting battery cells in parallel (positive to positive and negative to negative) increases (amps) amp-hour capacity, but does not affect voltage.

SOLAR PANEL PRODUCTIONS

The art of making solar panel is a very simple one in the sense that it is straight forward. However, you will need some componets for it They are:1.solar cells.2.chip board3.silicone adhesive 4.soldering iron 5.Blocking diode 6.bus ribbons. The steps for making solar panel are listed step by step below:
DETERMINE WHAT YOUR SOLAR PANELS WILL SUPPORT
One of the big reasons more and more people are adopting solar power is to "go green" or reduce their carbon footprint since studies have been conducted revealing that buildings, houses (or residences) contribute something in the neighborhood of 20,000 pounds of carbon dioxide per year each (you may not have a carbon dioxide generator where you live, but if you consume electricity, natural gas, water, sewer service and so on then those "services" create carbon dioxide as a byproduct of what you are consuming). Others may be adopting solar power because they have no choice (maybe you live on an island, for instance, where there is no power). Regardless of the reason for getting or making your own solar panels, determine what they will be used for. If you want to provide power for an electric fence, you may only need one 100 Watt solar panel so your investment will be quite low. On the other hand, if you are trying to power your residence with solar panels, you will need more than 100 Watts. What I have found is that for a 1000 square foot residence, you would need roughly eight 100 Watt solar panels per person (this judgement is by no means scientific but a starting ballpark number to look into). To get a more precise reading on the amount of solar panels you would need, use this solar power calculator. Here's a quick glimpse of what to expect, in terms of power needs, if you use 350kwh of power in a month...you'll need 2700 Watts of power (27 - 100 Watt solar panels) and roughly 16 - 12VDC, 100Ah deep cycle batteries (batteries incase you plan to use electricity when the sun is not shining). As you can see, defining the purpose of the solar panels and doing a little research may help a lot in getting an approximation of what it will cost. But, going back to the purpose of this project (to create a solar panel from component parts) can shave upwards of 30% of the cost of the solar panels. But, be ready to put in some work to create a solar panel. It does take time (90% of that time spent soldering like there is no tomorrow). It took me about 12 hours to tin wire, solder that to the solar cells, and then solder the solar cells together...for a single 100 Watt solar panel. Let's Make A Solar Panel The type of solar cell that I will be using for this guide is the blemished (or class 'b') six inch diameter, Siemen's (now Shell) PowerMax monocrystalline solar cell...you can get class 'a' cells but they are more expensive. A perfect operating solar cell (class 'a') will normally generate a maximum of approximately .55 VDC, 5.6 Amps and 3 Watts of power (a watt is calculated by multiplying voltage and amperage together). Just as a side note, one horsepower is equal to just over 700 Watts.

1.

Grab a multimeter capable of measuring fractions of DC voltage and your collection of solar cells. Position a light source near your collection of solar cells; this will enable to you get a consistent measurement of voltage output of each one of your solar cells with a light source that has constant output and is a fixed distance away.

2. STEP 1

1. 2.

3.

4.

STEP 2 5.

Set the multimeter to measure DC voltage. Place the negative test lead (usually black) on the side of the solar cell which indicates negative voltage (usually the front). Place the positive test lead (usually red) on the side of the solar cell which indicates positive voltage (usually the back). Observe what the maximum voltage output is. Don't move the solar cell around to try to get a higher reading since you will be grouping the solar cells together according to how much voltage they generate at the same position from your light source. Separate your solar cells into groupings of .05 volt increments as you are taking voltage measurements. This will allow you to take maximum advantage of solar cell output by grouping solar cells together (each group would be a solar panel). For example, if you had 35 solar cells which had an output of .45 volts and you had one which had an output of .35 volts, the output of your solar panel will suffer. We need to connect our solar cells together with tinned interconnection wire. In order to do this, we'll need to take the spool of interconnection wire and cut it into 10.5 inch lengths for the six inch solar cells. Each length of tinned interconnection wire must have solder added to it. This is done by adding solder to 5.25 inches of the wire starting at one end. Then

6.

1. STEP 3

STEP 4

1.

flip the wire length over and add solder to 5.25 inches of the wire starting at the opposite end. 1. Solder a length of the interconnection wire to each connection strip that is on the front of each solar cell (in this case, three lengths of interconnection wire are used per solar cell).

STEP 5

1.

Connecting solar cells together in series using the Powermax six inch solar cells in this example, uses a unique approach where all of the solar cells are soldered together in a zig-zag pattern to minimize the amount of interconnection wire used.

STEP 6

1.

In order to solder the solar cells together, one will be placed face-down.

STEP 7

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1.

STEP 8

Take another solar cell, face down, and place the interconnection wires on top of the previous solar cell (leave approximately 1/16 inch space between the solar cells) and solder those interconnection wires to the previous solar cell.

1.

Now that you've seen how to solder solar cells together, you'll need to know the sequence of soldering the 36 solar cells together into a compact form (starting at #1 and ending at #36). See the graphical representation.

STEP 9

11

1.

After the 36 solar cells have been soldered together they will resemble what is shown.

STEP 10

1.

2. STEP 11

While it is not required, it is recommended that you sandwich the soldered solar cells inside of a protective thermoplastic material such as ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA) sheet or UV resistant Surlyn sheet. Over time, if there is oxygen or other contaminants inside the solar panel, your solar cells will degrade prematurely. If you have one of those types of sheet, place the sheet over the solar cells you've just soldered together and use the heat gun on the sheet so that it adheres to the solar cells. You will notice that I have placed the solar cells on top of white paper and then soldered them together in advance of heating EVA sheet onto them. The reason for this is that the EVA sheet is a very adhesive material when heated (it also becomes approximately 100% transparent after heating). When flipping over the solar panel in a cardboard frame (so that the other side can have EVA sheet applied to it), the paper can be easily removed; without the paper between the solar panel and the cardboard it would be necessary to peel the inverted EVA sheet and solar panel from the rigid cardboard causing damage to individual solar cells. You will want to overcut the sheet since it will shrink as it is heated. Carefully turn the sheet of solar cells over, place the sheet over the top of the solar cells and use the heat gun on the sheet so that it adheres to the solar

3. STEP 12 1.

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cells and the sheet. 1. STEP 13 Take the 48 x 48 x 3/16 inch ABS white sheet and, using a cutting tool, cut it down to a 38 5/16 x 38 5/16 x 3/16 inch sheet. Then drill a 5/16 inch hole through the sheet six inches from the right-top edge and one inch down from the right-top edge. Place the 36 solar cells, which were soldered together, face up onto the ABS white sheet and center them on the sheet. Cut off excess EVA or Surlyn sheet (if you applied it to the solar cells) so that it is approximately an inch less on each side than the size of the ABS white sheet. Solder approximately 3 inches of the color-coded wire to the appropriate positive and negative interconnection wire on the #1 and #36 solar cells. Push the other end of the wires through the 5/16 inch drilled hole. Cut two 72 x 1/4 x 1/4 inch clear extruded acrylic bars to a length of 38.3125 inch. Cut the remaining two 72 x 1/4 x 1/4 inch clear extruded acrylic bars to a length of 37.8125 inch. Glue one 38.3125 inch clear extruded acrylic bar to the top of the ABS white sheet, lining the bar up with the edge of the ABS white sheet. Allow the glue to dry. Then take the second 38.3125 inch clear extruded acrylic bar to the bottom of the ABS white sheet, lining the bar up with the edge of the ABS white sheet. Allow the glue to dry. Glue one 37.8125 inch clear extruded acrylic bar to the left of the ABS white sheet, lining the bar up with the edge of the ABS white sheet. Allow the glue to dry. Then take the second 37.8125 inch clear extruded acrylic bar to the right of the ABS white sheet, lining the bar up with the edge of the ABS white sheet. Allow the glue to dry. Cut the remaining clear extruded acrylic bar into 1 x 1/4 x 1/4 inch blocks. Glue each block, centered, in between each solar cell in an alternating pattern (this will provide strength to the solar panel).

1. STEP 14

1. STEP 15

1. STEP 16 1.

STEP 17

1.

STEP 18

1. STEP 19

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1.

STEP 20

Take the 48 x 48 x 1/8 inch Acrylite UV stabilized transparent sheet and, using a cutting tool, cut it down to a 38 5/16 x 38 5/16 x 3/16 inch sheet. Place glue along the top of the four acrylic bars which were glued to the ABS white sheet. Place glue on top of each of the 1 x 1/4 x 1/4 inch blocks. Line up the Acrylite sheet with the edges of the four acrylic bars and place it firmly on top. Allow the glue to dry.

What's Next Congratulations, one solar panel has been created! The next section is here in the event that you want to protect your solar panel from reverse current. Current flowing into a solar panel will damage the solar cells and make them incapable of generating electricity (this typically can happen when you have the solar panel connected directly to a battery; if you have a charge controller, the controller will prevent this from happening). Assuming you don't have a charge controller, you'll need to add a rectifier diode to one of the wires coming out of your solar panel to block reverse current. This section will focus on adding the rectifier diode to the back of the solar panel. 1. Drill one 5/16 inch hole in the bottom of the 3 x 2 x 1 inch project enclosure box. Drill another 5/16 inch hole into the side of the box. Apply glue to the back of the box. Feed the wire, sticking out of the back of the solar panel, through the bottom hole of the box. Seat the box firmly onto the back of the panel and allow to dry.

STEP 1

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1.

Assemble the junction block with wire and the diode as shown.

STEP 2

Scematic Diagram

Visual Diagram STEP 3 1. Finally, apply enough of the Silicone sealant/adhesive to fill in the hole in the bottom and side of the enclosure box. Allow the sealant/adhesive to dry.

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INTRODUCTION TO WIND ELECTRICITY.

Printable Version

How Wind Turbines Work

Wind is a form of solar energy. Winds are caused by the uneven heating of the atmosphere by the sun, the irregularities of the earth's surface, and rotation of the earth. Wind flow patterns are modified by the earth's terrain, bodies of water, and vegetation. Humans use this wind flow, or motion energy, for many purposes: sailing, flying a kite, and even generating electricity. The terms wind energy or wind power describe the process by which the wind is used to generate mechanical power or electricity. Wind turbines convert the kinetic energy in the wind into mechanical power. This mechanical power can be used for specific tasks (such as grinding grain or pumping water) or a generator can convert this mechanical power into electricity. So how do wind turbines make electricity? Simply stated, a wind turbine works the opposite of a fan. Instead of using electricity to make wind, like a fan, wind turbines use wind to make electricity. The wind turns the blades, which spin a shaft, which connects to a generator and makes electricity. Take a look inside a wind turbine to see the various parts. View the wind turbine animation to see how a wind turbine works. This aerial view of a wind power plant shows how a group of wind turbines can make electricity for the utility grid. The electricity is sent through transmission and distribution lines to homes, businesses, schools, and so on.

Learn more about wind energy technology:

Types of Wind Turbines Sizes of Wind Turbines Inside the Wind Turbine

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Many wind farms have sprung up in the Midwest in recent years, generating power for utilities. Farmers benefit by receiving land lease payments from wind energy project developers.

Types of Wind Turbines

Modern wind turbines fall into two basic groups: the horizontal-axis variety, as shown in the photo, and the verticalaxis design, like the eggbeater-style Darrieus model, named after its French inventor. Horizontal-axis wind turbines typically either have two or three blades. These three-bladed wind turbines are operated "upwind," with the blades facing into the wind.

GE Wind Energy's 3.6 megawatt wind turbine is one of the largest prototypes ever erected. Larger wind turbines are more efficient and cost effective.

Sizes of Wind Turbines

Utility-scale turbines range in size from 100 kilowatts to as large as several megawatts. Larger turbines are grouped together into wind farms, which provide bulk power to the electrical grid. Single small turbines, below 100 kilowatts, are used for homes, telecommunications dishes, or water pumping. Small turbines are sometimes used in connection with diesel generators, batteries, and photovoltaic systems. These systems are called hybrid wind systems and are typically used in remote, off-grid locations, where a connection to the utility grid is not available.

Inside the Wind Turbine

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Anemometer: Measures the wind speed and transmits wind speed data to the controller. Blades: Most turbines have either two or three blades. Wind blowing over the blades causes the blades to "lift" and rotate. Brake: A disc brake, which can be applied mechanically, electrically, or hydraulically to stop the rotor in emergencies. Controller: The controller starts up the machine at wind speeds of about 8 to 16 miles per hour (mph) and shuts off the machine at about 55 mph. Turbines do not operate at wind speeds above about 55 mph because they might be damaged by the high winds. Gear box: Gears connect the low-speed shaft to the high-speed shaft and increase the rotational speeds from about 30 to 60 rotations per minute (rpm) to about 1000 to 1800 rpm, the rotational speed required by most generators to produce electricity. The gear box is a costly (and heavy) part of the wind turbine and engineers are exploring "direct-drive" generators that operate at lower rotational speeds and don't need gear boxes. Generator: Usually an off-the-shelf induction generator that produces 60-cycle AC electricity. High-speed shaft: Drives the generator. Low-speed shaft: The rotor turns the low-speed shaft at about 30 to 60 rotations per minute. Nacelle:

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The nacelle sits atop the tower and contains the gear box, low- and high-speed shafts, generator, controller, and brake. Some nacelles are large enough for a helicopter to land on. Pitch: Blades are turned, or pitched, out of the wind to control the rotor speed and keep the rotor from turning in winds that are too high or too low to produce electricity. Rotor: The blades and the hub together are called the rotor.

Tower: Towers are made from tubular steel (shown here), concrete, or steel lattice. Because wind speed increases with height, taller towers enable turbines to capture more energy and generate more electricity. Wind direction: This is an "upwind" turbine, so-called because it operates facing into the wind. Other turbines are designed to run "downwind," facing away from the wind. Wind vane: Measures wind direction and communicates with the yaw drive to orient the turbine properly with respect to the wind. Yaw drive: Upwind turbines face into the wind; the yaw drive is used to keep the rotor facing into the wind as the wind direction changes. Downwind turbines don't require a yaw drive, the wind blows the rotor downwind. Yaw motor: Powers the yaw drive.

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