A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management

BROAD THEME : ON GANDHI SPECIAL ISSUE EDUCATION

Board of Editors
Susmit Pani, M.A, Ph.D Niranjan Pani, M.Phil, Ph.D Prajna P Panigrahi, M.A, Ph.D Mamata R Behera, M.A, Ph.D

Education for All

DDCE

DDCE, UTKAL UNIVERSITY, BHUBANESWAR, INDIA

Vol - I, 2008

Editorial Board
Prof. S.P. Pani, Director,DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar. Dr. N. Pani, Reader, Public Administration, DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar. Dr. M.R. Behera Lecturer in Oriya, DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar. Dr. P.P. Panigrahi
Executive Editor

Lecturer in English, DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar. Copyright : DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar Authors bear responsibility for the contents and views expressed by them. Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Utkal University does not bear any responsibility. Published by : Director, Directorate of Distance & Continuing Education, Utkal University, Vanivihar, Bhubaneswar 751007. India. Reach us at E-mail : searchpolly72@yahoo.com 91-674 -2585312 (O) 91-674 -2581106 ( Fax )

DTP : Laxmipriya Pani, Diptimayee Dalai, Sabita Mallick and Mamata Singh Printed at: inteCAD inte 442, Saheed Nagar Bhubaneswar - 751 007 Ph.: 0674-2544631, 2547731

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EDITORIAL .....
To-day there is a renewed interest in Mahatma Gandhi. Cinema makers, environmentalists, social activitists, political leaders, developmental economists, educators, social scientists and a host of others are innovatively using and advocating Gandhian ideals to address the challenges of changing world. In the last decade, numerous biographies of Gandhi have appeared, placing him in new light and focus. The youth in particular no longer reject Gandhi as a theoretician, a non-practical practitioner of ethics and at the best an exceptional individual impossible to emulate. Young politicians are even trying to free Gandhism of the fads and are attempting to carry forward the essence of Gandhi in politics. Increasing globalization, neo-capitalism and the booming service sector is not without concern for quality of life for the majority and respect for local requirements, culture and concerns. Many essential Gandhian principles are echoed without the use of Gandhis name. It seems Gandhis influence was underestimated in the past. He is not limited to India, not limited to political movements and he did not create a new religion. In keeping with the renewed interest in Gandhi, Search chose this theme for the present issue. Unlike earlier editorials no value judgement and opinion is expressed on Gandhi. Articles cover aspects of Literature, Education, Management and Development; World Order and Peace and Thought. We hope the articles would generate enough interest in the readers. We look forward to a lively feedback from readers. Though the treatment of Gandhi is varied, almost all the articles come from my academic partners, colleagues and scholars and as such there is a syncretistic treatment to an extent. We place on record our deep sense of appreciation for Prof. L.N.Misra our Vice-Chancellor for his enthusiastic involvement and support. On behalf of the Government of Orissa Utkal University is organizing a State Level Seminar on, GANDHIAN PHILOSOPHY AND ITS IMPACT ON MODERN SOCIETY IN THE DIRECTION OF INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND UNIVERSAL BROTHERHOOD, on 20th January, 2008. This special issue of Search is being released on this occasion.

S.P. Pani

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A TRIBUTE TO GANDHI
All mankind is richer for the life and legacy of Mohandas K. Gandhi. He was a great son of India who struggled for the freedom of his nation and for the spiritual and material well-being of his people. He was an apostle of non-violence who espoused the concept that goodness dwells in all men and who ennobled both his cause and country by his work. But as with all great movers of history, his influence was not confined to India alone. His inspiring profile captivated the world. Here, in America, we observed the dramatic unfolding of the Mahatmas life with interest and hope. We saw in him the enrichment of individual personality and human dignity by thoughts and ideas generated afar. An American, Henry David Thoreau, provided some of the inspiration on which Gandhi drew. And in turn, this generation of Americans, earnestly seeking to further the civil rights movement, has adopted much of the philosophy and many of the techniques moulded and refined by the Indian leader. Gandhi believed the world could reconcile its differences without resort to hate and violence. Men are brothers to each other, he thought. And our aim must be to help men act more like brothers: to prefer compassion over intolerance, to elevate generosity above greed, to cast out cruelty for justice. Twenty years after his death, with the world still beset by divisiveness and anger, the need for the Gandhian message is greater than ever. One of his favorite Christian hymns was Lead, Kindly light, amid the encircling gloom. The light of Mohandas K. Gandhi burns brightly still as a beacon for Indians, for Americans, and for all the world.

President Lyndon B. Johnson

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Contents
1. 2. Gandhi And Conflict Resolution: A Rethinking Relevance Of Gandhian Economic Principles: With Reference To Contemporary Indian Economy Under Globalisation. Gita: Gandhi And Non Violence Mahatma Gandhi And World Peace Gandhigiri Revisited : Reflections On Mahatma Gandhi - A Performed Leader Lage Raho Muna Bhai (LRMB) Technique : Icon Of Gandhigiri Gandhi On The First World War Gandhijis Visit To Orissa - Its Impact The Invaluable Gift Peoples Gandhi: The Man And The Mahatma Gandhis Theories Of Education Gandhian Model Of Extension Education : A Study Gandhi And Marx A Study Of Comparative Political Philosophy English Literature And Mahatma Gandhi: Select Review Of Literature Poetics Of Protest : Gandhi And Indian English Novels Gandhi As An Invisible Force In Raja Raos Kanthapura Gandhijis Concept of Gram Swaraj : Role and Relevance of Khadi and Village Industries in a Sustainable Economic Order P. K. Nayak Dipak Ranjan Das 1 7

3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

A.N. Mishra B. Satapathy N. Pani Charubala Pani Santosh Kumar Sethi Sabita Kar Biraj Mohan Das Suryakant Nath S.P.Pani Sarita Mishra Ganeswar Nayak Geeta Satapathy A. J. Khan Z. Jabeen P. P. Panigrahi

15 24 35 49 55 63 68 71 80 96 122 131 148 152 157 160

Mira And The Mahatma By Sudhir Kakar: A Review Priyadarshi Kar Deenabandhu Das

Papers are invited for

A Journal of Arts, Humanities & Management

Guidelines for contributors : 1. The Broad Themes for up coming issues are and ORISSA GENDER STUDIES (including feminism). Each paper be prefaced with an abstract not exceeding 300 words. The article should be within 6000 words including references etc. It should relate to the BROAD THEME OF THE COMING ISSUES. MLA style sheet or Chicago style sheet should be strictly followed. Please use MSword and e-mail the article to : searchpolly72@yahoo.com. Send a hard copy by post in confirmation. Articles shall not be returned, but acceptance shall be intimated as soon as possible. Contact Dr. P.P. Panigrahi, Lecturer in English, DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar-751007, India, for further details. You may reach Dr. P. P. Panigrahi at searchpolly72@yahoo.com Authors may suggest names of Refrees who are specialists in the field. Published material shall not be considered. However, Papers published earlier in abstract format in proceedings of Seminars , Conferences and Workshops may be sent. Such details may be provided by the authors. Authors are responsible for contents and views expressed in the article and DDCE shall bear no responsibility for the same.

2. 3.

4. 5.

6. 7.

8.

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GANDHI AND CONFLICT RESOLUTION: A RETHINKING

P. K. Nayak* The present century we live in is a century of variations. Ours are times in the plural. We live in the plurality of times. We live many different histories with our narrow and sectarian individualities and individualist ambitions. The ambition of the rich and the poor alike, overriding all differences of status and castes, is to enjoy the good things of life. Ours is a consumerist culture, not satiated by any amount of material possessions and enjoyments, finding its way out in the theory of competition. Competition sets in motion the conflict which further provokes violence. The world is getting polarized in this line affecting the human values from macro to the micro level. How fast we go nuclear is the utmost concern of the nations today. Natures beauty is now at the mercy of the power hungers. The positive and purposeful living of human beings is thwarted, buffeted too. In this context, Gandhian way of looking at things and solving the problems through his principles have become a reality. Of course, to such a culture, Gandhis life and times will indeed come as a voice from the wilderness, a voice which is irrelevant and meaningless, until the present age is converted from its youthful folly to the wisdom that voice represents. Youth has to grow into maturity. India will rediscover its own Gandhian heritage of perennial wisdom which it had loved long since and lost awhile.1 That discovery will mean a new kind of behaviour pattern, different from the selfishly consumerist behaviour, ensuring a correspondingly altruistic social structure as well. Conflict has been a constant phenomenon in the history of human race. War is the father of all things declared Heraclitus in his famous aphorism by which he meant that evolution in the universe due solely to its conflicting elements, procreating new things in turn.2 The Hegelian dialectic too does support it. In the 19th century the theory of conflict underwent important transformation under Charles Darwin and Herbert Spencer. According to biological formula of Darwin, species evolve by a mode of natural selection by which nature eliminates the undesirable elements.3 So there is a ceaseless struggle for existence giving rise to new varieties. Applying this biological finding to arena of sociology of human behaviour, Darwin concluded that even in the realm of ideas and interest conflict opens up new streams of thought and action. But Darwin in his obsession with struggle, completely ignores the element of cooperation both in biological and sociological realms, the harmonious blend that attracts the elements of nature towards each other and holds them together. Gandhi admits that there are repulsions enough in nature. But he adds, She lives by attraction. Mutual love enables nature to persist. Man does live by destruction. Self love compels regards for
* Reader, Dept. of History, Government College, BOMDILA, Arunachal Pradesh-790001

others. Nations cohere because of the mutual regard among individuals composing them. Some day we must extend the national law to the universe, even as we have extended family laws to form nations a larger family.4 It is under such background that this paper based on both primary and secondary sources has grown up. Gandhijis sources of inspiration titling him the apostle of truth and non-violence need special mention here. Three moderns as Gandhi used to say left a deep impression on his life and captivated him; Raichandbhai by his living contact, Tolstoy by his book The Kingdom of God is Within You and Ruskin by his Unto this Last.5 Besides Tolstoy and Ruskin, he was influenced by Thoreau also. Of these three, one was Russian, the other English, and the third American. With regard to the influence of the three western thinkers, the American writers, Louis Fischer and Joan Bondurant, said that Gandhi was already influenced by the ideas which were later confirmed by the teachings of these western writers. Gandhi had already in the embryonic stage the ideas and the ideals that these philosophers were preaching; what the contact with their philosophy did was to strengthen his convictions by giving an authority and sanction to his beliefs.6 To Gandhi, cooperation and harmony rather than conflict and struggle constitute the fundamental law of the universe. Conflicts occur more as temporary irregularities in the even and ordered flow of life, rather than as universal and ceaseless phenomena. Gandhian dialectic takes man as the centre of reason and provides for a technique of conflict resolution whereby one or both sides of a conflict can resolve the antimony into a reinterpretation. This can lead to what is termed as a creative resolution of conflict.7 Gandhi believed that a conflict can be creatively resolved only when peace is taken to be a positive concept rather than a negative one. This negative concept of peace is standard western formulation to which Johan Galtung also subscribes when he defines resolution of conflict as absence of conflict.8 Hence the Gandhian sense of conflict resolution would mean not merely the elimination of maladjustment, but also progressing towards a better and more meaningful readjustment. When violent relationship is transformed into a non-violent one and the energies of the opponents are harnessed to achieve a higher goal, a creative resolution of conflict is reached at. Gandhi does not regard a conflict as an antagonism between two, but takes it as a product of the faulty system. The means, therefore, must develop to change the system itself eliminating any future possibility of conflict. Social transformation of the conflicting parties works miracle in this regard. Gandhi does not believe that violence is embedded in human nature. To him, man is essentially peace-loving, co-operative and caring for others. And goodness in man can be aroused, articulated and strengthened. Calling an enemy a brother, showing somebody the left if slapped on right cheek, blaming not the opponent but the situation and seeking to enlist the cooperation of opponent in restructuring it, surely put the opponent into a

transformation. He thinks the Hindu-Muslim quarrels have often been due to the intervention of lawyers. He wants all people to settle their own quarrels; men were less unmanly if they their disputes either by fighting or by asking their relatives to decide them. They became more unmanly and cowardly when they resorted to the course of Law. It is a sign of savagery to settle disputes by fighting. It is not the less so by asking a third party to decide between you and me. The parties alone know who is right and therefore they ought to settle it.9 If Gandhis perception as regard the root of conflict is to be described, it should be Himsa or Violence. Gandhi uses the word in a number of senses so much as it is difficult to identify it with the traditional meaning. To him, nobody has an access to absolute truth, but has access to relative truth. Therefore, when persons or groups fight, it involves a conflict between different sets of relative truths. And in order to resolve the conflict, these sets of relative truths are to be synthesized so that it becomes an improvement upon each of its constituents which leads towards the absolute truth, though not the absolute one itself. Against such a backdrop Gandhi rejects the employment of violence as a means in conflict resolution. Since nobody represents the absolute truth, no one has also the rights to force his opinion on others which, in other words, entails rejection of violence. Therefore, conflict resolution should necessarily be achieved through peaceful negotiations.10 Gandhi is not convinced by the argument that there may be party to a conflict which is so corrupt that it does not represent even a single fraction of a truth. In that case it needs to be totally suppressed. Blanche Watson also corroborates Gandhian objectives of non-violence against violence. He puts Repression has never worked. I challenge anybody to point me to a single episode in either ancient or modern history, which proves that repression has even once achieved the end to which it has been directed. This policy has certainly been no success in English hands. It failed in America in 1775; it failed in English domestic affairs in the 20s and the 40s of the last century; it failed in South Africa after the Boer War; it failed in Ireland yesterday; and it will fail in India tomorrow. If repression succeeds in anything, it is in advertising the cause of the enemy.11 Repression provokes conflict and a solution is never reached at. Further, the synthesis of the two opposing claims in conflict resolution does not necessarily imply partial surrendering of original claims from both the sides. In other words, a synthesis is not a compromise as understood in the modern parlance in negotiations. The only thing that a synthesis ensures is an increased hold over the truth. Thus, a non-violent conflict resolution in the Gandhian sense departs from the traditional sense in that there is no sacrificing of position, no concession to any party, and no victory in the sense of triumph of one party over the other. A synthesis is a triumph for both the parties, because this higher realization

of truth makes a victory of the situation which leads to the conflict possible. Thus, a conflict should not be viewed as a naked confrontation of predetermined objectives from which departures can not be made. The negotiators, on the other hand, should proceed with an open mind or heart, prepared to convince and to be convinced. This is a fact that there stands a relation between social structure and techniques of resolving conflicts. But this should not mean that such a society should be established before this technique is put to practice. The requirement of an un-Gandhian technique which is now prevalent will tend to push the society further away from a desirable social order. That is why Gandhi adopted his technique against the British without waiting for his ideal society to materialize. And also when he was prescribing his technique for Independent India, he did not have the slightest illusion that such a society was in the offing. Therefore, a Gandhian solution to this social order first or technique first problem is that while the technique is being practiced, simultaneous efforts should also be made, through constructive programmes to build up a non-violent social order.12 Gandhi had never attempted to put his ideas on conflict and its solution in a wellsynthesized manner. They lie scattered in his works and one has to go into the whole lot to present them cohesively. He suggests different stages of conflict resolutions with each stage having a separate course of conduct. Each stage has to be taken up only after the failure of the preceding one. If persuasion through reason or negotiation holds the first stage, self- suffering becomes the second one. It is to be remembered that parties to a negotiation should be unprejudiced to the maximum extent possible and must have complete understanding of the conflict situation in general and of the objectives to be attained in particular. Stressing upon self suffering Gandhi writes, I have found that mere appeal to reason does not answer where prejudices are age-long and based on supposed religious authority. Reason has to be strengthened by suffering and suffering opens the eyes of understanding.13 Bondurant calls this mechanism of self-suffering as shock-therapy14 upon the opponent, Jacques Maritain sees in it Gandhis real genius15 and Blanche Watson calls it the law of conscious suffering.16 Watson attributes, In his work as a reformer he has evaded no penalty, but has accepted gladly the punishments imposed upon him as only so many weapons to his hand. He has faced an assassin without flinching. Four times, in South Africa and in India, he has been imprisoned. Thrice he has been beaten by mobs, and once left prone in the gutter as one dead. His body bears the stripes of the whips with which he has been lashed, his wrists and ankles the marks of the chains with which he has been bound for hours together to the iron bars of his cell. And all because sacrifice has been deliberately chosen as the law of his life and the sword of his fray.17

Gandhi also holds a religious view of self-suffering. Most of the religions advocate self-suffering instead of causing harm to others. If self-suffering fails to resolve the conflict, Gandhi would prescribe for non-violent direct action which is characterized by such tools as non-cooperation and civil disobedience as the sphere of conflict may be, that is to say that while civil disobedience can be undertaken only against a governmental authority, non-cooperation can be applied in cases of personal and group conflict also. Clarence Case prefers to put it as non-violent coercion rather than non-violent direct action. He goes to deny a contradiction in terms of non-violent coercion and comments that the combination of non-violence and coercion is not the outcome of a preconceived notion but represents a working arrangement.18 But this is hardly applicable in the light of Gandhian ideas on conflict resolution. Coercion involves intimidation, physical or psychological and Gandhi would not prescribe for such a course which is likely to make the opponent more and more obdurate and less amenable to see the reason in the Satyagrahi. For him Satyagraha had deep linkage with the brotherhood of man. It discards the biological concept of the struggle for human existence as well as the survival of the fittest. It believes in love, respect, mutual help and cooperation in the work for the welfare of our society as a whole. Ultimately, it is the concept of human progress and advancement in social, economic and other fields. He opines that evil can not be cured by evil, nor hate conquered by hate. It is non-violence if we merely love those that love us. It is nonviolence only when we love those that hate us. I know how difficult it is to follow this grand law of love. Love of the hater is the most difficult of all. But by the grace of God even this most difficult thing becomes easy to accomplish if we want to do it.19 Incidence of conflict resolution is also reflected in case of his own personality being understood as an icon or God by his blind followers. Vinoba Bhave puts, Gandhi warned every one of us against being a blind devotee of Gandhi, because this country is given to hero-worship. It should be commonly understood that he was a man and he must be allowed to remain a man. Our good lies in his remaining a man. On the other hand, if we impose godhood upon him no good would come of it and we would have lost a human ideal. We shall only lose by turning him into God. We shall only be adding to the plethora of sects that already exists. Let, therefore, Gandhiji remain what he was, an ideal man.20 On conflict resolution Gandhi never put anything as a diehard theoretician. He himself practised what he propagated and in one sphere or the other he had put into practice all the modes of conflict resolution and that with a fair measure of success. His opponents at various stages have included even his wife, Kasturba, the Natal Government in South Africa, the Ahmedabad Mill owners and of course, the British Government, and his successes on all these fronts are hardly questioned.

To sum up, Gandhis life was a saga of sadhana, of incessant efforts towards achieving moral perfection. He was a man of action, an activist and as such plunged himself into the vortex of social activism. He never had the slightest notion of becoming a great man one day. He simply attended to what came before him; a series of crises followed one after the other. And he simply responded to them. With the spark of genius that nature had endowed with him, he would have made a mark for himself in any sphere of life. It was not merely the circumstances but his inner strength to face them squarely that led to Gandhis greatness which placed him at the pinnacle of magnificence.21 Gandhian device of conflict resolution has not been claimed a basic technique. Even Gandhi also agreed to at. But we believe that suitably getting adopted to the present day circumstances may prove to be one of the most viable techniques of conflict resolution. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. Merry Kappen (ed.), Gandhi and Social Action Today, New Delhi,1990, p.12. Karnal Singh (ed.), Gandhian Direction to the Society at Cross-roads, Patna, 1991, p.65. Charles Darwin, The Origin of Species By Means of Selection of the Preservation of Savoured Races in the Struggle For Life, England, 1968, p.31. M. K. Gandhi, Young India, 2 March 1928. Shri Ram Sharma, Gandhi The Man and The Mahatma, Chandigarh, 1985, p.23. Ibid., p.25. Joan Bondurant, Conquest of Violence: The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict, London, 1958, p.199. Karnal Singh, op.cit., p.66. C. Shankaran Nair, Gandhi And Anarchy, New Delhi, 1922 (Reproduced, 1995), p.6. Kenneth Boulcing, Conflict and Defence: A General Theory, New York, 1962, p.304. Blanche Watson, Gandhi And Non-Violent Resistance, New Delhi, Reprint, 1989, pp.516-17. S. C. Gangal, The Gandhian Way To World Peace, Bombay, 1960, pp.71-114. M. K. Gandhi, Young India, 19 March 1925. Bondurant, op.cit., p.229. J. Maritain, Man And the State, Chicago,1951, p.70. Watson, op.cit., p.530. Ibid., pp.530-31. Clarence M. Case, Non-Violent Coercion: A Study in Methods of Social Pressure, London, 1923, p.3. S. R. Bakshi, Mahatma Gandhi, New Delhi, 1990, pp.55-56. K. Shah(ed.), Vinoba on Gandhi, p.11. Shri Ram Sharma, op.cit., p.28.

RELEVANCE OF GANDHIAN ECONOMIC PRINCIPLES:

WITH REFERENCE TO CONTEMPORARY INDIAN ECONOMY UNDER GLOBALISATION. Dipak Ranjan Das.* The study of Mahatma Gandhi has become a matter of historical importance for the present youth mass. The people who were inspired by the ideals of Mahatma Gandhi to fight for the independence of the country and had sacrificed a lot, few of them survive now. Moreover the number of people who had personally come in contact with Mahatma is on the steady decline. On the other hand, there has been an increasing awareness of Gandhism throughout the world in modern times. The Govt. of South Africa where Gandhi started his revolutionary career and had experimented with the idea of non-violence, is setting different memorials in honour of Mahatma Gandhi, the tenets of humanism which were championed by Mahatma Gandhi continue to inspire the masses of youth in the countries ranging from materialistic United States to the communist China. This is a matter of pride for India. But it is a matter of great regret that Gandhism is gradually losing its hold in the country of its origin. Efforts should be initiated to understand and apply Gandhism in practical fields. Mahatma Gandhi had significantly contributed to different spheres of knowledge and India would be immensely benefited by the real application of some of these ideas in the fields of economics, polity and social affairs. The present paper aims at highlighting the relevance of Gandhian economic principles with special reference to contemporary Indian economy under globalization. Gandhi did not receive any formal training in Economics nor did he study much economics on his own. His busy political life left little time for reading. Since moral considerations weighed heavily with Gandhi in everything he did, his economic ideas were influenced not so much by economic treatises as by his readings of such books as Ruskins Unto This Last., Tolstoys The kingdom of God is Within The Bible, The Upanishad, and The Bhagabad Gita. They were also distilled from his valuable experience. So it is not surprising that his economic ideas are not presented in the form of a scientific or scholarly manner with jargons of economics. Nevertheless, it is possible to gather a consistent body of knowledge in economics from his scattered writings and speeches which is as distinctive as to merit the name Gandhian Economics. The Gandhian Economics has all time relevance with remarkable originality and analytical potency of very high order. Gandhis economic ideas were fundamentally man-centered and practically based on a set of interrelated concepts characterised by simplicity, self-sufficiency and selfreliance. The basic concepts inherent in Gandhian economics are village self- sufficiency,
*Head, Department of Economics, Aeronautics College, Sunabeda-763002(Orissa)

Swadeshi, trusteeship, bread-labour, decentralization, co-operative principles, appropriate technology etc. and these have elements of inter-dependence so that taken together, they form a coherent system and in spirit., strive for mans welfare by keeping ethics as their essence and social welfare as prime objective. Some important concepts of Gandhian economics are given below. Village self-sufficiency: To Gandhi, every village must be economically self-sufficient at least in the production of their basic physical needs and for this he needed production by masses instead of mass production by machines. It was the only viable basis of stable economy, since a system of localized production and distribution would not suffer from drastic inflation and recessions to which a centralized economy naturally suffers. Gandhi conceived a broader view of rural development and asked people to cultivate rural mindedness, fully utilize the local resources for becoming self-reliant and these together constituted the Swadeshi movement. In exchange of letters with Nehru he drew a beautiful picture of the ideal village. My village will contain intelligent human beings. They will not live in dirt and darkness as animals. Men and women will be free and able to hold their own against anyone in the world. There will be neither plague nor cholera, nor small pox; no one will be idle, no one will wallow in luxury. It is possible to envisage railways, post and telegraph and the like.1 Trusteeship Trusteeship is a revolutionary economic philosophy of Gandhi. He was very much fed up with high- handedness of power and violence both in capitalism and communism and wanted some approach to solve these. As a result trusteeship is born. Sabina Sangvi 2 observes, at the time Gandhi as formulating his ideas of trusteeship the world has two principal methods of economics: capitalism and communism Gandhi had seen defects in both. Both have failed to provide fuller life for everybody. Instead of rejecting them straightway, he tries to incorporate some of the positive features of both, into his alternative plan of trusteeship. Trusteeship is a synthesis of capitalism and communism by eliminating violence By the concept trusteeship Gandhi meant that capital, should be owned, operated and managed for the benefit of the society and not for the capitalists private gain. He hoped that capitalist should voluntarily renounce the assets in excess of their requirement to the state or continue to hold them only as Trustees of the society. He said all people having money or property should hold it in trust for the society.3 Under the trusteeship scheme the rich people would kept for them only that much of wealth which is essential for a good standard of living. The rest would be meant for others in the society. Trusteeship would eliminate economic inequality.

It is true that Gandhis concept of trusteeship so far has not been tried. Gandhi himself was not sure of its practicability, but had full faith in it as he wrote I adhere to my doctrine of trusteeship in spite of the ridicule that has not been poured upon it. It is true that it is difficult to reach so is non-violence.4 Bread-labour An integral part of Gandhian economics is his concept of Bread labour, according to which every human being should earn his daily bread by his own labour. The Russian writer T.M. Bondaref first put forward this idea. Tolstoy took it up and gave it wide publicity. Gandhi, on reading Tolstoy was very much taken up with this idea and made it an integral part of his philosophy. Even if, he had not read Tolstoy, it is more than likely that Gandhi would have stumbled on it spontaneously in the course of his political practice. Gandhi recognized physical labour as a biological necessity. The body needs physical labour almost as much as it needs food, air and water. The concept of bread-labour fits into Gandhian thought in the following way. Gandhian socialism requires the capitalists to regard them as trustees of the property. It also emphasizes minimizing our wants to solve economic problem. The concept of bread-labour facilitate both. If a man works for his bread, he would maintain a sound health. He would want to eat wholesome food and live a natural life. This would automatically reduce his wants. Secondly, if every one did physical labour everyday, labour would acquire more dignity. Thirdly, when a capitalist does physical labour in his own factory he will not only understand the problem of workers, but also gradually realize that his income over and above what he earned through his physical labour is not legitimately his. Gradually he will think himself as a trustee rather than owner of the factory. Co-operative principles Gandhi emphasized the cooperative efforts in the field of agriculture small scale and cottage industries and in other fields of national interest. In agriculture, the small and fragmented holdings of land would be cooperatively cultivated to increase the production and minimise the cost. The small scale and cottage industries too would enjoy all advantages of large scale productions without practically getting into large scale. Decentralisation Gandhian economics believe in decentralisation. Planning should be made at the grass root level in which villages, individuals, and families would play a dominant role. In the decentralised planning means would justify the ends and not ends satisfying the means. The subject matter of economic planning would be man and his development. Promotion of rural and small scale industries would be the prime importance. Resources would be

conserved by avoiding wastage. What is waste in one becomes a raw material in the other. Gandhi was not advocating a stagnant self-sufficient village of the past but a vibrant and dynamic village economy which would not be made subservient to the urban cities. The decentralized system of production and independent village economy would also be a strategy against foreign invasion, since industries are not concentrated in a few urban centers. Decentralisation would prevent concentration of economic and political power in the hands of a few. It would also strengthen the village economy and stop migration to urban areas. It will help to reduce inequalities and leads to realisation of Gandhian socialism. Machinery and Technology Gandhi was not against machines or technology. He was in favour of appropriate machinery and technology. He wrote I welcome the machines that lightens the burden of millions of men living in cottages and reduces mans labour. 5 He was not against machinery but he was against all machinery designed for the exploitation of the people. In other words, he opposed large scale industrialisation. He had written that there is no room for machines that would displace human labour and that would concentrate power in a few hands.6 Regarding technology, it can be stated that Gandhi was not against technology, but he was in favour of appropriate technology. Appropriate technology, according to him was one, which, besides fully utilizing or augmenting the existing resources, would keep it need determined. Technology is essential if it is simple and usable by the masses. It should enhance the productivity of workers, and not replace workers. He favoured widely dispersed cottage and small scale industries using labour intensive technology as a solution to the problems of a labour surplus economy like India. Gandhi opposed establishment of large scale industries but he was not opposed to establishment of Iron and Steel, defense industries and other strategic large industries in the grater interests of the country. Having an idea about the Gandhian economic concepts, we need to explain the relevance of these principles in the contemporary economic scenario. India has stepped into the era of globalisation with the introduction of new economic reforms since 1991. Though some economic reforms were introduced by Rajiv Gandhi Government (198589), it was the Narasimha Rao Government that gave a definite shape and start to the new economic reforms or globalisation in India. The importance on liberalization, privatization and globalization has resulted in gradual withdrawal of unnecessary trade and business restrictions, encouragement to private initiatives and integration of the Indian economy to the world economy. Adoption of economic reforms or globalization has resulted in the overall economic development of the country. The growth of selected economic indicators in the post 1990-91 period has been shown in the following table.

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Growth of Selected Indicators Indicators GDP at factor cost at constant prices(Rs. Crore) Per capita NDP at constant prices(Rs.) Index of industrial productions (Base 1993-94=100) Index of agricultural production (Base 1981-82=100) Gross Domestic Capital Formation(as percent of GDP) Gross Domestic Savings (as percent of GDP) Foodgrains productions(Million tonnes) Electricity generation(Billion KWH) Forex Reserves (Rs. Crores) Source : Economic survey 2006-07 An analysis of the table shows that within 15 years of economic reforms, the national income, the per capita income, index of industrial and agricultural production, capital formation, savings, foodgrain production, volume of electricity generation, foreign exchange reserves etc. all have increased. The annual rate of economic growth which was only 0.5 per cent in 1991-92 and reached 5 percent in 1992-93, increased to 8.2 per cent in 1996-97 and 9 per cent in 2005-06.7 In the last four years the rate of growth of GDP has been impressive 7.5 percent (2003-04), 8.5 per cent (2004-05), 9.0 percent (2005-06) and 9.2 percent (2006-07). Prime Minister Manmohan Singh is confident of having a 10 per cent growth in the Eleventh Five year plan period. News papers say India is Shining. But actually India is shining only in part. There exist a more important part which remain neglected. That is the agriculture or rural sector on which majority of Indians depend for their livelihood. Social sectors have also not been able to develop adequately. Era sezhiyan 8 observes in 1951, agriculture provided employment to 72 per cent of the population and contributed 59 per cent of GDP. How ever by 2001 the population depending upon agriculture came to 58 per cent whereas share of agriculture in GDP went down drastically to 24 per cent and further to 22 per cent in 2006-07. This is resulted in a lowering of per capita income of farmers and increasing rural indebtedness. The growth rate of agriculture has declined. The agricultural growth rate of 3.2 per cent between 1980-97 decelerated to 2 percent in 2006. 9 The number of rural landless families has increased from 35 per cent in 1987 to 55 per cent in 2005.10 The inequality in rural sector is also quite high. The 61st round of NSS in 2003 observed that the bottom 51 per cent of rural household hold 2 per cent of land whereas the top 1 per cent hold 15 1990-91 692871 7321 91.6 148.4 26.3 23.1 176.4 264.3 4388 2005-06 2604532 20734 221.5 189.3 33.8 32.4 208.3 623.2 647327

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percent. The depressing rural atmosphere has lead to suicide of farmers. Agriculture Minister Sarad Power informed the Rajya Sabha on May 18, 2006 that roughly 1 lakh farmers committed suicide during the period 1993-2003. The situation of employment, health, poverty eradication etc are also discouraging. The proportion of unemployed to the total labour force has increased from 2.62 per cent in 1993-94 to 3.6 percent in 2004-05. The absolute number of unemployment has increased from 9.02 million to 13.1 million during the same period.11 Health sector is no better. The Approach Paper to Eleventh Plan conceded that the progress implementing the objectives of health have been slow. The paper says that the rates of Infant Mortality for India is 60 as against 13 (Srilanka), 30(China) and 19 (Vietnam). The Maternal Mortality Rate is 407 in India as against 92(Srilanka), 56(China) and 130(Vietnam). On poverty line, Prof. Rudder Dutt observed that the average decline in percentage of population below poverty line in the post reform period (1993-2004) is less (i.e. 0.74 percentage point) compared to the pre-reform period (1983-1993, i.e. 0.85 percentage point).12 It shows that the poverty eradication measures have been less effective in the post-reform period than in the prereform period. In the ranking of Human Development Index, India ranks 126th as per UNDP report 2006. About the impact of globalisation on the development of India, the ILO Report (2004) stated In India there had been winners and losers. The lives of educated and rich had been enriched by globalization. The IT sector was a particular beneficiary. But the benefits had not yet reached the majority, and new risks had cropped up for the losers, the socially deprived and the rural poor. Thus we observe that globalisation has failed to remove the problems of many important socio-economic sectors. Apart from these failure, globalization has other possible negative effects like loss of economic independence of India, fear of dumping, destruction of domestic industries, resource depletion etc. But India is already hooked on to globalization. So whether to globalize India or not is not the important question now. The important question is how the deficiencies and harmful effects of globalization can be adequately made up by the application of Gandhian economic principles so that a full-fledged growth can be achieved. The modalities of applications of Gandhian Economics can be chalked out in the following manner. The focal point of Gandhian economics is the village as it is the hub of all human activities in India. Gandhi was of the opinion that Indian villages needed to be viewed with more dignity as they support the Indian economy. Every individual and family in the village would actively engage in cottage, rural and small scale industries. The natural resources of the village would be best exploited through small scale and cottage industries without having an adverse impact on environment. These industries would mostly make use of the renewable sources of energy leading to conservation of non-renewable sources of energy. Emphasis on cottage and small industries would ensure maximum employment

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opportunities and solve the unemployment problem. There would be school, health center, post office and other basic requirements in every village. Within the village economy agricultural land would be cooperatively cultivated so that better inter-personal relationship would be established in the rural atmosphere. Co-operative method would also reduce the cost of production. Importance to village economy would lead to simultaneous growth of agriculture and industry throughout the country which would help to reduce inequality among the people and disparity among regions. Improvement of rural economy with provision of all basic facilities will check the rural-urban migration. But these activities needed to be properly coordinated with the help of an agency that is village Panchayat. This would be the central governing body at the village level enjoying all types of power. Moreover this would be truly a democratic body comprising people from different walks of life. It would give people an opportunity to acquaint themselves with the process of governance in a democratic manner. The system of village Panchayat would coordinate among all the economic activities that operate at the village level. The areas in the matter of national importance would be taken care of by the union government at the center. We can thus sum up the findings of the above discussion by subscribing to the view that the evil effects and deficiencies of the ongoing process of globalization can be aptly made up by the application of Gandhian economic principles to ensure a full- fledged development of Indian economy whereby the dreams of the father of the nation could be translated into reality. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. D.G.Tendulkar (1951-54): Mahatma, Life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (8volumes ), Vithalbhai Jhaveri & D.G.Tendulkar. E.F.Schumacher (1974): Small is Beautiful, Abacus, London. Govt. of India: Economic survey 1990-91, 1993-94, 1996-97, 1999-2000, 2000-01, 2005-06, 2006-07 Harijan, June 3 , 1939 Hiren Mukherjee (1960): Gandhi A study, Peoples publishing House. J.B.Kripalini (1961): Gandhi ; His life and Thought, Oriental Longman, Calcutta. J.D.Sethi (1970): Gandhi Today, Vikas Publising House, Bombay J.K.Mehta,(1985): Gandhian Thought, South Asian Books. J.L. Nehru (1958): A bunch of old letters. Jai Narain (1987): Gandhijis View of Political Power, Deep & Deep Pub. New Delhi

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11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22.

I bid. : (2003) : Alternative Economics, Deep & Deep Pub. New Delhi Mainstream, May 8, 2007 Mainstream, June 16, 2007 M.K.Gandhi (1957): From Yervada Mandir, Navajivan Publishing House, Ahemedabad. I bid, (1960): Socialism of my conception, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. I bid, (1970): Capital and labour. Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan. I bid, (1982): Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule, Navajivan Publising House. I bid, (1983): An Autobiography, Navajiban Publilsing House, I bid, (1946) : Harijan, July 28 Planning Commission, Govt. of India : An Approach Paper to the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12) S.K.Desmukh (ed.)- Trusteeship Concepts, Precepts and Practice. Young India, June 22, 1938.

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GITA: GANDHI AND NON VIOLENCE

A.N. Mishra* The Bhagavad Gita (Commonly known as the Gita) is one of the best representatives of Indian philosophical and religious textual heritage. It is the most translated and commented upon scripture of Hindu religion. The Gita is most synthetic in nature of its exposition as well. Consisting of seven hundred verses in lucid Sanskrit, the Gita is at once a guide book for every men ad women; transcending the barriers of time, space and personality. It is capable of binding itself to multifaceted interpretations and understanding. All Indian schools of philosophical thought and religious practices can and do interpret the Gita in their own lines of thought and seek sanctification from it. The early Europeans who translated the Gita found the reflections of their own religiosity in it and hence believed that it was a copy of the Bible (Urusula King, Iconographic Reflections of the Religious and Secular importance of the Bhagavadgita within the image world of modern Hinduism, New Essays on the Bhagavadgita; Compiled by Arvind Sharma, New Delhi p. 62-63). The Gita is universally acclaimed for its intense practical nature in addition to the philosophical expounding of the Indian or Hindu philosophical heritage. In volume, in style and in presentation, it is definitely more acceptable and intelligible to a vast range of readers than the Vedas and the Upanishads. It has caught the attention and caused the imagination of a number of thinkers, through Indias cultural history spread over centuries. In modern times great thinkers like Swami Vivekananda, Tilak, Gandhi, Aurobindo, Radhakrishnan and many others took it as a sacred duty to offer their commentaries on the Gita. Beside these stalwarts, numerous translations and commentaries in different regional languages have been successfully attempted upon with the growth ad development of vernacular literature in the country. In the era of post-independent India, the Gita still continuous to attract the real of versatile commentators like Swami Sivananda, Swami Chidbhavananda, Bhakti Vedanta Prabhupada and others. Numerous religious sanths as well as management wizards in their discourses regularly telecast through the T.V. Channels lavishly refer to the Gita to substantiate different points of view. The Gita assumed a special significance during the freedom struggle of India. Cantos from it were trumpeted to urge people into positive action from a state of inertia, apathy and inaction. It was used to justify violence as well as non-violence. The Bhagavadgita still remains powerful in forming the consciousness of upper class Hindus by furnishing the ideological sphere were they fight out their conflicts. (D.D.Kosambi, An Introduction to the Study of Indian History; Bombay, 1956, p-121). The overbearing influence of the text on the thought and actions of Gandhi is clearly discernable from his interpretation of the text. In the first half of the twentieth century, which witnessed the birth pangs of a free India, Gandhi immensely contributed towards the enrichment of Indian thinking. He played the most vital role in her political history and nationalistic upheaval, dominating the Indian political scenario
* Principal, Aeronautics College, Sunabeda.

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for nearly four decades. A prolific writer, Gandhi was essentially the destiny of the millions of Indians. Hence, it is worthwhile to attempt an analysis of Gandhis interpretation the concept of Non-Violence in the Gita, more so, when the world decides to observe 2nd October, his birth date as the International Non-Violence Day. Gandhi had influenced millions of people both in and outside India with his unique personal traits, sincerity of thought and the magical spell of his personal charm. It is surprising and impressive to find a private citizen without wealth, property, official title, position, scientific achievements, artistic gifts or the power of oratory, to have influenced so many people, people of the lowest wrong if the society to men of great achievements, in India and abroad. (Louis Fischer, The Life of Mahatma Gandhi, London, 1982, p-19). Gandhis life, stature and influence he exerted on others seemed almost to belong to another planet. He defied all expectations. Einstein aptly remarked, Generations to come, it may be, will scarcely believe that such a one as this (Gandhi) ever in flesh and blood walked upon this earth. (B.R. Nanda, Mahatma Gandhi, A Biography, New Delhi, 1982. p-8). An era of Indias history of freedom movement is termed as the Gandhian Era. In the years since his assassination Gandhian ideas have acquired an international appeal and have been shared by individuals and by peace movements throughout the world. His care for non-violence in thought & action, his numerous experiments with new political weapons like satyagraha & his voluminous writings, journalistic & personal; made him the most outstanding & dominating figure, from the twenties of the last century unto his death. A practical idealist, an exponent of the Bhagavadgita, the gospel of selfless action ad Satyagraha, the philosophy of truth and non-violence; Gandhi had many books published even though to himself he was neither a prolific writer nor a deliberate author. (Ronald Duncan, (Ed). The Writings of Gandhi, Oxford, 1983, p-30). None-the less, Gandhi with his recorded speeches, discourses and writings on various aspects of contemporary India and the world; still remains one of the most distinguished thinker - politicians in the history of mankind. Gandhis were known for their integrity and for the courage of their convictions. (B.R. Nanda, op.cit. pp 15-16). The teachings of Mahavira & Vallabhacharya, the songs of Mirabai & the poems of Narasinh Mehta exerted a great influence on the minds of the people of Gujrat in general and on that of the Gandhis in particular. In addition to these, his love for nursing the sick, his compassionate mind towards the ailing and the down trodden, his utmost faith in Ramanama; were attributed to his long experience from a very tender age, of attending to his sick father, the influence of his own nurse Rambha and the regular reading of the Ramayana before ill Kaba Gandhi (his father) by a pundit viz. Ladha Maharaj of Bilesvar. His mother Puthibai was deeply religious and orthodox in temperament. Her austerities, her strong will, left a permanent impression of uon Gandhi. His wife Kasturabais quiet practice of submission to suffering, taught the lessons of nonviolence and passive resistance to Gandhi (Ibid, pp 19-21). Vegetarianism, practiced out of deference to his parents, though was an inconvenient obligation in London for Gandhi,

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it became a mission, the starting point of a unique discipline of body and mind which transformed his life and personality. (Romainroland, Mahatma Gandhi ; Publications Division, New Delhi, 1976, p-27). In London Gandhi for the first time read the Gita in Sir Edwin Arwolds translation of the Bhagavadgita titled The Song Celestial. So far he had never read the Gita, neither the original nor a translated one. The two verses of the Gita by which Gandhi was permanently impressed are : dhyayato visayan pumsah. sangas tesupa jayate sangat samjayate kamah kamat krodho bhijyte II. 62. krodhat bhavati sammohah sammohat smriti vibhramah smritibhramsad buddhinaso buddhinasat pranasyati. II. 63. Sir Edwi Arold translated these as: If one ponders on objects of the sense, there springs Attraction; from attraction grows desire, Desire flames to fierce passion, passion breeds, Recklessness; then the memory all betrayed Lets noble purpose go, ad saps the mind, Till purpose, mind and man are all undone (M.K. Gandhi, The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, (hence forth Collected Works), vol. XXXIV; Publication Division New Delhi, 1972, p-60). In the words of Gandhi, . (these) verses in the second chapter made a deep impression on my mind, and they still ring in my ears. The book struck me as one of priceless worth. The impression has ever since been growing o me with the result that I regard it today as the book of par excellence for the knowledge of Truth.(Ibid). During the same period Gandhi read the Light of Asia, another book of Sir Edwin Arnold on Buddha, and Blavatskys Key to Theosophy and the Bible. The message of supreme forgiveness and non-violence of the Sermon On The Mount impressed him. His young mind tried to unify the teachings of the Gita, the Light of Asia & the Sermon on the Mount. He later declared, that renunciation was the highest form of religion appealed to me greatly. (Ibid). Gandhi was essentially an experimental personality. He titled his autobiography as the Story of My Experiments with Truth. Vegetarianism, passive resistance, satyagraha, Brahmacharya (celibacy), Aparigraha. (non-possession), Ahimsa (non-violence), Satya

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(Truth), Anasakti (non-attachment), Osteopathy, Hydropathy, dietics, fasting, penance, were all experiments deliberately and consciously carried out by Gandhi in his life time. From his childhood he had an interest in questions pertaining to morality, ethics and religion. And it was in South Africa he had an opportunity to study books of his interest on morality, ethics and religion. The book which was ultimately to form his strongest bond with Hinduism as well as the greatest influence in his life was the Bhagavad Gita. (B. R. Nanda, op. cit, p -98). To Gandhi Gita was not merely a book of ethics or metaphysics, but it was his spiritual reference book, a permanent infallible guide of his daily life. When doubts haunt me wrote Gandhi, when disappointments stare me in the face, and I see not one ray of light on the horizon, I turn to the Bhagavadgita and find a verse to comfort me; and I immediately begin to smile in the midst of overwhelming sorrow. My life has been full of external tragedies and if they have not left any visible or invisible effect on me, I owe it to the teachings of the Bhagavadgita. (M.K. Gandhi Young India, (7.8.25), quoted by Louis Fischer,op.cit. p.44). Truth, non-violence and morality were the summum bonum of Gandhis life and work. He judged every aspect of life including the teachings of the Gita by the tests of truth and non-violence. Truth and no-violence to Gandhi were like the touch stone of a goldsmith and anything that failed to register its absolute purity on either of it was rejected by him. He did not consider the shastras (scriptures) including the Vedas to be absolute. He had a simple formula, for reading and understanding a shastra. He wrote, I found the right method for reading for understanding the shastras. If any injunction in a shastra is opposed to truth, non-violence and brahmacharya, it is unauthentic, which ever the shastra in which it is found. The shastras are not above reason. We can reject any shastra which reason can not follow. (M.K. Gandhi, Hindu Dharma, Delhi, 1993, p 41). Gandhi, one of the most practical men of his times and his treatment of the Gita reflects his practical attitude. He drove every thought of his mind into its personal implications and practical applications. He had the whole of the Gita by heart, by regular practice of memorizing one verse every morning. while going through his morning toilet. (B.R. Nanda, op. cit p68). He constantly referred to the verses of the Bhagavadgita to sanctify his views and actions. All conversations, (with Gandhi) whatever their point of departure returned to the teachings of the Gita, the gospel of selfless action. (Ronald Duncan, The writings of Gandhi Oxford 1983, p.24). Gandhi cited the verses from the Gita to justify even nonviolence, which was quite uncommon to the Indians. His co-workers like Swami Anand and others requested Gandhi to provide a translation of the whole text of the Gita for a better understanding of his views actions, political weapons and ideologies. Just as acted upon by affection of coworkers like Swami Anand and others, Gandhi recollected the event in the introduction to Anaskti Yoga, his translation of the Gita and wrote : I wrote My Experiments with Truth, so has it been regarding my rendering of the Gita. We shall be able to appreciate your meaning of the message of the Gita, only when we are able to study a translation of the whole text by yourself, with the addition of such notes as you

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may deem necessary. I do not think it is just on your part to deduce Ahimsa etc., from stray verses thus spoke Swami Anand to me during the non-cooperation days. I felt the force of his remarks. I, therefore, told him that I would adopt his suggestion when I got the time. (M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works, Vol.XLI, op. cit. 1970, pp.90-91). Anasakti Yoga (literally, the yoga of non-attachment), the Gujrati Version of the Bhagavad Gita rendered by Gandhi with additions of his own commentaries and notes, was completed on June 27, 1929 by Gandhi. The book was published by the Navajivan Publishing House, Ahmedabad on March 12, 1930. The English translation of Gandhis Anasaktiyoga by Mahadev Desai bore the title The Gita According to Gandhi , which appeared first in Young India on 6.8.1931. However, Gandhi had translated the Introduction part himself, from Gujarati to English, while he was in the Yeravda prison (Ibid.p. 90). Prior to translating the Gita, during his sabbatical years in the Sabarmati Ashram, Ahmedabad, Gandhi had daily delivered discourses on the Gita before the ashramites at the time of their morning prayer, from 24 February 1926 to 27 November 1926. Notes were taken by Mahadev Desai and Punjabibhai, the inmates of the Ashram. These were subsequently edited and published by Narhari Parikh in 1955 under the title Gandhijinu Gitashikshan, an English version of which found its place in the Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, vol. XXXII; published by the Publication Division of the Government of India, in 1969. These discourses of Gandhi were subsequently published in 1980, under the title M.K. Gandhi Interprets The Bhagavadgita by Orient paperbacks. Earlier to this, Bharatiya Vidya Bhavan published Gandhis The Teachings of the Gita. Gandhi never claimed any scholarly understanding of the text or any spiritual or mystic experience being behind his understanding the Gita. He did not ever hope to replace the existing translations and commentaries, nor did he consider them to be inaccurate. Gandhi conceded that he was reading his own meaning into the Gita while commenting upon the verses. To him, This desire (of translating the Gita) does not mean any disrespect to other renderings. They have their own place. But I am not aware of the claim made by the translators of enforcing their meaning of the Gita in their own lives. At the back of my reading there is the claim of an endeavor to enforce the meaning in my own conduct for an unbroken period of 40 years. (Ibid. P.92). He was not writing his commentaries on the Gita for the scholarly higher castes, nor for the men of spiritual merit, but for the common people, particularly the Vaishyas the Sundras and the Women and for those who needed Gitas consolation to guide them selves through the mental turbulences in life. On the basis of his sincere edeavour to enforce the teachings of the Gita in his own life, Gandhi boldly justified his claim of authority to offer an interpretation of the Gita, which differed from the traditional views on many important respects. Gandhis approach to the treatment of the concept of war and non-violence in Gita illustrated his attitude to all the shastras. Everything written in Sanskrit was not a shastra for Gandhi. For understanding the meaning of the shastras in their true perspective, one

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must have a well cultivated moral sensibility and experience in the practice of these truths. The second rule to be followed in determining the meaning of a text in a shastra for Gandhi was that, one should not stick to its letters but try to understand its spirit, its meaning in total context. He argued. a poet puts a particular truth before the world, it does not necessarily follow that he has known or worked out all its great consequence, or that having done so he is able always to express them fully. A poets meaning is limitless. Like man the meaning of great writings suffers evolution. On examining the history of languages, we notice that the meaning of important words has changed or expanded. (Ibid,p.92). Gandhi believed that the shastras could be misleading for a reader who did not follow the rules of discipline and religious observances. He said, The shrutis and smritis do not become scriptures merely because they are known by these respectable names. Whatever goes against the eternal principles of truth etc cannot be religious. xxx in the language of the Gita, shastra can only mean, if meaning is to be acceptable to reason, the utterances of a sthitaprajna (Man of steadfast Intellect) xxx an ordinary person like me will have no other alternative than to serve the people in the light of his experience. (Ibid pp.177-78). He further says. To take up a work like Gita, without having equipped one self in this manner is the surest way of falling into the slough of Despond. It would be like taking up a study of botany without ever having seen plants. (M.K. Gandhi, collected workers, Vol-XXXII, op. cit.p-92). If Gita describes Krishna urging Arjuna to fight it could not be, to Gandhi, a justification of war or violence. Anybody who derives the justification of war or violence or killing from the Gita is not a true Bhakta nor is entitled to interpret a shastra. It is possible to draw any number of evil ideas said Gandhi, from the Bible, the Vedas, the Koran and other scriptures. I have come across people who justified even murder on the authority of these works. The Gita, however, will serve as a safe guide to any one who reads it with truth and non-violence as his guiding principles. (Ibid, p.314).Gandhi found the author of the Gita to have extended the meanings of words like Yajna or sannyasa. While yajna meant offering of animals, prior to the composition of the Gita, the Gita attached a different spirit to these words. Gandhi was convinced that by asking Arjuna to fight, Krishna did not intend to prove that violence was in consistence with renunciation of fruits of action. To quote Gandhi: The author (of the Gita) himself extended the meanings of some of the current words. We are able to discover this even on a superficial examination. It is possible that, in the age prior to that of the Gita, offering of animals in sacrifice was permissible. But there is not a trace of it in the sacrifice in Gita sense. In the Gita, continuous concentration on God is the king of sacrifices xxxx but never animal sacrifice. Xxx Let it be granted that according to the letter of the Gita, it is possible to say that warfare is consistent with, renunciation of fruit. But after 40 years of unremitting endeavor fully to enforce the

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teaching of the Gita in my own life, I have, in all humility, felt that perfect renunciation is impossible without perfect observance of ahimsa in every shape and form. (M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works, vol. XLI; op.cit, pp. 99-100). Gandhi, like all other headers of his time, was embraced by the snake of politics. For him politics without religion was like a corpse, only fit to be burried. (M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works, vol-xiii, p.221). Thus he tried to justify his political actions and ideologies by quoting from different religious scriptures. Since the Gita was his infallible guide and the spiritual reference book for his daily conduct, it becomes very interesting to study Gandhis approach in his treatment of the Gita vis--vis his socio political ideologies and his absolute convictions on the concepts of non-violence & truth. While analyzing the war setting of the Bhagavadgita, Gandhi was definitely disturbed. An apostle of nonviolence & a foremost leader of Indian politics, Gandhi was not prepared to accept the Mahabharata War in general and the Gita episode in particular as historical events! Violence in any form, even on the authority and sanction of the Bhagavadgita was not acceptable to Gandhi. To him the Gita was not an aphoristic work but a great religious poem. He questioned the miraculous origin of the principal warriors of the Mahabharata viz the Kauravas and the Pandavas. The Pandavas consisting of Yuddhisthira, Bhima, Arjuna, Nakula & Sahadeva whose fatherhood has been attributed to the five Gods viz Dharma, Vayu, Indra and Asvini Kumaras respectively on one side. On the other hand were the Kauravas, a hundred brothers, all born at the same instant, wrote Gandhi and asked, Have we ever heard of such a thing actually happening? (M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works, vol. xxxii. Op. cit, p.95-97). To substantiate his convictions, Gandhi argued that, A man cannot describe even a drop of water seen by him. God having created him so weak, how can he describe an actual event perfectly? (Ibid) Gandhi believed that Vyasa, the author of the Mahabharata depicted the characters of the epic symbolically. The battle between the Pandavas and Kauravas represents the conflict between the Countess Kauravas and Pandavas dwelling within us. It is a battle between the innumerable forces of good and evil which became personified in us as virtues and vices. (Ibid). The hypotheses that Mahabharata is not a historical event, that some of the places, events and persons referred there in might be historical, that wars were not taboo when the Gita was composed and that the battle field of Kurukshetra was only a symbol of the battle between good ad ever which rages in every human heart etc. are founded on Gandhis own intuition, logic and experience only. Gandhi did not claim any academic authenticity in favor of his conclusions. Highly learned people likeShyamji Krishnavarma, Vinayak Damadar Sarvarkar and others refused to accept what Gandhi interpreted. Consequently Gandhi had a wish: How much better it would have been if the sage Vyasa had not taken this illustration of fighting for inculcating spiritual knowledge. For, when highly learned and thoughtful

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men read this meaning in the Gita, what can we expect of ordinary people? If what we describe as the very quintessence of all shastras, as one of the Upanishads, can be interpreted to yield such a wrong meaning, it would have been better for the holy Vyasa to have taken another, more effective illustration to teach sacred truths. (Ibid.p.102). To Gandhi for whom on-violence was the paramount political weapon for Indias independence, the choice of Vyasa to convey great truths of life through a war setting was an error. However, Gandhi later realized that just as in Aesops Fables and in Panchatantra, the authors have created conversations among birds and animals to impart moral teaching, so in the Mahabharata virtues ad vices are personified and great moral truths conveyed through those figures. The description of the battle serves only as a pretext. (Ibid). To Gandhi, Vyasa, the author of Mahabharata did not think that fighting was wrong. Nevertheless, in the Gita, Vyasa according to Gandhi, wanted to prove the futility of a war, by making the victors shed tears of sorrow and repentance & by leaving them with nothing but a legacy of miseries. (M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works, vol XLI, op. cit, p.93). Gandhis mind was disturbed with two questions; 1) why did the author of the Gita take a war like illustration ?2) If the physical battle of the Mahabharata is nothing but an analogical or allegorical piece of destructive literature, does the Gita then prohibit violence all-together ? The answers to these questions are also provided by Gandhi himself in his following statements: The battlefield described here is primarily the one inside the human body . Fighting there well may be. But here (in the Gita) the physical battle is only an occasion for describing the battlefield of the human body. In this view the names mentioned here are not of persons but of qualities which they represent. What is described is the conflict within the human body between opposing moral tendencies imagined as distinct figures. A seer such as Vyasa would never concern himself with a description of mere physical fighting. It is the human body that is described as Kurukshetra as Dharmakshetra. It does become that, when used in the service of God. The epithet may also mean that for a kshyatriya a battlefield is always a field of dharma. ( M.K. Gandhi, Collected Works, vol xxxii, op at, pp 95-97). The object of the Gita appears to me to be that of showing the most excellent way of self realization.That matchless remedy is renunciation of fruits of action. This is the centre round which the Gita is woven. This renunciation is the sun, round which devotion, knowledge and the rest revolve like planets. Thinking along these lines, I have felt that in trying to enforce, in ones life the central teaching of the Gita, one is bound to follow the central teaching of the Gita, one is bound to follow truth ad ahimsa. When there is no desire for fruit, there is no temptation for untruth or himsa. Take any instance of untruth or violence, and it will be found that at its back was the desire to attain the cherished end. But it may be freely admitted that the Gita was not written to establish ahimsa. It was an accepted and primary duty even before the Gita age. The Gita had to deliver the message of renunciation of fruit. This is clearly broughtout as early as the second chapter.

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But if the Gita believed in ahimsa or it was included is describe less, wahy did the author take a warlike illustration ? When the Gita was written, although people believed in ahimsa, wars were not only not taboo, but nobody observed the contradiction between them and ahimsa. (M.K. Gadhi, collected works, vol. XLI op.at p.102). Arjuna was a Kshyatriya, for whom fight to protect the weak and uphold truth was a sacrosanct duty. In the battle filed of Kurukshetra Arjuna was despondent, not because he was averse to fighting, but to kill his Kunsmen (Srajanam) Gandhi refers to the repeated use of the term Srijanam in the second chapter of the Gita to establish that by putting the word kinsmen (srajanam) repeatedly in the mouth of Arjuna, the author of the Gita had tried to show into what darkness of ignorance Arjuna had sunk. In the past Arjuna never hesitated to fight even against his relations. Arjuna was a kshyatriya. He was kown as gudakesha, which means on who has conquered his mind, who is always vigilant. Gandhi was also convinced that Arjuna was a seeker who observed the disciplines of yama-niyama. He was a brahmachari in perfect control of all his senses. As a follower of shastras he was aware of the supreme value of on-violence. But in Kurukshetra he was possessed by a deep affect of inertia arising out of despandency which prevented him from discharging his duties as a Kshyatriya. In case Arjuna had an aversion to fighting by nature Krishna woulde have asked Arjuna to go to Duryadhana and win him oever his heart! But that was not the case. Arjuna decided to quit the battle field due to his attachmet to ego and his reason delusion arising out of it A person who believed in fighting and did not regard it as violence, though it is violence, is here being asked to kill (M.K. Gandhi, collected workers, op. at pp 100 104). Even Gandhi conceded that ahimsa (non-violence) is an ideal which it is impossible to realize to perfection. May be it is possible to realize ahimsa in thought but not in action. In human body, violence is inescapable because while the eyes wick and nails have to pared, violence I oe from or author is inevitable. Evil is inherent in action. Arjuna did not raise, therefore, the question of violence and non-violence. Non shri Krishna exhorted the Gita to support violence. Arjuna simply raised the question of distinction between Kinsmen & others, which according to Gandhi was due to Arjuna reason of relusion arising out of his ignorance ad attachment to ego. The cause of all spiritual evil is this ignorant attachment to ego & the central teaching of the Gita according to Gandhi is the surrender of all attachments to self. Throughout his discourses on the Gita during the daily prayer meetings at sabarmati Ashram Gandhi emphasized his stand on the setting of the Gita by repeatedly referring to the first chapter of even while analyzing the verses from its other chapters, and explaining the real motive of the author of the Gita behind his selecting the war setting of the Mahabharata. To Gandhi, what the Gita propounds on the common sense level is that, once plunged into battle, one should go on fighting. One is not expected to give up the task one has undertaken. Thus the illustration of war used in the Gita is not pointers or inadequate. But a wise man should not read a wrong meaning in it under any circumstances.

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MAHATMA GANDHI AND WORLD PEACE

Brahmananda Satapathy* The context is the Global Peace in the modern world and the text is Gandhian Philosophy for its attainment. The broad hypothesis is : World peace can only be realized through non-violence. There is no alternative to non-violence. The objectives of this paper are the following : i) ii) iii) iv) v) to state the problems / crises of the modern world ; to analyse the multi-dimension of Gandhis concepts of Non-violence and Truth ; to examine Gandhis views on state and his vision of democracy ; to present Gandhis interpretation and contribution to the formulation of Indias foreign policy and world-views ; and to establish an organic relationship between Gandhian principle and world peace.

The modern world is facing a multi-dimensional crisis ; a crisis that poses challenge to each and every aspect of our life. Among the outstanding aspects of this crisis are ; over-militarisation, nuclear proliferation and global reach of arms, overdevelopment and underdevelopment resulting in mal-development, a vast number of people suffering from poverty, hunger, and marginalization. Added to these are environmental degradation in the forms of abuse and overuse of nature and pollution and growing paucity of resources, denial of human rights, gender bias and injustice, crisis in the field of energy, mounting insecurity and violence, terrorism, war and conflicts , drug trafficking, AIDs . Besides there are corruption communalism, unemployment, regionalism, problems of language, ethical and moral degradation in private and public life. All these together pose a grave challenge to the world. Peace is far away so long as these problems exist. II Among the various political ideologies, democratic governance appears to be best because it is this very system which provides maximum opportunities of public progress and development. People can themselves decide the mode of their welfare. But, is the democratic system of governance free from above problems ? Therefore Gandhian philosophy is very much contextual today on this accord. Mahatma Gandhi treated his individual life in accordance with his ideas. He said my life is my message. Therefore Gandhism is a mixture of Gandhis concepts and practices. The basic groundship happens to be Non-violence. He
*P.G. Dept. of Political Science, Utkal University, Orissa

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practiced and prescribed non-violence as a remedy against all social evils. It is the most ancient eternal values and culture of India. He said on this account, I have nothing new to teach you . Truth and non -violence are as old as hill. Nonviolence and Truth are two sides of a same coin. A. Non-Violence Total non violence consists in not hurting some other ones intellect, speech or action per own thought, utterance or deeds and not to deprive some one of his life. In essence, abstinence in toto from violence is non violence. In this context Gandhi clarified in an edition of young India. . To hurt someone, to think of some evil unto some one or to snatch ones life under anger or selfishness, is violence. In contrast , purest non-violence is an epitome in having a tendency and presuming towards spiritual or physical benefit unto everyone without selfishness and with pure thought after cool and clear deliberations . The ultimate yardstick of violence or non-violence is the spirit behind the action. B. Non-Violence is perpetual From beginning unto now man has been ultimately treading path of nonviolence. It came into existence along with man. It is co-terminus with life. In case, it has not with man from the very beginning, there might have been self-doom by man. Besides there has been gradual enhancement in development and proximity in spite of presence of various obstacles and hurdles. C. Non- violence and Truth both are complementary to each other. It is more appropriate to say Truth is God, rather than saying God is Truth. He equated God with Absolute Truth as ultimate reality. Soul is the spark of this God of Truth. It is the moral, the spiritual force, the divine spirit which regulates our body and mind. It is the voice of God, the voice of Truth within us.

Both are two sides of the same coin. Both have same value. Difference consists in approach only. The derivation is that Truth stays with permanence and that Truth is permanent. Non-violence on account of being permanently present stays to be true. Non-violence is both a means and an end in itself. D. Non Violence is the strongest weapon. It is not a weapon of the weak. It has no place for cowardice. It is an active force. Non-violence is impossible without bravery / courage/ fearlessness. Doing at any cost something that one ought to do. The courage of dying without killing. Having decided upon the rightness of a situation, Gandhi would not

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like one to be passive spectator to evil. This is the essence of Non-Alignment which is different from neutrality. When freedom is menaced or justice is threatened or where aggression takes place we can not and shall not be neutral. E. Non-Violence has individual and social aspects too. It fosters co-operation and cooperation progress. Progress is difficult to achieve without co-operation. Cooperation is possible only when there is no violence. To him, regulation of mutual relations in society is through non-violence to considerable extent. He wished it to be developed on large scale. He called upon the people to continue to develop it in practice throughout life as the basis of life. Non- Violence is not utilitarianism

F.

It is All - Timely and all welfaristic. A non-violent is always ready to face punishment for the maximum benefit of all whereas a utilitarian is not. G. Complete unity and integrity of body, mind and soul in the individual human being. The body should be controlled by mind and the mind by the soul a harmony among three. But this control is not to be achieved by despising or neglecting either the body or mind or soul. Means are at least as important as, and often more important than , ends. It is, of course, desirable that ends should be good and reasonable. They give direction to life while the means adopted constitute life itself. It the means confirm to the test of truth and no-violence, even mistakes, errors, and failures aid the growth of the individual. We can not get a rose by planting a noxious weed. There is an inviolable connection between the means and end as there is between the seed and tree. The relationship between the two is organic. There must be purity of means . Those who grow out of violence, they will end in violence. This is what makes Gandhi distinctly different form Kautilya, Machiavelli, Bentham, Karl Marx, Lenin, Trotsky and other. III Examination of Gandhis view on state may, perhaps, lead to a better understanding of his vision of democracy. Sometimes a confusion is made between the acts of the individuals and those of the state, and it is expected that Gandhis State is to be non-violent. But how is the State act non-violently, when it represents violence in a concentrated and organized form ? Indeed a non-violent state is a contradiction in terms. It could only be called a non-violent stateless society. This is the ideal for Gandhi. Non-existence of State as cherished by Gandhi is impossible instantly or in near future. At the level of imperfect nature of man, among the existing states, democratic governance appears to be best.

H.

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But the paradox is that being theoretically the best system of government, there is tidal waves of violence and other related problems sweeping across the world and seems to be having no respite. Gandhi is certainly a staunch supporter of democracy. He believed that state is best which governs least and this is his second best ideal. He held the view that there are certain things which cannot be done without political powers, even though there are numerous other things which do not at all depend upon political power. While in ideal society, there is no room for the military and police, yet in the actual state there is provision for it according to the moral level of its citizens. Democracy should be intermingled with non-violence in even manner and governmental interference is minimum. The present democratic systems can overcome the problems most importantly violence and terrorism only when non-violence is accorded supreme status in practice as well as in principle and at social as well as individual plane. Only such a democracy can be successful in its real goal. The existing democratic deficit can be overcome by incorporating Gandhism in Democracy . Violence is not sacred, pure or welfaristic from any point o f view. Whatever is gained on the basis of it is impure and temporary. Democracy and violence can never be mutual. The basis of democracy is non-violence in toto. In it, people will grow accustomed spontaneously to observe their social obligations without the operation of the State. The more the individuals have imbibed the spirit of non-violence, the less the necessity of State. This is the implication of Gandhis concept of Swaraj. The attempt to win Swaraj is Swaraj itself. It is a developing ideal and is better than the best. Gandhi calls it indefinable. Whatever political institutions Gandhi accepted, he did so as a transitional device, to be transcended by better ones. No institutional device is final. They must involve with the evolution of the individuals. The state should work in the direction of development of nonviolence at individual, community, social and national levels. Gandhi believes that politics can remain pure and free of corruption only if and so far it is based on ethical principles- ethics which are common to all religions. He stands for the spiritualization and secularization of politics. Gandhi said : If they are to be truly made democratic, they must be valiantly non-violent. In case of its absence, democracy shall be there for namesake only and it would be better for it . Clearly be supporter of dictatorship. This democracy must be such that it should not warrant power of punishment. In it people will certainly be conscious of their duties. Peace requires peaceful method. There is no alternative to non-violence. IV Gandhis experiences in South Africa became his laboratory where he conducted experiments and formulated his worldview. The discovery was Satyagraha. The policy of apartheid by the White Minority Government made the lives of the

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millions of the coloured people deplorably miserable. Colonialism was legitimized. He valiantly fought against racialism, apartheid and colonialism. The historic challenge before him was whether the weak could fight the strong. Through his constant experimentation he realized that non-violence was the strongest weapon of the colonized masses and taught them to use it. He was able to induce courage and strength in the weakest of the weak and remorse in the hearts of the cruelest of the cruel and his belief that good exists in all humans, one only has to awaken that good within. On his return from South Africa, Gandhi took the leadership of Indian National Congress and adopted a positive and dynamic stand on international affairs. He said : My idea of nationalism is that my country may become free, that if need be the whole of the country may die so that human race may live. There is no room for race hatred here. Let that be our nationalism. He also said I do want to think in terms of the whole world. My patriotism includes the good of mankind in general. Therefore my service of India includes the services of humanity . Isolated independence is not the goal of the world states. It is voluntary interdependence. The better mind of the world desires today not absolutely independent states warring one against another, but a federation of friendly, interdependent states. The consummation of that event may be far off. I want to make no grand claims for our country. But I see nothing grand or impossible about expressing our readiness for universal interdependence rather than independence. I desire the ability to be totally independent without asserting the independence. From the beginning of the Non-cooperation Movement, Mahatma Gandhi emphasized the view that free India would have friendly relations with other countries. In the issue of Young India, 1 June, 1921. Gandhi wrote An India awakened and free has a message of peace and goodwill to a groaning world. Non-cooperation is designed to supply her with a platform from which she will preach the message. In November 1921 all India Congress Committee (AICC) passed a resolution, drafted by Gandhi, conveying to the neighbouring countries that the foreign policy of the then Government of India did not represent the Indian opinion and was formulated by the British Government for holding India in subjection rather than protect her border. Freedom movements in Asian countries drew inspiration, sympathy and support of the Congress.

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Under his leadership the Congress did not want to limit its outlook to fighting against British imperialism in India and thought of combating imperialism elsewhere in the world. In 1927 at its Madras Session the Congress declared that India could not be a party to any imperialist war and in no case should India be made to join a war without the consent of its people. In September 1933 Mahatma Gandhi wrote to Pandit Nehru : We must recognize that our nationalism must not be inconsistent with progressive internationalism. I can, therefore go to the whole length with you and say that we should range ourselves with the progressive forces of the world . Gandhi criticized the aggressive policies of Hitler and Mussolini. For India it is one of complete opposition to fascists ; it is one of opposition to imperialism. All India Congress Committee reaffirmed its determination to oppose any attempt to involve India in the war without the consent of the Indian people. After the outbreak of the Second World War, Gandhi supported the cause of Poland. Even despite British deception, Gandhi did not want to embarass Britain when she was engaged in a life-and-death struggle with Nazi Germany. It may be noted that after the outbreak of the Second World War, Gandhis insistence on the application of non-violence in the international arena led to his ideological break with the Congress organization. Realising the futility of war in June 1940, Gandhi went to the extent of unging Congress to declare that free India would not use any armed force for its defence. In September 1940 the A.I.C.C. passed the resolution. The A.I.C.C. stated its commitment to the policy and practice of non violence, world disarmament and world peace. During the war, the nationalist movement in Afro-Asian countries gained momentum. The end of the World War II was followed by the Cold War between the two Superpowers. In such a state of affairs, Mahatma Gandhi and Pandit Nehru propounded their doctrine of international amity and cooperation and resurgence of Afro-Asian countries for the sake of liberation from colonial rule. India made it categorically clear to keep aloof from all alignments. Asian Relations Conference was held from 23 March to 2 April 1947 in New Delhi. In this gathering both Gandhi and Nehru stressed the role of Asia and India in the promotion of world peace. Gandhi declared I would not like to live in this world if it is not to be one world. I would certainly like to see that dream realized in my life time. Gandhiji advocated voluntary inter-dependence of nations as against their isolated independence, and Universal interdependence rather than independence. The AICC in its resolution 1942 under Gandhi subscribed to an idealistic approach to Indias foreign policy. It expressed the future peace, security and ordered progress of the world demand a World Federation of free nations and on no other basis can the problems of the modern world be solved. Such a World

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Federation was advocated for the sake of the freedom of the member nations, prevention of aggression and exploitation of one nation by another, protection of national minorities, advancement. Gandhi advised the Asian delegates to convey to the whole world, particularly the West the message of Love and Truth. He said : The west today is pining for wisdom. It is despairing of the multiplication of atom bombs, because the multiplication of atom bombs means utter destruction not merely of the west but of the whole world, as if the prophecy of the Bible is going to be fulfilled and there is to be, heaven forbid, a deluge. It is upto you to deliver the whole world, not merely Asia, from that sin. That is the precious heritage your teachers and my teachers have left us. Gandhi was in favour of building up of a World Commonwealth. Gandhi in his speech on 15 September 1931 at the Round Table Conference (Second Session) said : Time was when I prided myself on being, and being called, a British subject. I have ceased for many years to call myself a British subject, I would far rather be called a revel than a subject. But I have aspired- I still aspire- to be citizen, not in the Empire, but in a Commonwealth; in a partnership if God wills it an indissoluble partnership - but not a partnership super-imposed upon one nation by another. Pandit Nehru formulated Indias foreign policy adopting Gandhian prescription. It found its expression in the formulation of Panchasheel. Panchasheel are five principles of peaceful co-existence signed between India and China in April 1954. These are : i) ii) iii) iv) v) Mutual respect for each others territorial integrity and sovereignty Mutual non-aggression Mutual non-interference in each others internal affairs Equality and mutual benefit and Peaceful coexistence.

The policy of Non-Alignment reflected the essence of Gandhian prescription and reiteration of Panchasheel. It has grown in to a gigantic movement having 118 countries as members and completing its 14th Summit. In fact, the Non-Aligned Movement (NAM) is rightly described Historys biggest peace movement. It stood for Atom for peace. The only possible answer to the atom bomb is non-violence. As Pandit Nehru used to say I would call ours the authentic Gandhian era and the policies and philosophy which seek to implement are the policy and

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philosophy taught to us by Gandhiji. There have been no break in the continuity of our thoughts before and after 1947. V Mahatma Gandhi is a practical idealist. He is not a pacifist. The impact of Gandhian message on Dr. Martin Luther King Jr. was so profound and electrifying that he practised the message and techniques for the liberation of the black people in America. He also deserves to be considered as the first public figure who sensed and articulated the common concern in respect of environment. He taught Earth is our mother and we are her children . A mother can satisfy the needs of her children but not greed. Hence limitation of human wants. He strongly pleaded for liberation and upliftment of women. If women are empowered and reign the world, it would be a peaceful world. Gandhi is a postmodernist in the sense that he has harmoniously balanced the multiple identities. There is no private Gandhi and Public Gandhi. He has prescribed basic education for cultivating and nurturing moral life. The ultimate ideal of Non-violence and Truth is unrealized and unrealizable ; its value consists in pointing out the direction , not in their realization. Striving after the ideal is the very essence of practising Gandhis philosophy. This consciousness should make one strive to overcome the imperfection. Mahatma Gandhi did not have a shadow of doubt that the world of tomorrow will be, must be, a society based on non-violence. Bibliography 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Ravindra Kumar, Relevance of Gandhism in the Modern Polity, in the book Mahatma Gandhi, Interactive Multimedia, Electronic book, 2007. ______, Essays on Gandhism and peace, Meerut, Krishna Publication, India, 1999. ______, Theory and Practice of Gandhian Non-violence, Mittal Publications, New Delhi, 2002. M.K. Gandhi, Satyagraha in South Africa, Ahmedabad, Novajivan, 1950. ______, An Autobiography or The Story of My Experiment with Truth, 1956. ______, The Selected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, 6 Vols. 1968. Gene Sharp, The Politics of Non-violence Action, Boston, 1973. K. Santhanam, Basic Principles of Gandhism, in the book, Mahatma Gandhi, Interactive Multimedia, Electronic book, 2007. B.S. Sharma, The Ideal and Actual in Gandhis Philosophy, in the book Mahatma Gandhi, p.cit., 2007.

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10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16.

R.N. Iyer Means and Ends in Politics, in the book Mahatma Gandhi op.cit, 2007. M.B.Byles, Gandhi Through the Eyes of Gita, op.cit. 2007. G. Ramachandran, The Essence of Gandhi, op.cit, 2007. D.N. Pathak, Gandhi-From Culture of violence to culture of peace, op.cit., 2007. S.C. Gangal, The Gandhian way to world peace, 1960. Martin Luther King Jr., the Trumpet of conscience, 1967. S.N. Rath, Jawaharlal Nehru: His Approach to Internationalism in the book S.Rath (ed.) Jawaharlal Nehru: The Nation Builder and Architect of Indias Foreign Policy, Anu Books, Meerut, 1992. B. Pradhan, Idealistic Cornerstones of Jawaharlals Foreign Policy, op.cit. Meerut, 1992. A.C. Pradhan, J. Nehru and the evolution of India outlook on international affairs in pre-independence era, op.cit, Meerut, 1992. J.Nehru, The Discovery of India, New Delhi, 1981, pp.402-21. Young India, 1st June 1921. S. Gopal (Ed.), Selected works of Jawaharlal Nehru, VII, New Delhi, 1975, p.602. Acharya Bhabananda, Rachanabali (1) Samalochana O Anubada Sahitya, Mayur Publications, Bhubaneswar, 2002. Sanford Krolick and Betty Cannon, Gandhi in the Postmodern Age: Issues in War and Peace, Colorado School of Mines, USA, Colorado, 1984.

17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23.

There are innumerable definitions of God, because his manifestations are innumerable . But I worship God as Truth only. I have not yet found Him, but I am seeking after Him. I am prepared to sacrifice the things dearest to me in pursuit of this quest. Even if the sacrifice demanded my very life, I hope I may be prepared to give it. But as long as I have not realized this Absolute Truth, so long must I hold by the relative truth as I have conceived it . Often in my progress I have had faint glimpses of the Absolute Truth, God, and daily the conviction is growing upon me that He alone is real and all else is unreal. Let those, who wish , realize how the conviction has grown upon me ; let them share my experiments and share also my conviction if they can. - Gandhi

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Gandhigiri Revisited : Reflections on Mahatma Gandhi - A Performed Leader

N. Pani* Mahatma Gandhi is an International icon, Martyr and Champion of nonviolence. As a performed leader of the world he is well acknowledged and his life became a message to the world. His passion for values and work coupled with his skill provides excellence in shaping word peace and order. Mahatma Gandhi Led India. India is celebrating 150 years of First War of Indian Independence 1857. Presently Gandhism revisited in cross borders. World is a fan of Gandhigiri exhibited in Lage Raho Munna Bhai. The powerful mantra - Satyagraha, Nonviolence and Truth - of Gandhigiri helps common man (am admi) to solve social problems. The image of Mahatma Gandhi is people oriented and values and spirit of Gandhisim is people centered. Leadership essentially means influencing people. Gandhi influenced not only people of India, Africa, Britain but also people of America. The buzz word of his performed leadership is participation of people. He had high concern for people and high concern for work. So, he could be named as a Team Manager as per Blake and Moutons Managerial Grid Theory of Leadership. Really Gandhi Led people by heart and managed the work by mind. He had a dream of New India then. Accordingly he marched ahead. Currently affected by terror, global order is rethinking of non-violence for conflict resolutions. As a matter of fact the principles of Gandhism, the vision of Mahatma in areas of socio-economic and political environment are discussed below. Undoubted, his ideas are key to peace and brotherhood of modern society in this globalization era. And India needs reinventing of Gandhisim to solve encounted multifarious problems and to fulfil the vision of India. In one word fasion is to rediscover Gandhism. In this regard Gandhis views as to socio-economic and political ideas are placed below. Economic Idea Gandhi was a practical man. He designed ways and principles to fight Indias freedom struggle. As a ground work he championed the cause of indigenous economy system. Its characteristic, as designed, was self sustaining and egalitarian economy. His economy model is based on poverty reduction and rural dynamics. Utilisation of Indias natural resources was a step towards this direction. It is a fact that he was against machine. That was the underlying principle for which he developed Khadi and advocated Swadeshi goods. No doubt spinning would create employability and increase per capita income of the poor peasants. Really his championing the cause of village economic independence and sustainable agriculture
* Reader in Public Administration, DDCE, Utkal University

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are landmarks in history. Side by side he was opposed to industrialization, a factor in individual growth and development. Gandhi focused human factor which is now the guiding principle in Human Resource Management. Political Ideas Economic development of rural India is dependent on political power to rural India. This is the underlying principle of Panchayati Raj- a form of self-governance at village level. Mahatma Gandhi said Independence must begin at the bottom..it follows, therefore, that every village has to be self-sustained and capable of managing its affairs. Empowerment of rural India was the vision of Gandhi. Really his dream of Gram Swaraj became a reality with the enactment and introduction of Panchayati Raj system . And this dream became constitutional with the 73rd Amendment Act 1992. That provides for Village Panchayat, Panchayati samiti and Zillaparishad. Establishment of Gram Sabha at the village lord. Seat reservation for Scheduled Castes and Scheduled Tribes. Reservation for women (1/3 of seats). State Finance Commission for important of finances of Panchayats. Non-violence Bullet: Shooting of Terrorism Terrorism is a menans in 21st Century, better to say a cancer in modern social order. It is rampant all over the world and particularly in India. Indias track record in cracking terror cases is pathetic (Times of India (29th August, 2007) as given in exhibit-1 below : Exhibit -1: Terror Cases in India (1993-2007) May,12,1993 Feb,14,1998 Dec.,13,2001 Sept.,24,2002 Aug.,25,2003 Mumbai July,29,2005 Oct.,29,2005 July,11,2006 Feb.,19,2007 May,18,2007 Aug.,25,2007 (Source Times of Searial Blasts, Mumbai Bomb Blasts, Coimbatore Parliament Attack, New Delhi Akshardham, Gandhinagar Gateway and Zaveri Bazar, 53 dead, 161 hurt Shramjeevi Exp., Varanasi New Delhi Train Blasts, Mumbai Samjhuta Exp., Panipat. Mecca Musjid, Hyderabad Hyderabad India : August29,2007). 257 dead and 1400 injured 58 deal 200 injured 12 killed 34 dead and 81 injured

12 dead, 52 injured 61 dead, 92 injured 187 dead, 700 injured 68 dead, 125 injured 14 dead, 100 injured 42 dead, 54 injured

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As such 47,37 people died in terrorist violence during 1994-2005 and 4666 people died in terrorist violence (non-noxalite) during 2002-2006. And globally 9/11 and 7/7 attack in US and UK were more horrifying. True, may causes can be ascribed to terrorism. High population growth rate, unemployment social conflict (Religious and ethics), underdevelopment and poverty and territorial conflicts are major causes of terrorism in India. Terrorism is intended to cause death or serious body harm to civilizations : (UN Security Council : 2004). Further terrorism involves violence and the threat of violence. (Walter Laqueur ; Center for Strategic International Studies). It tries to exhibit fear psychosis among the common man. Sometimes it is political goal directed. Additionally it may take several forms and magnified the conflicts. In pre-independent India struggle for freedom experienced violence. Mahatma Gandhi used the weapon of Non-violence (Ahimsa) to resolve conflict. Necessarily non-violence was key to Conflict Resolution. Towards value, Gandhi used the technique of fasting. It is pertinent here to present example. That is But the this one

Gandhi was against the creation of Pakistan in 1944. This culminated in Unrest and Jinnah declared August 16 as Direct Action Day. It resulted in killings of 5000 people and 15000 wounded in Calcutta. This spreaded to other parts of India. Furthermore people died in Bihar. To ease the Hindu Muslim tension Gandhi warned to take fasting until death. Consequently, tension claimed down though riot was there sparsely. Gandhisim : Key Principles Gandhism is a collection of principles, values and ideas. It has a wide boundary . It touches all individuals. The ideas are : a) Satyagraha Gandhi opined that I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and nonviolence are as old as the hills. The terms means truthful effort. b) Truth In Gandhijis philosophy Truth is God . (The Story of My Experiments with Truth.) c) Ahimsa Gandhisims journey was a destination truth. Truth is the foundation of Gandhian philosophy. Really it is an undeniable fact that the truth is far more powerful than any weapon of mass destruction (Gandhi). And the foundation of it is faith and courage.

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Ahimsa is the highest duty. Even if we can not practice it in full. We must try to understand its spirit and retrain as far as is humanity possible from violence (Gandhi). d) Brahmacharya or Celibacy It not only purified Gandhiji but calmed aggressive mind. Besides, it negates lust and develops a positive control mechanism within self. e) Vegetariasim Gandhis teaching of non-violences cools a persons and aggressive attitude. And in this direction vegetarism food habit is a major aid. f) Khadi : Mission Indianisation Gandhi adopted Khadi clothes to promote employment opportunities in rural India and to eradicate poverty and to balance social and economic inequality. Side by side Gandhi wanted to develop an identity to Indian Culture. Presently Congress Party adopted this culture icon as the official party uniforms. Further khadi was also a protest movement against violence of economic policy of British Government. g) Fasting Fast Unto Death was a technic of conflict resolution and a problem solving approach. Necessarily it is a control mechanism. Though fasting is hardship to health yet Gandhi had undertaken this fasting thrice. 1922 1934 1947 h) : Chauri Chura Incident : Communal Award : Hindu - Muslim Riots

Simplicity

Simple living and high thinking is the motto of Gandhism. While professing simplicity urban living style failed to touch him. Even if he renounced the gifts and reduced himself to zero. So to say his swearing of dhoti symbolizes his love for common man. Really Gandhi is small in material and big in spiritual. i) Faith Faith is the one of the main beliefs of Gandhism. It is derived from Hinduism. Gandhi had strong belief in Gita-righteousness in all walks of life. The beginning : Fight Against Discrimination Gandhi visited South Africa in 1893. A train incident evoked a softness in Gandhi. He promised to eradicate racial discrimination and finally succeeded. True,

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Gandhi was then a leader of fragmented Indian-coming from all parts. On returning to India in 1915 as a matter of fact he became a true leader of India, above the regional and parochial factors. He was then known by Mahatmaji- a title was given by Rabindranath Tagore. Necessary he became so, as he had the skill of a performed mass leader. Gandhi : The Home-Maker Mahatma Gandhi was a good home maker also. This was exemplified from his ideas on a) b) c) d) e) f) g) h) i) j) k) l) m) Birth Control and family planning Vegetarianism and timely food habits. Scarifies and renunciation of material things. Brahmachasya to control self, lust, love for wife and spiritual purity. Use of home made medicines. Simple living Compromising attitude and Nursing and missionary attitude. Economic Planner Ideas on Recycling of things. Focus on mothers education for development of children- future of nations Ideas on cleanliness. Duty to father- the second Guru.

Gandhi- Seven Deadly Sins As noted Mahatma title was given to Gandhi by Tagore. So the other view is Mahatma title was given by Nautamial Bhagavanji Mehta on Jan.,21,1915 Mahatmaji was of the view that SEVEN SINS will destroy humanity. Seven sins are : Wealth without work Pleasure without conscience Knowledge without character Commerce (Business) without Morality (Ethics) Science without Humanity Religion without Scarifies Politics without Principles. (Stephen R Convey (1990), Principle Centered Leadership).

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And Gandhi was of the view these sins can be negated by following natural principles and laws. It is true as Gandhi said all human beings are prone to sinful actions. But he believed that punishment to such actions are the responsibility of the God. Social Reformer Gandhi became a great social reformer. More particularly he was a catalyst of social change. His strong convictions caurage and understanding of social life were pointers of changing social structure. Unmistakably one can say with his novel problem solving approach and weapon of non-violence he removed Britishers. He was a great change manager. Gandhi approved inter caste marriage. He designed castes called Harijana and Girijana, Scheduled Caste and Scheduled Tribes. As a matter of fact with his magic wand he fought against untouchability. Gandhian Model :Development initiates Gandhi dreamed of development of individual and quality of life. There by he was not against globalization or global collaborations. But he was not favourable to be the slave to naked globalization- which is practised today. However he excelled in developing rural India, as put earlier. He identified (approx) 7,00,000 villages with India. If villages evaporate India will be no where. Development of village brings empowered people, an employment capacity building. For such development Gandhi was of the view that the village development was linked to village industrial development. And for conflict resolution each village should have a village panchayat. In one word he dreamed of a sustained village and potential social harmony. Moreover, Gandhi was a creative leader with his innovative technique of Salt Satyagraha and Dandi March, the basic way to fight against injustice. Really these are the techniques of Things TO DO. Conflict Resolution : Gandhian Technique of Satyagraha Satyagraha stands for protesting false through non-violent ways. He tought that it was a potent weapon to resolve conflict. Preamble of the constitution of UNESCO reads since wars begin in the minds of men, it is in the minds of men that the defenses of place must be constructed. Prior to this Gandhi talked of world peace. In Hindu Dharma Mahatma wrote The world will live in peace only when the individuals composing it make up their minds to do so (Hindu Dharma : Gandhi). Necessarily attitude to peace is vital in the dirty environment of conflicts rippled with religious fundamentalism, violation of Human Rights, discrimination, poverty and inequality in distribution of economic resources. In this new million Gandhian formula of peace is a potent way to resolve conflicts and violence. As such the peace formula comprises of the ideals of Satyagraha, Swaraj, Sarvodaya, Swadeshi, Sarva Dharma Sambhava Social Harmony and Communal Unity. Additionaly

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his ideas on decentralization of power, wealth, economic inequality and trusteeship are more pointers to peace. Exhibit-2 given below represents Gandhian Formula and Conflict Resolutions. Exhibit - 2 Gandhian Formula : Destination Peace Conflict / Problem Moral Crisis Religious Fundamentalism Educational reform Social Disturbance Solutions / Resolutions Nonviolence, Ashram, Anasakta Karma Sarva Dharma sambhava, Tolerance, Respect towards all Religions. Nai-Talim Removal of untouchability, communal unity, sarvodaya, Upliftment of women, prohibition, service of Backward classes, village sanitation. Swaraj, decentralization of power, Democracy of Enlighted majority. Trusteeship, swadeshi, Breed Labour, Khadi & Village Industries, Decentralisation of Wealth

Political Conflicts Economic Problems

(Source : Chhaya Rai : Gandhijis Role and Relevance in Conflict Resolution). The above problem solving approaches also culminated with Vratas enunciated by Gandhiji : They are 1. Village Industries 2. Removal of Untouchability 3. Village Sanitation 4. Upliftment of Women 5. Communial Unity 6. Services of Backward Classes 7. Prohibition 8. National Language 9. Basic Education 10. Adult / Education Further to resolve conflict Gandhiji advised the assimilation of valuesforgiveness, truthfulness, non-violence, love, friendliness, mercy to self. Also in the fulfillment of conflict resolution he used, as noted above, a powerful means Fasting Unto Death. So, Satyagraha- a moral and human atom bomb to win over opponents and resolve conflict with love, Sarva Dharma Sambhav- a vaccine to check religious conflict and awaken creative values, social realities and knowledge of good governance are major steps of Gandhian philosophy in furtherance of peace and brotherhood.

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Gandhism Cross : Broder Setting Mahatma Gandhi was a global leader and he was the product of globalization. His leadership came to limlight in South Africa first, not in India. Gandhiji was not opposed to globalization. Excess of it is threat to culture, and economic balance. He was prepared to accept what are good, not as every foreign things are good. "I do not want my house to be walled in on all sides and my windows to be staffed . I want the cultures of all lands to be blown about my house as freely as possible. Bu I refuse to be blown off my feet by any" (M. K. Gandhi : Hind Swaraj and other writings). Cross broder dealings are very old. Presently India is in the grip of diet coke, LCD TV, Luxury Cars and high end technologies. These are all the effects of globalization and western consumerism to which almost every urban Indians are trapped. To illustrate the phenomenon it is to be marked that new trend in consumerism is the indebtness. In Housing Loans burden between 1991 to 2005 is ratio of 40 : 84 and the total consumer war burden is 26 : 93 (Tol : 2006). Despite the debate of plus and minus points of globalization. Culture mix is the way of development. And it provides a comparative dynamics for development. A comparison of development index of China and India are presented below in exhibit 3 to emphasis the cross border co-operation. Exhibit - 3 Indicators China and India : Widening Differences China 5.33 4.091 9.9 34.9 1.612 6233 4155 72.5 8 23 45 1.8 910 185 India 2.33 2.126 34.3 80.4 276.0 3034 2688 63.7 47 56 430 0.9 265 46

GDP in $ Trillon GDP per capita Population below $1 / day (%) Population below $2 / day (%) Fony reserves $ Trillions Rice Productivity kg / hectare Wheat Productivity kg/hectare Life Expectancy (years) Underweight children % Infant mortality rate % Maternal Mortality Rate % Public Health Expenditure % of GDP Telephones (Million) Internet Users (Millions) (Source Times of India : 13 January, 2008).

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And it is a matter of knowledge and technology transfer to equip one State with other States of the world. India is marching towards economic globalization and Indias growth is sky rocketing. Yet, as noted above, the case of is beyond comparable to China. So Gandhi talked of economic globalization focusing on self sufficiency on most and dependency on some. This Gandhian idea of self sufficiency is the corner stone of Indias foreign policy today. Gandhi pleaded for peasants rights. But in the name of globalization, we are bartering away these with WTO resolutions. Gandhi was opposing the cutting of tree for industrial purposes. And the modern form for it is Green Movement / Chipko movement. Further Gandhiji was opposed to womans outside work as they were the rule maker and director of home affairs. But with globalization and western culture this value system has changed. Indira Nooyi has became a top ranking Pepsi corporate women. Really Gandhis few concepts are prone to close globalisation. And present India has to compete in the technologically advanced countries for survival. So cross border economy with self reliance, Gandhian way, is a must for development of India. LRMB Technique : Icon of Gandhigiri A number of films have been made including Gandhi My Father released in July 2007. Gandhi My Father shooted and premiered in South Africa. Further a best known film is Lage Raho Munna Bhai, the bolywood of Gandhigiri and screened first in UN. In it young generations are imbibed with popular Lage Raho Muna Bhai Techniques of Gandhigiri to solve problems. As such the cardinal principle of Lage Raho Muna Bhai Techniques of problem solving approach are : 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Tolerance Truth Faith Love Non-violence Accommodation Mutuality of Interest Persuation Scarifies

And these are the qualities of a performed leader be in in social life or corporate life.

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Legacy of Mahatma Gandhi Recently during 2006 South Africa observed 100th anniversary of Mahatma Gandhis Satyagraha at Durban in the presence of Prime Minister of India, Manmohan Singh. This is a greatest tribute to Mahatmaji while Thabo Mbeki acknowledged that Mahatma Gandhi, the native son of India and at the sometime a beloved son of South Africa as well, provided the unparallel leadership and example that inspired the triumphant march to freedom and democracy in India in 1947 and in South Africa in 1994 (1st October,2006 : Thabo Mbeki). Further Mahatma Gandhis respect for integrity, truth and non-violence symbolized American Civil Rights Movement, which celebrated golden jubilee in 2006. Gandhian teachings, moreover influenced leaders of the world such as. Martin Luther King, Nelson Mandela, Khan Abdul Ghaffer Khan etc. and political movements. A plethora of books have been written by celebrated authors on life and thoughts of Gandhi. UN announced on 15th June 2007 to declare 2, October, Gandhi Jayanti of India, as International Day of Non-Violence. Further Mahatma Gandhi was great, is great and will remain great. Gandhi, as a leader had profound impact on life and thoughts of Americans. As such a tribute to Mahatma Gandhi by few Americans are placed below in Exhibit-4 for appreciation. (Norman Consins : 1968). Exhibit - 4 What They Say : Reflections on Gandhi.
Views The means adopted are not violence, not bloodshed, not diplomacy as one understands it nowadays, but they are purely and simply truth and non-violence. From my background I gained my regulating Christian ideals. From Gandhi I learned my operational techniques. Gandhi meant by, Mahatma as insignificant man. Gandhi! Gandhi the Beloved! Mahatma! The great Soul of India All religions belong to Gandhi Is non-violence a form of direct action? I asked Gandhi replied It is not one form, it is the only form. Mr. Gandhi is the greatest Indian since Buddha. Like Buddha, he will be worshiped as a God when he dies, One has to go back centuries to find men who appealed as strongly as Gandhi did to the conscience of individual. Authors

Will Durant

Martin Luther King JO Davidson Frederick Fisher Welthy Honsinger Fisher Howard Thurman

John Gunther Louis Fischer

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I remember the last conversation best, because in it Gandhi revealed a side of his character that has been little publicized, this was his sense of humor. Robert Trumbull The Gandhian concept of soul-force is a mystic one and seems to me the secret of Gandhis technique of influence, if not of his doctrine, seemed to me a little clearer after I had actually seen him practicing it at his prayer meeting. Edmond Taylor The charkha illustrates a major tenet of Gandhi. When individually considered man is insignificant, even like a drop of water, but in the mass he becomes mighty and powerful like the ocean. Margaret Bourke white Gandhiji, however was one those prophets who General Doughlas lived far ahead of the time. MacArthur Gandhi was essentially a man of peace and inspite of Earl Warren his advanced age was still devoting his entire life to that cause. This spirit of Mahatma Gadhi will live and grow and his influence will increase with the years. Dr. Henry Grady Gandhiji was one of the deathless few across the centuries, Arthur H. who have lifted human character to immortal authority Vandenberg who made humility and simple truth more powerful than empires. Mahatma Gandhi was honor and esteem in all America as a world leader for peace. Joseph W. Martin, Jr. Mahatma Gandhi died by violence as he was staking his life in order to set the examples of non-violence. Walter Lippmannn Every-one concerned with a better future for mankind must be deeply moved by the tragic death of Gandhi. Albert Einstein Speak the truth and let a man overcome anger by love. Let him overcome the liar by truth (Buddha). Like Buddha it was Gandhijis urge to liberate man. Edgar P. Snow Mahatma Gandhi belongs to the coming age of hope Thus he gave a key to understanding both himself and the age. Ralph Templin I was one among a multitude of persons who were blessed with Gandhis friendship. John Haynes Holmes The greatness of Mahatma Gandhi was not simply that he freed India, but that he himself grew toward. Truth. Herrymon Maurer Mahatma Gandhi was a combination of west and east. E Stanley Jones

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Mahatma Gandhi is the very embodiment of the democratic process and spirit. You and I have no rights to anything until the millions are fed and clothed better. The people loved him (Gandhi) for his sacrifice and renunciation; it was, largely, the secret of his enormous influence with them and was what made it possible for him to become a national leader. Gandhi was also a key to the revolutions of our time. Of all the revolutionaries who have dominated this centurys stage-Lenin, Mussolini, Hitler, Stalin and Mao-Gandhi alone offered no less important to understand this history than to study the course of fascism and communism. The wit and wisdom of Gandhi is for us to live by and not merely to quote. The wit and wisdom of Gandhi can be lived not only by saints, but also by sinners, by those of us who are average, as Gandhi insisted to was average. If ever men achieve a world peace to no single man will it owe a greater debt than to Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi.

Clare and Harris Wofford Donald Harrington

Eleanor Roosevelt

Chester Bowles

Homer A Jack Norman Thomas

Source : Norman Consins (1968); Profiles of Gandhi Gandhi : A Critical Insight Gandhi is synonymous with Without truth Nothing, Hindu cultural and religious values. Gandhians are also Muslims-Khan Abdul Ghafferkhan, ChristiansHorace Alexander, Jewish-Herman Kallenbach. As such Gandhigiri is of omni present. It crossed border, gender sensitiveness , sex and race factors. Simplicity and truthfulness are prime qualities of Gandhians of yesterday, today and tomorrow. Non-violence, Satyagraha is the weapon to fight against injustice. He was a great fighter against poverty, untouchability, injustice, ignorance, alchoholism and struggle for freedom. Despite his positive contribution to India and world order he was criticized by Jinna and other Pakistanis for neglecting political rights of Muslims. Controversies are there on this topic as Vinayak Damodar Savarkar and Pravin Togadia criticized Gandhis ideology on this point of appeasing Muslims. Moreover, while world appreciates Gandhis non-violence, few were in favour of achieving Indian Freedom at guns point. At a later point Gandhi stated There was a time when people listen to me because I showed them how to give fight to the British without arms who they had no arms ..but today I am told that my non-violence can be of no avail against the, (Hindu-Muslim riots) and, therefore, people should arm themselves for self-defence.

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Obviously his rigid Ahimsa attracted criticisms. Rose has thorns, Moon has darker side, yet fragrance and cool shine are beauty of rose and moon respectively. Undoubtedly there may be darker side of Gandhi, but the rising side of Gandhi made him world leader also in the present new millennium. A Final Word Gandhi is rediscovered. Gandhigiri is back in India. It is a fashion now. Gandhi envisioned a Self Sufficient India. Presently India is facing crucial challenges. To put a few are : 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) 8) 9) 10) 11) 12) 13) 14) 15) To empower people. Redefining Legal system and to tackle problems of 3ps- Policies, Power and Population. Tackling Population explosion. To combat illiteracy. A clear cut division between Rich and Poor- unequal distribution of wealth. Widening cultural divide. Mounting Unemployment. Tackling of Terrorism Environment and Sustainable Development. Social and Economic Imbalance. Never setting Sun-Corruption Pseudo Secularism. Livilihood for all. Unsafe basic living environment. Education for all.

In this milieu Gandhigiri is touching the horizon of Indian imagination. So Gandhi is back and touched young Indians. On this commemoration of 150 years of First War of Indian Independence can the vision, filtered with circular-lense, save India from the challenges India is facing in Liberisation, Privaisation and Globalisation era ? Can the reinventing in Gandhism focus India as a stronger State in coming days ? References 1. 2. Fischer, Louis, (2002) The Essentials Gandhi : An Anthology of his Writings on his life, Work and Ideas, Vinitage, New York. Dutta, Dadage, M. S. Mishra (1995). Fundamentals of Gandhism, Mittal Publications, New Delhi.

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12.

Pani, Narendra (2002), Inclusive Economics; Gandhian Method and Contemporary Policy, Sage, New Delhi. Weber, Thomas (2006) Gandhi, Gandhism and Gandhians, Roli Books Ltd. Gnahdi, M. K. (1929) An Autobiography, The Story of my Experiments with Truth. Ganesh S, Lage Raho Munna Bhai, The Economic and Political Weekly, 14 , October, 2006. Gupta, Batim D, Gandhism in Business, The Telegraph, 10 Ocober,2006. Mandela Nelson (2003) Long Walk to Freedom : An Autobiography, London. Richard Falk : Gandhi, Non-violence and the struggle Against War at http:// www.transnational.org/forum. James Morrison (2003), Legncy of Gandhi, The Wasington Post, 13 August,2003. Lerner, Brenda Wilmoth & K. Lee Lerner (eds) (2006) Terrosim : Essential Primary Sources, Thomson Gale. Gandhi, Mohatma, (1994), The Colleced works of Mahatma Gandhi, New Delhi Publications Divisions, Ministry of Information and Broad Casting, Government of India. Bhana, Surendra and Goolam Vahed, (2003), The Making of a Political Reformer : Gandhi in South Africa : (1893-1914) Manohar, New Delhi. Bondurant, John V (1988) Conquest of Violence : The Gandhian Philosophy of Conflict, Princeton. Norman Cousins (1968) Profiles of Gandhi. Stephen R Convey (1990), Principle centered leadership. Simon & Schuster, West Garden Place, London. Yogesh Chadha, Gandhi A life www//wikepedia.

13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18.

There is nothing to prevent us from profiting by the light that may come from the West. Only we must take care that we are not overpowered by the glamour of the West. We must not mistake the glamour for true light. - Gandhi

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Lage Raho Muna Bhai (LRMB) Technique : Icon of Gandhigiri

Charubala Pani* Lage Raho Munna Bhai- (carry on Munna Bhai) directed by Rajkumar Hirani was released in 2006 . This symbolizes Gandhigiri. In otherwords Gandhigiri became a fashion now. This film stands for a social transformation through techniques of Gandhism. It is a story of under world don-icon of violence. Later he was imbided with Gandhigiri- Satyagraha, non-violence and truth and became a true Gandhian. LRMB (Lage Raho Munna Bhai) has tremendous impact on culture of India. It touched the popular imagination of the young Indian mass . LRMB is opposite of goondagiri as it professes Gandhigiri. It is touchy as in the film Bapu is used for Gandhis name who preached truth and humanism through out the film is a bid to solve problem. Essentially Gandhigiri has became a problem solving approach and LRMB techniques revolutionized the impact of Gandhi on society and world order. This film was screened at 2007 Cannes Film Festival and was declared a block buster. Further it is the first Hindi film to be shown in the United Nations. Films on: Theme Gandhi Recently in July 2007 Gandhi My Father a film which displays the conflict between father and son was released. Prior to the latest film a number of films have been released on the life and thoughts of Mahatma Gandhi. Lage Raho, Muna Bhai provides solutions to problems. But Gandhi My Father could not solve the problems of Gandhis son. Once Gandhi said, the greatest regret of my life are two people; I could never convince My Muslim friend Mohammed Ali Jinnah and my own son Harilal Gandhi. The film Gandhi (1982), directed by Richard Attenborough and starring Ben Kingsley was made on life of Gandhi. It is criticized on the ground that Gandhi did not bring independence alone single handedly. Another film was The Making of the Mahatma directed by Shyam Benygal was on the theme of Mahatma Gandhis 21 years stay in South Africa. Further in 1998 film Hey Ram was produced by Kamal Hasan on the theme of assassination of Gandhi. But the film LBMB is of a different taste and encompassing effect on the minds of people of India as well as of world. LRMB- The Dramatic Plot Sanjay Dutta in the film played the role of Munna Bhai. Munna is helped by Circuit and Arshad Wassi played the role. And the language they choose is Bombaiya Hindi, a dialect specific to the Indian city of Mumbai.
* Senior Lecture in Home Science, Womens College, Dhenkanal

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As story goes Munna is in love with the voice of Jahnavi, a radio jockey. Munna plans to meet her. An occasion arises on the Gandhi Jayanti day- when birth day of Gandhi was celebrated. Jahanvi announces a contest on life and belief of Gandhi. Munna wins the contest by kidnapping and by bribing a group of Professors. After that Muna is granted an interview with Jahnvi as a reputed Professor of History and specialist on Gandhian philosophy. Later on Jahnavi asked professor Munna to deliver a Lecturer on Gandhi philosophy. For this the cheater Munna learned heard and prepared thoroughly on the life and works of Gandhi. During his study the miracle Bapus image appeared before him and offered help and advice to solve problems. Here Munna is advised to practice truth first. It is very hard and difficult on the part of Munna to tell the truth to Jahnavi. Munna succeeded in winning the heart of his lover by telling the truth. Bapu, very often appeared before Munna who sang Raghupathi Raghava Rajaram in memory of Gandhi. This is the turning point of Munnas life. With truth he get the most loved one inspite of his past record of violence, goondagiri, lieing and cheating. Later on the spirit of Gandhigiri (non violence and truth) shapes the life of Munna. Consequently Munna with Jahnavi co-hoasted a radio programme - Gandhigiri - to solve everyday problems. Power of Gandhigiri : Destination Problem Solving Problem1 : Lucy Singh and Simran are father and daughter. Lucy is a unscrupulous business man. Generally he engaged Munna and Circuit (Goondas) for his nefarious and underworld activities. Simran Loves Sunny (Abhishek Bachchan) and intends to marry him. Sunny is the son of business magnet Khurana.) Khurana opposed the marriage as she is mangalik. Lucky captured the Second Innings House through unfair means. In return Munna launches a non-violent protest as advised, by Bapu to regain it. His protest is named as Get Well soon Lucy' and asks audience of radio show to send flowers to help. Lucy recovers from the disease of dishonesty. Munna, Circuit and senior citizens help them, Jahnavi and other sweet sixty people begin a peaceful satyagraha in front of Lucys House. This is a acid test of Gandhigiri- as truth, non violence, faith, accommodation, mutuality of interest, tolerance are working to solve the problems of dishonesty and unscrupulousness. Meanwhile Jahnasi leaves Munna. Munna is trickled by Lucy. Muna, without being disappointed continues to adopt Gandhigiri. This speaks of high tolerance capacity In the final Lucy returns the house and became a fan of Gandhigiri. Jahnavi returns to her sweet heart- Munna and Simron married to Sunny.

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Problem-2 Victor DSowza lost his fathers money in stock market. He tells the truth to his father to balance the loss by working as a driver. Problem-3 A retired teacher who was denied of his due pension gets everything through LRMB technique of non-violence. As such the LRMB Technique Formula is presented below as exhibit 1 for clear understanding. Exhibit-1: :LRMB Technique: Problem Solving Formula

(LRMB Technique Model : Problem Solving Formula developed by Dr N Pani & Dr C Pani ) Truth : First Munna tells truth to Jahnavi and conquer the heart. Non-violence : In front of Luckys House Satyagraha is arranged to transform Lucy. Tolerance- Tolerance changed Lucy, brings back Jahnavi to Munna, resolves Simrans marriage and Munna to succeed as a whole.

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Faith, Love, Accommodation, Mutuality of Interest, Persuation Sacrifies- Muna practices all these values as inspired by Bapu, the maker. Also there are other small sub themes. However throughout the film the spirit of Gandhism / Gandhigiri Fashion prevails. Gandhigiri was taught to common man through cinema / visual presentation. Really Gandhigiri is dry and when it is presented with visual effects it takers are many and effectivity is heart touching. Essentially, it solves problems through convincing and it controls social justice related factors governed by astrology. The Making of LRMB Munna Bhai MBBS was a hit. So the second film on Gandhi by Rajkumar Hirani was given the title of Lage Raho Munna Bhai. It is a fact first name of the film was Munna Bhai Meets Mahatma Gandhi, Secondly it was retitled as Muna Bhai 2nd innings and finally the name was given as LRMB. The main interest of the film maker is the revival of Gandhism in the nude age of terrorism. In fact Gandhism was a forgotten past. But with LRMB Gandhigiri gets a new momentum. As to details of Lage Raho Munna Bhai Table 1 is given below :

(Source website)

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The director Hirani admits certain facts during interview. That it is true that many people do not know who is Gandhi and what is the implications of Gandhi Jayanti. Many also did not know the first name of Gandhi. Further while writing the screen play they (Hirani and Abhijat) are trying to insert provocation, crying and laughing scenes to make the Gandhian philosophy more heart touching to the common man. Circuit and Munna practice the role of after seeing the Muna Bhai MBBS. LRMB - Impact of other Films Munna Bhai series takes the prime actors Munna and Circuit. It seems that LRMB is more similar to the wish of Laurel and Hardy. Besides in LRMB while in making, the director was inspired by Harishkesh Mukherjee. Further certain scenes are copies of other films. In LRMB Bapus image was seen. In Oh God (1977) God appears as an old man. Like the film Good Morning Vietnam (1987) an opening line for radio show was same. Again the song Pal Pal Har Pal is a copy of the song (Theme for a Dream , Cliff Richard). Acceptance Level : High Profile of LRMB Lage Raho Munna Bhai was well accepted in India and other countires as it propagated Gandhism. As a bollywood film its earning is of Rs.69.97 crores. Besides financial success it has been rated a Block buster and rated U, Universal suitable for all ages, in India. It was screened also in United Nations on 10th November 2006 with the introduction by UN Under Secretary General, Sashi Tharoor. Its impact at world forum is so great that UN declared 2nd October as International Day of Non-violence on 15th June 2007. Mission LRMB : Spread of Truth and Non-Violence It is a fact Gandhi played an important role in making India free and independent with the use of non-violence missile. In LRMB context Satyagraha by Munna and Jahnavi to get back the house is a similar to Indias struggle for freedom. As the film was a hit, the theme Gandhigiri was also suddenly engulfed everybody. Increasingly Gandhian philosophies non violent protest, love to enemy by presenting flowers become the center stage of life style of young Indian people. Some uses khadi, some cap and some hands over roses to enemies. Gradually Gandhigiri is more practiced by urbanities . The reality is the hit of the film. In the process Gandhigiri becomes hot. Eventually Munnas role becomes a role model for gangsters with simplicity of Bapu and his problem solving messages. Also the spirit of LRMB is to metamorphose underworld dons and terrorists to follow non-violence and healthy practices. Only time will tell its impact on society in future.

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Gandhigiri Protests : Contemporary Scene The gaining grounds style Gandhigiri is practiced in India and world. In U.S. during July,2007, hundreds of flower bouquets were sent to United States Citizenship and Immigration Service Office by the Green Card applicants. Due to effect LRMB on 17th July 2007 USCIS had done some favour in accommodating requests. So Gandhian technique- a LRMB model is to protest the wrongs peacefully. Moreover in India people organized protests on pattern of LRMB in Lucknow and peasants in Vidharva Region. Again South Africa celebrated 100th anniversary of Satyagraha in South Africa in 2006. And our Prime Minister Mr Manmohan Singh declared for establishment of a new Public Service Bill to combat corruptions. Additionally, LRMB techniques are also applied to solve managerial problems and to resolute positive or negative conflicts in this 21st century. Above all after more than 100, years Gandhism survives and showed the way as to journey 'corruption minimization' in free India. Gandhi was the message and brand Gandhigiri by LRMB (A comedy carrier) is the message now. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. Ganesh S, Lage Raho Munna Bhai, Economic and Political weekly 41 (October 14-20)2006. Ghosh, Arunabha, Lage Raho Muna Bhai : Unravelling Brand Gandhigiri 41, Economic and Political weekely December 23-29, 2006. Ramachandra Sushri, Jolly good Bollywood, Munnabhai rescues Mahatma, The Tribune, September 23,2006. Lage Raho with Munna Circuit Comic Books Diligent Media Corporation, 23, March 2007. Louis Fischer (ed) 2002, The Essentail Gandhi : An Authority of his writings on his life work and Ideas. Gandhi, M. K. Satyagraha in South Africa. Gandhi, Rajmohan (1990) Patel : A Life, Navajvan Publishing House. Hunt, James D (1978) Gandhi in London, Promilla & Co., New Delhi. Bhana, Surendra and Goolam Vahed (2005), The Making of Political Reformer: Gandhi in South Africa, 1893-1914, monohar, New Delhi. Bonidurant, John V. (1988). Conquest of Violence : The Gandhism Philosophy of Conflict , Princeton. Yogesh Chadha, Gandhi of Life. www//wikipedia.com.

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GANDHI ON THE FIRST WORLD WAR

Santosh Kumar Sethi* Mahatma Gandhis contribution as a thinker of Indias Freedom struggle and of the 20th Century was immense. It is now generally agreed that Gandhis views and thought was a gradual evolution, though fundamentals of Gandhism may have continued without little change, yet Gandhism was and is still dynamic today. It was shaped and influenced by contemporary events. The First World War was one such event of great importance. The First World War broke out shortly after Gandhi had come to an agreement on the Indian question in South Africa. Gandhi learnt of the outbreak of the First World War on his voyage to England as a preparatory to his eventual departure for India.1 All the complexities with which Gandhi was caught, like Satyagraha, place of violence and non-violence the debate between the Moderates and Extremists Congress, the question of Empire and war were reflected in his response to the First World War. The present paper is a brief attempt to represent Gandhis response to the war in his own words. The two basic issues under focus were Gandhis attempts to raise a corps of volunteer for nursing in England in 1914 and later in India attempts for enlistment of Indians as soldiers in the army in 1918. The only source used in this paper is Gandhis own writing and speeches. The presentation of his ideas shall be followed up with an analysis. The limited analysis excludes a review of literature and the points of views of other scholars on this issue. In Madeira, Gandhi heard that the Great war had broken out while he was on his way to England. War was declared on 4 August 1914 and Gandhi reached London on 6 August. On arrival in England Gandhi was caught with a dilemma whether to take the side of England or not, whether the Indians should use the opportunity of the difficult hour of their opponent, whether to offer any help to the British in view of his principle of non-violence. In addition to these he wondered how the Indians could offer any help when they have been near completely disarmed by the British and were being treated as a secondary race if not slaves. Within few days Gandhi had come to terms. I knew the difference of status between an Indian and Englishmen, but I did not believe that we have been quite reduced to slavery. I felt then that it was more the fault of individual British officials than of the British system and that we could convert them by love 2 He added I thought that Englands need should not be turned into on opportunity, and that it was more becoming and farsighted not to press our demand while the war lasted. I therefore adhered to my advice and invited
*Sr. Lecturer, Department of History, K.B. College, Barang.

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those who would enlist as volunteers . 3 Gandhi had adopted a similar line during the Boer War in South Africa. He recognized the dilemma, never the less. It was quite clear to me that participation in war could never be consistent with Ahimsa. But it is not always given to one to be equally clear about ones duty. A votary of truth is often obliged to grope in the dark. 4 Within four days of his arrival Gandhi had come to a firm conclusion that he should offer his services as a non-combatant. He w rote to the Under Secretary of States on 10 August 1914, Owing to the crisis, both Mr. Kallenbach and I are now stranded here and both of us hope shortly to be able to offer our services as non-combatants during the crisis that has over taken the Empire. 5 About fifty Indians issued a circular on 13 august 1914 calling for placing their services unconditionally during the crisis at the disposal of the authorities.6 As soon as Gandhi made his intension of serving the injured known, he was criticized both by followers and opponents for violating his avowed principle of non violence. Explaining his stand he wrote to Mangalal Gandhi, But I found that, living in England, I was in a way participating in the war, London owes the food it gets in war time to the protection of the navy. Thus to take this food was also a wrong thing. There was only one right course left, which is to go away to live in some mountain or cave in England itself and subsist there on whatever food or shelter nature might provide, without seeking assistance from any human being. I do not yet posses this spiritual strength necessary for this. It seemed to me a base thing, therefore, to accept food tainted by war without working for it. When thousands have come forward to lay down their lives only because they thought it their duty to do so, how could I sit still ? A rifle this hand will never fire and so there only remained nursing the wounded and I took it up . 7 Gandhi never absolved him of the tint of violence. He noted those who confine themselves to attending to the wounded in the battle can not be a solved from the guilt of war. 8 However Gandhi had no narrow and unrealistic vision of Ahimsa Ahimsa is a comprehensive principle, . man can not for a moment live without consciously or unconsciously committing outward Himsa, the very fact of his living . necessarily involves some Himsa . He ( a votary of Ahimsa) will be constantly growing in a s elf restraint and compassion but he can never become entirely free from outward Himsa.9 Explaining his political motive he w rote I had hoped to improve my status and that of my people through the British Empire.10 More than a decade after the incident Gandhi had no qualms over his involvement. He wrote, even today I see no flaw in that line of argument, nor am I sorry for my action, holding, as I then did, views favourable to the British connection. 11 Having explained Gandhis views in his own words for raising a voluntary nursing corps we may turn to its working. About fifty Indians under his leadership

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underwent a training in first-aid and nursing. Soon Gandhi and his companions developed difference of opinion with Col. R.J. Baker over the issue of appointment of section leaders. Conceding that military discipline would not allow any such lever Gandhi claimed a position of primacy and right to consultation in the capacity as Chairman of the Volunteer Corps. He wrote I assure you that I am most anxious to please you as our Commanding Officer, but I am equally anxious to serve my countrymen many of whom have joined this movement upon my advice.12 He also wrote to India office calling for discontinuance of direct recruitment by Col. Baker,. For he feared, the Corps would loose its national and voluntary character.13 In view of Gandhis illness he had no scope to work actually as a volunteer. Finally the Indian Volunteer Corps went to Netley hospital and offered its services. Gandhi probably had in his mind the objective of organizing the corps and returning to India as and when conditions improved on arriving in India he noted, After all, all my work, so far as the organization of crops was concerned, was finished, and that as both of us were ill, we should at once return to India . 14 Gandhis political activities on return to India since January 1915 is well outside the scope of this paper. And as the outline of his activitings is too well known it is not specified here. It is quite interesting to observe that Gandhi seldom commented on the Great War again until 1918. He hardly responded to the international events which the world was experiencing. Gandhi continued to work for Indias freedom struggle through the Champaran and kheda movement. He attended the War Conference on 29 April 1918 and issued the first leaflet of appeal for enlistment in the Army on 22 June 1918. He issued the second leaflet on 22 July 1918. He continued with his efforts for enlistment almost up to the end of the war. After the war political events in India took a different turn and Gandhis attention also moved away to other issues and movements which he launched. In the second leg of the paper an attempt is being made to analyze Gandhis views on enlistment. Gandhis love for the British Empire still remained intact up to the end of the First World War. Noting his love for the Empire he said, I discovered that the British Empire had certain ideals with which I have fallen in love, and one of those ideals is that even subject of the British Empire has the freest scope possible for his energies and efforts and whatever he thinks is due to his conscience. I think that this is true of the British Empire as it is not true of any other Govt.s that we see.15 He still cherished the hope that India would become an equal partner in the British Empire along with Australia and Canada and felt that to be the feeling of Indians. He said travelling all over India I have gathered that her people want to live, as those of Canada and Australia do, as citizens having equal rights with the Government. We want it to obtain our consent for carrying on the war and only then ask us to contribute in men and money. If our intention is

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not to leave the empire, it is to our advantage to work with the British as our partners.. Our duty is two fold : to resist injustice and take the necessary steps to end it and at the same time to stand by the Govt. in its hour of difficulty . we loose nothing by trusting and so I have no hesitation in advising people to join up.16 As to the motive of the British he was not prepared to conceded a higher tone nor did he feel the Germans to be completely fiendish. He noted, is the war which England is fighting one for land ? Surely not why, she felt, should Germany be allowed to have her way ? Germany, too, on her part, is fighting for her self respect. She wants to vindicate herself. 17 And added at another time. I refused to credit it (Germany) with exclusive fiendishness.18 As enumerated earlier Gandhi was cognizant of the impossibility of living without violence and thus he was not Prepared to take a stand that he or India had nothing to do the with the First World War. He noted, under exceptional circumstances war may have to b e resorted to as necessary evil.19 He supported the cause for participating in the war as it might give the opportunity to participate in a peace talk. He noted, there is no speech in which. I have yet said, Let us go to kill the Germans. My refrain is, Let us go and die for the sake of India and the Empire, and I feel that supposing that the response to the cal is over whelming and we all go to France and turn the scales against Germans, India will then have a claim to be heard and she may then dictate a peace that will last. 20 Besides his love for the empire and the possibility of participating in the peace talk Gandhi advocated the creation of an army out of his and the nationalists efforts to join the British for the sake of Swaraj. Fear and timidity was one of the worst enemy of t he Indians and for Gandhi the non-violent Satyagrahi is not one who opts for non-violence out of timidity or lack of capacity. Non-violence was always for Gandhi a weapon of the strong, the brave and the capable. Sayings of Gandhi are appended herewith, in tune with the above. Abroad, terrible blood shed are going on, in the war in the Europe, the British have proved themselves as brave people. We want to be partners of these heros. We shall command respect as such only if, in company with t hem, we make ourselves a heroic people . 21 When the people become physically fit and strong enough to wield the sword, Swaraj will be theirs for the asking . I know that we are utterly timid. People afraid of even a squirrel had much better think of improving their own condition than of getting Swaraj. Here we have an invaluable opportunity for getting back the capacity to fight which we have lost and we should not miss it . 22

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As long as we have to look to Englishmen for our defense as long as we are not free form the military, so long we can not be regarded as equal partners with Englishmen, it behaves us, therefore, to learn the use of arms and to acquire the ability to defend ourselves . Hence the easiest and straightest way to win Swaraj is to participate in the defense of the empire. 23 Indians have a double duty to perform. If they are to preach the mission of peace, they must prove their ability in war, but it is true a nation that is unfit to fight cant from experience prove the virtue of not fighting. I do not infer from this that India must fight. But I do say that India must know how to fight. 24 I have seen for myself, that India has altogether lost the capacity to fight, it has not a particle of the courage it should have . Nor do they have the strength to fight back docaites should any descend on the village. Can a nation whose citizens are incapable of self-defense enjoy Swaraj ? 25 We are not entitled to demand Swaraj, till we come forward to enlist in the army. 26 To sacrifice sons in the war, ought to be a cause not of pain but of pleasure to bravemen. Sacrifice of sons at this hour will be a sacrifice for Swaraj. To the women, my request is that they should not be alarmed by this appeal but should welcome it. It contains the key to their protection and honour. 27 If we want Swaraj, it is our duty to help the Empire and we shall undoubtedly get the reward of that help if our motive is honest, the Govt. will behave honestly with us . Assuming for a moment that it will not do so, our honesty should make us confident of our success. It is no mark of greatness to be good only with t he good lies in returning good for evil.28 Even though Gandhi pleaded for enlistment he was not uncritical of the British. He criticized the Govt. for not granting commissions to Indians in the army, for not repealing the Arms Act, for not opening schools for military training. Similarly Gandhi was conscious of the possible bargaining power that India may gain. Besides, we shall learn military discipline as we help the Empire, gain military experience and acquire the strength to defend ourselves. With that strength, we may even fight the Empire should it play foul with us . 29 He added, The half a million men whom we shall raise will go with love of Swaraj in their hearts, when they, comeback they are bound to get Swaraj if they have learnt military discipline, half a million others will be roused. 30 Gandhi had yet another reason. He did not want India to pass from British Empire to a less sympathetic imperialist power. He observed, If the worst

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happens to India, which God forbid, and she passes into the hands of some other nation, Indias piteous cry will make England hang her head in shame before the world and a curse will descend upon her for having emasculated a nation of thirty crores. 31 Gandhi continued with his efforts to t he last even practically without any success. In his analysis the failure was not due to a unpreparedness to co-operate with the English or to use the difficult hours to our advantage but for simple timidity. He wrote in a letter, I find great difficulties in recruiting but do you know not a man has yet objected because he would not kill. They object because they fear to die. The unnatural fear of death is ruining the nation. 32 Gandhi was also cognizant of views different from his but the paper excludes an analysis of other views. One way quote from Gandhis letter to S.N. Benerjee to point out how his plea was based on good faith, I simplicity believed that if we were to devote our attention exclusively to recruiting, we should gain full responsible Govt. in a years time, if not sooner. 33 Gandhis point of view on the twin issues of our focus may be summerised. Indians were not yet reduced to slavery and it was still open t o them to offer their help to the English in their hour of crisis and aspire to a position of partnership in the British Empire. India could aspire for a dominion status like Canada and Australia. The ills of the British Raj was mostly due to individuals and the system had not completely failed and was not irreparable. Principle of non-violence and compassion does recognize the existence of violence in life and nature. Ahimsa as a comprehensive principle thus does not exclude violence or war all the time. Under existing circumstances offering services as non combatant even though not free from guilt or tint of war was still justifiable. Under the principle of non-violence one may refuse to hold a rifle or indulge in violence personally but nature would not allow him to remain away from the war, thus it was best for him to offer services as non-combatant. As a leader of corp of volunteer Gandhi did not relinquish his leadership over the group and persisted with his political overtones. His participation in the voluntary corps was not benefit of political motives. The continuance of British Empire was still justifiable. It was in Indias interest that she does not pass away from British Empire to another imperialist power. The war motives of the Empire was not wholly justifiable and Germany was also not completely a fiendish power. Indians must participate in the war and enlist in large number under nationalist

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leadership for the following reasons. To cure themselves of timidity and to develop as a brave race. To prove their responsibility as they claim equality and partnership. To participate an equal terms in the peace to follow. To acquire the ability for self defence. To create an army of half million holding Swaraj dear to their heart. The plea was based on good faith and not an preconditions. It was self explanatory that no British Govt. could neglect an army under nationalist influence and control. Failure any large scale enlistment was due to refusal to fight out timidly and not out at any conviction in the principle of non-violence on the part of Indians. To conclude Gandhi stated his political philosophy in context of the twin issues of the war. He did not accept the idea that Indias participation in war should be conditional to a guarantee of Swaraj at the end of the war. Gandhis offer of help did not mean that he was un-critical of the British administration. Even though he was a votary of non-violence yet he did not refuse to explore the possibility of advancing the cause of Indians through the war. Gandhi still had faith in the Empire and was uncritical of the forces of imperialism. He did not term the war as a fight for empire and commercial interest. He even did not respond to international events an like the Russian Revolution w hen the war was in progress and confind himself to the Indian issues only. Gandhis principle of non-violence was holistic and not unrealistic as made out commonly. Not withstanding these Gandhi did revise his opinion on many issues subsequently. Notes and References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. M. K. Gandhi, An autobiography, Ahemadabad, 1940, p.260. Ibid, p. 262. Ibid. Ibid, p.263. M. K. Gandhi, CWG (The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi) Vol-XII, New Delhi, 1966, p.-526. Ibid, p.527. Ibid, p.531.

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8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33.

M. K. Gandhi, An autobiography, p. 264. Ibid Ibid Ibid, p.265 M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XII, p.539, date 14.10.1914. Ibid, p.544 Letter to C. Roberts 25.10.1914. M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XIII, p.1, 09.01.1915. Ibid, p.59, date 24.04.1915. M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XIV, pp. 452-53, date 30.06.1918. Ibid, p. 337, date 12.04.1918. Ibid, p. 477, date 06.07.1918. Ibid Ibid Ibid, p.307, date 04.04.1918 M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XV, p.2, date 01.08.1918 M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XIV, p.440, date 22.06.1918 Ibid, p.463, date 30.06.1918. M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XV, p.2 , date 01.08.1918. Ibid, p.1, date 01.08.1918. M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XIV, p.443, date 22.06.1918. Ibid, p. 441, date 22.06.1918. Ibid, p. 438, date 21.06.1918 M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XV, p.3, date 01.08.1918 M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XIV, p.441, date 22.06.1918 Ibid, p.509, date 29.07.1918 M. K. Gandhi, CWG, Vol-XV, p.15, date 10.08.1918.

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GANDHIJIS VISIT TO ORISSA - ITS IMPACT

Sabita Kar* Freedom Struggle in Orissa is an important aspect of the history of Orissa. It was intensified by the visit of Mahatma Gandhi. He visited Orissa for seven times. The present work gives picture of his visits in the year 1921, 1925 and 1927. Gandhiji was collecting information about the poverty of Orissa due to flood and famine through Takkar Bapa (Amrutlal Takkar). On the report of the latter, he was writing about the famine in Orissa in Navjeevan, a Gujarati journal and in Young India in May 1920. He was also appealing the people to help Orissa though those columns.1 At the invitation of Pandit Gopabandhu Dash Gandhiji came to Orissa in March 1921. He reached Cuttack station on 22 March by Puri Express. About ten thousand people along with three hundred volunteers welcomed Gandhiji at the station and accompanied him in a procession to the Swaraj Ashram at Cuttack.2 It was decided to hold a meeting on 23 March at Cuttacks Barabati Premises. But the Congress leaders were confused as police had clamped section 144 in Cuttack in order to prevent the party from holding this meeting. Pandit Gopabandhu arranged the meeting on the sands of Khathjuri river. About fifty thousand people had gathered under the open sky to listen Gandhiji. On the same day, he had a meeting with the Marwari and Gujarati merchants of Cuttack regarding the boycott of foreign cloths. He also met the mussalmans of Cuttack on 24 morning. On the same day, he addressed the women, the students and the lawyers of Cuttack. In those meetings he gave emphasis on the Congress policy of non-cooperation.3 Gandhijis meeting with the women in noteworthy. In order to involve the women in his programme he met them in a separate meeting in the Binod Bihari premises of Cuttack. This meeting was attended by nearly forty women including Sarojini Choudhury, Sarala Devi, Hiranmayi Senapati, Ramadevi and Haimavati Devi.4 Haimavati Devi made all arrangements for the meeting. The wife of professor Mohini Mohana Senapati sang a patriotic song on the occasion.5 Gandhiji appealed the women to join the freedom movement; gave stress on Harijan upliftment and raising a fund for the section Sarala Devi also appealed the women to donate liberally in the form of money and jewellery for the Harijan Fund. Some rich women contributed money and those who did not have with them, emptied themselves of all jewellery.6 There was jewellery more than sixty to seventy Bharis. In addition, a thousand of rupees were collected quickly. Gandhi felt very happy seeing the attitude of the awakened women. This meeting is very much significant in the history of Orissa as the Oriya women attended a public meeting for the first time and a leader like Gandhijis stature and eminence
* UGS College, Sakhigopal, Puri

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addressed the women of Orissa in a separate meeting. A small group of Oriya women who attended that meeting in purdah went on to become active political leaders of Orissa in the next ten years, being tremendously inspired by the charisma and oratory of Mahatma Gandhi.7 Gandhiji reached Bhadrak on 25 morning by passenger train, Mahatab had shouldered the responsibility of his boarding and other arrangements.8 He could not arrange the horsedrawn cart (which was the only one vehicle at Bhadrak owned by a lawyer) due to the pressure of the then Sub-Divisional Officer of Bhadrak. Gandhiji, Kasturba and others had to walk for three miles to reach Bhadrak town. There, he met the businessmen in the morning and lawyers in the afternoon, addressed a big gathering in the evening. In his meetings he precipitated on non-co-operation as an instrument to fight against the British government.9 Gandhiji reached Puri on 26 evening. On 27 he addressed an women folk and a general meeting. Pandit Gopabandhu accompanied him in his tour. Gandhiji discussed about the then famine condition in Orissa with the leaders and visited some famine affected areas.10 On 29 March he left for Ganjam. On 30 March Gandhiji reached Berhampur. There he came to know about the problems of integration of the Oriya speaking territories and read the related issues. He expressed his experience on the visit to Orissa in Young India dt. 13 April 1921 in the following way I saw more than what I expected I they (Orissan people) mean swaraj as food and dress I food is very much essential for them He also praised Pandit Gopabandhus efforts as a nationalist through these columns.11 Throughout the meeting Gandhi urged the people of Orissa to enroll at least one lakh Congress members and collect three lakhs of rupees for Tilak Swaraj Fund. By the end of June, collections for Tilak Swaraj Fund came to Rs. 25,000/- membership of Congress reached 40.000/- and there were about 15,000/- Charkhas playing in the state.12 Being inspired by Gandhiji, the people of Orissa took active part in the non-cooperation movement. They boycotted the foreign cloth and government institutions. Mahatab conducted the movement at Balasore while Pandit Gopabandhu at Puri and Cuttack. The Congress activists toured the villages of Orissa to popularise the use of Charkha and handspun- Khaddar. The students boycotted the schools, colleges and the lawyers-the courts. Along with the boycott of foreign cloth, picketing infront of liquor and opium shops also continued vigorously in the province. To stop people from drinking alcohol, volunteers of Swaraj Ashram would stand in front of wine shops in Cuttack and Balasore and picket from six o clock in the evening to nine o clock in the night. To dissuade the volunteers from picketing, prostitutes were engaged to throw urine and hot water on the volunteers. A large number of Congress workers were imprisoned for boycott and picketing.

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At the invitation of Madhusudan Das Gandhiji paid a visit to Orissa in August 1925. On 19 he reached Cuttack and visited Utkal Tannery, a leather industry established by Madhubabu. The latter had previously discussed with Gandhiji about the financial crunch of the industry. Sri Satish Dasgupta and few business men of Calcutta had accompanied Gandhiji to Cuttack to watch and restore the financial condition of the tannery.13 Intension of Gandhiji was to drag the attention of the industrial people of India to this industry of Orissa. Gandhiji was always conscious about the poverty of Orissa. Through his writings in Young India titled Orissara Durdasa dt.25 November 1925, he asked the permission of the Navjeevan and Young India readers to donate the contributed Malabar Fund for Orissa.14. Gandhiji again came to Orissa in 1927. He had decided to remain one month in Orissa. As his health did not permit, he came in the month of December and continued here for about twenty days. He was accompanied by Miraben, Mahadev Desai, Kaka Kalelkar. Orissan leaders like Harekrushna Mahatab, Gopabandhu Das and Niranjan Patnaik were also with him throughout his tour. Gandhiji reached Oriss on 5 December 1927. Till 11 December he visited Chhatrapur, Rasulkunda, Belaguntha, Aska, Purusottampur, Boirani, Polasara, Kodala, Khallikote, Rambha Banpur and Bolgarh. Godabarish Mishra had arranged the meeting at Banpur. On 12 and 13 December he visited Khurda, Jatani, Sakhigopal and Puri. On 14 he reached Balasore. At that time Balasore was very much affected by flood and famine. Two prominent areas of Bhadrak were totally swept away by flood. Mahatab, Gopabandhu and other leaders of Orissa had intimated the matter to Gandhi. The latter had an intension to visit those affected areas and to speed up the Khadi work there too. Previously Gandhiji had deputed C.F.Andrews, Reverend Takkar, and Horace Alexander three foreign social activists to review the flood and famine condition of Orissa and to collect information about the then Prajamandal movements of Nilagiri and Kanika two Garjat states.15 Gandhiji met the women of Balasore and spoke in a general meeting. He gave emphasis on constructive works like playing Charkha, spread of Khadi, national education, cleaning of villages and harijan upliftment. He reached Bhadrak after two-days stay at Balasore. He could not attend a general meeting due to blood pressure and took rest for one-day. He had a two-day programme at Charbatia, which was 25 miles distance from Bhadrak. The road was totally swept away in the flood. Mahatab as the Chairman of the Local Board had repaired it. As Gandhiji was feeling uneasy, he lied down in the Motor Vehicle and Mahatab himself drove him to the place. Others went by bus. The programme was published in Young India dt.29 December

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1927. Thousands of men and women met Gandhiji and explained their poverty. Gandhiji instructed them to be self-reliant by playing Charkha and spinning Khaddar.16 On 20 December evening Gandhiji addressed a general meeting at Cuttack. A grand collection was made for Khaddar. On 21 he visited the leprosy ashram at Cuttack. During this stay, he had a discussion with the activists like Gobabandhu and others regarding the different problems of Orissa and other developmental works in the area. Mahatab had a discussion with Gandhiji about the production of salt in Orissa. He pointed out about the poverty of Orissa due to the closure of salt industry. Gandhiji asked Mahatab to enroll at least 25 volunteers for the purpose, so that he would come to conduct the movement in Orissa. After three years the salt satyagraha at Inchudi on the sea coast of Balasore in Orissa was considered as the second Dandi in the history of Indian freedom struggle and Mahatab had played a vital role in it. Another discussion of Mahatab with Gandhiji is notable. Since 1920 Mahatab had a dream of Greater Orissa (Union of Princely States with the Province). He was involving himself in the Prajamandal Movements of some Princely States like, Nilagiri, Kanika, Dhenkanal Talcher, Ranpur etc. In each and every step he had consultation with the great leaders like Gandhiji, Patel and Nehru for conducting the movement. Mahatab begged the assistance of Gandhiji in the merger of Princely States. Gandhiji told Mahatab to arrange at least two Agreement Letters from two Princely States of Orissa. Later on Mahatab arranged two letters from the raja of Hindol and Rajamata of Ranpur and his sincere efforts came true in the Mid-December 1947 when the Merger Document was signed by the 26 Princely States of Orissa in the presence of Sardar Patel, V.P. Menon and other dignitaries of Orissa. Inspired by Gandhian ideology Jivaramji Kalyanji Kothari wished to serve the poor people of Orissa in his own money. He donated one lakh rupees to All Orissa Spinners Association for the spread of Khaddar, another one lakh to Gandhi Seva Sangha for constructive work and Khaddar work in Orissa. Instructed by Gandhiji he and his wife established an Ashram at Bhadrak and donated rupees 25,000/- for its maintenance. Till his death he was engaged in constructive works in and around Bhadrak.17. The visit of Gandhi was providing boost to the social and national activistsas well as the people to serve the nation. In 1927, about eighty thousand houses and sixty miles of railway lines were swept away by flood in Balasore. The activists were providing relief to the affected people at one hand and fighting against the inactive policy of the then government on the other. In the same year, about one thousand people left Nilagiri, the Garjat state in protest of the Bethi and Magan and came to Balasore. Gandhijis visit created mass awakening and political consciousness among the people of Orissa. Almost all sections of the people men-women, rich-poor, Hindu Muslim,

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joined the national stream and engaged themselves in constructive works like hand-spinning and hand-weaving, removal of untouchability, promotion of inter-communal unity, suppression of alcoholic habits and extension of national education. Reference 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. H.K. Mahatab-Gandhiji and Orissa. Pp.5-11. Ibid., P.13. Ibid., p.13. Annapurna Maharana, personal interview, 27 September 1990, quoted in J.Das, unpublished thesis Female Uplift in Orissa 1983-1947p.182. V. Rajendra Raju, Role of Women in Indias freedom Struggle New Delhi. 1994.p.29. Rama Devi Choudhury, Jeevan Pathe (Oriya) Cuttack 1984.p.53. Cited in Bina Kumari Sarma Gandhian movement and womens Awakening in Orissa. The Indian Historical review Vol. XXI. No.1&2 edited by Anup Taneja Delhi. 1997. p.82. H.K. Mahatab Sadhanara Pathe, p.48. H.K. Mahatab-Gandhiji and Orissa p.16. Ibid. P.18 Ibid., pp.19-21. The Samaj 9 July 1921. H.K. Mahatab Gandhiji and Orissa, p.25. Ibid., pp.27-28. Ibid., pp44. Ibid., p.50. Ibid., p.59.

8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17.

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THE INVALUABLE GIFT

Biraj Mohan Das* Our motherland India was under British rule for long years. The alien English rulers inflicted torture on our people. The oppression by the foreign rulers gave rise to acute discontent in the minds of the people. The idea of freeing India from foreign rule sprouted in their minds. As a result of this an agitation swept across the length and breadth of he whole country. Gandhi made his way to India from South Africa at a point when there was a strong need for leaders to steer the agitation. Under his leadership the Indian movement for independence gathered momentum. He led the agitation through non-violent means. The people in the whole of India fondly called him Bapu or Gandhiji. India finally achieved independence on 15 August 1947 under his strong leadership. The people of India are in the habit of worshipping him as the Father of Nation. Gandhiji had immense love for Orissa. A dreadful famine broke out in Orissa in 1920. When Gandhiji came to know about it, he sent Amrutlal Thakkar to Orissa for an on the spot assessment of the situation. Based on Amrutlals report, Gandhiji made an appeal to his countrymen to extend a helping hand to the afflicted. Gandhiji addressed the Indians inhabiting regions other than Orissa thus, It will be quite unjust for all of us if we take our meals in peace when our brothers and sisters in Orissa are dying of abject starvation and thirst. Afterwards he made frequent visits to Orissa to apprise himself of Orissas problems. Making Padayatra to various parts of Orissa, Gandhiji explained to people about the movement for Swaraj, removal of untouchability and spread of cottage industry. The people of Orissa were permanent victims to natural calamities of all kinds. Gandhiji did not fail to notice that the artisans were not deterred by their poverty from producing exquisite handicrafts made of bone, born and silver. Gandhiji showered admiration on the artisans of Orissa when he saw their wonderful items in an exhibition organized by the All India Charkha Sangha and All India Gramodyoga Sangha. While addressing the Lucknow Congress in 1936, Gandhiji not only expressed his appreciation of the Orissa Artisans but also communicated it to the Indian people. Messages about Khadi and fearlessness were propagated in the whole of Orissa throughout the month of December in 1927. On 11 December Gandhiji made a stopover at Bolgarh. While he was engaged in talking to Dinabandhu Andrews (one of his followers and a social activist), a man in a shabby loin cloth came and stood before Gandhiji, holding a piece of straw between his teeth. Then he lay down at the feet of Gandhiji and saluted him. The man stood up after a while and placed that piece of straw on his head and started to retreat. In the mean time Gandhiji, who had been taken aback at this strange conduct, stopped the stranger.
*DDCE, Utkal University.

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On enquiry he learnt that the person was an untouchable. Earning livelihood by selling firewood was his vocation. The stranger said, I came to Bolgarh for selling firewood and learnt of your tour. I am proud of having had the privilege of seeing you. He uttered this with a great sense of delight. It was quite shocking for Gandhiji when he learnt that the peculiar conduct of the stranger was all about saluting a person of a higher caste. He also came to know from him about the practice prevalent among his caste people of eating the flesh of dead animals and drinking tadi (a country liquor). After listening to him carefully Gandhiji said, I want something from you. Will you give it to me? Instantly the stranger started to search the foldings around his waste, but stopped when Gandhiji said, I do not want your money. Rather I ask you to give me two things: Abstain from eating the flesh of dead animals and drinking liquor and put an end to the practice of saluting a man of higher caste in the manner you did. The stranger in reply told Gandhiji that he would be excommunicated from his own society if he did so. Gandhiji taught him to be fearless and advised him to live a life of honour and dignity. He said, You should be ready to face excommunication, if this is a price- you must pay for being fearless. The stranger promised to keep his words and departed. Gandhiji had expressed the opinion that if the person changed conduct as he said he would do, then this would be the most valuable of the gifts that he had hitherto received. A similar example can be cited. In 1934, while Gandhiji was waiting in a camp for a barber to come and shave him during his Padayatra across Orissa, a woman turned up there with a shaving kit and gave him a good shave. The ornaments she was wearing caught Gandhijis attention. Two bangles, earrings and the glass-bangles were the things she wore. They do not suit you, commented Gandhiji. The woman said sorrowfully that the ornaments were borrowed to keep appearances, especially while appearing before a great man like Gandhiji. Gandhiji persuaded her to give up wearing ornaments and the woman accepted it gladly. Before she left, she requested Gandhiji to accept her days earnings for the cause of charity. On the Annual day of Gandhi Seva Sangha at Delang in 1938, Gandhiji made a quotable statement. He said, Orissa is the land of love. If I can do something for Orissa that will be my supreme service to India. Gandhiji made it clear that though Orissa was his favourite centre of pilgrimage, it is not because of the presence in it of the temple of Lord Jagannath, as the untouchables were denied access to this. Also he refused to go inside the temple because he considered that he too was being barred from entering the temple. Gandhiji expressed his displeasure on coming to know that Kasturba and Durga Ben (the wife of Mahadeb Desai) had been inside the temple. Gandhiji was always keen on the progress and prosperity of Orissa and discussed the ways and means of achieving this with the leaders and social activists of Orissa. On 19 August 1925 he came to Orissa as a guest of Madhusudan Das. A visit to Utkal Tannery

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gave him a favourable impression about Madhu Babus unique endeavour to utilize the workers of Orissa and highlight their skills. Gandhiji wrote in all the newspapers, praising Madhu Babu fulsomely. In 1946 when he was on his way to Madras in a special train, the train was not supposed to halt anywhere inbetween during the night. But Gandhiji stopped the train and met the people of Orissa at stations like Balasore, Bhadrak and Cuttack. He also addressed a meeting at Berhampur. Gandhiji learnt Oriya script and language during his Padayatra across Orissa. This was indicative of his profound love of and respect for Orissa and her people.

Gandhi won national independence for more millions of people than any other leader of men, and with less bloodshed, and that was the truth. He showed the weak and the poor how to struggle without taking life, and that was the truth. He spent years in jail for the national cause, and once he helped conduct the prosecution against himself after violence occurred in a civil disobedience movement. He broke the system of indentured Indian labor in South Africa. He won respect for Indians and restored the self-respect of men who had humiliated them. He fought color and racial discrimination everywhere. And all that was the truth. He laid the foundations for a national language which would bring men close together regardless of creed, and he nursed and tended the sick and the helpless to teach men kindliness and self-scarifies. Against 3,000 years of prejudice he raised a crusade for the human rights of 50,000,000 untouchables, and he opposed the bigotry and dogmatism and the hateful orthodoxy of the caste system with more success than any Indian since Gautam Buddha. Edgar P. Snow

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PEOPLES GANDHI: THE MAN AND THE MAHATMA

Suryakant Nath* On hearing the news of Gandhis assassination, the famous English dramatist and writer, G.B.Shaw is supposed to have remarked that ..it shows how dangerous it is to be too good.1 Was Gandhi too good? Or is he made out to be too good? A close look at the views and impressions of the various segments of the Indian population provides a very varied and contrasting opinion about Gandhi. Every educated Indian thinks he knows Gandhi. Almost everyone knows he was popularly known as the Mahatma. Most think he was a saintly person who worked for the liberation of our motherland from the British rule. Some, who are a little unsure, say he was a freedom fighter who underwent long terms of imprisonment to make us free. Students of social science feel he made their task difficult by introducing phrases like non-cooperation, passive resistance, satyagraha, Sarvoday and soul-force. What else is there to Gandhi? One could ask what more is there to be known about Gandhi? A Punjabi remembers Gandhi as the killer of Bhagat Singh. The more moderate ones think that he did not strive enough to bargain with Lord Irwin for Bhagats life. Some even hold him responsible for the partition killings. The ones more in tune with the macho image of the Khalsa, think that the concept of Satyagraha was cowardice and effeminate and did not suit the hardy Punjabis.2 A Bengali thinks of Gandhi as one who conspired to keep Subhas Bose out of the Congress hierarchy and forced him to found a new political outfit, the Forward Bloc. Bose never got his due in the Congress hierarchy because of the close relations between Nehru and Gandhi and his competitive rivalry with Nehru only alienated him from Gandhi and Congress. In spite of being the first state to come under the spell of the British and the first one to experience western renaissance it could not exercise the political clout it ought to have exercised in Indian politics.3 The communists think that he was the stooge of the Colonial government and compromised at every possible turn to hoodwink the toiling peasants. He was the clever bania from Gujarat who always served the interests of the bourgeoisie and sacrificed the interest of the common man. Whenever there was some scope for popular militancy Gandhi killed the movement by going for a negotiated settlement/compromise.4 The Brahmins of the Hindu Mahasabha variety thought that Gandhi never took up the cause of the Hindus and went out of the way to accommodate the interest of the Muslims, a fact for which Gandhi had to pay with his life.5 The Muslims, unfortunately, labelled a similar kind of pro-Hindu allegation against Gandhi.
*Lecturer in History, National Defence Academy, Pune, 411023

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A vast majority of the Dalits think that Gandhi was superficial in his sympathies towards them ,one who diagnosed the disease but did not prescribe the medicine in right doses. His advocacy of all-Indianness was a pretentious clothing and in the long run proved to be detrimental to the Dalit interests. He gave a name to them but was not genuine in espousing their cause. By curbing pro-Dalit militancy he only made the Dalit interest subservient to the Caste Hindus. Caste Hindus ,on the other hand, felt betrayed when Gandhis followers incorporated the reservation policy in the constitution and converted it into a major plank of vote-bank politics. 6 The British Imperial masters always thought that Gandhi was a shrewd politician and was trying to befool the poor and illiterate masses in the garb of a spiritual Messiah. Some of his political opponents always complained that through fasts and dharnas he tried to emotionally blackmail them to toe his line. The British masters were scared of his popularity to act silly but it did not refrain them from making provocative statements about Gandhi.7 The western media became more interested in his experiments with Brahmacharya and with his experiments of self-control with his young female workers rather than the more significant aspects of the freedom struggle and nation-building. However, it is also important to remember that many westerners openly acknowledged Gandhis greatness and did everything possible to influence the public opinion in their countries.8 His eldest son, Harilal, became a rebel against his fathers generosity and floated the idea which gained more currency that Gandhi could have been a good Father of the Nation but a very bad father to his sons. He did every possible thing to hurt his father including a conversion to Islam and by becoming an alcoholic.9 His wife Ba or better known as Kasturba also had her share of complains against Gandhi. To her, Gandhi was so rigid, adament or obstinate(determined) that if he decided to do something it was impossible to prevent him from doing that, forcing her to be a little more guarded in her views while with Gandhi. 10 So, Who is the real Gandhi? Gandhi as perceived by one of these or a combination of all these attributes? Gandhi never considered himself to be a political strategist.11 Nor did he ever believe that there can be something like Gandhism after him. He was of the firm opinion that there should be nothing like Gandhism after him and people should refrain from oppressing others in the name of Gandhism. Rather they should follow the ideals which he held dear to his heart.12 When pressed for a message by one of the congress Shanti Senas, he is supposed to have said that my life is my message conveying the feeling that he lived what he said and there was no gap between his speech and deed.

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But does this suffice enough as our knowledge of Gandhi? There is flood of literature on Gandhi today. Many praise him to the skies, stopping short of virtual deification while others malign him calling him different names and projecting him as a villain of the first order. Vilification of Gandhi gained much currency during the tenure of the Bharatiya Janata Party in the centre as it had an agenda to serve, i.e., to restore the sullied image of RSS and the Janasangha.13 The more intelligent ones have tried to cash in on the very relevant theme of Gandhian philosophy by Presenting him in a more acceptable package in form of Gandhigiri in the cinematic format to the Gen-next crowd.14 Whether we like him or not, the abysmal political situation has some how forced us to rethink the practicability of Gandhian methods in our modern settings. When all else has failed we are again forced to adopt the once old, impractical and archaic methods of Gandhi. So can we ignore Gandhi? Or more appropriately, is Gandhism of any immediate relevance today? In the pre-independence days Gandhis aura was created more through rumours and ignorance. In an era when means of mass communication were almost non-existent, Gandhi left very few Indian hearts untouched.15 Gandhi could mean many things to many Indians. Illiterate masses who had been at the receiving end of the colonial administration for centuries suddenly found a saviour in Gandhi and promptly attributed mythical qualities which they had been familiar with since the ages. The concept of incarnations or Avatarvaad very easily suited Gandhis image because his style of austere living, his saintly attire and his belief in the concept of Niskam Karma of the Bhagavat Gita easily endeared him to the masses. Indian masses have always venerated the ascetic way of life and they could easily accept Gandhi as their Messiah. 16 Gandhis own writings also run in to volumes. There is practically nothing or no subject on which Gandhi has not said or written. Gandhi used a very simple language and most of his writings were extempore and do not reflect prior framing or conceptualisation.17 They definitely provide an insight into the personality of the Great Man. Gandhi never felt comfortable with the epithet Mahatma or the great soul which Rabindra Nath Tagore had coined for him.18 It probably weighed heavy on his shoulders where he realised he had to make efforts to live up to the expectations of the masses. Many incidents in Gandhis life speak volumes about his personality. We shall however, recount a few to get a selective insight in to the great mans persona. Gandhi was the uncrowned king of pre-independent India. Many letters used to be addressed to Gandhi from England and America with only Gandhi and Emperor of India, or simply M KGandhi and India in the address column.19 Though he never held any official

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position in the organisation Gandhi was the undisputed leader of the Congress. For millions of Indians, Congress meant Gandhi and vice-versa. The magic of the name of the Congress was to a great extent connected with the Gandhian myth. Gandhi had a fascinating array of vocations attributed to him. Not many quite seemed to know who or what he was. He was a mahatma, a pundit, a sadhu, a Brahmin or even a devata. The most intelligent said, he was a man who was working for the good of the country. But there were curious instances of the power of his name.20 Gandhi Baba could work miracles.21 Thousands joined the Gandhian movement being mesmerised with his personality and saint-like approach to life. Many who had never ventured out of the safety of their homes and who did not have the slightest of ideas about Satyagraha, jumped headlong into the nationalist movement without bothering to care what would happen next or what an uncertain journey it could lead to. The example of a peasant woman, Sushila Devi, a close aide of Rama Devi Choudhary, presents a peculiar example of how Gandhis name worked wonders in the life of ordinary Indians.22 She was a widow and did not have any children. One night, Gandhi came in her dreams and the next morning she packed her ornaments in a bundle and left for the nearest Congress workers house.23 To most rural masses, Gandhi meant Congress and vice versa. Everyone interpreted and appropriated Gandhian messages and ideas according to his or her political and moral vision. In a meeting at Cuttack in March 1921, Gopabandhu Dash introduced Gandhi thus: Three hundred years ago, on the same day, Chaitanya came to preach prema dharma( doctrine of love) in Orissa. Today, after three hundred years, another mahapurusha (Great man)has come to preach Rajnaitika prema dharma (political doctrine of love). Our Utkal has always been famous as the land of dharma. Today, because of this Mahatma, politics again, is based on Dharma.24 The experience of the famous Oriya educationist and freedom fighter Chitta Ranjan Das of Bagalpur (Jagatsingpur) also makes an interesting reading. He narrates in his Mitrasya Chakshusa that after the outbreak of the Quit India Movement in August 1942, he felt restless for two to three days. Then, he confided to his elder brother that he had a strong urge to plunge into the nationalist movement so that he could do some thing for the country. His brother did not dissuade him. He only told him that that since he (his brother) was the eldest child in the family, he had certain responsibilities towards the family and so he could not think of joining the nationalist movement even if he had the inclination to do so. But if Chitta wanted to give up studies and join the movement, his brother did not have any objection from his side.25 There might have been a thousand such instances of ordinary young men and women joining the Gandhian bandwagon without any conviction or commitment to the Gandhian

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philosophy or methods of action. The kind of attitude which many families displayed in providing moral support to young men and women who joined the Gandhian movement also speaks volumes about the magic of Gandhis name. In an age when communication system was almost non-existent, people in the inaccessible countryside formed their opinion about Gandhi or for that matter on any such outside forces or phenomena through rumours. Hear-say accounts and rumours played a very significant role in the creation, circulation and furtherance of the Gandhian myth.26 Ram Narayan Choudhary, an associate of Gandhi, in his book Bapu As I saw him narrates a very strange incident. He mentions that Gandhis ideas and his personality influenced not only the educated or the ordinary Indians but also the thieves, thugs and the highway robbers. From his own experience he cites an example. One day a trader/ businessman came to his house and after paying his regards narrated a story of how the very name of Gandhi saved him from the clutches of the thieves. The businessman was passing through Shingoli, a hilly terrain in the erstwhile Gwalior state. At the sight of the thieves the man started screaming loudly Bande Mataram and Mahatma Gandhi Ki Jai. Gandhis name probably did the trick and the robbers spared him. Those days (Nonco-operation days) even the thieves followed certain norms and they refrained from looting women, Brahmins and the saints. Many Indians (including thieves and anti-socials) considered Gandhi to be a saint and thought it to be improper to harass his followers.27 Depending on their standing in the local Congress hierarchy, many Congress leaders, who some how or the other, resembled Gandhi in their life style came to be popularly known as Gandhi of a particular area, be it a district or a province.28 For a nation obsessed with the idea of hero-worship, the characters in the epics and the incarnations have been the usual medium for categorising the so-called great men. Gandhis grand daughter, Manu Behn compared Gandhis activities at Noakhali with Sri Ramas adventures in the forest. Both had lost the dearest things in their lives and yet both brought enlightenment to souls that had lost hope and brought happiness from sorrow.29 Congress has often been criticised for being an organisation of the bourgeoise or a party of collaborators who repeatedly betrayed the masses.30 These may contain some truth. But it would be totally unfair to dismiss the organisation as an organisation of the propertied class. Gandhian movements had their limitations and inadequacies, which were internal to mass movements as such. But, then also, one has to take into account the strength and greatness of Gandhi as a person and the Gandhian ideology. Otherwise, how can one explain for the fact that Gandhian leadership retained more mass popularity than his radical critics! Gandhi belonged not only to India and his message is relevant for the whole world. Gandhi might have died for India but for the world he will continue to live forever. 31

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Gandhi has received so much adulation during his life time and after that we can not possibly add any thing new to eulogize Gandhi or Gandhism. Unfortunately, Gandhi, who won the hearts of the people all over the world through his deeds and through the power of his ideas, we have conveniently forgotten them all and started worshipping him like God. Attempts are being made not only at the individual level but also at the organised level to him on a high pedestral and garland him with meaningless sweet words. There is possibly something wrong in the Indian milieu which creates gods out of ordinary human beings and forces people to forget the very values for which they stand. Gandhi never wanted to become an icon of worship. He was a man of action, a revolutionary, a man of flesh and blood just like each one of us, who tried to transform the society by ridding it of its weaknesses and evil practices through love, truth and nonviolence. In stead of following the lead he provided we are busy creating temples for him, a practice he would have definitely disapproved of if he had been alive. The very fact that Gandhi was fallible, committed mistakes and admitted them in public does give us enough lessons in life and inspires us to transform ourselves individually and collectively. Gandhi not only fought for our independence. He also envisaged Ram-Rajya along with freedom. We have achieved independence but Ram Rajya is still a distant dream. References 1. 2. Cited in Surjyakanta Das, Mahatma Gandhi(o), Grantha Mandir, Cuttack, 1995, p.153. During an orientation course for the teachers of higher secondary classes in Chandigarh, the author had the experience of interacting with the participants as a resource person on 5th and 6th of September 2005 at the State Institute of Education and Technology (SIET), Chandigarh. Almost all the participants expressed the feeling that Gandhian ideology of passive resistance did not suit the hardy Punjabis ( Sikhs)who had been accustomed to armed struggle against the Mughals for more than a century. In spite of ideological differences, Gandhi and Bose had tremendous respect for each other. On many occasions Gandhi described Bose as a true patriot. On the other hand, Bose himself admitted that no other Indian leader had absolute command over the masses as Gandhi. He even went to the extent of comparing Gandhis Dandi March with Napoleons return from exile from Elba. During his radio broadcasts from Rangoon, Bose frequently referred to Gandhi as the father of the nation. Sharat Kumar Mohanty, Gandhi Manisha (O), Mita Books, Cuttack:2000, p. 11. Sumit Sarkar, Popular Movements and Middle Class leadership in late Colonial India, Centre for Studies in Social Science, K.P.Bagchi & Co, Calcutta, 1985, p.43.

3.

4.

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R P Dutt believed that .Gandhi manipulated the masses by calling them to action when favourable to the bourgeoise and then withdrawing his support if things got out of hand, Cited in Resistance to the soul: Gandhi and his critics by Michael F. Plotkin, site-file://A:\Articles On & By Gandhi.htm, p.1. 5. V D Savarkar thought that Gandhis methods contradicted the religious outlook of Hinduism and jeopardized Hindu political interests as well. Cited in Resistance to the soul: Gandhi and his critics by Michael F. Plotkin, site-file://A:\Articles On & By Gandhi.htm, p.3. He saw Gandhi to be a threat to the existence of Hindus in India and thought that Gandhis influence over the Congress hurt the Hindu cause because he gave in to Muslim demands. Ibid.,p.10. Aggressive Bihari Hindus considered him to be very bad Hindu and a Muslim spy. 95% of the letters which Gandhi received during 1947 were abusive letters and some of them were addressed as Mohammad Gandhi. Cited in S K Das, op.cit., p.7. Ambedkar interpreted Gandhis views as conservative, reactionary, downright archaic and unrealistic. Cited in Resistance to the soul: Gandhi and his critics by Michael F. Plotkin, site-file://A:\Articles On & By Gandhi.htm, p.12. He also contended that Gandhi was a proponent of the caste system and an antagonist towards progress that would have benefited all of India, especially the depressed classes. Ibid., p.3. Gandhi himself provided them with enough reasons to do so by making statements like I am a politician trying my hardest to be a saint. Cited in Suryakanta Das, Mahatma Gandhi(o), Grantha Mandir, Cuttack, 1995, p.134. G B Shaw, Lord Reading, Lord Montague, General Smuts were all smitten by Gandhis personality. During the Quit India Movement when Gandhi was interned in the Aga Khan Palace, Shaw said The king should release Gandhi unconditionally as an act of grace unconcerned with policy and apologize to him for the mental defectiveness of his cabinet. Cited in Suryakanta Das, Mahatma Gandhi(o), Grantha Mandir, Cuttack, 1995, p.152. Cited in Suryakanta Das, Mahatma Gandhi(o), Grantha Mandir, Cuttack, 1995, p.62. Once when Kasturba was bleeding severely and allopathic medicines failed, Gandhi suggested Ba to give up eating of salt and pulses. She dared Gandhi to give up eating these two items himself first to which Gandhi took up the challenge and gave up eating salt and pulses for one year from that very moment . Kasturba realised her mistake and pleaded with Gandhi to take back his words but Gandhi stuck to his words and both Gandhi and Kasturba gave up eating salt and pulses for one year. Coincidentally, Ba was cured. Sharat Kumar Mohanty, Gandhi Manisha (O), Mita Books, Cuttack:2000, p. 125. In one of the prayer congregations on 29 January 1947 Gandhi said, I am what God has willed me to be and act as he directs. Let him do what he wills of me. If he

6.

7.

8.

9. 10.

11.

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so chooses, he can kill me. I believe I am acting as he commands me. D G Tendulkar., Mahatma, Navjivan Publishing house, p.286, Cited in Suryakanta Das, op. cit., p.36. 12. 13. Gandhi said My Mahatmaship is worthless. Dont call me Mahatma. Rather adopt the ways of truth and non-violence. Cited in Suryakanta Das, op. cit., p.14. Speaking about Gandhi Savarkar criticized that Gandhis continual appeasement of the Muslims endangered the interests of the Hindus. Cited in Resistance to the soul: Gandhi and his critics by Michael F. Plotkin, site-file://A:\Articles On & By Gandhi.htm, p.11. During the tenure of the B J P government at the centre in the late 1990s, many lesser known leaders of the R S S and Janasangha suddenly came to assume national significance. A spurt in films on Gandhi has suddenly revived interest in Gandhian ideas and values. Gandhi Mera Baap, Maine Gandhi Ko Nahin Mara and Lage Raho Munna Bhai were popular as well as critically acclaimed. Deification of Gandhi started almost around the 1920s. The entire Gonda tribe worshipped Gandhi as God. Sharat Kumar Mohanty, Gandhi Manisha (O), Mita Books, Cuttack :2000, p. 283. Manu Behn, Gandhis grand daughter compared his days in Noakhali as lord Ramas days of exile in the forest. Cited in Suryakanta Das, Mahatma Gandhi(o), Grantha Mandir, Cuttack, 1995, p.28. Louis Fisher said His brain had no blue pencil. Ibid., p. 5. Suryakanta Das also writes that he did not attempt to express his ideas in finished form. So, one heard not only his words but also his thoughts. Ibid., p.48. Cited in Suryakanta Das, Mahatma Gandhi(o), Grantha Mandir, Cuttack, 1995, p.18. Although it is widely accepted that the epithet Mahatma was coined by Tagore when he addressed Gandhi in one of his telegrams in 1916. A school of historians, however, do believe that it was probably first used by someone else. Sarojini Naidu told one of Gandhis biographers (Vincent Cehan) she had already heard people calling him Mahatma when she met Gandhi for the first time in 1914. Sharat Kumar Mohanty, Gandhi Manisha (O), Mita Books, Cuttack :2000, p. 91. Cited in Suryakanta Das, op. cit., p.58. The story of a poor man from Bengal makes a curious reading. With a photograph of Gandhi hanging from his neck, the man came to him and after paying his respects narrated that he was suffering from paralysis and chanting Gandhis name religiously had cured him. Gandhi rebuked the man sternly and asked him to remove the photo immediately. He told him that it was by the grace of God and not Gandhi who had cured him. Sharat Kumar Mohanty, Gandhi Manisha (O), Mita Books, Cuttack :2000, p. 283.

14.

15.

16.

17.

18.

19. 20.

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21. 22. 23.

Sumit Sarkar, Popular Movements and Middle Class leadership in late Colonial India, Centre for Studies in Social Science, K.P.Bagchi & Co, Calcutta, 1985, p.43 Rama Devi was wife of a very prominent Gandhian Congress leader, Gopabandhu Choudhary and sister-in-law of ex-chief minister of Orissa, Nabakrusna Choudhary. When her relatives went to bring her back, she hid in a bush and left for the Congress workers house, which was three kilometres away, only after the sun set. Rama Devi Choudhary, Jiban Pathe(o), Grantha Mandir, Cuttack,1984,p.102. The Samaj, 2 April 1921.Gopabandhu Rachanavali, Vol.VI, Janma Satavarshiki Samiti,1977,pp.72-73. Chitta Ranjan Das, Mitrasya Chakshusa(o), S.B. Publications, Cuttack, 1993,p.96. Some of the rumours which made the rounds in early 40s in a remote and inaccessible village like Ainipara in P.S.Pattamundai of Kendrapara district of Orissa were that Gandhi was invincible. No British bullets could kill Gandhi. Like the mythical figure of Vasudeva escaping Kansas prison when Lord Krisna is born in Mathura, it was believed by many that no British jail could keep him imprisoned permanently. And that Gandhi had the miraculous powers to escape from such confinements. Some others had the notion that the Englishmen had chained us like cattle and Gandhi had the magic scissors to cut our chains and make us free. Personal Interview with Sripati Mahakud,Village-Ainipara, dt.18 July 1990. Cited in Suryakanta Das, Mahatma Gandhi(o), Grantha Mandir, Cuttack, 1995, p.18. For example, Laxman Naiko, the tribal leader from the inaccessible tract, Koraput, came to be popularly known as Gandhi of Malkanagiri. Biswamoy pati, Storm over Malkanagiri: A Note on Laxman Naikos Revolt, 1942, in Gyanendra Pandey (ed.)The Indian Nation in 1942, OUP, New Delhi, 1988, pp. 195-197. Martin Luther King, who followed the Gandhian ideals of truth and non-violence in the 1960s came to be popularly known as the American Gandhi. Cited in Suryakanta Das, Op.cit., p.28. Sumit Sarkar, Popular Movements and Middle Class leadership in late Colonial India, Centre for Studies in Social Science, K.P.Bagchi & Co, Calcutta, 1985, p.51.Communist leader S.G.Sardesai wrote, Gandhis action involved innumerable compromises with imperialists, feudal and Indian bourgeoise interests, thereby hampering the full development of the national-revolutionary forces in the country. Cited in Suryakanta Das, Op.cit., p.144. Louis Fisher cited in Suryakanta Das,Op.cit.,p.8.

24. 25. 26.

27. 28.

29. 30.

31.

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GANDHIS THEORIES OF EDUCATION

S.P.Pani* All good theories can be put to practice and all good practices can be theorized. Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi (1869-1948) more popularly known as Mahatma Gandhi is the most striking example of translating great theories into practice and theoritising great practices. His life and works is such a unique example of putting theories into practice that Einstein predicted that the coming generations would find it difficult to believe that such a man walked with flesh and blood in this world A General Introduction Education is defined as the process of bringing up, instructions, teaching, training and strengthening the powers of body, mind and culture. To be educated, is to be well cultivated, cultured, knowledgeable, refined in judgement and taste, and experienced. The foundation of education is two fold psycho-physiological and philosophical. For centuries before the advent of modern disciplines like psychology and sociology, metaphysics and philosophy provided the foundation to education. As the study of mind was separated from philosophy, psychological and behavioral sciences added new dimensions to education. Philosophy is an attempt in the highest kind of generalization and also includes generalizations on education, its meaning, objective, methods and scope etc. Philosophy is defined as the pursuit of wisdom and knowledge, investigation or contemplation of the nature of being, knowledge of the causes and laws of all things and the principles underlaying any sphere of knowledge and reasoning. The philosophical foundation of education did not exclude the study of nature, science and abstractions, education was not limited to metaphysics, literature and history and education also did not exclude skill component. Jnana (knowledge) and Vidya (art and skill) always were considered to be two sides of wisdom in India. The philosophical foundation, both in east and west, India and the rest of the world, had set the goal of education, it aspired to answer all question that arise in our mind, search for explanation which would lead to a perfect understanding of life, world and event beyond the world. A new dimension was added with advent of psychology. The process of acquiring knowledge, understanding, assimilation etc now forms an integral part of education. Physiological aspects of human body like the human brain and the sensory system were added on. Cognitive aspects of education now stand recognized. Besides these behavioral studies have also enriched the concept of education. The metaphysical, ethical and religious goals of education have been widened to include social, political, economic and other goals of life. Education has also evolved as a science beyond the horizons of humanities, arts and social science. The ancient Indians had held Sa Vidya Ya Vimukteya (Education Liberates) as the highest goal of education. The original meaning
*Director, DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.

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may have been confined to liberation from chain of rebirth and realization of god head, yet the underlying thought was a complete understanding of the world and beyond. Today the scope of liberation stands widened, it includes liberation from ignorance, hunger, diseases, and conflict etc. It includes developmental and democratic goals of life. The emphasis has shifted from individual to the social formations and event on the entire mankind and beyond. Education being a preparation for life, the aims of education are one with those of life. These can be terrestrial, cosmic, supra-terrestrial and supra cosmic. The aim of an individual or a society is dependent on its stage of progress and its concept of progress. Progress must include physical, aesthetics, mental and even spiritual. Progress also aims at perfection and perfect harmony in individual and social life and harmony in nature and even harmony in entire reality beyond earth. Education must provide for the claims of vital, physical and emotional being that man is, the claims of man as ethical and religious being and his understanding of laws of God and nature and claims of spiritual longing of mankind spread beyond the known world. Man of all the animals is the most dissatisfied and has the highest search for perfection and satisfaction, man is gifted with dreams, men have always cherished utopias, how ever unreachable they appear to be. Education is the only answer to mans search for complete understanding, harmony and development. Education today has new challenges. Riche writes The great modern idea is that it is possible to enrich collectively and individually all the members of a society through continuous progress in the organization of work, in its processes and instruments, that this enrichment provides by itself the means of further development and that this development can be rapid and infinite.1 Besides the need for continuous enrichment, communication is another challenge. The electronic communications network inevitably creates a universal super culture. What will be the relation between the super culture and more traditional cultures of the past, both national and regional, is a question the next fifty year will have to answer, observed Keneth Building.2 Communication technology, cultural synthesis and cultural identity assertion are a new set of challenge for education. Other challenges include those of mass media, leisure, new thinking of the youth and mans concept of happiness, progress, peace, development and perfection etc. Added to these living itself has become a new science and an art. Modern management masters, counselors and even godmen have contributed immensely to the science and art of living. Education is also required to assimilate these new lessons and concepts. As a whole education pervade life in its entirety and the future of mankind is shaped through education. The scholar may add few observations an education to reflect the multi-dimensional feature of education. Education is something which makes man self-reliant and self-less. Education is for liberation. Nothing is more purifying an earth than knowledge Human education means the training one gets from nature (Veda) (Upanishads) (Bhagavat Gita) (Panini)

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Education means training of country and love of nation Education is the realization of self

(Kauitlya) (Sankaracharya).

Blessed are the men and women whose minds are centred on the acquisition of knowledge, who possess sweet and amiable tempers, who cultivate truthfulness and other similar virtues, who are engaged in aesthetic work as prescribed by the Vedas. (Dayananda Saraswati) Education stands for humanism, for tolerance; for reason, for the adventure of ideas and for the search of truth. It stands for the onward march of human race towards even higher objectives. (Jawaharlal Neheru). Aspirations of new India will require a fresh outlook and new measures to tackle its problems of hunger, poverty, delusion, greed and hatred (Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad) The destiny of India is now shaped in her classrooms. This, we believe, is no mere rhetoric. In a world based on science and technology, it is education that determines the level of prosperity, welfare and security of the people. On the quality and number of persons coming-out of our schools and colleges will depend our success in the great enterprise of national reconstruction; the principal objective of which is to raise the standard of living of our people. (D.S. Kothari) In our national perception education is essentially for all. This is fundamental to our allround development material and spiritual. Education has an articulating role contribute to national cohesion, a scientific temper and independence of mind and sprit furthering the goals of socialism, secularizing and democracy. Education develops man power (as) the ultimate guarantee of national self reliance. In sum, Education is a unique investment in the present and future. (National Policy on Education 1986). Having listed major Indian thinking the scholar may list some major western concepts. Education is common search for knowledge through critical interplay between teacher and people and dialectics is the best method. (Socrates) The ultimate educational quest as reviewed in dialogue is the search for the Good, that is, the ultimate idea that binds together all earthly existence. (Plato)

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No one will doubt that the legislator should direct his attention above all to the education of youth the citizen should be moulded to suit the form of government under which he lives. (Aristotle) Natural education, unlike the artificial and formal education of society, enables one to become social, moral and rational while remaining true to ones own nature. If one is educated to be a man, not a priest, a soldier, on an attorney one will be able to do what is needed in any situation. (Russeoue) The art of education must be significantly raised in all its facets to become a science that is to be built on and proceeds from the deepest knowledge of human nature. (Pastalozzi) Natural criterion for pedagogy is freedom and the only method is experience. (Tolstoy) Philosophy and education renders service to each other. Education becomes the laboratory of philosophy. Society should be interpreted to the child through daily living in the classroom, which acts as a miniature society. Education leads to no final end. It is something continuous, a reconstruction of accumulated experience, which must be directed towards social efficiency. Education is life, not merely a preparation for life. (Dewey) Today education is considered to be life long and a process of construction of knowledge. The present century is termed as the knowledge century. Knowledge will drive the future and as such education assumes tremendous importance for the human society. Gandhian theories of education were based on practical aspects. Gandhi was not a system builder and he never consciously developed a theory of education. His theory of education is built on his practices. He wrote and partly theoricised education on the basis of practical problems and issues relating to education which he faced. Apart from this he always tried his best to be consistent with the central socio political principles he had enunciated. Attainment of complete freedom just not from foreign rule and attainment of self sufficiency by the teeming millions of India were supreme aim of Gandhi and these were equally applicable to education for him. The present discussion endeavours to identify the general principles and aims of education as developed by Gandhi. The general principles and aims of education is followed up with a discussion on practical aspects and contemporary issues. Gandhis Theories of Education Gandhi had a holistic approach to education. For education must consider all aspects of life and society. Gandhi emphasized the ancient central principle of education, Sa

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Vidya Ya Vimuktya, Education is that, which liberates. He accepted the Vishnu Puranas dictum as the real aim of education and expanded the meaning and scope in relation to contemporary needs. He says, The ancient aphorism, education is that which liberates is as true today as it was before. Education here does not mean mere spiritual knowledge nor does liberation signify only spiritual liberation after death. Knowledge includes all training that is useful for the service of mankind and liberation means freedom from all manner of servitude even in the present life. Servitude is of two kinds slavery to domination from outside and to ones own artificial needs. The knowledge acquired in the pursuit of this ideal alone constitutes true study2. So, he emphasized God realization, and liberation from the chain of births as the highest goal of education, which Indians hold for generations. He says, that is true education which leads to freedom . . . that education which delays our freedom is to be shunned, it is satanic, it is sinful3. Thus, the foundation of Gandhian principles of education is based on the eternal Indian principles of education, which opens the door for all and knowledge. Simultaneously aim of education for him included the nationalistic goal of political freedom. Gandhi considered manual labour to be important. He experimented it throughout his life. He was strongly opposed to the pagan ideal that man of letters should be free from the burden of mundane life. He realized the theory of Karma yoga as main path of life. So, for him manual labour should be given highest priority in all aspects of life physical, social and education. He writes, useful manual labour, intelligently performed, is the means par excellence for developing the intellect. One may develop a sharp intellect otherwise too. But then it will not be a balanced growth but an unbalanced distorted abortion4. Besides this he had also emphasized physical education and motor development for the development of the intellect. The core of Gandhis proposal was the introduction of productive handicrafts in the school curriculum. The idea was not simply to introduce handicrafts as a compulsory subject, but to make the learning of a craft as the central axis of the entire teaching programme. Through this teaching programme he wanted to disseminate the knowledge of the production processes involved such as crafts, spinning, weaving, leather work, pottery, metal work, basket making and book binding etc. In real sense, Gandhis proposal intended to introduce manual labour in education system. In this way he wanted to implement a programme of social transformation which he originally experimented in South Africa in Phoenix Farm (1904) and Tolstoy Farm (1910)5. In other way he says, you have to start with the conviction, that looking to the needs of the villages of India, our rural education ought to be made self supporting, if it is to be compulsory6. He thought that manual labour was the only tool which can bring prosperity to the country. Creating wealth in the villages through agriculture and craft was the only way to raise socio economic status of the country. He realized that our education system must prepare the country and our students for creating wealth as vast majority of population depended on agriculture. It was the supreme and legitimate goal that Gandhi aspired through manual

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labour in education system. He wrote, if text books are treated as a vehicle for education, the living word of the teacher has very little value. A teacher who teaches from text books does not impart, originality to his pupils7. He realized that school education was a sure passport to the service sector but such a situation would not last in India. On the other hand it would create a lifeless society without work. Thus the agriculture based India should need the hands with practical knowledge, which Gandhi enunciated. Gandhi advocates crafts training as a practical strategy. For him education must bake bread, it must fulfill the terrestrial goal of equipping the pupil with skills which would enable him to earn his living. Though he was conscious that others had advocated craft education to promote creativity yet that was not his plank. Craft was central to him as a mechanism of creating employability in students. There can be debate whether craft is the best mechanism of creating employability. But there can not be debate on Gandhis central concern that education must equip students to earn. Crafts as a strategy may work in rural settings, but with changing times. Vocationalisation through industrial training, paramedical training, IT application training, food preservation and agrarian training etc can be achieved. Gandhi also drew his theory of manual labour from the Indian concept of Karma Yoga. A follower of Bhagvat Gita Gandhi strongly felt that Jnan Yoga does not exclude Karma yoga. He had realized that none of us can live without Karma and as such we must learn to do karma. Action was always advocated. He wanted to awaken the Indians from inaction to action. Besides the Bhagvat Gita, Gandhi drew his theory of manual labour from the writings of Tolstoy and others. He was also opposed to the traditional concept of high caste Brahmin and Khetriyas of leaving all manual work to Vaisyas and Sudras. He wanted an egalitarian society where all section worked hard for all rural development. He wanted to built a system where each learnt to respect physical work, each acquired skill in physical work and each contributed to increased production. Such a system of education was bound to promote a more democratic and more prosperous society. Ethics was the foundation of Gandhis concept of education. He wanted education to promote morality. Character building, refinement, behavioural change, development of personality were the socio-ethical aims of education for Gandhi. He says, real education consists not in packing the brain with so many facts and figures, not in passing the examinations by reading numerous books but in developing character8. His characterbuilding concept in education included truth, purity, fearlessness and integral development of mind, body and spirit. He had also emphasised Sthitaprajna equanimity in both favourable and adverse conditions. In this way he advocated for the personality development. Body, mind and spirit with equanimity should develop. The major concepts, which Gandhi stressed on, included social aspects of education. According to him the aim of education is both social and individual. He tried to implement his ideals on society and considered these aspects as vital for creating a good society. His

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sole aim was to create a society with good social order based on truth and non-violence through proper system of education. He observes there is something radically wrong in the system of education that fails to arm boys and girls against social and other evils. That education alone is of value, which draws out the faculties of a student so as to enable him or her to solve correctly the problems of life in every department9. Thus, Gandhi had a praise worthy vision of well-balanced society. He strongly advocated a scheme of education, which can train the future citizen to stand independently and for playing his role effectively in society. In this way he tried to maintain a harmonious relationship between man, society and education. Culture occupied a core place in Gandhis system of education. He thought that culture is the real reflection of personality. He says I attach for more importance to the cultural aspect of education than to the literacy. Culture is the foundation, the primary thing, which the girls ought to get from here. It should show in the smallest detail of your conduct and personal behaviour, how you sit, how you talk, how you dress etc, so that any body might be able to see at a glance that you are the product of this institution. Inner culture must be reflected in your speech, the way in which you treat your visitors and behave towards one another and your teachers and class10. The students should imbibe the culture of the country through education. Gandhian ideal of education was culture based. He realized that the achievement of freedom and upliftment of the people lies in our culture. He argued that Nothing can be farther from my thought that we should become exclusive or erect barriers. But I do respectfully contend, that an appreciation of other cultures can fitly follow, never precede an appreciation and assimilation of our own. It is my firm opinion, that no culture has treasures, so rich as ours has. We have not known it, we have been made even to deprecate its study and deprecate its value. We have almost creased to like it. An academic grasp without practice behind it is like an embalmed corpse, perhaps lovely to look at but nothing to inspire or ennoble. My religion forbids me to be little or disregard other cultures, as it insists under pain of civil suicide upon imbibing and living my own11. He emphasized on national education which should be culture based through which the child can learn refinement and knowledge. For him Culture meant refinement of feelings and education meant knowledge of literature. Education is a means and culture is the end. The latter is possible even without education. For instance, if a child is brought up in a truly cultured family, it will unconsciously imbibe culture from its environment. In our country at any rate, present day education and culture have no connection with each other. If the educated still retain some culture that is in spite of their education12. Self-supporting aspect of education had taken the central place in Gandhian system of education. He advocated knowledge through work. The focal point was that the students should stand independent with earning capacity. He should be prepared as an earning unit for the family and a helping hand to society after the completion of his studies. To him,

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Indian villages were capable of becoming such communities, indeed, he believed that Indian villages were historically self reliant and the great task now was to restore their autonomy and to create the conditions necessary for economic self sufficiency and political dignity in villages. Colonial rule, he thought, had damaged the village economy subjecting it to exploitation by city dwellers. Freedom from colonial rule would mean empowerment of the village and its development as a viable community. The Basic Education plan was meant to develop the village along these lines, by training children for productive work and by imparting to them attitudes and values conducive to living in a co-operative community13. For him, education is to be need based so that unemployment problem could be eradicated. In this way he tried to develop ideals like dignity of labour and work efficiency as integral parts of intellectual growth. Real education to Gandhi must lead to selfsufficiency. He thought a student with knowledge of agriculture or craft will never feel helpless in battling with the world in general and the country like India in particular. His educational plans fitted nicely in agrarian country like India. The educational system, which Gandhi had dreamt is national in character and suited for India. These ideas envisaged that the education should aim at national integration. He tried to touch people and disseminate his ideas through the channel of education. He says, Education is just a means. If it is not accompanied by truthfulness, firmness, patience and other virtues, it remains sterile and sometimes does harm instead of good, the object of education is not to be able to earn money, but to improve one self and to serve the country. If this object is not realized, it must be taken that the money spent on education has been wasted14. He opposed English system of education as it produced man with a little knowledge without working ability. That was merely clerk manufacturing education. According to him So long as education in the country is not imparted by persons of integrity and conditions are not created in which highest knowledge will be available to the poorest of Indians, so long as a perfect confluence of education and dharma has not taken place and education has not been brought into relation with conditions in India, so long as the intolerable burden imposed on the minds of the young by imparting education through a foreign medium has not been lifted, so long will there be no upsurge of national life, there is no denying this15. He tried to implement the new system of education at village level. Gandhi wanted a political system which would protect the interest of villagers against the ills modernized mass production. Therefore, his conception of national education desired to produce ideal citizen who were industrious, self-respecting, independent, and generous individuals living in a small community16. Gandhi emphasized vernacular medium of instruction. He always favoured education through mother tongue. He states that I must cling to my mother tongue as to my mothers breast, in spite of its short comings. It alone can give me life giving milk17. Mother tongue should be treated as the birth right of our students. He observed The foreign medium has caused brain tag, put an undue strain upon the nerves of our children, made

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them crammers and imitators, unfitted them for original work and thought and disabled them for filtrating their learning to the family on the masses. The foreign medium has made our children practically foreigners in their own land18. Gandhi always advocated for vernacular in place of English. Even though he knew the importance of English and was aware of its rich treasure he felt that it was not favourable under Indian conditions. He said, I regard English as the language of international commerce and diplomacy and therefore considered its knowledge on the part of some of us essential. As it contains some of the richest treasures of thought and literature, I would certainly encourage its careful study among them who have linguistic talents and expect them to translate those treasures for the nation in its literature19. However, he accorded status of second language to English not in school but in University course. According to Gandhi religion played an important role in education. He was extremely religious and felt that the essence of religion was to live for others, sacrifice and selfdenial. Religious education never meant for him knowledge of religious books but the observance of fundamental ethics, which is common to all religions. He noted that If India is not to declare spiritual bankruptcy, religious instruction of its youth must be held to be at least as necessary as secular instruction. It is true that knowledge of religious books is no equivalent to that of religion. But if we can not have religion, we must be satisfied with providing our boys and girls with what is next best I do not believe that the state can concern itself or cope with religious education. I believe that religious education must be the sole concern of religious associations. Do not mix up religion and ethics. I believe that fundamental ethics is common to all religions. Teaching of fundamental ethics is undoubtedly a function of the state. By religion I have not in mind fundamental ethics but what goes by the name of denominationalism. We have suffered enough from state aided religion and a state church. A society or a group, which depends partly or wholly on state aid for the existence of its religion, does not deserve or better, still does not follow any religion worth the name20. Through religious education he tried to explore the moral issues in education. For him religious education forms a crucial segment of moral instruction in educational institutions. He strongly recommended for prayer, daily reading of Hindu scriptures for Hindu students, Quran for Muslims and Bible for the Christian students. He thought that the core ethics of religious education was truth and ahimsa, which can bring the knowledge of broad minded and tolerance to the students. He says to use religion means truth and ahimsa or rather truth alone, because truth include ahimsa, ahimsa being the necessary and indispensable means for its discovery. Therefore, anything that promotes the practice of these virtues is a means for imparting religious education and the best way to do this, in my opinion, is for the teachers vigorously to practise these virtues in their own person21. The Gandhian concept of religious education was coupled with love and universal brotherhood and there is no difference between religion and morality. Briefly these ideas can be traced from his writings.

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A liberal education to all should include, as I have put it, a reverent study of other faiths, but I do not want to labour this point22. Just as preservation of ones own culture does not mean contempt for that of others, but requires assimilation of the best that there may be in all other cultures, even so should be the case with religion23. Teachers who teach under a common administrative system have no right to impart religious instruction according to their own viewpoint24. It is true that we lack religious education in the country. Religious instruction can only be imparted through the practice of religion, not by exhibiting mere learning25. Gandhi had well thought ideas on womens education and co-education. He wanted women to be respected and not to be considered as instrument of pleasure. He wrote women must cease to be our servants and objects of enjoyment as they are at present and become, instead our life companions, equal partners in the battle of life, sharers in our happiness and unhappiness. All our efforts seem utterly futile as long as this is not accomplished26. Gandhi was committed to the upliftment of women through structural and curricular change in education. He pleaded that the persons responsible for drawing up plans for womens education to remember that man rules the outer circle of the married life. Therefore he must have the greater knowledge of all those activities of life, which constitute, his sphere. The women, on the other hand, are dominant in the inner or domestic circle of their life. She must have special knowledge of the management of the home, care of children, their education etc.27 Therefore women should be educated from primary stage, so that they can discharge their responsibilities well. He said, women must learn as part of elementary education at least their own mother tongue. Hindi if it is not their mother tongue, enough Sanskrit to be able to understand the drift of the Bhagvad Gita, elementary arithmetic, elementary composition, elementary music and child care. Along with this, they should know well the process up to the weaving from cotton. When a woman receives this education she should have an environment that will shape her character and enable her to see clearly the evils in society and to avoid them28. He thought that early marriage of girls should be banned from the society as this was the sole cause of low attendance in secondary and higher education. He further pleaded, And this education, which men will give to women, will not be merely literacy, it will be extended to cover social reform and politics. Literacy must be only a preliminary to the teaching of the other subjects mentioned above. These may be taught even without it. A man who undertakes to teach his wife in this manner will have to change his attitude towards her. A man will himself be a student with his wife and will observe complete celibacy in his relation with her until she attains maturity. In no case will he subject a girl of twelve to fifteen years of age to the agony of bearing children to him. One ought to shudder at the very thought of it. If this is done we will not be crushed under the weight of inertia as we are at present29. On

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the other hand he strongly supported co-education to create balance in society. He felt it would foster healthy relation between boys and girls. Gandhis ideas on women education would only be translated to reality through educating women on all aspect of reproductive health, child rearing and home management. It even involved educating men on these. Both men and women were also to be taught good marital relationship. Gandhi recognized that home management requires training. He also raised social issues like child marriage, early conception, several activities before reaching reproductive age etc. for all these extension education and activity was a must. Guru Shisya Parampara, the tradition of teacher-follower, is an important component of Gandhian education. This had received the highest place in Indian educational heritage. In ancient period, ideas and knowledge and skill were passed from one generation to the other mostly through the teachers. The teacher in the Gandhian concept of education has been described as Lamp-Post, a sign board, a dissolvent, a processor, one who saves pupil from tyranny of words30. To him, an ideal teacher is always truthful and non-violent and all knowledge should be devoted to duty, students and God. He says, I ask teachers to cultivate their hearts and establish with the students heart contact. I have felt that the teachers work lies more outside than inside the lecture room. Unless the teachers are prepared to give all their time outside the classroom to their students, not much can be done. Let them fashion their hearts rather than their brains. Let them help them to erase every word out of their dictionary, which means disappointment and despair31. Gandhi laid stress on the ancient ideals of Guru Shisya relationship, he says, A teacher is a mother who can not take place of a mother can never become a teacher. A child should not feel that it is receiving education31. The teacher or Guru should be the epitome of devotion in order to elicit devotion from the students. According to him education of heart could only be done, through the living touch of the teachers33. Gandhi also wanted that teachers should be creative, constructive and having a good managerial ability to utilize the available resources. He writes what we need is educationists with originality, fired with true zeal, who will think out from day to day what they are going to teach their pupils. The teacher can not get this knowledge through musty volumes. He has to use his own faculties of observation and thinking and impart his knowledge to the children through his lips, with the help of craft34. So, the role of teacher was given highest priority in Gandhian concept of education. He also strongly opposed the punishment of students. He says, I am quiet clear that you must not inflict corporal or any other punishment on your children or pupils34. He rejected traditional method of punishment to students. Medium of instruction and national language was a much debated issue in education. Gandhi was in favour of a national language. He found Hindi satisfied all the necessary conditions, which can be accepted by all inhabitants of India, so it should be the national

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language. He opined that without the knowledge of Hindustani it would be impossible for the people to go to other states of India. He felt that Hindustani to be the window through which one can understand the other. He says you talk of poverty of Hindi literature, you talk of the poverty of todays Hindi, but if you dive deep into the pages of Tulsidas, probably you will share my opinion that there is no other book that stands equal to it in the literature of the world in modern languages. That one book has given me faith and hope, which no other book has given. I think that is a book, which can stand any criticism and any scrutiny, alike in literacy, grace, in metaphor and in religious fervour36. Not only he pleaded for a national language but he strongly raised voice for a common script. He writes, If we are to make good our claim as one nation, we must have several things in common. We have a common culture running through a variety of creeds and sub creeds. We have common disabilities. I am endeavouring to show that a common material for our dress is not only desirable but necessary. We need also a common language not in suppression of the vernaculars, but in addition to them it is possible to adopt a common script, we should remove a great hindrance in the way of realizing the dream, which at present it is, of having a common language37. Gandhi was aware of the fact that the Devanagari script as the only deciding factor and known to the largest part of India. Spread of Hindustani as a national language demanded extension tools also. As India is an agrarian country, Gandhi pleaded for adult education to make people self-sufficient, skilled worker and economically independent. He thought that adult education is the best method to promote the spread of literacy and impart useful knowledge. He wanted to eradicate illiteracy, ignorance and to spread knowledge by selected teachers from masses and selected syllabus. He says, Adult education should have an intensive programme of driving out ignorance through carefully selected teachers with an equally carefully selected syllabus according to which they would educate the adult villagers mind38. Thus, for Gandhi literacy campaign must not begin and end with a knowledge of alphabet, it must go hand in hand with the spread of useful knowledge. On the whole it includes all aspects of life such as physical, social, educational and community etc. Last but not the least Gandhian concept of education also includes sex education to boys and girls, rendering service to the society and technical training which would help in building self supporting skills. For Gandhi, the vast amount of the so-called education especially in arts, given in colleges are sheer waste and this resulted in unemployment among the educated classes. The medium of a foreign language through which higher education has been imparted in India has caused incalculable intellectual and moral injury to the nation39.

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Gandhi also echoed concepts of naturalism, idealism and pragmatism. Some of these are placed below. He tried to explore the childs education through natural and rural environment like a naturalist. His real attempt was that of rescuing education from the four walls of the class room. He advocated freedom for the child If children are to find themselves, they must be allowed a sufficient degree of freedom, if they are to develop their powers to the fullest, they must be prepared to accept the appropriate discipline and training. He greatly stressed the importance of educating the child in natural surroundings. By teaching handicrafts to children the teachers can draw out their faculties. He minimizes the use of text books I do not even remember having made much use of the books that were available. I do not find it at all necessary to load the boys with quantities of books. I have always felt that the true text books for the pupil is the teacher. I remember very little that my teachers taught me from books, but I have even now a clear recollection of the things they taught me independent of books. Children take in much more and with less labour through their ears than through their eyes. I do not remember having read any book from cover to cover with my boys. He had also given emphasis on idealist concept of education. This is reflected from all his writings as well as from his upbringing and early education. He wrote, Long before I undertook the education of the youngsters at the Tolstoy Farm I had realized that the training of spirit was a thing by it self. To develop the spirit is to build character and to enable one to work toward a knowledge of God and self realization and I held that this was an essential part of the training of the young and that all training without culture of the spirit was of no use and might be even harmful. Gandhiji also believed in the harmonious development of personality and advocated that different types of social culture and physical activities to be undertaken to achieve this end. Few pragmatic concepts were strongly advocated by Gandhiji throughout his life. He tried to correlate education with actual life. All his concepts were based on pragmatic philosophy of education. The introduction of a basic craft as the center of education, the co-ordination and correlation of the content of the close relationship of education with actual life, the method of learning by doing, the individual initiative, the sense of the total responsibility and emphasis on experiment were experimented by him for discovering truth as well as the real implementation of education. He himself calls his autobiography My Experiments with Truth. He advocates that a child should learn from the real experiments of life. M.S.Patel, observes Gandhiji in his educational philosophy, gives

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due place to the dominant tendencies of naturalism, idealism and pragmatism, which fuse into a unity, give rise to a theory of education which would suit the needs of the day and satisfy the loftiest aspirations of the human soul40. Before we turn to Gandhis concept of extension education, let us recall the essentials of his concept of education. Education liberates is the highest ideal for Gandhi. His concept of liberation was not limited to liberation of the soul from the chain of rebirth or of the spirit from matter. It included freedom from foreign rule, from poverty, from social inequality and such other undesirable bondages. Education and learning did not shun physical labour. Intellectualism was not the privilege of those who did not worry for bread and better. Education was for all and as such manual labour and earning ones bread through sweat was a must. Wealth creation for feeding the millions was necessary and each had to acquire the skill of increasing food, cloth and shelter, the essential requirement. Ethics and morality is the foundation of education. Religion in the form of denominationalism was not acceptable. Religion, which included non-violence and truth, which demanded living for others had to be taught. Practical ethics was the meeting ground and the scriptures taught these highest principles. Religion and culture form the core of education. The essence of national culture also needs to be carried forward through education. Social goals of education in terms of women empowerment, removal of untouchability and caste division, removal of blind beliefs, unscientific attitude etc were dear to Gandhi. Home Management also formed a part of his concern. Gandhi wanted education to be self-supporting, to be supported by local community. He stressed on simple basic structures with cleanliness. He felt no government to be capable of ensuring universal primary education without community support. For him University and technical education has to be supported by corporate house for they stood to benefit most from it. Gandhi advocated mother tongue to be best medium of instruction. He recognized the place of English. Above all Gandhi was essentially a nationalist even in his educational thought and as such he wanted an end to the de-nationalism of colonial system of education. His vision of Indian Independence was political, economic, social and even cultural. This complete independence or purnaswaraj alone could ensure her rightful place in the international community of nation. Education was the most important tool for the all round and holistic vision of Gandhi.

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References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. Pani R.N., Integral Education Thought and Practice, New Delhi: Ashish Publishing House, 1987, pp.28.9. Gandhi, M.K., To The Students, Ahmedabad : Navajivan Publishing House.1949. p.288. Gandhi M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Vol.18, p.471. Gandhi M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi. Vol.85, p.199. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, Ahmedabad : Navajivan Publishing House, 1977. www.mkgandhi.org. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.66, p.137. Kumar, Krishna., Thinkers on Education. Z. Morsy (ed)., Paris, UNESCO : Vol.2. 1994. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.47. p.422. Gandhi, M.K., To The Students, p.245. Ibid., p.291. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.45, 1931. pp63-64. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.41, 1929. p.6. Kumar Krishna., PROSPECTS, Paris, UNESCO : International Bureau of Education, Vo.23, No.3/4, 1993. p.507-17. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.6. p.361. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.16. p.156. Kumar Krishna., PROSPECTS, Paris, UNESCO : International Bureau of Education, Vo.23, No.3/4, 1993. p.507-17. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.85, p.88. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.21, p.40. Ibid. Prabhu, R.K., U.R. Rao., The Mind of Mahatma Gandhi, (Comp). Ahmedabad : Navajivan Publishing House, 2002. pp.69-70. Cenkner, William., The Hindu Personality in Education, New Delhi: Manohar Publication, 1976. p.114. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.35, p.343.

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23. 24. 25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30. 31. 32. 33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38. 39. 40.

Gandhi, M.K., True Education, Ahmedabad : 1949, pp.127-128. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.36, p.383. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.41, p.291. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.14, p.32. Ibid, p.207. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.34, p.384. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.14, pp.32-33. Cenkner, William, The Hindu Personality in Education, p.112. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.40, p.120. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.41, p.9. Cenkner, William, The Hindu Personality in Education, p.112.. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.68, p.374-375. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.72. p.226. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.19. p.322. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.26. p.119. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.65. p.234. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Vol.67. p.158. Aggarwal, J.C., Theory and Principles of Education, Vikas Publishing House, 1990. pp.242-244.

Gandhiji was one of the deathless few across the centuries, who have lifted human character to immortal authority who made humility and simple truth more powerful than empires - Senator Arthur H. Vandenberg

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GANDHIAN MODEL OF EXTENSION EDUCATION : A STUDY

Sarita Mishra* Theory of Extension Education Extension Education is an essential aspect of education. It is an integral part of any educational system. As discussed in the preceding chapters, extension education is the education outside the organized schools and class rooms. It broadly refers to extending, to spreading, to disseminating useful information, knowledge and skills outside the organized schools and class rooms. It is predominantly associated with agriculture and family welfare in Indian context. All out-reach actions including distance and continuing education are also treated as part of extension education. Life long education and education for all, the two international motto of education can be achieved only through extension education. It is considered to be an important tool of changing attitudes in life. Attitudinal change would contribute to national integration, growth of desired social changes, such as love for girl child, greater tolerance, growth of respect for other religions, growth of scientific temperament and increased agricultural prosperity. Extension education also includes activities related to continuing education, skill updation of the educated and skilled people. It includes activities where even the best of the educated adults go back to schools and colleges to recharge their batteries. Extension education also includes activities related with transferring the fruits of research to the actual users. The findings of the agricultural research should be transferred to the farmers. Similarly research in medicine and surgery has to reach medical practitioners and they must apply it. Such examples can be multiplied. Extension education thus involves transfer of knowledge and skill from the laboratories to the practitioners. It involves democratization of educational opportunities and societal changes. Having broadly outlined various facets of extension education and shades of its meaning, the scholar needs to find out how these get reflected in Mahatma Gandhis concepts and ideas on education. Though education was not the primary focus of Gandhis life, yet, his ideas on education are quiet well defined. It is argued here that his ideas on education have enriched the concept and practice of extension education in Indian context. The present attempt is an exploration in this direction. Mahatma Gandhi believed that the activities outside the regular classroom and outside the syllabi to be of greater importance. This is the fundamental premises on which the scholar links Gandhi with extension education. Gandhis experimentation were not limited to politics, it extended to dietary habits, education and even medical treatment. Gandhis experimentations were not necessarily based on new ideas, he drew his concepts from a number of sources. His uniqueness was his attempt to translate great ideas into practices. As noted earlier in the biographical sketch, Gandhi drew heavily from writings of Thoreau, Ruskin and Tolstoy
*Academic Consultant, Management Programme, DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar.

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and from books like Bible and Gita etc. He had also the onerous responsibility of evolving a vision for a India which was largely village based, a India which was caste ridden and where women were delegated to a lower status. He also aspired to create a patriotic India, he did not want merely sup-plantation of the British culture, he wanted sup-plantation of industrial capital driven economy with an Indian economy sensitive to its needs and to its population. Having portrayed the milieu of Gandhis educational thinking, let us turn to the principal theme i.e. how Gandhis ideas enriched extension education. It is proposed to deal the theme in two parts. In the first part a selective summary of extracts and views from Gandhis writings is being presented, as clues to the theories of extension education. In the second part an analysis of experiments carried out by Gandhi and his followers on extension is being dealt. From very ancient period education in India has been based on values, virtues and rituals associated with a predominant agrarian society. The foundation and strength of our education system also lies in the traditional Guru Kula Ashrams culture which Gandhi advocated from the very beginning of his career and in his attempts for upliftment of Indian society. Disciplined way of life, community based living and learning by doing was the basic principles adopted by Gandhi for his ashram inmates. Gandhi spent more than two decades at South Africa and he was drawn to establishing communities, more specially ashrams. Having established these ashrams Gandhi could no longer escape the practical question of education. In South Africa the vast numbers of indentured labourers were mostly illiterate; there was an enormous responsibility of making them cognizant of political and human rights. The only instrument was of course education. Gandhi was drawn into experimentation and into practical aspects of education. He attended to issue of political methods and social transformation through building of ashram schools. He was using a familiar Indian model, that of guru living in his ashram in the company of his disciples. In the ideal ashram community, the teacher was expected to set an example of the life worth living and from this high pedestal of daily existence he was permitted to demand any conceivable form of sacrifice from the students. This quasi-mythologized image seems to have served an important rhetorical function in Gandhis plea for reform in education. His educational model promised to place modern concept of education and pedagogy within the Indian tradition.1 Traditionally in India education was imparted in ashrams or hermitages of saints away from villages and cities. Students were required to live in the home of the teachers. In both the cases the learning atmosphere was informal, the students were self reliant, they were expected to work as a team, they were expected to participate in all worldly activities associated with the family of the teacher, it involved learning by doing. Subsequently, Gandhi established numerous communities or ashrams in India, Sabarmati and Wardha became the most famous all over India. One of the foremost concern of Gandhi was to develop an awareness of dignity of labour and a new attitude to work through the ashram concept of education with a free environment, disciplined way of life and learning

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through work. The ashram established by Gandhi worked as centres, which facilitated allround change. They were like labs of extension education. Gandhian concept of need-based education was considered as a solace to the Indian condition during freedom struggle. The education which Gandhi conceived for the agrarian India was need based. The time demanded employment for the hands, food for hungry stomach and knowledge for illiterate. Keeping these three requirement in mind Gandhi had planned for need based education which would be a help to the rural Indians and the poor in particular. For him, unless enough employment opportunities are created in each of the villages, we will soon face a situation, where over crowded and polluted cities would swell with more crime, more slums and more filth. Such cities Gandhi felt would breed revolutionaries and promote violence. We should learn enough lessons from three of the recent developments, when the truck owners, milk suppliers and vegetable suppliers and vegetable growers in the neighbouring states of Delhi went on strike pressing their demands on different occasions. Life almost came to a stand still besides rising prices in these items which forced the common public to go without vegetables and milk, sending shock waves all round. It is a fact that the cities do not produce any of the essential items of food, they depend on villages and when those items produced in the villages do not reach the urban centres, both the urban and the rural centres suffer. The situation in the villages is very alarming and there is a point in quarrelling with the observations made by some of the planners recently that during the last 50 years the face of rural, India has not improved, it has only shrunk because of malnutrition and lack of attention. Unemployment and poverty stalk every village and stare menacingly at over 40% of Indian population2. Gandhi argued that the textbooks did not provide need based learning material. For him though they were not harmful they were hardly useful. Most of the books were written by English men who did not care to reflect the Indian environment. Though they were good for children of England, they were not necessarily relevant for Indians. Further Gandhi argued that the Indian society is too varied to have a uniform set of textbooks. For instance, want of Harijan children are, in the beginning stages at least, different from those of the others. He advocated that teachers require the books more than the students. The teachers utilizing the books have to prepare learning material for his students as per requirement. Most of the textbooks Gandhi felt were dead weight on the children. The teachers and managers of education have a great responsibility in India to develop instructional material suitable to our needs. The primary aim of all education is or should be the moulding character of pupils3. He tried to implement the need based education such as, handicraft training, agriculture practices, dairy and animal husbandry and kitchen gardening etc, which would help them to earn and educate them about the resources of the country. Gandhian extension education syllabi included various skills for different artisans. He wanted skills to be transferred and learned by each and every member of the society.

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Through this the socio-economic status of the rural India can be raised. He realized that these skill oriented training can only be possible through the free educational atmosphere which is an important aspect of extension education. According to Gandhi The salvation of India and Indians lay in education. The education of the masses will bring them steps nearer to freedom and it would also lighten up their minds. He was also convinced that the British system of education was not a good system and it suffered from many defects, it was costly, bookish, anti India, examination ridden, so on and so forth, which resulted in imbibing babu type mentality. It was also beyond the reach of average Indians.4 He says the introduction of manual training will serve a double purpose in a poor country like ours. It will pay for the education of our children and teach them an occupation on which they can fall back in adult life, they can choose the craft for earning a livelihood. Such a system must make our children self reliant. Nothing will demoralize so much as that we should learn to despise labour.5 As millions lived in the villages at a very low level of subsistence, despise of labour was dangerous. He argued, if these millions produced some products, they can put their product in market and add wealth to their own and to the nation. Most lived in a hand to mouth situation. A starving man will be glad to earn an honest anna during his spare time. Thus in this way Gandhi had visualized the need for implementation of skill oriented training in villages. This could be achieved only through extension education approach. Gandhi wanted to develop a system of education universally acceptable to India and a system based on the needs of Indians. His conception of education aimed to reach each and every person of the society as well as the whole family. He stressed introduction of productive handicrafts in the schools. He wanted the schools to be self supporting as far as possible. There were two reasons for this. Firstly, a poor society such as India simply could not afford to provide education for all children unless the schools could generate resources from within. Secondly, the more financially independent the schools were, the more politically independent they could be6. Self-sustenance and independence of schools were twin objectives of Gandhi. To translate these two objectives, Education for All and Whole family Approach became Gandhis central aim. Through these two extension methods of education Gandhi tried to implement the Basic Education at every village. Gandhi had evolved an informal system of education in his ashrams in South Africa. Children lived with their parents in the ashram where tilling and handicraft were the means of livelihood. Elders taught the children the 3Rs (Reading, Writing and Arithmetics), that was good enough for the children who could pursue their studies in regular schools or colleges later. Gandhi insisted teaching should be in their own language and that children must also work in the fields and learn skills. The system that provided inexpensive and personalized education is ideal for the people of India7. He wanted the members of the family as well as children to be involved

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in all educational training programs imparted by ashram schools. His educational ideals and extension methods were suitable for the rural people and village centred India. Self-sufficiency aspect took a core place in Gandhian extension ideal. To him, Indian villages were capable of becoming such communities, indeed he believed that Indian villages were historically self reliant and the great task now was to restore their autonomy and to create the conditions necessary for economic self sufficiency and political dignity in villages8. He had given emphasis on the earning capacity through training. More specifically, he stressed on purposeful industrialization which meant, protecting the right of villages to produce what they could without competition with large scale mechanized establishments, Basic Education could enhance the productive capacities of village children under such a plan9. Self sufficiency aspect of training was highly praiseworthy. This provided knowledge and skill for earning ability and productive capacity building. These vital conception of extension training programme fitted suitably to the agrarian India and as well as to the 21st century. He noted, it is my firm belief that if Nayee Talim cannot become self-supporting, then the teachers do not understand what it is. In my view, amongst other characteristics, selfreliance is the most important characteristic of Nayee Talim. If this is so, for the education of boys and girls, then adult education must also be self supporting. If we believe that it is difficult to convince adults about the value of education, then I have to say that this is nothing but an old illusion. And the teaching of the 3Rs in adult education is not part of our Nayee Talim. The meaning of adult education is that we will give them, through their own language, all round education of a pure and socially useful life. And if they do not easily become self-supporting in my view there is some serious defect in that education. We should also forget that complete cooperation should be the basis from the very beginning. Those who know the full meaning of cooperation will raise no doubts about self-reliance10. Hence the Gandhian principle of self-sufficiency through extension education addressed the problems of rural mass, it guided them, it inspired them to work vigorously towards fulfillment of their wants and desires. All the training programmes which Gandhi dreamt of intended social reform and economic upliftment. The constructive programme as conceived by Gandhiji was an integral part of our fight for freedom. Gandhi contributed to social reform through his movement for removal of untouchability, character building, removal of illiteracy, womens education and developing earning ability. He says I do visualize electricity, ship building, iron works, medicine making and the like existing side by side with village crafts and also want every home to be a factory with its help the villager can produce articles for his own use and of need be for the market11.

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He also adopted a Harijan family and adopted their daughter as his daughter, thus his main aim was to reconstruct the society through his constructive training programme and extension approach where all people of various communities can learn together, live together and earn together. This core concept was vital to Gandhi during freedom struggle and remain vital even for social service sector today. Once he was advised, No one is listening to you So why not stop talking of Khaddar? He answered but why should I stop reciting my favourite mantra? He said in reply Khaddar and Khaddar alone is the only passport to the hearts of villagers. He maintained that for industrializing rural India there was nothing better than the spinning wheel. In September 1925 he was able to persuade Congress to establish an All India Spinners Association with a branch in every district. It was to be a part of the Congress organizations but with independent existence and powers12. An All India Village Industries Association became a part of the activities of Congress. Its function was to promote traditional village industries other than hand spinning and hand weaving. He toured all over the country in furtherance of his constructive programme. He was very selective on topics like Khadi, village industries, untouchability, sanitation, prohibition and self-control verses birth control. It was to serve people. He was instinctively aware that it was also a means of retaining his power over them13. Besides Political activities constructive programmes like Khadi, village industries, social reforms were Gandhis main concern. The All India Spinners Association served as training ground for workers, political, social as well as constructive14. The principal idea was reflected from his vision for society, which had given shape through extension programmes and activities conducted by Gandhi. Village and agriculture became two pillars of Gandhian extension theory. He wanted that training should be conducted in the villages so as to act as a demonstration for the farmers and artisans. He felt the poverty of Indian villages was being aggravated by development of modern industry. Not only cotton mills, but rice mills, flour mills, oil mills and sugar factories were leading to the decay of traditional village industries and creating wide spread rural un-employment. Therefore, creating wide spread rural employment through revival of village industries and handicrafts, Gandhi hoped, would meet the needs of people by their own labour. Instead of being robbed of employment and earnings by the encroachments of modern industry, he sought to promote not only hand spinning, hand weaving and handicrafts of all kinds but also hand pounding of rice, hand grinding of corn, oil pressing in the traditional village ghani and production of village made gur in place of factory made sugar.15 The real problem and solution of the country lies in the heart i.e. the villages, he held, They are calling me to bury myself in them16. He realized that the role of the villagers was notable in the freedom struggle. And extension training was the only media through which the villagers could learn and earn. He strongly

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viewed that the traditional old implements, the plough and the spinning wheel, have shaped our wisdom. We must gradually return to the old simplicity. He believed that multiplication of wants and machinery constrained reaching our goals. For him Indias salvation consisted in unlearning what she had learnt in the last fifty years. The railways, telegraphs, hospitals, lawyers, doctors and such like all have to go and the so called upper classes have to learn consciously, religiously and deliberately the simple peasant life, knowing it to be a life giving true happiness you can not build non-violence on factory civilization, but you can build it on self contained villages17. Agriculture should use such techniques which will not deplete the soil and pollute the environment. For this farmers should use eco-friendly production technique by using lesser and lesser amount of fertilizers, insecticides and pesticides. He preferred well irrigation instead of large hydro-electric projects since this lead to exploitation18. Agricultural sector alone can not solve the problem of rural poverty and unemployment. That is why Gandhi stressed the growth of rural industries like khadi, handlooms, sericulture and handicrafts19. He argued that large scale industries make people lazy and help concentration of wealth in the hands of few. On the contrary, rural industries are based on family labour and required less capital. His concentration on village and agrarian industry was noteworthy. This was based on extension principles and learning methods. He said I If we want to impart education best suited to the needs of the villagers, we should take the vidyapith to the villages20. Further his suggestion was The dry knowledge of 3Rs is not even new, it can never be permanent part of the villagers life. They must have knowledge given to them which they must use daily. It must not be thrust upon them. They should have the appetite for it. What they have today is something they neither want nor appreciate. Give the villagers village arithmetic, village geography, village history and the literary knowledge that they must use daily ... They will treasure such knowledge and pass on to the other stages. They have no use for books which give them nothing of daily use21. Gandhian thought of extension education theory revolved around the heart of India i.e. village and agriculture and allied industries. Group learning and adult education has a central place in extension education. For adult learners, the village itself is the class room. Gandhi realized that the adult education is the only tool through which the village people can learn at their door step. He opined If I had charge of adult education, I should begin with opening the minds of the adult pupils to a greatness and the vastness of their country. The villager of India is contained in his village. Hindustan is for him a geographical term. Gandhi observed that the villagers were ignorant of the evils of foreign rule. They had not realized that foreigners were ruling them because of their own weaknesses. Thus the first objective was a kind of political education through which villagers realize the need for self-governance or swaraj. He said My adult education means therefore first true political education of the adult by word of mouth. Of course in all I have written, openness has been assured. Non-violence abhors fear and

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therefore secrecy. Side by side with the education by the mouth will be literacy education. This is itself a specialty22. He urged the congress men to achieve this goal of political and literacy education at the shortest period through adult education. Further his argument was In my opinion what we have reason to deplore and be ashamed of is not so much illiteracy as ignorance. Therefore, adult education, too should have intensive programme of driving out ignorance through carefully selected teachers with an equally carefully selected syllabus.23 Gandhi wanted adult education should include the education of everybody at every stage of life. Further he states that I must have my eye on the children right from their birth. I will go a step further and say that the work of educationist begins even before that. For instance, if a woman becomes pregnant, Ashadevi will go to her and tell her I am a mother as you will be. I can tell you from my experience what you should do to ensure the health of your unborn baby and your own. She will tell the husband what his duty towards his wife is and about his share in the care of their expected baby. Thus the basic school teacher will cover the entire span of life. Naturally, his activity will cover adult education. He says Adult education of my conception must make men and women better citizens all round. To workout the syllabus and to organize the work of adult education is a more difficult task than preparation of the seven years course for children. The common central feature of both will be the imparting of education through village craft. Agriculture will play an important part in adult education under the basic scheme. Literary instruction must be there. Much information will be given orally. There will be books more for the teachers than for the taught. We must teach the majority how to behave towards the minority and vice versa. The right type of adult education should teach good neighborliness and cut at the very root of untouchability and communal problem24. His conception of adult education not only aims at educating the rural mass but to develop attitudinal change among them. Gandhi had given greater emphasis on informal way of teaching. In his opinion A teacher who establishes rapport with the taught becomes one with them, learns more from them than he teaches them. He who learns nothing from his disciples is, in my opinion worthless. Whenever I talk with someone I learn from him. I take from him more than what I give him. In this way a true teacher regards himself as a student of his students. If you will teach your pupils with this attitude, you will benefit much from them25. Gandhis Basic Education was concerned with learning from every day life which is the basis of informal educators work. It was also an education focused on the individual but reliant on cooperation amongst individuals. Gandhi advocated a family relationship amongst teachers and students. He advocated parental attitude for teachers26. He wanted the teaching should be in informal surrounding. The students should imbibe the skills through informal way of learning. He always looked beyond text book studies and considered them to be of secondary importance. He says Almost from the commencement, the text books deal, not

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with things the boys and girls have always to deal within their homes, but things to which they are perfect strangers. It is not through the text books that a lad learns what is right and what is wrong in the home life. He is never taught to have any pride in his surroundings. The higher he goes, the farther he is removed from his home, so that the end of his education he becomes estranged from his surroundings. He feels no poetry about the home life. The village sciences are all a sealed book to him. His own civilization is presented to him as imbecile, barbarous, superstitious and useless for all practical purposes. His education calculated to win him from his traditional culture. And if the masses of educated youths are not entirely denationalized, it is because the ancient culture is too deeply embedded in them to be altogether uprooted even by an education adverse to its growth. If I had my way, I would certainly destroy the majority of the present text books which have a bearing on and correspondence with the home life, so that a boy as he learns may react upon his immediate surrounding27. Gandhis concept of education was also culture based. For him freedom and upliftment of the people lie in its own culture. He was not exclusive. He did not denounce other cultures. He favoured appreciation and understanding of our own culture as the first step, it can be followed up with appreciation and assimilation of other cultures. Gandhi sadly observed that the existing official system of education not only promoted western culture, which had no connection with the surrounding of the students, but went further in denouncing Indias culture. Gandhi did not stop at making students learn about our culture. For him culture involved refinement of feelings, attitudes and behaviour, culture is a matter of practice. Mere academic knowledge about culture was not enough; culture must get reflected in our life. One may be cultured without any literary education and a so-called degree holder may behave in an uncultured manner. Gandhi found that in India culture and education are divorced from each other. Gandhi was advocating a cardinal principle of extension education i.e. extension should link education with culture of the people28. Childcare and pre-school education at home forms an important component of extension education in India and all other under developed and developing countries. This assumes greater significance as large section of our mothers are still illiterate and not aware of healthy practices. Gandhi recognized that childs education begin much earlier before going to school. Education does not start with learning of alphabets. Gandhi wanted children to develop the following habits and attitudes before going to school. To co-ordinate properly his limbs, senses and mind. To be non-violent i.e. not to beat friend and siblings, kill flies or be violent. To develop healthy habits of cleanliness, body care and food intake etc. To learn to bear with denial of favourite food and toys etc. To pronounce words correctly and form sentences properly.

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To develop basic value judgment of discreaming between good and bad etc. To develop basic awareness of geography of surrounding areas. Gandhi sounds almost like a contemporary educationist. Gandhi identified the complexity of educational puzzle in India. Following were its aspects. Lack of resources for universal primary education. Competing demands for funds for primary, secondary and higher education. The moral and ethical issue of funding education by raising revenue from liquor and other intoxicants. The desirability of retaining the rural character of schools. The need and justification of English medium of education at secondary level. Gandhis solution for this puzzle was clear and well directed. His answers were as follows: Gandhi advocated minimalism and simple infrastructure which the community must come forward to provide. The volunteers if possible from village and adjoining area must come forward to teach. If necessary open air classrooms under trees should function. Text books should be avoided for the students and teachers must develop courseware with available local resources. Literary education should not be emphasized. Basic arithmetic, alphabetical reading, health and hygiene should form the core. Primary education claim for funds are supreme and always overrides the demands of secondary and higher education. As far as higher education was concerned, Gandhi wanted the corporate and industrial sector to finance it for they stood to benefit most out of it. As far as secondary education was concerned Gandhi advocated the self-sufficiency principle partly through learning by doing, craft education and production related activities. He also felt that there was not much need to provide secondary schools in villages when we have not achieved universal primary education. He was not opposed to secondary education but he wanted primary school at every village first. Gandhi could never reconcile with the argument of raising liquor revenue for education. It indirectly meant promotion of sale of liquor and other intoxicants to raise the revenue. Gandhi could never support a drunkard educated society. The gain from education could be completely wiped out with increase in consumption of liquor. Besides he had moral objections. Thus alternate method of financing education was advocated by Gandhi. Though Gandhi was not opposed to modernity he recognized the predominant rural nature of India. He never wanted schools to be diverted from the community of the locality. The products of urbanized schools were likely to live for the cities and the village could hardly gain from them.

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Gandhi felt that English Medium of instruction at secondary level was uncalled for. He felt what is learnt in four years can easily learnt in two years in vernacular medium. He recognized English as an international language and the need for secondary school children to be familiar with it. Mastery over English was only required at higher level. Gandhis concept of cow protection was not an echo of Hindu fundamentalism. His concept of cow protection included cattle breeding, improvement of the stock, humane treatment of bullocks and formation of model dairies etc. Gandhi and the congress had established the All India Village Industries Board to promote cottage and village industries. It worked for invention of more efficient charkha and other instruments used in the villages. It organized exhibitions of village crafts and promoted marketing activities and all these were related to the schools. Gandhis promotion of handicrafts was not from pure economic point of view. He recognized the need for creativity and development of the intellect through craft learning. From the proceeding discussion it is evident that though Gandhi did not use the word extension education he had widely used principles of extension education in formulation of his educational ideas. The following principles of extension education are reflected in his educational ideal. Principle of interest and needs; To be effective, extension work must begin with the interests and needs of the people. Gandhi was focused on the needs of the people. His educational vision covered, agriculture, rural reconstruction, health and hygiene, alternate technology, employment generation. Grassroots principle of organization; For extension work to be effective and real, it has to be a synthesis of democracy obtained at the level of the family and more particularly at village level. Village was given greater emphasis by Gandhi. His foremost step was to improve the village through establishment of village schools which should of self reliant. Besides this step he had tried to bring out the leaders through panchayati systems and by formation of groups. Lab to field is a sacred principle of extension; Gandhi constantly endeavoured to take lab developments in childcare, mother care, health, hygiene and medicine to the people. He even tried to take the skills of a trained midwife to villages. Followers of Gandhi emphasized alternate technology or technology suited to India. Gandhis mantra was not the latest but the most appropriate technology. Gandhi in fact went beyond lab to field, he wanted labs to develop technology appropriate to Indian fields.

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Principle of cultural change; The changed ways must be learnt and all learning must be grafted on what is already known. It is obvious that the change agent must know what the villagers know and what they think. Gandhi realized that the teacher volunteer should be well aware of the village geography, values, tabooes, mores and surroundings which will help to provide a suitable learning atmosphere. Principle of Cultural differences; In order to make extension programmes effective, the approach and procedure must be suited to the culture of the people who are taught. Gandhi had evolved a system of education carrying forward the Indian culture, ethos, tradition and institutions. It was not a copy of the west. Simultaneously it was not revivalist or anti-modern. He was keen to incorporate those modern aspects, which were useful. Principle of learning by doing; In extension work, farmers should be encouraged to learn new things by doing and by direct participation. Learning by doing and dignity of labour attained wider meaning under Gandhis experimentation. Craft education for creativity and livelihood and work in the field and in the school were sacred under his system of education. Principle of trained specialists; Trained specialists have to be engaged, who are in touch with their respective research institutes. Gandhi always invited master craftsmen to train the school children. He organized volunteers from cities who were educated and skilled in their own field. They worked for few months in champaran and returned back to Bombay. The cascade method of training was utilized by him. Principle of leadership; The involvement of leaders in extension programmes is the one single factor that determines the success or failure of those programmes. Gandhi was no armchair educator, he himself established schools, taught there and was involved in every aspect of it, in latrine cleaning, classroom teaching, outing for children, craft education and every other activity. He himself lead from the front and created a band of leaders to carry forward the work.

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Whole family principle; All members of the family have to be developed equally by involving all of them. Gandhi, his wife and even children lived in the various ashrams in which he lived. Wherever he took up, any activity (even political), Gandhi had taken care to get the whole family involved. Principle of cooperation and participation; To involve a great number of persons in achieving desired common ends, there seems to be no acceptable alternative but to let them choose the ends and then aiding them to organise their self help efforts successfully to do the things. Gandhi always drew the entire community, his appeal was never to one class or community, he never set one class against other, he never fermented hatred and anger. Adaptability principle in the use of extension teaching methods; No single method is effective under all situations. Various communication mediums such as reading material radio, television and internet etc. can be used depending on the target group. Though Gandhi did not devote enough thought on various mediums of communication, he realized the importance using more than one method. Learning by doing, group learning, informal way of teaching and community based training are the methods used by Gandhi for making the education more effective and learner oriented29. Gandhis Experiment On Extension Education Experiments on Community learning Gandhi was no armchair thinker of education. He was highly experimental; ever ready to try out new things and ever eager to put theories to practices. As noted earlier Gandhi had established several communities or ashrams and he carried out educational experiments in these. Presently an attempt is being made to analyze various experiments carried out by Gandhi. Inspired by Gandhi both during his life time and afterwards numerous experiment on his line of thinking have been worked out. These are also being analyzed here. Phoenix Settlement : In 1903 Gandhi returned to South Africa after a brief sojourn in India. His objective was to meet Mr. Chamberlain and advance the Indian cause. He had just settled down in Johannesburg when large number of Indians became ill due to unusual rain. Gandhi had read Ruskins Unto This Last and immediately put it into practice. The teachings of the

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book as grasped by Gandhi were as follows, That the good of the individual is contained in the good of all; that a lawyers work has the same value as the barbers, in as much as all have the same right of earning their livelihood from their work; that a life of labour, that is, the life of the tiller of the soil and the handicrafts man, is the life worth living. Gandhi was drawn to these ideas and was ready to translate these newly imbibed ideas into practice. Gandhi did not take long to put the ideas of Unto this last into practice within ten days he purchased for Rs.1,000/- a hundred acres of land, containing a fine little spring, a dilapidated cottage and plenty of fruit trees, some of which bore mangoes and oranges. The plot was fourteen miles from Durban and two and a half mile from Phoenix station. The Phoenix settlement thus came into being in the middle of the year 1904. The Indian opinion was soon published from Phoenix being shifted from Durban. The settlers of Phoenix were divided into two classes, the schemers and the paid workers. The schemers had to make a living by manual labour. They were given three acres each round the press. No land was fenced in and paths and narrow roads divided one holding from another. The original idea was to build mud huts thatched with straw or small brick houses. But due to lack of funds structures of corrugated iron were erected by the settlers. If any member vacated his house or holding, it was not sold but passed to another member. The original members comprised a small group of Indian and European idealists. The colony was to be as far as possible self supporting and lifes material requirements were to be reduced to a minimum. In course of time Phoenix settlement grow up and education became an important component of the settlement30. Phoenix settlement was rural based and principles of extension were widely applied. This community concept of educational experiment has a place amongst great educational attempts. Utilization of available resources and selflearning methods were emphasized. Originally the Phoenix settlement was meant for running the Indian Opinion, a newspaper of which Gandhi was the editor. But gradually a number of Satyagrahis joined Gandhis cottage with their families and became the follower of Gandhis ideals. The entire surrounding was equipped with all facilities. Around thirty number of children received literary training with practical knowledge on agriculture and planting. They were also given training in environmental care, hygiene and sanitation, spending the whole day on their studies with physical activity like cooking, gardening, constructive work etc. The atmosphere of the settlement was like that of a school-cum-workshop. There the theoretical and practical aspects of learning had been taken care. The Gandhian conception of extension ideals took its shape from Phoenix settlement. He had started experimenting his educational philosophy under surrounding of community-based settlement. The core ideas of education at Phoenix settlement was to create a family an extended family, a family of resister and a community which lived and acted like a family. It was an

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extension of Gandhis own family, When Gandhi was at Johannesburg, he introduced as much simplicity as could be possible in his household. He was not against the literary education but he did not hesitate to sacrifice it for the service of the community. He said that proper training in character should be given by the parents at home. He believed that the ways of doing and thinking would be reflected in the children. He himself tried to imbibe the philosophy. He provided training on all aspects, during his talks through conversation. He talked to his children only in Gujarati, since it was his conviction that those Indian parents who trained their children to think and talk in English from their infancy betrayed their children and their country. He also observed that, they deprived them of the spiritual social heritage of the nation and rendered them to that extent unfit for the service of the country. Thus Gandhian experiment opened a new vision in educational methods. The main objective of establishing the settlement were to Imbibe the value of self-help. Education through the community living. Life long support through economic self-sufficiency. Learning through mother tongue. Achievement of individual as well as national goal. Emphasis on skilled training on agriculture, environment and physical activity. Importance given to learning by doing or result demonstration method. Self learning through group activity. These were the practical learning given to the ashramites at South Africa. This opened the path for exploring Gandhian ideology and extension philosophy of education31. Tolstoy Farm : During 1910 the Satyagraha movement in South Africa gathered great momentum On May 30,1910 Hermann Kallenbach, a rich German architect and a close friend of Gandhi, offered the use of his farm for passive resisters and their indigent families. The use of a farm of 1,100 acres was given free of any rent or charge. Gandhi and Kallenbach named it after Tolstoy. Both Kallenbach and Gandhi were influenced by Tolstoys writings. The Tolstoy Farm was nearly two miles long and a three-quarter mile broad. Upon the farm, there were nearly one thousand fruit bearing trees and a small house. During the season oranges, apricots and plums grew in abundance. Water was supplied from two wells as well as a spring. The nearest railway station, Lawley, was about one mile from the farm, and Johannesburg twenty-one miles. Gandhi and Kallenbach now decided to build

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houses on the farm to accommodate the passive resisters. Some satyagrahis came to work and live on the farm. The settlers were the South Africans who originally hailed from Gujarat, Tamil Nadu, Andhra and North India. There were Hindus, Muslims, Parsis and Christians among them. There were forty young men, two or three elders, five women and thirty children including five girls32. They had a common kitchen. Gandhi was prepared to provide meat to those who wanted it, however everyone wanted to be a vegetarian. Initially settlers lived in tents and unsaturated simple houses not long after. The mens quarters were separated from womens and everyone including married people led a celibate life. To make the family self supportive, small industries like sandle making and carpentry etc were started. A school was started in June for the youngsters. Classes were held only in the afternoon from two to five, as the settlers were engaged in hard physical labour in the morning. Gandhi and Kallenbach, assisted some young men, to work as teachers. Religious instruction was given by Gandhi, who wrote out the fundamental doctrines of Hinduism and studied books on Islam and Zoroastrianism. He taught his pupils to respect all religions and to live together like blood brothers. Gandhis class was heterogeneous in character consisting of people of all ages from 7 to 21 and consisted of both boys and girls. He divided the class into two sections, he taught the Gujuratis in Gujurati medium and the rest through English. Story telling was the principal method, Gandhi himself picked up a bit of Telugu, Tamil and Dutch, general knowledge in History, Geography, Arithmetic and Sanskrit were taught. Only on one occasion Gandhi had punished a pupil with a ruler and repented. His experiment of coeducation in Tolstoy farm was daring. He explained the virtue of self restraint to his pupils. He slept in a open veranda and the boys and girls were spread around him. Life was as simple as humanly possible. No drug was used and nature cure was adopted. Purity of thought, word and deed were emphasized and ashramites prepared themselves to became great satyagrahis. Gandhi was in touch with Tolstoy and was greatly influenced by him. On Tolstoys death on Nov., 20th 1910 Gandhi paid tribute in the following words : Of the late Count Tolstoy, we can only write with reverence. He was to us more than one of the greatest men of the age. He has endeavoured, so far as possible, to follow his teaching. The end of his bodily life but put the final touch to the work of humanity that he, in his own inimitable manner inaugurated. Tolstoy is not dead; he lives through the lives of his innumerable followers throughout the world. We firmly believe that, as time rolls on, his teaching will more and more permeate mankind. Though a devout Christian, he truly interpreted not only Christianity, but he likewise gave a realistic presentation of the substance underlying the great world religion, and he has shown, how present day civilization based as it is on brute force, is a negative of divinity in man and how, before

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man can realize his manhood, he must substitute brute force by love in all his actions in the daily work of life33. Through the Tolstoy farm Gandhi wanted to explore his ideas of education. He had given stress on the imparting of education through parents. He declared, only this much I knew that under ideal conditions, true education could be imparted only by the parents and that Tolstoy farm was a family, in which I occupied the place of the father and that I should so far as possible shoulder the responsibility for the training of the young. Gandhian Tolstoy farm was a family and the students were living with their teacher. Importance was given on character building, culture of the heart, training provided to everyone alike, training to all age group and upbringing of the children. These ideals made the farm an ideal laboratory for educational experiments. Gandhi had spent time with the students and decided to live amongst them all throughout the day as their father, so that they could feel the real home atmosphere. He thought that the real family upbringing can only be possible through a home atmosphere. The students would be benefited only through the education by parents. The extension principle of whole family approach was put to practice by Mahatma Gandhi. In this way he wanted to make students aware about the value of elders and attached greater importance to character building. Therefore he remarked I regarded character building as the proper foundation for their education, and if the foundation was firmly laid, I was sure that the children could learn all the other things themselves or with the assistance of friends. Besides character building Gandhi had emphasized literary training in education. He started some classes with the help of Mr. Kallenbach and others. But the Gandhian vision never distracted from the extension principles. Major emphasis was given on the farm activity, cooking and even scavenging had to be done by inmates. All students were involved in the activities like gardening, digging pits, felling timber, lifting loads, vocational activities like shoe making, carpentry and gardening etc. The teachers were expected to set an example to others by their own conduct and they were always ready to cooperate with the students. No work was assigned to students which were not done by teachers. Teachers constantly worked with the student, setting examples constantly. Literary training was given in Hindi, Tamil, Gujarati through the vernaculars of the students. All the children were taught elementary history, geography, arithmetic. In spite of literary education Gandhi never felt the importance for the text books at all. As he says the true text book for the pupil was the teacher and therefore, he never found it necessary to load the minds of children with a number of text books. Only question and answer method was applied for measuring their power of understanding. At Tolstoy Farm the students got physical, mental and spiritual training. Gandhi considered spiritual training to be very essential part of education of the children in his charge. According to Gandhi, the spirit was to develop character and enable one to work

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towards a knowledge of God and self-realization, Truthfulness, tolerance and non-violence are the key principles always emphasized by Gandhi. These principles also played an important role in character building through education. He doubted very much whether the violent method of corporal punishment would be of any use. Gandhi had also experimented with group approach. Through group approach Gandhi promoted learning ability, character building, moral values, tolerance, non-violence and truthfulness amongst students. He utilized the talents of the students and other inmates. This group experiment took a central place in the Tolstoy Farm. Gandhi did not share the common fear that bad would influence the good more than vice-versa. Gandhi believed that when good and bad children were brought up and taught together, good would lose nothing since if there was anything really good, it was bound to react on their companions. He considered that a good discipline for the good children to be taught together along with the bad ones and thrown into their company provided the experiment was conducted under the watchful care of their parents and guardians34. Thus the experiment of Tolstoy Farm was an example of the extension principles. The following extension ideals were followed by Gandhi at Tolstoy farm Community based learning Whole family approach for education Parents are the key teacher to their children Character building of students Literary training without the use of text books Self learning through physical activity from cooking to scavenging Vocational training for acquisition of skill Self sufficiency as the key motto Participation, co-operation, group activity, self learning, sharing the social values Teacher setting an example of good conduct as a group leader, good teacher, good worker, skilled trainer and as a good parent on the whole Vernaculars of the students were respected Physical, mental, spiritual training was given through the works assigned to the students Agriculture, Gardening, Sanitation, Environment and other aspects were given importance Non-violence became the prime motto for character building

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Culture and religion of all students were respected Age was not a bar for the studentship Gandhi worked out his philosophy of education and applied a number of extension principle in the Tolstoy Farm. Experiment at Champaran Gandhi returned to India in 1915 and traveled extensively for two years. Gandhi was well versed with the problems of indentured labour in South Africa. During these two years Gandhi acquired first hand knowledge on the labourers and Indias agriculture. In 1916 Gandhi during the Lucknow sessions of Congress, learnt about the lamenting condition of indigo cultivators at Champaran. Champaran is situated in the north west corner of Bihar, with Gandak as the major river. Motihari and Bettiah were the two important towns. Indigo cultivation was introduced by planters at the fag end of 18th century. Gandhi along with J.B.Kripalani, Rajendra Prasad, Majharlal Haque, and others visited various villages of the Champaran district and acquainted themselves with the ground reality. Gandhi led the Champaran movement which included educational activities besides socio-political work. Only educational aspect is considered here. Ignorance was considered to be principal cause of misery. He decided to combat this. He issued a public appeal inviting voluntary teachers. Babasaheb Soman and Pundlik from Karnatak, Avantikabai Gokhale from Bombay, Anandibai Vaishampayan and Shankarrao Deo from Poona offered their services. Gandhi also brought Chhotelal, Surendranath and Devadas from the ashram to help in the work. About this time Mahadev Desai and Narhari Parikh with their wives had cast their lot with Gandhi, and Kasturbai also joined the contingent. Gandhi arrived in Champaran from Bombay with his volunteers. The first school was opened in 1917 in a village of the Bettiah Raj, about twenty miles east of Motihari. Within a week a second school was opened in a village forty miles north-west of Bettiah. A sadhu offered a rent free land of a temple for the school which was opened in 1917. A thatched hut was erected for the purpose. Soman, Kasturbai and Dr. Deva took charge of this school. Within few weeks, a third school was opened at Madhubani, which was conducted by Mahadev Desai, Narhari Parikh, and Kripalani. About these village schools, Gandhi wrotes thus : In the schools I am opening, children under the age of twelve only are admitted. The idea is to get hold of as many children as possible and to give them an all-round education, a good knowledge of Hindi or Urdu and, through that medium, of arithmetic and rudiments of history and geography, a knowledge of simple scientific principles and some industrial training. No cut and dried syllabus has yet been prepared because I am going on an unbeaten track. I look upon our present system with horror and distrust. Instead of developing the moral and mental faculties of the little children it dwarfs them. In my experiment, whilst, I shall draw upon what is good in it, I shall endeavour to avoid the

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defects of the present system. The chief thing aimed at is contact of children with men and women of culture and unimpeachable moral character. That to me is education. Literary training is to be used merely as a means to that end. The industrial training is to be designed for the boys and the girls who may come to us for an additional means of livelihood. It is not intended that on completing their education they should leave their hereditary occupation but make use of the knowledge acquired in the school to refine agriculture and agricultural life. Our teachers will also touch the lives of grown up people and if at all possible, penetrate the puradah. Instruction will be given to grown up people in hygiene and about the advantages of joint action, for the promotion of communal welfare, such as, the making of village roads proper, the sinking of wells etc. And as no school will be manned by teachers who are not men or women of good training, we propose to give free medical aid as far as possible. About 140 children were being taught at the Barharwa village school. Here weaving was taught and people were trained in the art of co-operative action by making them keep their huts, wells, roads and villages clean. The parents were taught to keep their children clean and tidy. The Bhitharwa School was situated in a complete locality, illiterate and ignorant. The climate of the place was extremely unhealthy. Dr. Deva gave the villagers practical lessons in hygiene and elementary medicine and treated the patients. These village schools were run most economically. One of the conditions was that the villagers should provide the teachers with board or lodging. The villagers willingly contributed grain and other raw produce. Medical relief was a simple affair. Castor oil, quinine and sulphur ointment were the only drugs provided to the volunteers. No patient was permitted to take home any medicine but he was treated on the premises of the school. Dr. Deva used to visit each center on the fixed days. A number of people availed themselves of the medical aid. Sanitation was a difficult proposition. The people were not prepared to do anything themselves. Even the field labourers were not ready to do their own scavenging. But Gandhis men were not the persons to lose heart. They swept the roads, cleaned out the wells, filled up the pools and persuaded the villagers to raise volunteers from amongst themselves. Gandhi asked Kasturbai to inquire why the village women did not wash their clothes. When she spoke to them about it, one woman took Kasturbai into her hut and said, Look now, there is no bore or cupboard here containing other clothes. The sari I am wearing is the only one I have. How am I to wash it? Tell Mahatmaji to get me another sari, and I shall then promise to bathe and put on clean clothes every day. In those days a male labourers wage did not exceed ten pice, a females did not exceed six and a childs three. In imparting knowledge to the poor villagers, Gandhi wanted the cooperation of the planters. But it was not to be so. They even put obstacles and the schools had to be opened

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away from the factories. But even them the planters frowned upon Gandhis activities. Bhitharwa School soon after its inauguration was set on fire. In no time did the workers succeed in erecting a new structure, carrying bricks on their own heads. Gandhi used to visit the schools by turn and suggest improvements. After six months of work, the first batch of volunteers was replaced by a new one. Gandhi found in Champaran that the problem of agricultural sector could be solved through proper village education. He realized that proper village education made them aware about their problem. Gandhi had also tried to inquire about the economic conditions of the indigo labourers who were very poor. Gandhian love for education was reflected in Champaran village. He had planned to open primary schools in six villages for the improvement of educational status of the children. He had requested the villagers to provide free broading and lodging to the teachers, other expenses had been taken care of by Gandhi. Villagers were also ready to afford foodstuff for the educational purpose. Gandhi had faced a great problem in finding teachers, so he issued a public appeal for voluntary teachers. There was a ready response and some of them were ladies. The teachers were like voluntary extension workers. Gandhian educative purpose did not exclude environmental aspect of the villagers. He had gain experience about the economic condition of the villages, in sanitary surroundings, mud and stink and untidy courtyards, so he decided to educate the people about it. For this type of work he required doctors and other assistance. He requested the servants of India society to lend the services of their doctors35. Gandhi specifically instructed the teachers not to involve themselves in politics or to concern themselves with grievances against planters. People, who had any complaints to make, were to be referred to him. Strict discipline has to be followed by teachers as well as students. This was a greater foundation experiment for modern community development projects and national extension services. Gandhian experiments also became an example later for all the extension services conducted by government of India for rural development. The following features are key aspects of the experiment. Agriculture and Agricultural problems were emphasized Importance given on agriculturist and plantation labourers. Educational training was provided through activity. Primary education of children had been taken care Cooperation from the villagers were facilitated. Character building, social and personal cleanliness were the aim of the curriculum Hygiene and sanitation became the key motto.

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Environmental care and civic education were given the prime importance Village was the nerve center Community work was given importance. Literary training was not over emphasised Hereditary occupation was given importance Economic aspect were taken care Champaran experiment unlike other Gandhian experiments was not confined to prenicts of an ashram. It was spread over on large tract. It was on a wider scale and provided more realistic lessons for all. Experiment at Sabarmati: Gandhi founded an ashram at Kochrab near Ahamedabad on 25 May 1915. Within two years due to outbreak of plague it was shifted to Sabarmati. Maganlal, Gandhis nephew managed the ashram. It was located on the banks of river Sabarmati and was closed to the Sabarmati jail. Its solitude was inviting. It was almost fallow without trees. Initially people lived in tin sheds and latter permanent houses were built. Sabarmati ashram became a semi permanent house of Mahatma Gandhi for the rest of his life. There were quiet a few permanent residence and education of all was an important component for Mahatma Gandhi in Sabarmati ashram. Almost all great freedom fighters of India including Nehru, Patel, Annie Besant, Maulana Azad etc. lived at Sabarmati frequently. The prime objective was of course nationalist and training of Satyagrahis36. Besides the national goal, the ashramites were always concerned to find out truth from all aspects of life. They were dedicated to Gandhian philosophy and devoted to truth as their soul principle. Gandhi had prepared certain disciplinary rules and regulations for achievement of the national goal, social change in terms of attitudes, behaviours thinking and living style. The following rules were identified by Gandhi for inmates at the ashram. Truth, non-violence, love, chastity, control of palate, non-stealing, non-possession, poverty, physical labour, swadeshi, fearlessness, removal of untouchability, and tolerance were the rules for ashramites. they were put to carried out certain activities for achieving the objectives such as Following these principles ashramites were engaged in worship, sanitary service, sacrificial spinning, agriculture, dairy, tannery and national education. All were based on the extension principles drafted by Gandhiji. Sacrifice and selflessness was insisted upon for the members of the ashram. They were required to provide service with humility. Gandhi also wanted to revive cottage industry and hand spinning with the help of ashramites.

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The Satyagraha ashram at Sabarmati had taken the pride as one of the valuable educational experiment in social education. Irrespective of caste, creed and religion, all were allowed to live in the ashram surrounding and committed to stand against the social evils untouchability. After this issue he started training on social education based on extension philosophy which aimed at changing the behaviour, attitude, thinking of the individual. He admitted the untouchable candidate as inmates of the ashram. The attitudinal change of the ashramites became a major issue first. To ensure this he wanted to include people from all class, race, caste, creed and age. On the whole he wanted to achieve national goal by imparting such education and training for attitudinal change of people. Later it was considered as a valuable experiment in national education37. The following were the features Attainment of national goal was the supreme objective Spreading the values, like truth, non-violence, selflessness, love, chastity, control of the palate, sacrifice, non-stealing, non possession, physical labour, swadeshi, fearlessness, removal of untouchability and tolerance were attempted. Social change in through change in attitudes, behaviour, thinking and life style was emphasized. Sacrificing life for the service of country was practiced. Emphasis was given to cottage industry and handloom weaving for self sufficiency Emphasis was given on spiritual, intellectual and physical development Services in the field of sanitary, sacrificial spinning, agriculture, dairy, tannery, national education were important for all. Truth as the prime principle was followed by ashramites. Search for knowledge through truth, insistence on truth and devotion to truth was the guiding philosophy. Training on social education was emphasized. All were allowed irrespective of caste, creed, race and class. Ashramites were strict followers of Gandhian principles and thought. The language of the province got the principal place in the ashram and selected as the medium of instruction. Gandhi had never forgotten to implement his philosophy of non-violence in each of the experiment at Sabarmati. Gandhi wanted to take care of environment and wild life. The surrounding was full of snakes, but Gandhi had taken risk of living with the ashramites under such conditions. However, Gandhi had a strict instruction on the general principle of non-violence and philosophy of not killing reptiles by all the inmates38.

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Besides the above Gandhi was associated with the nationalist educational schools established by his followers. The national Gujurati School which was subsequently developed as Gujurat Vidyapith, was an important institution with which Gandhi was associated. The general philosophy and practices as evolved by Gandhi were adopted. The special features of the institution included the following. Physical and intellectual aspects of education were empphasised. Gujarati, Marathi, Hindi and Sanskrit were taught as compulsory languages. Under, Tamil and Bengali were taught as optimal languages. English was restricted to first three years of the study only. Gujurati only was the medium of instruction. Gandhi and his followers wanted to evolved an institution which could we replicated in Government Schools. Besides educational experiments carried out ashrams and educational institutions. Gandhi involved himself in hard core extension activities. Gandhi always emphasised on constructive programme. The programmes recommended by Gandhi were nothing but need based extension. He had formulated an 18 point porgramme which included the following village industries, basic and adult education, rural sanitation, uplift of backward tribes, uplift of women, education in public health and hygiene, propagation of national language, love for the mother tongue, economic equality, organization of kissans, labour and students and so on. Several organizations like All India Spinners Association. All India village Industries Association, Go-Seva Sangh, Khadi Vidyalaya at Sewagram, Gandhi Ashram at Tiruchungodi, Gandhi Niketan at Kallupatti, Gandhi Gram at Dindigal, Gandhi Seva Sadan at Porur (Maladwar) and Kasturba Ashram in Trichur etc. All India Khadi and village industries board, Harijan Sewak Sangh, Hindustani Prachar Sangh were active in translating the constructive programme into reality. Gandhi adopted the extension philosophy and strategy for national reconstruction. From the above discussion on Gandhis theories of extension education and his experiments in extension education, it is evident that Gandhi was both a theoretician and a practitioner. He excelled in both. There is no theoretical or practical inconsistency in his theories and practices. The same breath flows in both the streams. Education for him meant the education of the entire nation and mankind. Education started for him even before a child is born and continues till the death; Education meant not only good, ethical, democratic, scientific, humanitarian and other high principles but also practicing all these. Amongst Indian thinkers he evolved the most complete theory and action plan for extension. References 1. 2. Kumar Krishna., Prospects, Paris, UNESCO : International Bureau of Education, Vol.23, No.3/4, 1993. p.507. Sarvodaya, Vol.1, No.5, Jan-Feb, 2004.

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3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. 12. 13. 14. 15. 16. 17. 18. 19. 20. 21. 22. 23. 24.

Gandhi M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Harijan, 1 December, Vol.56, 1933. pp.295-6. Nanda S.K., Indian Education and its Problems, Kalyani Publishers, 1997. P.41. Gandhi, M.K, Views on National Education, 1st September 1921. Gandhi on Education : Excellent Collection of Quotes, National Council for Teacher Education. Rangan, K. Swachid, A Gandhian Agenda for Universal Education. www.mkgandhi.org. Krishna Kumar, Kumar Krishna., PROSPECTS, Paris, UNESCO : International Bureau of Education, Vol.23, No.3/4, 1993. p-507. 17. Ibid. Gandhi M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, Khadi Jagat, Vol. 82. 1945. pp.143 144. Kripilani, J.B. Gandhi : His Life and Thought, Publication Division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Govt. of India, 2003. Sir Moon Penderal, Gandhi and Modern India, London-ECU : The English Universities Press, p.123. Ibid., p.183. Ibid., p.275. Ibid., p.185. Ibid., p.184. Ibid., p.283. Bhumali, Anil., Relevance of M.K. Gandhis ideal of self sufficient village Economy in the 21st Century. www.mkgandhi.org. Sarvodaya, Vol- 1. No. 5, Jan-Feb. 2004. Ibid. Gandhi, M.K., The collected works of Mahatma Gandhi, Harijan, 22 June, vol. 72, 1940. pp.180 81. Gandhi, M.K., Views on Adult Education. www.mkgandhi.org. Ibid. Gandhi M.K., Talk to Khadi Vidyalaya Students, Sevagram, Sevak, 15 Feb., Vol. 75, 15 Februar, 1942. p.269.

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25. 26. 27. 28. 29. 30.

Ibid. Gandhi M.K., Speech at Bhagini Samaj, Ahemedabad : 20 Feb., Vol.14, 1918. p.206. Gandhi, M.K., Views on National Education. www.mkgandhi.org. Gandhi, M.K., The Collected Works of Mahatma Gandhi, 1st September, 1921. Dahama, O.P., O.P. Bhatnagar., Education and Communication for Development, Oxford IBH, New Delhi : 1985. p.23-26. Tendulkar, D.G., Mahatma, life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, New Delhi : The Publications division, Ministry of Information and Broadcasting, Government of India, Vol. I, 1951. pp. 67-69. Mani R.S., Educational Ideas and Ideals of Gandhi and Tagore : A Comparative study, New Delhi : New Book Society of India, 1995. pp.35-36. Tendulkar, D.G., Mahatma, life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, New Delhi : The Publications division, Ministry of Information and broadcasting, Government of India, Vol. I, 1951. pp.117-118. Ibid, pp123-124. Mani, R.S., Educational Ideas and Ideals of Gandhi and Tagore : A Comparative study, pp.36-44. Tendulkar, D.G., Mahatma, life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, pp211-213. Mani, R.S., Educational Ideas and Ideals of Gandhi and Tagore : A Comparative study, pp.49-51. Tendulkar, D.G., Mahatma, life of Mohandas Karamchand Gandhi, pp306-307. Mani, R.S., Educational Ideas and Ideals of Gandhi and Tagore : A Comparative study, pp.46-48.

31. 32.

33. 34. 35. 36. 37. 38.

Mahatma Gandhi once advised us always to assume in our opponents the highest motives capable of explaining their actions. This was not goody-goody advice but hard political sense. -Stringfellow Barr

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GANDHI AND MARX

(A study in comparative political philosophy)
Ganeswar Nayak* Our country is passing through a period of grave intellectual crisis .We have lost faith in our moral values and spiritual norms. The tremendous moral and spiritual forces which were released by the personality of Gandhi are declining. The presence of rampant corruption ,the dominance of money and muscle power in the election, growth of terrorism, separatism and naxalisnm are eloquent testimonies to the fact that in the post Gandhian India, old idealism of the prophet is withering away .We are now more careful for expediency. Hence intellectually we are confused state. Because of intellectual opaqueness, we are not clear and firm about the course of our future action. The important problem is how our country shall become powerful and vital sphere of political and economic existence. Marxism because of its success in some countries appears to be assuming the character of a prophetic dispensation. Hence for us, and especially for the intellectuals, it is necessary, once more, to discuss the fundamentals of political philosophies. There are several creeds and cults engaging our attention. The western democratic equalitarianism is one, and politically we are committed to that. There is general prevalent belief that this political form is suited to the institutional realization of the moral idealism of Gandhian political philosophy. There is also the socialistic formulae with the combination of democracy and economic plans, for full employment, material plenty and righteous distribution. Communism is fashionable in some circles and although it indulges in occasional quotations from Marx and Engel, it, basically, is inspired by the plans and formulae of Russia and lately new china. No philosophy of History can be separated from the impact of the personality of the original creator of the system Gandhi was not an academic theoretician but that does not detract from his importance. He was a moral prophet and leader. Marx was trained in the tradition of German left wing Hegelian metaphysic .He believes in the efficacy of logical reason and for over thirty year he labored and toiled persistently to finish his system although the basic insights that he worked in to his theory were felt and perceived by 1848. In 1883 Engel eulogized Marx as the greatest living thinker and compared him to Darwin. Gandhi has influenced people through his pen and his sermons, but, above all, the attractive personality of the gentle prophet and undaunted leader always evoked a feeling of respect from many quarters .But while Gandhi was generous even to his opponents, Marx was a perpetual fighter. He was an aggressive personality, always conscious of his towering intellectual strength, which he thought, because of false and perverse consciousness, the contemporary philistines failed to organize and appreciate. His passion
* Lecturer in History, SKCG Autonomous College, Paralakhemundi.

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for Germanic scholarly thoroughness is apparent in his work and most so in the three volumes of the ponderous Das capital and the gigantic Theories of Surplus value.1 Metaphysical Idealism versus Dialectical Materialism Gandhi sincerely and thoroughly believed in an omnipresent, omniscient, infinite, timeless reality which could be called Sachidananda or Rama or simple truth. He inherited the strong faith in the existence of a spiritual real from his Vaisnav family. 2 The writing of Tolstoy, and his studies of Buddha and the Gita deepened and strengthened hiss vision .Hence Gandhi was spiritual idealist but not a non dualist school. The spiritual truth according to him was to be realized not by logical ingenuity, discursive analyses or conceptual categorization, but by inner spiritual experience, pure, heavenly- minded and god fearing life and by persistent endeavor to concretize the standard of Ahimsa in ones life and action. Thus we find synthesis of vedantic metaphysics and Jaina Buddha ethics in Gandhi. He even claimed that the more disciplined, holier and purer he became, the more did he approximate to the realization of truth as God His faith in fundamental truth was born not out of syllogistic and demonstrative arguments but out of intuition, faith and spiritual experience. Marx on the other hand was a rationalist. Mysticism and faith were anathema to him. Idealist philosophy, according to him, tried to hypostatize the functional products of humane brain and thus exalted mind born ideas as the Absolute Idea and Demiurges of the world .He was inspired by the materialistic tradition of Democritus, Epicurus, Hobbes, Holbach, and felt delight in the application of the dialectical methodology of German philosophy to social science. 3 According to dialectical materialism of Marx and Engel, nature society and humane brain moved and functioned, as if in a process of incessant flux and dynamic motion. There is no static motionless ultimate reality. The main point for critic regarding the choice between Marxism materialism and Gandhian idealism centers on the inscrutable nature of the ultimate reality .Both camps idealism and materialism are advancing new arguments and recruiting new propaganda. 4 Ethical Absolutism versus Ethical Relativism Gandhi accepted spiritual idealism, but unlike the vedantic exponents of Mayavada, he believed in the supremacy of ethical absolutism. The Gandhian theory of ethical absolutism can be traced to the Vedic concept of the Rita or the doctrine that there are all governing cosmic and moral ordinance which govern both men and gods. Gandhi must have been aware of these insights. 5 His personal experience, studies and thought also convinced him of the categorically binding character of the moral value .Hence he considered truth and non violence to be absolutely and categorically binding. Thus it is clear that Gandhi s concept of truth and Non-violence being eternal values and absolutely binding on all persons is completely immune from the charges religion being a reactionary

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gospel or a mask for protecting the interest of the power holders. Marxism on the other hand, accepts the relativism of the moral criteria and regards ethical codes as the products of our social growth. 6 There are no eternal and moral principles and the ethical system is relative to the relations of the production. The Marxian theory of ethical relativism receives support from researchers of social science. This question of ethical absolutism versus ethical relativism is indeed fundamental. On the one side we find Buddha, Kant and Gandhi preaching the absolute sanctity of moral norms, and on the other we find historicists, sociologists and anthropologist standing for relativism of even the most sacred ideas about humane relations. The theory of moral universalism and absolutism, are restated by Gandhi, is significant for worlds thought .For strengthening the moral foundations of a humane commonwealth, the Gandhian theory of ethical absolutism is more suited than the relativism of Marxism. But in spite of difference between the theoretical standpoints of the two teachers it must be pointed out that in their persona lives and carriers both were fundamentally idealist. Both believed in the value of freedom. Both were men of solid character, and nothingfavor or frown, fear or temptation, could make them compromise with what they considered vital principles of their life. Religion as a factor in HistoryGandhi recognized the potency of religion in humane history. Although he called himself a Hindu, he was no narrow dogmatic sectarian. Like Buddha and Ramakrishna, he had transcended the limited bounds of creeds, cults rituals and ceremonies. 7 He accepted the moral essence of Hinduism which, according to him, was also the inherent essence of all great religions of mankind which, according to him, was also inherent essence of all great religions of mankind, as for example, Buddhism, Judaism, Christianity, Islam and Zoroastrianism. Religion according to Gandhi implied a dominant quest for and experience of the moral values .It alone could provide dynamic inspiration to dedicated selfless action .In the spirit of Gita, he felt that performed with sense of detachment and disinterestedness, the life of Karmayoga could lead to the attainment of moral freedom and spiritual Moksha. Thus when Gandhi talked of the religious basis of politics, he was preaching neither primitivism nor dogmatic scholatismn nor theocratic papalism, but a life of strenuous dynamic pursuit to calling in quest of the God of ones soul and mankind. In the present technocratic and mechanical phase of humane civilization with its stress on the hedonistic calculus and economic felicity, self interest and satisfaction of needs and wants, Gandhis conception of Karma yoga is an assertion of the ethics of self abnegation..8 But Marx on the other hand denounced religion as opium of the people. To the end of his life, he felt that religion results in confusion and mystify issues. Dialectical materialism considers religion to be a reactionary force. Religion according to Engel contains remnants

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of antiquated anthropomorphic conceptions of primitive period. 9 Marx and Engels preach that religion is an ideology fitted to production relations of time. 10 It is also asserted that with the dawn of the society of freedom, abundance and equality, based on utilization of the knowledge of science, men would not need the consolation of religion. Thus religious subservience to the blind force of capital would be replaced by the triumphant victory of positive science. At that fateful moment religion and transcendental and metaphysic philosophy will not be needed at all .Religion in its institutionalized and historical phase does not contain formulae of compromise with the power that be. The orthodox Russian church supported Czardom .It has sought to provide a rational and metaphysical foundation for our moral endeavor and has tried to interpret the meaning of humane existence perpetually exposed to the agonies in a coherent fashion. 11 Religion is essential for humane being. Religion provides spiritual foundation to our political and social existence. 12 Marx denunciations reminds one of the old Jewish prophet and not modern social analyst. The technological-economic interpretation of History incorporates an element of determinism and a belief in the final triumph of the proletariat class. These notions of determinism and faith in ultimate victory are in religious tradition. Only the true religion accepting the spiritual potentiality of men can provide the morally dynamic impetus to socially and political action. Religion can transform the mind of men, not by theocratic sanction or supernormal hypnosis, but by suggestion, moral persuasion and exalting the inspiring character of religious heroes. Hence true ethical religion is not opium of the people but nectar of mankind. 13 Sociology and Economics In one sense Gandhi and Marx may be regarded as polar types. Gandhi sponsored an idealist approach to social problems and regarded the betterment an ennoblement of humane nature as the foundation of social amelioration. Marx on the other hand, had adopted an institutional and sociological approach. He wanted to change the social structure as the prelude to the change of humane nature. Starting from different metaphycal orientations; Gandhi and Marx provide divergent prescriptions for solution of social problems. The central evils against which Gandhi fought were racialism, imperialism, and communalism and untouchables. Marx fought against the reactionary policies of Prussian Government, engaged for a time in the revolutions of 1848, organized and led the first International, and concentrated his intellectual energies on bringing about proletarian solidarity. According to Gandhi, the enemy was foreign imperialism; according to Marx it was bourgeois Capitalism. If Gandhi loved to speak of the dumb million or the mute million. Marx used to condemn capital as the vampire that sucks the blood of the workers. But while Marx remained a leader of the proletariat, the saintly Gandhi in his personal life identified himself with the peasant to an extent far greater than the philosopher Marx could ever think of.

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Gandhi challenged the foundation of modern civilization. The hedonic, materialistic aspects of modern western civilization repelled him. 14 It was equivalent to darkness and disease. In Hindu Swaraj he wrote an almost absolute ruralist 15 But in his later writings he was only opposed to the perversities of modern imperialism, fascism and the technological instruments of violence .Marxism grew in the context of the western industrial world. Marx worked out a philosophy of history where in the forces and relations of production were considered the ultimate determinate of transformations of civilization. Sometimes we find in the Marxist writings the equating of the forces of production with technology, but most often, this phase is interpreted in a broad sense. Marx opposed to the fetishism of commodity which is charteristic of capitalism and which distorts humane relations between lifeless commodities. Furthermore, capitalist society is based on the merciless process of the extortion of surplus value. It is a laboring class which creates value, but the surplus is appropriated by the exploiters. The detailed and specialized division of labor creates minute areas of action and operation and converts man almost into an automation who has lost all aesthic charm in his work. Hence this division of labor should be replaced by a system which will produce the multi-sided man. The capitalist practice of calculation in terms of monetary profit should also be replaced by calculation in terms of labor.16 The relation between man and his bread is eternal. His bred may not determine his thoughts but he must have bred and plenty of that. Both Gandhi and Marx have successes because they busied themselves with providing the solution to this problems- How everybody will provided with bread ? If, according to Marx the capitalist are robbers because they extract surplus unearned profit, according to the Gandian commentaries on Asteya ( non-stealing)anybody, who had more then what he barely needs, is a thief. Marx challenges accumulation in all its shapes. 17 The prophetic role of Gandhi and Marx is brought out in their view on labor. Labor for him becomes a means of worshipping God .Marx exalts the concert physical labor of the workers. Marx, Tolstoy and Gandhi would be almost agreeing in thinking that capital is stored labor. Marx states that capital is concealed labor. Gandhi was not tired of repeating that India sreal capital consisted in her working population. Both Gandhi and Marx are opposed to the capitalistic process of social and economic exploitation, but their emphasis is on different counts. Gandhi is a moral and spiritual individual. The individual seeking to better his character my moral techniques is starting point of Gandhian ethics. But Marx views is that organized expropriation of the expropriators by armed proletariat would destroy the the evils of the society. Gandhi believes that roots of the malady are not in the structure of the society but in the psycho component of man. Thus not individual wealth but the individualistic propensity towards the acquisition is central devil. Similarly Gandhi wanted the end of British regime. Marx would have said that the people who hold property do not have any inviolable right to it.

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Although he would not endorse Proudhon statement that property is theft; he would think that capitalistic extortion of surplus is tinged with the blood of the proletariat. Any increase in the commodities constituting capita l represents a corresponding extortion of unpaid labor from working class. There is realism in what Marx says, it appeals to our youthful sentiments to get the things done. Some of us can quote the Bhagavad-Gita with its doctrine of Dharma-yuddha or righteous war to support Marx. Asiatic intellectual may cite the example of Russian revolution and probably of the Chinese revolution as indications of the strength of the combined exploited class under a determined ruthless leadership. Philosophy of Politics In a sense, both Gandhi and Marx is anarchist. Gandhi considered the state as an organization of violence and force. He believed that in the ideal perfectionist society of Ramarajya there will operate the sovereignty of the moral authority of the people and the state as an instrument of concentrated violence would cease to exist. 18 Increasing perfection of the state through the application of the precepts, methods and techniques of non violent democracy should be immediate goal although the ultimate aim is moral anarchism conceptualized as Ramarajya. According to Marx, the capitalistic state would be replaced by the proletariat dictatorship. The dictatorship of proletariat as pointed by Lenin would be the highest concentration of state power. It will build the foundations for the ultimate classless society. The communist society will be second phase of communism. Since according to Marx, the state is the child of social exploitation consequent on the growth of commodity production, the socialization of the means of production and the end of private appropriation would mean the withering away of the state. In spite of a common hostility to the iniquities, violence and exploitation practiced by the state, Gandhi and Marx enormously differ with regard to their technique of action. While Gandhi stressed holy life in an Asrama for training in Constructive programme, and the Satyagraha, Marx emphasized class solidarity and propaganda of communist ideology. 19 While Gandhi to a certain extent has been influenced by the suffragettes and the Sinn Fein Movements, the Paris Commune of 1871 inspired Marx. Philosophy of Freedom Gandhi believes that he literary believed that not a leaf moves without sanction from the divine. To the atheist, this may appear to be an extreme statement. In its exaggerated from, a theological determinism can lead to occasionalism. 20 Gandhi believed that in the ultimate sense, God or Truth being the final reality and omnicompetent being, it was the supreme determinant of things and the governor of the movement of the world .But divine determinism in Gandhi applied only to the ultimate explanation of things. True freedom means realization of self or Atma. Spiritual and moral freedom for Gandhi lay not in the

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egoistic assertions of the claims of the selfish, vain and lustful empirical ego but in identification with and obedience to the commands of the spiritual being or truth. To Gandhi freedom means a totality or a whole. National freedom (swaraj) from the bondage of alien rulers and exploiters, moral freedom from the slavery passions, and spiritual freedom as the emancipation of the soul were the phases of freedom. Gandhiji held that a men who obtains freedom over his passions would not tolerate the social and economic exploitation of his country because the citizens there of are really his own selves. Marx received from the scientific rationalism of the Enlightment movement in France and Germany the belief in the stupendous power of reasons to create better society and happier future for man. 21 Freedom according to Marx means the accentuation of rationality entailing the consequent transmutation of the necessity, writ large upon the face of nature; in to freedom .Large scale planning would create condition whereby increased production with less amount of work would be possible. 22 Marx was a child of the scientific and technological civilization of the capitalist west. He therefore did not prescribe the Platonic limitation of needs and wants as Gandhi did. He on the other hand propounded the use of mechanized power for catering to the needs not of a selfish group but of the entire proletariat collectivity. Although Gandhi modified his old denunciation of machinery as found in Hind swaraj, he always accorded grudging recognition. But Marx and Lenin felt that socialism is impossible without mechanization. In an era of accentuated production of commodity and fashion goods, new wants are being created and men are busy increasing their standard of living. In eastern countries also there is quest for planning, capital accumulation, heavy industries and the other adjuncts of a scientific and technological and scientific civilization. Gandhi was a champion of simplicity. As realist he felt that the expansion of demands is bound to result in minimization of freedom because fresh demands means increasing dependence of others. Hence we think there is great wisdom in Gandhis views that minimization of wants alone can prepare the conditions of Individual freedom and rights. Conclusion Gandhi was a national liberator, a champion of Asian consciousness, a saint and moral revolutionary who preached the supremacy of Satyagraha. He stressed the moral bankruptcy of modern civilization and prescribed the sanctity of ethical substance and universal moral will. Marx did represent a reaction against western civilization .In his fury against malady of capitalism, he become blind to the moral aspect of western civilization. Gandhi thought that a peaceful solution of our problems is not only possible but also the only way to have a real permanent solution. Marx wants radical change in the social structure even by resort to force .In the name of emancipation of proletariat he thinks it wise to take tooth for tooth and nail for a nail. Marx was a thinking realist a colossal scholar of history, politics and economic thought for his theory of scientific socialism

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built on the foundations of historical materialism and economic of surplus value. His vitriolic pronouncements against Proudhon, Lassalle and Bakunin are integral portions of History of the proletariat revolution. Gandhi, the angelic saint forgave his opponents and even the men who physically assaulted and killed him .Marx saw deep but Gandhis vision were deeper. There is possibility that that Marx dream may be realized at least in some more countries. . But on the eventual realization of Gandhian Ideas of truth and non violence, freedom and culture .depends the future humane peace Is it too idealist to hope that we can find a way to synthesize the ethical absolutism with Gandhi with the emphasis of Marx on the immediate and radical solution of the economic problems in favor of exploited class .If the social realism of Marx and ethical idealism of Gandhi can be reconciled, the world will be happier. But this will mean partial renunciation of the Marxist belief in violence. Force might have been the midwife of every society pregnant with the birth of a new one but in worlds faced with portentous doom of nuclear annihilation, the cult of armed ideology to be substantially modified. One may not go to the extent of loving the opponent. But by organized campaign of hatred, falsehood and conspiracy have to be end. If certain sociological and political constraints were absent, Marxism would be willing to tone down its fanatical attachment to violence. Gandhism represents the progressive intensification of social and economic realism .It is the task before the philosophical intellectuals individuals to build a comprehensive synthesis based on preservation both of individual moral liberty and common good of society. Reference 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. 11. N. Bukharin, Marxism and Modern Thought, p7 J . H. Murihead and S Radhakrishnan (Ed) Contemporary India Philosophy, p.204 L. Fischer, Gandhi and Stalin, New York, 1947 p.194 V. P Verma, Indian Political Philosophy, Agra, 1959, 1959, p20 D. D. Mohan, The Philosophy of Mahatma Gandhi, Madison, 1953 Shelling and Revolution, Collected works of Marx and Engels. Vol 2 , p224 Collected works of Gandhi, 103, Hindu Dharma ,Ahemadabad, Navjivan, 1950 Collected works of Marks and Engels, vol I, p103 Collected works of Marx and Engels, vol 2 p224 Capital (Chigo edition) vol 1 p91 Joseph A Schumpter, Capitalism, Socialism and Democracy, New York, 2nd edition, pp5-8

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12. 13. 14. 15.

AN Whitehead, Science and Modern World., Sri Aurobindo Life Divine., N Berdyaev, Freedom and the Spirit FH Bradely, Ethical studies. VP Verma, The Political Philosiphy of Mahatnma Gandhi Mahatma Gandhi, Hind Swaraj, Also Gandhi articles collected in Young India(in Hindi)3 vol In his article British rule in India (1853) Marx harped on the stagnating character of village communities. To him, due to their traditionalism barbarian egotism limited outlook and the contaminating distinction of caste, these villege communities led almost a passive and vegetative sort of existence. They are unmindful of the ruin of empires and the massacre of the population of large towns. Thus they transformed a self developing social state into never changing natural destiny and thus brought about a brutalizing worship of nature. Bohm Bawerk ,Karl Marx and the close of the system, London,1893pp66-192 Capital, Vol, chapter XXX to XXXIII B Bhattacharya , Evolution of Political of Gandhi, Calcutta, 1969, p186 V. P Verma op cit P263 Malebranche (1638 -1715) was an occasionalist who upheld that God determines bodily movement corresponding to mental process. Thus the permanent causal efficiency of God is posited un this system. The Trinitarian Formulae, third volume of capital, pp 954-55 Ibid..

16. 17. 18. 19. 20.

21. 22.

The millions of India live in the rural sections of India, and it was Gandhi who aroused them, made them shed their fear, and made them conscious of destiny. Before the advent of Gandhi the nationalist movement was among the intellectuals. He carried it to the masses. Nobody else in history was acclaimed by such multitudes of humanity. E. Stanley Jones.

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ENGLISH LITERATURE AND MAHATMA GANDHI: SELECT REVIEW OF LITERATURE

Geeta Satapathy* Introduction There is a plethora of writings on Gandhi. Scholars of various disciplines including politics, economics, psychology, education, ethics, sociology and literature have written extensively on Gandhi. Biographers and general writers have also contributed a vast literature on Gandhi. His friends, followers, opponents, and critics during life time and after have equally added to the literature on Gandhi. And as such any review of literature on Gandhi can only be a limited exercise. The present paper attempts to analyse works on literary assessment on Gandhi. Gandhis contribution to English literature and assessment of Gandhis link with English language and literature is a less explored aspect. The present article attempts to fill this gap. It attempts to arouse interest amongst scholars of English literature to assess Gandhi as a writer. It deals with the works on Gandhi and English literature. Gandhis link with English is infact manifold. With his voluminous writings in English including translations from Gujurati which he made himself and those of others which he vetted make him one of the most prolific Indian writers in English. Most of his writings are essays, screeches and letters. They are journalistic in nature. Most were prompted by contemporary political events and queries from critics and followers. Yet, the writings were not without tremendous literary value. Gandhi also influenced Bhasa writers and Indo Anglican literature. He continues to inspire contemporary writers. Few noted literary critics have analysed these aspects. It is well-known that Gandhi was opposed to English rule and for that matter any foreign rule. However he was not opposed to English language and literature. An attempt is being made in the following paragraphs to summerise the views of critics. K.R.S. Iyenger is the doyen of Indo- Anglican literature. K.R.S Iyenger certainly popularized critical study of Indo Anglican literature. He was the chief authority in the last century with his encylopaedic works on Indo Anglican literature. In this particular work two chapters are devoted to Gandhi. One an Mahatma Gandhi himself and the other on the Gandhi literature. Besides these Iyanger also reflects on Gandhi on the concluding chapter. Echoing the views of many, Iyenger questions Gandhis claim for a place in IndoAnglican literature as a writer. Gandhi was no writer, properly so called, nor was he at any time particularly interested in the art of writing but he had to write and talk a great deal (Often in English) as we have to walk or eat or breath (p.248). Recognising the
*Head, Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, KIITS University, Patia, Bhubaneswar.

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importance of Gandhi at least in India between two world wars (1919 1945) Iyenger notes life could not be the same as before, and every segment of our national life politics, economics, education, religion, social life language and literature acquired a more on less pronounced Gandhian hue (p.248). Thus Iyenger recognizes that Gandhi exercised a tremendous influence on our languages, on literatures through his own writings in English and Gujurati and through the writings of others both Indo-Anglican and Vernacular who came under his influence. Iyenger also calls the Gandhian period (192048) the phoenix hour of India. A new life gushed forward through the new views of India. Thus Iyenger concludes No apology is pleaded therefore for considering Gandhi as a writer and as a formative influence on the writers of his time (p.249). Iyenger goes on to highlight the Gandhian philosophy of life in all its facets politics, economics, culture, religion and spirituality. Iyenger considers Hind Swaraj as the locus classics among Gandhis writings. Iyenger instead of holding that Tolstay, Threaou, Ruskin, Plato, Dada Bhai Naroji and R.C. Dutt etc shaped the Gandhian ideal, argues that Gandhi found echoes of his own conviction in these writers. Evidently Gandhi had anxiously sought corroboration for his inner most convictions in the writings of others so that he might not be misled by himself or mislead his country men (p.251). Iyenger finds that Gandhis reading was selective not voracious yet his mind was receptive and creative. Hind Swaraj though written around (1908 1909) was the spring of Gandhis thought. Iyenger at length draws the germs of Gandhian political, economic, educational and ethical thoughts from Gandhis three principal works namely the Hind Swaraj, Satyagraha in South Africa and Experiments With Truth An Autobiography. Besides establishing Gandhi place or position as a prose writer, an essayist Iyenger also recognizes Gandhi as a translator of ancient poetry. It would be out of place here to provide any extensive description of Gandhian thought as identified by Iyenger. However Iyengers observation on Gandhian style of writing and speaking needs to be reflected. Gandhi had neither the time nor the inclination to cultivate the so called art of writing or speaking in English. He merely wrote or spoke straight on, and when we read them today the word seem to be often insipid or anemic, with no colour, no radiating brilliance. Yet they are Gandhis words, and their very bareness constitutes their strength (p.263). Iyenger continues to argue that Gandhis personality and his sincerity of purpose puts strength to his words, his style and indeed makes him a great writer, but Gandhis mastery of language, however deceptively or disarmingly bare and simple, was never less than adequate to the place, mood or occasion. (pp.263-64). Iyenger quotes extensively from Gandhis celebrated Banaras University Speech (Feb. 1916) to exemplify Gandhis powerful and effective style. Referring to the security arrangement for the Viceroy Gandhi spoke why this distrust? Is it not better that even lord Hardings should die than live a living death? (p.264). Gandhi was critical not only of foreign rulers but also the Indians themselves. Referring to Gandhis power of convincing his opponents Iyenger endorses the views of Prof. Vivian d Sala Pinto that Gandhi had converted a dragon and this is much more difficult than killing a dragon. Iyenger also

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refers to Gandhis concluding statement in the great trial of 1922 and he calls it imperishable classic from our quest and struggle for freedom. I have no desire whatsoever to conceal from this quote the fact that to preach disaffection towards the existing system government has become almost a passion with me I knew that I was playing with fire. I ran the risk and if I was set free, I would still do the same I had either to submit to a system which I considered had done inseparable harm to my country, or incur the risk of the mad furry of my people. Further Gandhi was referring to his commitment to nonviolence and the unfortunate incident of Chouri Choura. (p.268). Comparing Gandhi with Sri Aurobindo he finds how both used similar ideas in distinctly different manner. He writes there were, indeed, many parallels between Gandhis thoughts on Swaraj and Swadeshi, self mastery and passive resistance, and Sri Aurobindos, although the latters had a more pronounced spiritual accent where as the former;s had an obvious ethical accent. But both saw that mastery of the self had to come first and that it would be no easy canter to the goal (p.257). Iyenger endorses the view of Jawaharlal Nehru that with the death of Gandhi at least a particular sort of light went out. Iyenger argues that Gandhi was no systematic thinker or system builder. He had spurts of intuition which were like sparks from the anvil and Gandhi succeeded in expressing them in memorable terms. These, Iyenger, further stresses that though Gandhi was a man of action and a practical man, be was primarily a man of God. Religion of truth was central. He was a humanist and a religious man more than a nationalist and a patriot. Reflecting on Gandhis thought and ideals Iyenger insists that Gandhis contradiction were reconciled with the practical requirements of a karmayogi. He cites few examples like Gandhis hope that Hindustani would become the national language of India but continued to write and speak English. He distrusted machines and conceded that human body is a wonderful machine. He was critical of fast traveling but used car and train when convenient. He wanted English to free India yet he was not opposed to their continued stay. He wanted a change of their heart. Iyenger points out these to sustain his view that Gandhi was a pragmatist, no arm chair thinker and a practical man of action. With his ideas and actions Gandhi revolutionized our political life and in turn our writing. Iyenger argued that Gandhi erred in denying arts autonomy and pre-eminence. (p.272) Iyenger agrees that Gandhi carried forward the new Indian tradition of writing excellently in both Gujarati and English like Rammohan (Bengali and English) and Tilak (Marahati and English). Though Gandhi was no great scholar, his simplicity, pointedness and clarity was refreshing in contrast to heaviness of earlier Indian writings. Amplitude, richness of phrasing and weight of miscellaneous learning had to give way to a bare and austere. Yet Gandhi did not lack in fullness (p.272). As a rule, the, Indian writing and speaking in English since the Gandhian revolution has tended to be wisely utilitarian, cultivating the virtues of clarity and directness and brevity rather than eloquence and elaboration and exuberance (p.273). Iyenger finds a world of difference between the

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earlier writings of Rammohan Roy, Malariya, Surendranath Banerjee etc on one hand and Gandhi, Patel, Subas Bose on the other hand. Iyenger compares the speech of Ambika Charan Mazumdar with that of Sardar Balalbhai Patel to bringout the difference. Similarly Iyenger also quotes from Rajaji and Nehru to highlight the impact of Gandhian style and content. Iyenger argues that many followed Gandhi and used short sentences one after another like strokes of painting brush. Gandhi used words of anguish, purity and even exert in a simple manner without ornamentation. The impact of Gandhian style was immediate and long lasting. Gandhi also used imagery without much intricacy. Iyenger goes on to argue that Gandhis influence was not limited to political essayist of contemporary period. Gandhi also influenced novelists and short story writers of vernacular and Indian English literature. At length Iyenger analyses the writings of Venu Chitale, K. Nagarajan, Raja Rao, Sarojini Naidu, R.R. Sreshta, Pyarelal and R.K. Narayan etc. Iyenger also refers to the vast literature on Gandhi. He observes that his followers, opponents and writers of various political convictions have responded to Gandhi and his views. M.K. Naik like Iyenger is one of the most acclaimed critic of Indo-Anglican literature. M.K. Naik along with K.R.S Iyenger is one of the most noted writer of history of Indian English literature. His A history of Indian English Literature is an all time classic. In the present limited survey of literature the whole book is not being taken up. The review is limited to Naiks views on Gandhi. Broadly Naik deals with Gandhi in two parts. One attempts to treat Gandhi as a English writer. The other attempts to treat the Gandhian period of Indian English writing and the impact of Gandhian theme and style on Indian English writing. The present review attempt to identify the main streaks of Naiks understanding. Naik chooses to christen the period 1920 to 1947 as the Gandhian whirl wind to signify the impact of Gandhi on the Indian English writings. Naik traces the political career of Gandhi to bring out how he was central to the events (including socio-political) in India. Infact no author, English or vernacular, Gandhian on Non-Gandhian could ignore Gandhi, his actions and ideas. This is not to deny originality of theme in other writers but to assert the overbearing impact of Gandhi. It is not necessary here to trace the political career of Gandhi. The unprecedented awakening, the public participation of women, the mass including the uneducated, the dalits, the Muslims and a host of other marginalized sections in Indias freedom movement happened largely due to Gandhi. With this the themes of Indian literature widened. Women participation in public life, removal of untouchability, the ordeal of the freedom struggle, east west relationship, the communal problem and the plight of landless, down trodden, exploited and oppressed became the most compelling themes of Indian English writing. These themes were not limited to political essays, they percolated down to short stories, novels, drams, poems, and even cinemas. Gandhi also raised especially the political prose to a new height. Naik feels that

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the nature and content of Indian English writings would have been distinctly different without a Gandhi. Before we to trace Gandhis impact on Indian English writing, Naiks views on Gandhi as a writer can be summarized. Naik argues that Gandhis world view evolved under the influence of the New Testament, The Gita, Ruskins Unto This Last, Thoreaus Essays on Civil Disobedience, and works of Edward Carpenter and Tolstoy. Naik further argues that Gandhis views were also shaped largely by the Satyagraha and other political movements, his experiments in community living and his contemporary milieu. He categorizes the writings into three periods, the London period 1888 91, the South African period 1893-1915 and the Indian period 1916-48. Quoting selectively from the writings of Gandhi, Naik tries to bring out the essential views. He identifies the following, Gandhi was no erudite scholar, by no means an original thinker with a razor sharp mind, nor a brilliant theoretician (p.122). Gandhi declared I have presented no new principles, but tried to restate old principles. I have nothing new to teach the world. Truth and non-violence are as old as the hills. All I have done is to experiment in both on as vast as a scale I could do. Though Gandhi claims no originality and Naik tends to agree with him, Gandhi definitely brew a new drink. He ascribed new meanings to ancient Indian thought and his critics assert that Gandhi used the ancient writings of India selectively and out of context to sustain his own views. Other accuse him of a shallow understanding of Indias scripture. Gandhi even found justification for non-violence from Bhagavad Gita ! Naik rightly asserts that doctrines such as soul force, passive resistance, non-violence and purity of means were corner stones of Gandhis ideology. Gandhis principal concern included poverty alleviation, empowerment of dalits, women and the marginalized. Gandhi was deeply religious yet tolerant, had a spiritual quest for God realization and above all Gandhi was highly experimental. During the South African (1893-1915) period Gandhi blossomed out as a disputationist, journalist and author. Gandhis pamphlets, An appeal to every, Britom in South Africa (1895), The Indian franchise (1895) and Grivances of the British Indians in South Africa (1896) were fine examples of his vigorous plea for amelioration of the Indian condition. Naik holds Gandhis Hind Swaraj as his first major work. Naik points out views on Hind Swaraj varied in extremes. John Middle ton Murrey and Gerald Heard held the book as a modern classic while G.K. Gokhle felt it to be crude and a hastily conceived book which the author would withdraw after he had spent a year in home land. Gandhi himself asserted (1938) nearly 30 years after writing the book that he saw nothing to alter his views expressed in Hind Swaraj. Naik rightly asserts that Hind Swaraj reflects the essential world view of Gandhi. Gandhis real struggle was not merely for political emancipation from the British but from freedom of the bondage of modern machine civilization. He wanted to unleash the springs of Indian culture. Infact this is the major theme dominating the entire Gandhian literature. During the South African period Gandhis

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style and themes of writing got crystalised. During the Indian period (1916-48) Gandhi published two well known journals, Young India 1919 to 1932 and Harizan 1933 to 48. All the writings of Gandhi appeared here in serial form. Most of these were written originally in Gujurati and were translated not by the author but by others. These translations were mostly corrected and revised by Gandhi himself. Thus Naik argues that these writings cannot be put at par with Hind Swaraj which was translated by Gandhi himself. Further it can be argued that Gandhi never wrote in English but translated or revised translations of his work. Thus problems of analyzing his style remain. Gandhi and his translators also faced inherent difficulties of translation. These difficulties forced Gandhi in no small measure to use Indian words and expressions to a great extent. He was also forced to provide rather lengthy descriptions and analysis to put across Indian words and thought in the absence of appropriate English equivalence. Of course Gandhi was not only transcreating but also enriching the English language and literature in the process. Of the writings of Indian period the following are the major. The Story of my experiments of truth (192728), Satyagraha in South Africa (1928), Discourses on the Gita (1930), and From Yevarda Mandir-collection of letters from the Yevarda prison (1932). Other works included, Constructive Programme its meaning and place (1941) and Key to health (1948) etc. Besides these Gandhi wrote extensively in English. Majority of his English writings were letters and numerous speeches that he delivered. Infact the majority of his writings now placed in the 102, volumes of his complete works are in English. He also continuously wrote short articles and note in English in the columns of Young India and Harijan. These voluminous and numerous writings definitely place Gandhi as a writer of English language. The translations of his major books from Gujurati to English does not dilute his claims as a Indo-Anglican writers. In contrast to the opulent rhetoric of earlier stalwarts like Surendranath Banerjee and Pherozshah Mehta, Gandhi used a spare and simple, transparent and energetic style which eschewed all oratorical flourishes and communicated with the directness of an arrow hitting its mark. His early style of the London period is expectedly drab and colourless, for it is the expression of a diffident man wholly unsure of himself; but the transformation which his character and career underwent in South Africa lent a new vigour to his style without taking away its basic simplicity. With maturity also came a gift for homely analogy (e.g. his description of the charkha as (not a new invention (but) a re-discovery like the discovery of its own mother by a strayed child), a happy knack of coining memorable phrases like Himalayan blunder, Satanic Government, Poem of pity (description of the low) and Drain Inspectors Report (apropos of Miss Mayos attack on India), and a puckish sense of humour (e.g. The woes of Mahatmas are known only to Mahatmas) are noteworthy. Gandhis place among modern India English prose writers is as distinctive as his role in the life of modern India has been. (p-125) Such is the assessment of M.K. Naik. Naik traces the impact of Gandhi on his contemporary writers like Nehru, Raj Gopalchari, Vallavbhai Patel, J.B. Kripalini, J.C. Mumarappa, Morarji Desai, G.

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Ramchandran and Vinoba Bhave etc. Similarly those who were opposed to Gandih also contributed to the Indian writings in English. Amongst the opponents of Gandhi Naik enlists Subhash Chandra Bose, M.N. Roy, B.R. Ambedkar, V.D. Savarkar, Shyam Prasad Mookarjee and S.A. Dange etc. Gandhi gave Indian journalism a new life and colour. Gandhi participated with others (like Radhakrishnan, Vivkananda and Aurobindo) in enriching religious and philosophical prose writings in India. Gandhi not only wrote an autobiography but also inspired others to write his biography. In fact today Gandhis biographies itself form an important component of the Indo-Anglican biographical literature. Gandhis life and views are reflected eminently in the Indian literature both English and vernacular. The Gandhi theme continues to inspire film makers. As a whole Naik finds Gandhi to be an epoch making writer. Gandhi does not belong to the genere of Indian English writers who intrinsically imbibed the style of English writers. His directness of style, choice of simple words extensive views of Indian (imagery), his sense of humour, his use of Indian words, and his coinage of new similies etc have secured an impeccable position in Indo- Anglian literature.(p.320)2 Sunil Klilnani in his work, provides one of the most exhaustive analysis on Gandhi and English. A free summary of his writing provide an interesting insight into Gandhi The Writer. M.K. Gandhi was a central figure in the long and uneasy journey of English in becoming an Indian language. He found ways to make, the alien language of the rulers, intimate, fluent and cantankerous. English which had made the empire also unmade it. It was used to sub-ordinate people and ultimately used to usher freedom. Gandhi was not a professional writer though he could have made his living through writing and journalism. He did not author any fiction or works of imagination. In the initial years he wrote letters to the editors, short articles mostly on vegetarianism and petitions. Later on his prose included essays, some of which were long, autobiography, memories, letters in very large number and news paper articles. His writings mostly relate to the busy significance of his life and acts. Rhythms of politics, Indias struggle for freedom and for re-generation defined his writings. Gandhi more than anybody else exemplified vividly Indian politics in English language for more than half a century. Gandhi pointed and structured human relation through the fragile architecture of language. He proved beyond doubt that English though a foreign language in India is capable of portraying the inner most thoughts of Indians. Though Gandhi was opposed to modern capitalistic machine driven society and considered mother tongue to be the best medium of instruction at least upto high school level of education, Yet he always accommodated English along with other Indian languages as a vital link between Indians and the world. English was his language of public communication and the language in which he penned his thoughts. Most of his speeches have been published. The bulk of his spoken and written worlds have been published, running into over 100 volumes. Gandhi began his journey with English like most other children of his time,

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early in life unsteadily and uncomfortably. English was awesome and the language of the rulers, the bureaucrats and of the government. It had to be learnt through mother tongue and mostly through translation method. Gujurati was Gandhis mother tongue and partially Urdu was spoken around. Like most Indian children of his time Gandhi learnt English almost in the reverse way. Every child learns mother tongue first by listening, then by speaking and lastly by writing. In India in contrast most children start writing English, follow it up with speaking and hardly listen to good English. Though Gandhi wrote occasionally in Gujurati and spoke in Hindi and Gujurati he remained an Indian writer of English language till his death. In the initial years in South Africa Gandhi honed his skills by continuously writing letters to the editors and drafting petitions and memorials on behalf of the Indian community. During this period in South Africa he wrote two most substantial books Hind Swaraj and Satyagraha. These two works reflect the worth of Gandhi as an accomplished Indo- Anglican writer. He learnt English in the school from St IV onwards only. In the High School examination the students were required to study subjects like Geography, Science and Mathematics in English medium. Gandhi acquired this necessary competency in English. After completing school education Gandhi went for some time to a local college but decided very soon to go to England to pursue law. English had definitely opened windows for him though not swept him away. He was definitely interested and keen to go to England. Infact English had opened a new world for him. At the school level amongst other things he had studied Paradise Lost and Pride and Prejudice. Indians generally used roat method to learn English just like Sanskrit. Gandhi was no exception. After reaching London Gandhi, was forced to speak English and even experienced public speaking. In fact right during the sail he had to encounter this problem. In the initial year at London Gandhi was enamoured with the English way of life and tried hard to become an English gentle man. Very soon he got over this fad and was himself again. Gandhi read Bells Standard Elocutionist and though hesitant Gandhi evolved as a public speaker. He developed into a voracious, promisicuous reader : Gibbon, Theosophical pamplets and vegetarian tracts, all caught his attention. He was an immigrant, a radical in many ways, an intellectual of a different class, a spiritualist, a vegetarian and a concerned Indian all rolled into a strange and appealing phenomenon. His law education, involvement with marginal vegetarian and religious groups defined the boundaries of his involvement with English as a reader, speaker and writer. His earliest writings were related to vegetarianism. The articles were always short, written in simple English with a great deal of clarity in ideas and expression. Gandhi was definitely not exposed to a dose of classical, Latin Greek and literature of Elizabethan or Victorian English. Thus unlike other Indian writers of English like Aurobindo, Gandhi was not bound at all by the classical English style. Gandhis exposure to English literature was limited to the prescribed texts at the school level. Gandhi did not go to a University in England. All these probably shaped his style to some extent. Gandhi returned to India armed with a law degree and put his skills of English language in drafting legal petitions.

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He almost failed as a lawyer. In 1893 he sailed for South Africa hired by a Gujurati trader operating in South Africa. He was hired to help the European lawyers engaged by the traders. It was in South Africa between 1893 to 1915 Gandhi evolved as a writer and developed a distinct style as an author. In this process he was also recognizing that his alternate political ideology and methods did not fit into any existing Indian or English nomenclature. Gandhi finally found a way out. He coined the expression Hind Swaraj taking words from Indian sources and used it in English language. In course of his life time Gandhi continued with this practice of incorporating several Indian words in his English writings such as Satyagraha, Khadi, Ahimsa, and Swodeshi etc. Gandhi was not the lone practitioner. Several nationalists and spiritualists also used many, Indian words in English. This was not limited to Indians, English men also used several Indian words in English. Just as Indian words were creeping into English, the reverse was also happening. In fact English was increasingly becoming an Indian language at least in India. Gandhi with others enriched the process of making English language familiar and easy even to common people through his writings and speeches. Gandhi wrote Hind Swaraj in the form of a dialogue. It is not known whether Gandhi ever read Platos Republic, an all time classic in Greek language. One is tempted to conjure that Gandhi had some exposure to Platos Republic. Platos Republic is a classic example of debating political ideology. It was a refined version of the sophist debates on issues of ethics and philosophy. As far as this theme was concerned (political) there is striking resemblance. However Gandhi no where matches Platos fluency, choice of words and linguistic excellence. It is interesting to note that Gandhi never repeated the dialogue style in any of his later writings. This is not at all to suggest that Hind Swaraj has no literary value. Gandhi was not concerned or conscious of literary style, His objective was to put across his new ideal. This he did brilliantly with great success. The work is full of similies, metaphors and examples to be cited. Some of which are startling in their vividness. Hind Swaraj was basically a statement of a doctrinal moral argument. It was written to guide the political struggle in India. Hind Swaraj was the first book that Gandhi wrote. It was written in Gujurati while sailing back from England to South Africa in 1909. The background of the book is an important consideration. Gandhi had gone to England to plead with the English leadership that South Africa was a part of the British empire and the Indians should be treated at par with the English in South Africa. This demand he felt is legitimate, as Queen Victoria in her proclamation in 1858 had assured the Indians that they would be treated of par with the other subjects of her empire. Gandhi could cut no ice. The English leaders argued that they are on the verge of granting dominion status to South Africa at par with Canada and Australia and as such they would not interfere in the internal affairs of South Africa. Gandhi felt dejected. This was one part of the background. The other was the scenario in India. Congress stood split between the moderates and extremists in the Surat Congress of

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December 1907, the leaders of the extremist faction were all behind bar, the Morle-MintoReform was too little and absolutely meaningless. Gandhi was caught between the two factions. He did not question the patriotism of the moderates but felt the moderates constitutional methods of petitioning and prayer to be ineffective. Yet, he had still faith in the British sense of justice and fair play. He agreed with the extremist as far as rejection of moderate method was concerned. But he could not accept the violent option. He wanted to offer an alternate front, Hind Swaraj was the manifestation of the alternate Gandhian ideal. Long after Hind Swaraj was written Gandhi insisted that he might change a word or tone down the language but he still stands for the ideal and the spirit of Hind Swaraj. Hind Swaraj is the only systematic enunciation of his philosophy. Hind Swaraj is thus written, when Gandhi was baffled with two different themes one of dejection with the English leadership and the other of the Indian crises of moderate Extremist division. There was also a sense of dejection with India. It seemed Curzons dream of the sad demise of Congress was looming large. Hind Swaraj was written in Gujurati and published in 1909. It had he advantage of being translated by Gandhi himself and published as Indian Home Rule. The book was banned in South Africa for almost 30 years. The book was reissued in1938 in South Africa. In 1921 Gandhi reprinted the book as Hind Swaraj or Indian Home Rule. In 1924 another edition was published in USA with the title Sermon on the Sea. The several titles that Gandhi tried out reflects his groping for a suitable nomenclature for the alternate movement he was leading. Gandhian thought was a growth and development. His early writings during his stay in England as a law student does not touch upon political issues. However Gandhi continuously reflected in his writings in Indian Opinion, letters to editors of South African news papers, pamphlets and petitions. Much of the power of the book is derived from clarity of its argumentation and directness of expression. Gandhi himself said that it is a book which can be put in the hands of a child. It is full of examples, similes, metaphors, and paraboles, some of which are startling in their vividness. One such metaphor that Gandhi regretted letter refers to the British parliament. He wrote that which you consider to be the mother of parliaments is like a sterile women and a prostitute. Gandhi described the book as a severe condemnation of modern civilization. As a whole the conflict between India and England was perceived more as a conflict between the eternal India and the modern industrial capitalist western civilization. The political aspects were subordinated to this clash of civilization. Gandhis writings is a polemical critique of one of the central maxims of western historical consciousness, Historia Magisteria Vitae. He consistently refuted the arguments that what had not occurred in history should not occur. Gandhi insisted history is really a record of working of the force of love or of the soul. He wanted Indians to release themselves from the subjection by

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another civilization. Gandhi simply rejected the English model of civilization. Hind Swaraj remains one of the most illustrious literary work of Gandhi. Between publication of Hind Swaraj and Satyagraha in South Africa Gandhi continued writing on various issues in journals in English and Gujurati. Satyagraha in South Africa was the longest of Gandhis book and stands in critical relation to the earlier Hind Swaraj and later autobiography. Gandhi dictated Satyagraha in South Africa while in Yervada Jail 1923-24. It was translated into English by Valaji Desai, with the help of Verror Eluin and C.F. Andrews. The book was first published in 1928. He wrote the book less as a statement of doctrinal moral argument and more a as factual record of his life in South Africa. He stated they only object in writing this book is that it may be helpful in our present struggle. He wanted to impress the followers of civil disobedience movement that Satyagraha was derived not from moral theory or doctrine but from experience and practice. He took great pains to avoid exaggerations and melo drama while recounting the political event plain prose. Even events directly relating to him were not romanticized or layered with emotional reflections. Gandhi returned to India in 1914 and found a flourishing debate on all aspects of life in India conducted through an active political press. Gandhi was already an established practicing journalist and he joined the fray with enthusiasm. Gandhi started his first paper Satyagraha in 1919. Soon after two other papers Young India in English and Naba Jiban in Gujurati were placed under his editorship. He was quite provocative. He wrote sedition has become the creed of the Congress. I am aware that I have written strongly about the insolent threat that has come across the seas, but it is high time that the British people were made to realize that the fight has commenced in 1920 is a fight to the finish. Gandhi was of course arrested for the article and was also charged. Gandhis courtroom speeches based on written statements is masterly in its management of words and meaning. Gandhi succeeded in translating his individual conflict with west into a Universal conflict for Indians. Gandhi left no choice for the judge : either he could execute the law and convict Gandhi or act according to his conscience and resign. He said I am therefore here to submit not to a light penalty but to the highest penalty. I do not ask for mercy. I do not ask for an extenuating act of clemency. I am here to invite and cheerfully submit to the highest penalty that can be inflicted upon me for what in law is a deliberate crime and what appears to me to be the highest duty of the citizen. Gandhi successfully used English legal language and etiquette to drive wedge between the meaning of the state and those other whom it rooted. The sense of language he demonstrated was not continuous across realms. His words was no less than a subtle and effective system of defeating terrorism and organized display of force. The impact of his simplicity, directness of expression and clarity of thought particularly on the Indians was tremendous.

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The dramatization of his own life through his autobiography Satyagraha and life in South Africa and numerous other journalistic writings on him are of tremendous impact. Gandhis writings in particular are a great literary achievement for it shaped in no small measure modern Indian life including contemporary. Gandhi still reflects the story of a young hero exiled from home to London and then to South Africa, one who fights injustice, humiliation and suffering, one who learns spiritual and physical fortitude, one who returns to his home land to free his people from align rule. All this he does not though any political intrigue, secret plan or through any direct action. His speeches and writings were the real magic ward. Reading Gandhi involves more than reading his words. It means reading life, reading a part of Indian history and even the world history. Through reading Gandhi one can still catch-hold of the rhythms, vulnerabilities, strengths and the sensibilities not only of his life but of his time. An autobiography and the story of my experiment with truth was initially written in Gujurati and serealised in journals. Later on it was translated and corrected by Gandhi. It was serialized in English between 1927 to 29. Many have opined that Gandhi followed the form of sequencing of parables as in Bhudhist Jataka tradition. Individual drama was skillfully blended with the historical epic, it was the story of a quest for freedom and nationhood as well as personal purification and salvation. He even claimed that he had no definite plan before him when he started writing. He wrote as the spirit moved him at the time of writing. The experiment theme dominates. His life was, he believed lived by the scientific method of testing trial, error and constant revision. He wrote of experiments in political, spiritual, physical (on his body) and even dietetics field. He never claimed any finality about his conclusions and kept an open mind regarding all resources. One of the last text he wrote as a book was Key to health in 1942. This was also written originally in Gujurati translated by Sushila Nayer and revised by Gandhi himself. This is one of the typical examples of the self help manual. Less than a fortnight before his assassination in January 1948. Gandhi wrote that English and Indian scholars of English believe that there is something special in my English this speciality is not easy to capture. Few features may be gleaned, new coinages of words were striking. These new coinages were not limited to use of Indian words in English. His most powerful coinage was perhaps Quit India and this was in English. This provoked the English to react to respond with their own coinage We wish we could. Gandhi developed an unornamented style completely diverged from the prose style of earlier, Indian English writings. He hardly fell into rheortorical bluster. His writing were still like a lawyers brief but without the obfusication of legal language. Gandhi had constantly the difficulty of translating words and concepts of Indian language into English. Gandhis English was distinct in more than one way. Though Gandhi never advocated use of English as the official language, and the medium of instruction and was constantly fighting with the English civilization, he had no quarrel with the English people, loved

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England the land of the English and used English with great skill for translating his goals of life. Gandhi and English language are inseparable.(p.406)3 Mahatma Gandhi was not a voracious reader. As a student he had hardly read anything outside textbooks. Whatsoever he happened to go through either came to him by chance or was recommended or presented by his friends. The result was that, whatever he had read was, infact, thoroughly assimilated and profitably utilized in his day to day life. It was thus a case of intensive, and not extensive, study. The salutary effect of this selective, limited study was that Gandhi never had any confusion or conflict in his mind. His views, therefore came to have a unique blending of profundity, simplicity and clarity. (p.235). Sharma holds that Tolstoy, Ruskin, Thoreau, Mazzini, Edward Carpenter, Mar Nadau, Plato, Emerson, Dadabhai Naoroji and Romesh Chander Dutt influenced Gandhi. From Tolstory he imbibed universal love, from Ruskin he learnt that the life of labour is the life worth living, good of the individual is contained in the good of all, Thoreau taught him that poverty is preferable, that there is nothing wrong in breaking the law observance of which would be more disastrous. Thus Tolstoys love-force and Thoreaus idea of civil disobedience formed the base of Gandhis passive resistance movement. (p.235). Sharma goes on to hold that R.C. Dutts Economic History of India, ideas of Ranade, Gokhale and Tilak resulted in Gandhian demand for abolition of the salt tax, the khadi movement, revival of village industries and prohibition. Gandhi accepted Gokhale as his political guru and identified religion with politics. Gandhi had studied thoroughly Bhagavadgita, learnt 13 chapters by heart, it was his infallible guide of conduct, learnt the doctrine of non-possession, equability and dedicated himself to the service of community and aspired for self realization through the renunciation of fruits of action. Reading of Edwin Arnolds. The light of Asia and the New Testament fortified his faith in renunciation as highest form of religion. These readings also notified his method of fasting as a means of self-restraint. Rajchandra taught him the lessons of Brahmacharya, subtle and profound thoughts of Hinduism, its vision of the soul and its charity. Sermon on the Mount, writing of Surdas and Shamal Bhatt also taught him principles of humility and return of good for evil. Sharma summarizes the Gandhian thought as follows : Gandhi had thus picked up all that was good, assimilated it, practiced it and then preached it. In other wards, what has come to be known as Gandhian ideology is nothing but what is good and noble in life? It has, therefore achieved universality and is as relevant to day as it was during his life time. It stands for truth, non-violence, fearlessness, selfhelp, simplicity, honesty, voluntary poverty, love for all and hatred for none, religious tolerance, decentralization of power, equal status for women and self realization through self restraint and self abnegation. It also advocates a life of brahmacharya and considers fasting to be a necessity as an external deed. He was for the use of Hindi or Hindustani and regional languages. He encouraged the establishment of cottage industries so that the villages may become self sufficient by learning different handicrafts and be thus weaned

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away from enchantment of city life. He was against the use of foreign goods, untouchability, economic suppression and deep rooted prejudices and superstitions. (p.236). Sharma quotes Jawaharlal Nehru Gandhi influenced millions of people in India in varying degrees; some changed the whole texture of their lives, other were only partly affected, or the effect wore off, and yet not quite, for some of part of it could not be wholly shaken. Different people reacted differently Sharma feels that Indo-Anglian fiction writers also reacted as above. Sharma lists Mulk Raj Anand, R.K. Narayan, Raja Rao, Bhabani Bhattacharya, Nayantara Sahgal, Padmini Sengupta and Shanta Rameshwar Rao Gopal amongst writers greatly influenced by Gandhi. Amongst those who were marginally or superficially influenced, Sharma lists K Nagarajun, Manhor Malgonkar, Balachandra Rajan, C.N. Zutshi, Vessu Chitale, Kamala Markandaya, Arthur S.Lall, Aamir Ali, A Husain and Khwaja Ahmad Abbas etc. Sharma holds that Gandhis influence was two fold, he influenced the theme and style of Indo-Anglian writers. The Indo-Anglian writers being highly educated tended to be sophisticated, artificial and ornamental in their approach. However under the impact of Gandhian insistence on simplicity, proximity to nature and clarity, these writer adopted a simple, direct and coherent rather than bombastic and pompous style of writing. (p.237). Sharma further argues that under Gandhis influence writers moved their scene from town to the village, their characters from highly educated to the common men, they took up themes of untouchability, orthodoxy, superstitions, slavery, exploitation etc. Of course Sharmas claim can be contested, infact modernity and spread of education, etc. had raised these issues in India for nearly a century. Sharma quotes from Bhabani Bhattacharyas Gandhi The Writer: Inspired by him (Gandhi), they turned towards the depiction of the life of common man, the poor and the illiterate, particularly in the villages. Their prose style became less ornamental, less designed for the high braw scholar, simple, direct, natural, the literature of the Gandhian era aimed of appealing not to the class alone, but the masses as well There was a reaction against absolute values. The writers drew largely on life for their themes and new horizons opened up before them. (pp.237-8). Sharma traces the Gandhian influences on individual authors. Speaking Mulk Raj Ananda Sharma holds that Gandhi converted him to simplicity, sincerity and truth, made him cut meretricious literariness. Under Gandhian influences Mulkraj wrote about the poorest of the poor and not about rich, orthodox people of high caste, class and status. Mulkraj also introduced Gandhi as a character. R.K. Narayan in Waiting for Mahatma (1955) introduces Gandhi as a character. The novel eloquently reverberates with concern for common man. KAAbbass Inquilab (1955) K Nagarajuns Chronicles of Kedaram (1960) Chaman Nahals Azadi (1975) deal with pre-independence India and in all these Gandhi is introduced as a character. Issues of

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communal violence, boycott, prohibition etc dear to Gandhi figure prominently in the novels. Dandi March figures in Ananda Lalls The House of Adampur (1956) K Nagarajuns Athawar House (1939). Literature is the mirror of the era. Keeping this in mind, the writers of the Gandhian era or those writing about it have tried to lend a semblance of authenticity to their creative works by bringing Gandhi on the scene either personally or by report. They find themselves both comfortable and confident by making Gandhi speak his mind directly or by reproducing his speeches. More or less, Gandhi always remains in the background and in no way disturbs the mainstream of the novel. The novelists have handled the situation commendably well. Too prominent role could have turned the novel into a biography and Gandhi was too important to be given only a minor role. With a masters stroke of tact and craftsmanship the two have been beautifully blended. (241-2). Indo-Anglican writers have also reflected the dissenting voice through their characters. Sharma quotes widely to bring this out. Gandhi is a humbug He is a fool. He is a hypocrite. In one breath he says he wants to abolish untouchability, in the other he asserts that he is orthodox Hindu. He is running counter to the spirit of our age, which is democracy. He is in the fourth century BC with his Swadesh and his spinning wheel. We live in the twentieth. (Mulkraj Anands Untouchable (pp.138-9). The Mahatma seemed full of himself, of his spiritual struggle. And Lalu felt himself lapsing into listlessness, as it he were being suffocated by the deliberate simplicity of the egoistic confessional talk of self-perfection. (Mulkraj Anandas the Sword and the Sickle (p.207). These politicians, Gandhi folk, they wont leave anyone in peace. (R.K. Naryans Waiting for the Mahatma p.31),. what is this Gandhi Busienss? Nothing but wearing coarse hand made cloth, not fit for a map and bellowing out bhajans and bhajans and mixing with pariahs. (Raja Raos Kantha pura p.42). Our present theories alone can explain the development of mankind, and Mahatma Gandhi is the one enemy of this new dispensation. More insidious than Hitler is this intellectual venom that is spreading over vast and ignorant humanity. Beware. (Raja Raos Comorade Kirillor : p.35). Sharma finds how Indo-Anglican writers were both honest and bold in depicting divergent view points on the controversial topics like brahmacharya and non-violence. R.K. Naryan, Raja Rao and others created characters who are sex obsessed and caught with Gandhian obsession of brahmacharya, characters who find brahmacharya inconsistent with of life and nature, women who find their husbands obsession un-natural. Similarly Sharma identifies several characters in Indo-Anglican fiction write critical of non-violence

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as a philosophy of life, how many of them feel that Gandhis advocacy of non violence as life sustaining principle lack deeper understanding. Similarly partition as a theme and Gandhis point of view figure prommently in many works. Gandhis views on machinery is also taken up. Many reflect a fine understanding of the Gandhian view. Machines were projected as death trap which alters the character of man, how men break under the weight of the machines, how machines needs to be limited and not abolished. Etc. (p.250). Authors were equally critical at his promotion of Hindi Hindustani and regional languages, they refused to accept his views on English. Why waste time learning each others language when we both speak English? It is so impractical (Nayantara Saighal A time to be happy, sterling publishers 1975 (pp.58-59). Sharma quotes Gandhi to set the position right. I cannot stop the English edition My relations with west are increasing everyday I can not cast out English Language from my small store of knowledge. I do not wish all Indians to give up or forget it English is the language of the world. Its international position can not be disputed. Imperialistic rule of the Englishman will go because it was and is an evil. But the superior role of the English language can not go. (p. 252). Sharma argues that with the passage of time the impact of Gandhi appear to have waned, that it has became a function to worship only the form and yet few Gandhites still hold the spirit. To conclude with Dhananjays words from Anant Gopal Sheoreys latest book on Gandhian theme, Dusk before dawn (1976), We have followed Gandhiji in our struggle. We must now follow him equally loyally in freedom so that his dream of world peace and brotherhood is fulfilled. (p. 253).4 Sharma finds out Bhabani Bhatacharya publishes his first novel shortly after India attains independence. The Gandhian spirit dominated Indian mind right upto early years of Indian independence from 1920s. At least for forty years (1920-60s) Gandhi, his action and ideas dominated the Indian life and thinking, and as such, it also dominated the India writing both in English and Vernacular. Sharma of length analyses the novels of Bhabani and traces Gandhian concepts. Sharma finds out how Gandhian conceptions of Nonviolence, role of women, fearlessness, limitation and in adequacy of mere political freedom, social reawakening, voice against orthodox rituals and superstitions, widow remarriage and caste hierarchy, synthesis of rural and urban values, self restraint eradication of social evils, freedom against exploitation, simplicity and humility, asceticism and aestheticism, sublimation of sexuality, self renunciation, voluntary poverty, simple living celibacy in mind and body, self-control, opposition to mechanization of life, and identification with masses etc are taken up by Bhabani in his novels. The influence of Gandhi was not limited to Bhabani. Sharma concludes with the following A review of Bhabani Bhattacharyas novels thus amply proves that he has had a tremendous influence of Gandhian ideology. He has, infact, created mini Gandhis

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Bhabani Bahattacharya seems to have had a sound grounding in Gandhian thought, culminating in his scholarly masterpiece, Gandhi the Writer, published in 1969 at the time of Gandhis centenary celebration. This special, conscious study of Gandhi has given him an added advantage over other nonvelists. Being thoroughly familiar with Gandhis views on varied subject. Bhabani Bhattacharya has been able to touch upon almost all the aspect of Gandhian ideology and in the right perspective too. (p.105). Sharma the Gandhian values that Bhabani supported. These included concern for mass, work is worship, universal love, self-help, voluntary poverty, absence of hatred against enemy and conversion through love etc. Sharma also identified Bhabanis rejections also. And these included futility of leading a life of abstinence. Bhabani feels that repression of natural instincts is unhealthy, it is natural for men to he tempted. However, Bhabani accepts self restraints. what is needed is purely a human approach which concedes co-existence of vice and virtue. In the same vein Bhabani bhatacharya suggests a synthesis of rural and urban values and sought middle path for the growth of economy. Not only small scale industry need to be encouraged even industrialization and he production have came to stay in the face of population explosion. (p.106). Like Bhabani other authors also find merit in Gandhis conceptions but rarely accept the whole of Gandian ideals. From the above review it is evident that there is a great scope for studying Gandhi as a writer. This seems to be a less explored aspect of Gandhian studies. Further those who study Gandhi from ethical, political and social stand points also need to be sensitive to the literary aspects. It is pertinent to observe that without making any conscious effort Gandhi evolved a new style of writing and speaking. He was very effective with his simplicity, directness brevity, use of Indian and vernacular words, similies and metaphors and bare style. References (Note : The page nos. in brackets refer to the book under review. Where ever it involves quotes from other sources same has been indicated.) Book under Review 1. K.R. Srinivasa Iyenger., Indian Writings In English, Sterllling Publishing House, New Delhi 1994, Reprint, 5th edition 1985, pp.848. 2. M.K. Naik., History of Indian English Literature, Sahitya Akademi, 1982, Reprint 2005, New Delhi, p.320. 3. Khilnani, Sunil., Gandhi and English. An illustrated History of Indian Literature in English, ed: Arvind Krishna Mehrotra, Permanent black, 2003. pp.406. 4. Sharma Sudarshan., Gandihan Ideology in Indian Fiction in English. Indian Fiction in English Roots and Bloosoms Volume- II, Ed: Amarnath Prasad and Nagendra Kumar Singh, Sarup and Sons, New Delhi, 2007, pp.256. p. 235-256.

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POETICS OF PROTEST : GANDHI AND INDIAN ENGLISH NOVELS A.J. Khan* Z. Jabeen** Indian novelist ,short-story writer, and art critic writing in English, Mulk Raj Anand was among the few writers to render Punjabi and Hindustani idioms into English. Called the Zola and Balzac of India, Anand drew a realistic and sympathetic portrait of the poor of his country. With Raja Rao and R.K.Narayan he has been regarded as one of the founding fathers of the Indian English novel. It is pertinent to note here that the flowering of the novel form in India coincides with the Gandhian movement, which was at its strongest. The Gandhian philosophy has left lasting impressions upon various aspects and attitudes of Indian life and letters. The Gandhian myth may not be present in all the branches of literature but its catalytic effect was felt in all the branches besides novels, though in lesser degrees, during the Pre and Post-Independenceperiod of our country. The Gandhian concepts regarding the caste system, untouchability, female education, non-violence and the like are reflected in the different forms of literature like fiction, drama , poetry and so on. Indian Writing in English in indebted to Gandhian spirit in more ways than one. Gandhiji himself was not only a reputed Anglo-Indian prose writer but also a colossus who bestrided almost the entire period of Indian Writing in English, appearing either as a character or as a subject or as a pervasive influence upon the socio-political scene depicted by the writer. In this regard Dr. M.K. Naik rightly observes : The Gandhian whirlwind began to sweep over the length and breadth of the land, upsetting all established potential strategies and ushering in refreshingly new ideas and methods which shook the Indian life in several spheres to the core.(1) The national upsurge created new social and political consciousness among the Indian masses. It is out of this consciousness that fiction, which is the most effective expression of our imagination emerges. Fiction, as Hazlitt puts it, is constituted of, the very web and texture of society as it really exists And it seeks creative expression for its new consciousness. Thus while speaking about Gandhian influence Dr. M.K. Naik makes an apt observation : The work of K.S.Venkataramani, Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao would not perhaps have been possible had the miracle that was Gandhi not occured during this period.(2) Born into a family of metal workers with an army background in Peshawar, Mulk Raj Anand witnessed the bloody reality of colonial rule with the Jallianwalla Bagh massacre
* Sr. Lecturer, P.G. Dept. of English, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar ** Lecturer in English, Christ College, Cutttack

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at Amritsar in 1919. Like most Indians of his generation, he threw himself into Gandhis non-cooperation movement. This led him into student agitation against the British for which he received eleven stripes on his back and was briefly jailed. The experience had deep impact on the young Anand and he concluded that the notions of Empire and Freedom were complete opposites : I had grown up in the ferment of a great moral and political movement in which I had learnt that alien authority constricted our lives in every way. I cant say there was no bitterness in my hatred of imperialism, because I remembered how often waves of fury swept over me to see hundreds of human beings go to jail daily after being beaten up by the police for offering civil disobedience.(3) Growing up under the Raj and writing against the backdrop of colonial rule and anticolonial resistance, Anand was convinced that art cannot be and should not be divorced from its social functions. His writings that project the writer as a revolutionary bear the imprint of the post colonial rhetoric that emerged during the phase of independence struggles in the colonized societies across the world. Achebe, the well-known African novelist, sees the writer as primarily a teacher and envisages a pedagogic role for a creative writer, as George Lamming of the West-Indies upholds that the role of a writer lies in the shaping of national consciousness. Anand had posited this position at least a decade earlier to both of them, when he firmly asserted that any attempt on his (the writers) part to shirk the responsibility is betrayal of his own power and acceptance of mental and spiritual death. As an Indian student in London, Anand became a part of the literary crowd known as the Bloomsbury group. His meeting with such writers as T.S. Eliot, Leonard and Virginia Woolf, E.M. Forster and John Stratchey left him both impressed and perplexed. London at that time was the centre of the English-speaking intellectual world and Anand had hoped to meet like-minded individuals who would share his anti-colonial liberal views. To his surprise, he discovered that, according to Eliot, Gandhi was an anarchist and that Indians should concentrate on cultural aspects of their society and leave the politics of governance to the British! Many of these writers had not visited India and so their impressions were perhaps formed by Rudyard Kiplings Kim, which, to Anand was typical of colonial fantasies of India. Anand held A Passage to India to be the best fiction writing on his homeland, as this went beyond the oriental conceptions of the natives and attempted to depict the complex, often contradictory and mostly confrontational impact of colonial rule in India. He had wanted to write about ordinary, mundane, everyday life experiences of Indians who were not kings and gods. May be for this reason he returned to India briefly in 1929. Disgusted with religious sectarianism, communalism and caste system, he set about writing his first novel Untouchable. The idea of untouchability as a social evil obsessed the minds of men in the 1930s. Gandhi called the untouchables harijans (children of god) and fought almost single-handed for the eradication of the evil of untouchability. He initiated revolutionary social action and won many rights for the

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neglected strata of society. Anand being a typical product of the time has dealt with the problem in vivid artistic terms. His treatment of the theme in the novel is of high moral seriousness. When Anand visited Gandhi in his Ashram in Ahmedabad and showed him the drafts of his novel Untouchable, Gandhi was quite critical because of the excessive influence of Bloomsbury. While in Ahmedabad, Anand lived like a disciple and did his share of cleaning the toiletsan act seen as defilement for a caste Hindu. During this period, Anand revised his book considerably and when Forster read it, his retort to those who complained about the dirt in the novel was that the book seems to me indescribably clean.... it has gone straight to the heart of its subject and purified.(4) Untouchable is a chilling expose of the day-to-day life of a member of Indias untouchable caste, Bakha. The young outcaste, Bakha, is eighteen, proud, strong and able-bodied, a child of modern India, who has started to think himself superior to his fellow outcastes. The novel records the events of a single day in the life of Bakha, a toiletcleaner, who accidentally bumps into a member of a higher caste. The touching occurs in the morning, and subsequently shadows the rest of the day. Bakha searching for a salve for the social destiny of the degradation into which he was born, talking first with a Christian missionary and then with a follower of Mahatma Gandhi, but by the end of the book, he concludes that it is technology, in the form of the newly introduced flush toilet that will be his saviour. While the system of flush toilet may deprive him and his family of the traditional livelihood they have had for centuries, it may also liberate them in the end by eliminating the need for a caste of toilet-cleaners. Anand, one of the powerful critics of the Indian caste system has also suggested that the British domination of India has in fact aggravated the suffering of outcastes like Bakha. After nineteen rejections, Anands novel was published in England with a preface by E.M.Forster : Untouchable could only have been written by an Indian and by an Indian who observed from the outside. No European, however sympathetic, could have created the character of Bakha, because he would not have known enough about his troubles. And no untouchable could have written the book, because he would have been involved in indignation and self-pity.(5) Gandhi articulates that the plight of untouchability is both a moral and religious issue. He regards untouchability as the greatest blot on Hinduism(6) and asserts that it is satanic to assume anyone in Hinduism is born polluted. Gandhi then recounts the story of a Brahmin boy and a sweeper in his ashram and attempts to show understanding for the sweeper ; he feels that if the Brahmin wanted the ashram sweeper to do his work well he must do it himself and set an example. This idea of Gandhi while appearing to be sympathetic, also concedes the existence of an untouchable because it assumes the existence of hierarchy of power between the untouchable and other high caste Hindus, thereby perpetuating the cycle of oppression. Gandhi then proceeds to criticize the untouchables

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by saying that they have to cultivate habits of cleanliness, that they must get rid of their evil habits such as drinking liquor, gambling and eating carrion.(6) They must, as Gandhi says, cease to accept leavings from the plates of high caste Hindus, however clean they may be represented to be.(7) In essence, he advocates emancipation by purification. Yet there is an inherent dichotomy in Gandhis rhetoric because the existing system does not allow for the untouchables to become purified primarily because their fundamental existence is rooted in the profession of filth. It is as Bakha says to his father, they think we are mere dirt because we clean their dirt.(8) Anand, although an avid follower of Gandhi, has Bakha question the Mahatmas speech, but now, now the Mahatma is blaming us. That is not fair!(9) This suggests, perhaps, that Anands view of Gandhi and his political rhetoric cannot be idealized because it too contains elements of oppression. Anand then proceeds to offer his last possible solution to the alleviation of untouchability. Through the poet Iqbal Nath Sarshar, Anand takes the chance to express his own Marxist inclinations, Well, we must destroy caste, we must destroy the inequalities of birth and unalterable vocations. We must recognize an equality of rights, privileges and opportunities for everyone.(10) He advocates that a change in profession will free the untouchables and the way to achieve this change is through the implementation of a flush system. In Untouchable Anand displays compassion for the plight of untouchables but never sentimentality. In many ways the novel records his thinking beyond the limits of Gandhis idea of the untouchables as harijan children of god. For Anand this is far too patronizing and it is for this reason that his fictionalized account depicts a debate between a Gandhitype figure espousing the oneness of humanity and simple living on the land and a poet who poses a modern solution to the problems of untouchability- flushing toilets ! The rapid movement of life in Untouchable gives it a rich dramatic significance. It is a brilliant example of sustained poetic realism. Although it employs a low mimetic form of fiction, it also has esoteric poetic flights, and a breadth of metaphor uncommon to such a form. Notes 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. Naik. M.K. A History of Indian English Literature (Sahitya Akademi -1982) , p.114 Ibid; p.118 Anand. A. Apology For Heroism: A Brief Autobiography of Ideas(KutubPopular, 1946), pp.53,54 Anand M.R. Untouchable (Arnold Publishers) p.7 Ibid; p.9 Ibid; p.163 Ibid; p.165 Ibid; p.89 Ibid; p.165 Ibid; p.173

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GANDHI AS AN INVISIBLE FORCE IN RAJA RAOS KANTHAPURA

Prajna Paramita Panigrahi* The Indian novel in English is a product of an urge for socio-political reforms, the revival of past traditions, the search for a national identity and the increasing awareness of the role of the individual in society. Set against the backdrop of colonial India, the novel fascinated the common man with the novelty of its exotic form and its capability of representing a changing world in its various dimensions. Hence, we have The great stalwarts of prose, namely R.K.Narayan, Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao, Bhabani Bhattacharya etc., each working in his own defined terrain. Towards the 1920s and 1930s, novels of Mulk Raj Anand and Raja Rao percolated social realism and the reform movements generated by liberalists and humanists, backed by the notions of Satyagraha (demands based on truth). Apart from having a transparently positive vision of life, explored and expressed artistically in all these fictions, they have a predominant Gandhian figure or philosophy which clinches the crisis towards an affirmative solution. Pre and Post independent crisis are put to test under the microscopic eyes of Bhabani Bhattacharya and are assessed from different angles so that a positive message, which is both ethical and universal could reach the reader. In his least known novel, Dream in Hawaii, the central figure Swami Yogananda also refers to Gandhi and his spirit in the following words: Mahatma Gandhi in his homeland has been turned into one of the numerous Gods and placed on a high pedestal, a dead image with flowers on his stone feet, while abroad; he is more and more a living presence. I shall have no regrets if the world accepts Mahatma Gandhi with all that he has stood for and fought for, while India rejects him.p.49 Bhattacharya has strong faith in Gandhism and all that it stands for. Hence they are often noticed in his creative works, which ends in idyllic reconcilement of contradict values. Like Gandhi, he has an affirmative vision of life. The sterling qualities and the resplendent spirit of man cannot be crushed down by adversity, is what Gandhi stood for and also the creative need of Bhattacharya. His work demonstrates Gandhian values as the epitomes of all virtues. On the other hand, Raja Rao depicts the Gandhian Philosophy in simple but subtle terms. He does not preach the ideals of Gandhi. But Gandhism exists in his novels as a powerful force, guiding the characters towards self-purification and the overall task of joining into the mass movement : the struggle for Swaraj. Kanthapura is Raja Raos exploration of the real India that breathes and lives in the villages. The ritual-based, tradition-oriented, masses having immense faith in the long
*Lecturer in English, DDCE, Utkal University, Bhubaneswar

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standing scriptures and values condense into a static village, with the village goddess Kenchamma as the overriding deity, protecting them all. Thus, metaphysics, history, folk memory, racial self-consciousness are the different undertones that support a realia level. With a belief in the cycle of rebirths, and in the descent of avatars ,Raja Rao sees life as an ever-flowing river and reflecting the reality that is beyond. Kanthapura is the name of the south Indian village that symbolizes Hindu India. The novel describes how this remote and otherwise static village is stirred into dynamic activity by the influence and impact of Mahatma Gandhi. It also portrays how the village becomes the epitome of satyagraha and the ensuing violence until it is crushed into silence by the ruling power. The novel suggests a struggle between the conservatism of Gandhi and the socialist aspirations of many of his followers including Moorthy. The novel appears to probe the problems of good and evil, order and disorder by equating the freedom movement with the age-old epics, Ramayana and Mahabharata. A typical Indian archetype is that of an incarnation of God as the savior of the people in distress, establishes righteousness (dharma) and destroys the evil. Moorthy is the mover of action, a devotee of the Mahatma conceived as an incarnation, a veritable avatar of the divine, born in this earth to end the suffering of Indian people under the British rule. His life and deeds, as portrayed by the village bard, approximate to those of Lord Krishna, the archetype of the divine rescuer. Jayaramachar, the harikatha man or the otherwise village bard comes to Kanthapura and tells a new kind of tale in which he mingles Hindu mythology with contemporary politics. He compares Gandhi to Lord Siva when he says, Siva is the three-eyed, and swaraj too is three-eyed; Self-purification, Hindu Moslem unity, Khaddar. Kanthapura 16. Akin to Lord krishnas slaying of the serpent Kalia, we are told that Gandhi goes from village to village slaying the serpent of foreign rule. You remember how Krishna, when he was but a babe of four, had begun to fight against the demons and had killed serpent Kali. So too our Mohandas began to fight against the enemies of the country..his voice was so pure, his forehead so brilliant with wisdom, that men followed him, more and more men followed him as they did Krishna the fluteplayer. Kanthapura 18. Gandhi teaches Moorthy how to be a true satyagrahi, a forerunner and apostle of truth and sacrifice. The villagers remember the Mahabharata war and how Krishna teaches Arjuna the dictum of life and the insight on how to be a man of action. Since Gandhi interpreted self -rule as an ideal form of government in the manner of Ramrajya, the villagers are quite hopeful and confident of Gandhis victory. Further, Gandhi (in London) is Rama gone into exile to rescue India(Sita) from tyranny of the British ( Ravana) while Jawaharlal Nehru( Brother Bharat) awaits the return of his leader from the Second Round Table Conference.

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They say Mahatma will go to the Red mans country and he will get us swaraj. He will bring us swaraj, the mahatma. And we shall all be happy. And Rama will come back from exile and Sita will be with him, for Ravana will be slain and Sita, and he will come back with Sita on his right in a chariot of air, and brother Bharatha will go to meet them with the worshipped sandal of the master on his head. And as they enter Ayodhya, there will be a rain of flowers. Kanthapura 110. This modern Sthalapurana, beginning like a grandmothers tale of her village, is replete with examples from history and myths that catch on with the imagination of the innocent minded and tradition-driven people of Kanthapura with hope and enthusiasm. Raja Rao believes that the Indian villagers minds are attuned to myths and mythical exploits of the innumerable gods and goddesses. Hence, the only way, one can drill the message of a nations struggle for independence was to appeal to their mindsets and mingling tradition, myth, religion, politics and social behavior. Thus, Gandhi, the leader of the masses,acquires the status of a saint and avatar. Harikathas, change their tones and adapt Gandhian movements in real life to their inherent structures. The villagers call him the big mountain, one of their names for Lord Siva. Moorthy is called the Small mountain and they hope that the two mountains shall protect them. Kanthapura 128-129. In the Discovery of India, Nehru says about Gandhi: he was like a powerful current of fresh air that made us stretch ourselves and take deep breaths, like a beam of light that pierced the darkness and removed the scales from our eyes, like a whirlwind that upset most of the things but most of all the working of the peoples mind. He did not descend from the top, he seemed to emerge from the millions of India, speaking their language and incessantly drawing attention to them and their appalling condition. Political freedom took a new shape then and acquired a new content. Gandhi influenced millions of people in India in varying degrees some changed the whole textures of their lives, others were only partly affected , or the effect wore off, and yet not quite, for some part of it could not be wholly shaken off. Different people reacted differently. With his inimitable political prowess, Gandhi became a spiritual leader of the Indian masses, who looked up to him as a great soul, glorifying and almost deifying him in the process. Indians followed him, women came out of their cocooned existence and joined his clarion call for independence. He promised freedom from the alien rule, with the only weapon, non-violence. He assured his followers victory and always reverberated that an unarmed and non-violent India could bring the mighty empire to its fall. Britishers shall be forced to leave India. All that we need is determination and courage to fight the enemy. His immense faith in himself and his values mesmerized millions of Indians in all walks of life. The sacrifices, suffering, prolonged fasting which he took upon himself to ensure communal feeling and harmony strengthened him. He called upon his countrymen to boycott all British made goods, their schools and colleges, their courts of law, their titles and

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honours, their elections and elective offices, and should the need arise if all boycotts failed, British tax collectors as well. The total withdrawal of Indian support for the British would thus cripple the mechanism , and through peaceful non-violence, swaraj would be obtained. And thus the satyagrahis or soldier saints, were trained to help and motivate the villagers to give up the practice of untouchability, another facet of Gandhian movement Gandhi s movement had many facets, one of them being an attack against the drink menace. It was also decided not to pay taxes as a protest to impress upon the rulers that the freedom workers held against their rulers. The people of Kanthapura and the adjoining areas promised in the name of the Mahatma not to drink Toddy or liquor in any form. The toddy shops are picketed to prevent the sale of liquor. Moorthy explains to his villagemen. And of the toddy booths that are to be picketed, for toddy trees are government trees and toddy booths are to exploit the poor and the unhappy..but never be harsh to them nor wicked.remember we are not out to fight the white man or the white mans slaves .but against the demoniac corruption that has entered their hearts, the purer we are, the greater will be our victory, for the victory we seek is the victory of the heart. Send out love where there is hatred we are not soldiers -at arms, say I; we seek to be soldier saints. Kanthapura 129-130. Gandhis practice of singing bhajans (hymns) at his prayer meetings is widelyaccepted. The people take out prabhat pheris ( morning outings), like getting up at dawn, gathering at the temple, and going through the village roads, in the twilight singing religious songs. Kanthapura , thus,remains primarly a novel about freedom movement, the political and social beliefs of Mahatma Gandhi, dwelling mostly on his notions of non-violence and abortion of untouchability. Mahatma Gandhi doesnot figure in Kanthapura as a character , but his invisibility makes his presence strongly felt. Moorthy is his spokesperson, he is the one who blends gandhian philosophy with the everyday activities of the villagers. He motivates them to practice ahimsa and speak the truth. He also persuades them to make to cotton yarn on the spinning wheel and to wear the cloth spun and woven by their own hands. Kanthapura,23. British made clothes are to be discarded and destroyed in bonfires. Moorthy tells his village followers that Gandhi says spinning is as purifying as praying. Kanthapura,25 In kanthapura, Raja Rao dramatizes the national struggle as a mythic and symbolic event. The kanthapura village, in his novel, is a piece of mythic land containing within it the memory of the village . Raja Rao goes a step further in mingling the grace and tone of the speech rhythms of his stories . Replete with philosophical overtures, one can say that Raja Rao blends history, facts with metaphysics. The references to the karma philosophy, the omnipresence of God, the immortality of the soul and the doctrine of incarnation which are derived from the Bhagavad Gita signify the novelists fascination for Vedant.

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His literary art confirms that Indian mindset is more accustomed to the familiar traditional values and myths, than with the contemporary and factual existence. They are more connected with history than with the here and now. Hence, the use of harikathas, and the comparisons of Mahatma Gandhi with Hindu gods, gives the sleepy villagers something to sit up and listen. The thread that binds the Indian mind with its culture invariably very strong and thus kindles a joy to be a part of that stream that has been handed over from generations to generations. Hence, Kanthapura wakes up from its deep slumber and becomes a part of the great Indian struggle forIindependence. Kanthapura symbolizes India, its capacity to absorb influences and yet remain essentially the same. It has the freedom of the romance, the broad canvas of the epic,and the symbolism of a fable. Bibiography 1. ( Siv Narayan Dash: Gandhian spirit as role model in the creative writings of Bhabani Bhattacharya..edited by Amar Nath Prasad and Nagendra Kumar Singh: Indian fiction in English: roots and blossoms, P.P.36 Raja Rao,. Kanthapura. New Delhi: Orient Paperbacks, 1992.

2.

Gandhi won national independence for more millions of people than any other leader of men, and with less bloodshed, and that was the truth. He showed the weak and the poor how to struggle without taking life, and that was the truth. He spent years in jail for the national cause, and once he helped conduct the prosecution against himself after violence occurred in a civil disobedience movement. He broke the system of indentured Indian labor in South Africa. He won respect for Indians and restored the self-respect of men who had humiliated them. He fought color and racial discrimination everywhere. And all that was the truth. He laid the foundations for a national language which would bring men close together regardless of creed, and he nursed and tended the sick and the helpless to teach men kindliness and self-scarifies. Against 3,000 years of prejudice he raised a crusade for the human rights of 50,000,000 untouchables, and he opposed the bigotry and dogmatism and the hateful orthodoxy of the caste system with more success than any Indian since Gautam Buddha. Edgar P. Snow

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Mira and The Mahatma by Sudhir Kakar: A Review

Priyadarshi Kar* A topic concerned with Mahatma Gandhis experiments with truth, simply put his attitude towards sex or his sexual philosophy, has many a times courted serious controversy and confusion. This topic has been handled by quite a few scholars in the past, among whom the most recent known work is a novel by one of Indias best psychoanalysts and writersSudhir Kakars book, Mira and the Mahatma. Though categorized as a fictitious work, it is in fact quasi-historical in nature. The book emerged from a collection of letters found in the archives of the Nehru Memorial Museum Library in New Delhi. Letters exchanged between Gandhiji and his devoted English disciple Madeline Slade, whom the Mahatma affectionately called Mira, after the 16th century Indian woman-saint infatuated with Krishna and, letters written from Mira to Prithvi Singh, a former Ghadar revolutionaryturned-Gandhian , with whom she was madly in love with. These provided Kakar the basis of the story. It is a story about an introvert, more handsome than pretty young woman, more comfortable with nature than with people, passionate about Beethoven, disciplined and determined about any task she undertakes, and yet, searching for that elusive figure in whom she can repose complete trust and love. Kakar takes the story to another level by weaving together facts gleaned from books, diaries, letters, and recollections, along with his own imaginary set of characters, many of whom are quite obviously based on real people who travelled in and out of Gandhis and Miras separate worlds. One such character is Navin, the highly educated, yet curiously naive narrator of the story, who was Miras Hindi tutor at Sabarmati. Kakar entrusts Navin to tell us about the great modern mytho-historical epic that is Gandhis life, a life characterised by a heartfelt concern for the poorest of the poor, a profound interest in engaging with everybody, an uncanny ability to publicly admit ones mistakes, and an admirable tendency to arrive at a consensus, at the risk of exposing himself, and the author, to the ridicule of our cynical times. The story is mainly about Mira or Mirabehn, Gandhiji, and their relationship spanning for almost two-and-a-half decade. Navin in the novel, is actually Kakars alter ego, through whom Kakar enjoys a ringside view of the swirling events of the 1920s and 1930s. Navin, a Hindi scholar, specialising in Premchand comes to stay in Sabarmati ashram and is immediately commandeered to become Miras general guide and tutor. The book starts with Navin visiting Miras retirement home in Vienna, in fact, Sudhir Kakar himself visited Mirabehn in 1964, she left India in 1958 after staying for 35 years and then traverses back in time to the mid-1920s, when Mira was first introduced to Gandhiji through her friend and god-father Romain Rolland. Madeline Slade, daughter of a British admiral - who wished to hear the call of the Eternal gets deeply moved by Gandhi and his philosophy after reading Romain Rollands
*Executive Editor, Spectrum Books, New Delhi.

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biography of Mahatma Gandhi (Mahatma Gandhi, 1924). Deciding to come to Gandhis ashram at Sabarmati, Madeline practices the Gandhian way of life herself, learning spinning, sitting cross-legged on the floor, becoming a teetotaler and a vegetarian and learning Urdu, etc., for a year. Soon after arrival, she plunges into the ashram work and the Indian freedom struggle. Madeline clung to Gandhi, with a ferocity which he found very unsettling, perhaps also because of feelings which her strong need for his physical proximity in turn aroused in him. During the 24 years of their association, Gandhi would repeatedly send her away to live and work in other ashrams in distant parts of the country. She would have nervous breakdowns as a consequence of these separations and struggles of the heart, as she called them, or spiritual agony, as Gandhi put it, impetuously rush back to wherever Gandhi was only to be again banished from his presence. Gandhi very often tried to redirect Mira from her single-minded concentration on him as a person to the cause they both served. Kakar used David Attenboroughs recollection of a conversation with Mira to describe her first meeting with the man she would come to love and reverse as her very own personal god. Mira told him, The moment I saw his (Gandhis) slight figure sitting on his cushion on the floor, I felt a strong sensation of light coming from his direction. It was a light I felt rather than saw till it exploded behind my eyes. Delving deep into the complex relationship between Gandhi and Mira, psychoanalyst Kakar piles detail upon detail, thereby gradually unveiling the man behind the Mahatma. Gandhis own personal struggles with brahmacharya or celibacy, his growing attraction towards Mira, and his startling truthfulness in admitting as much in his letters to her, are gems that Kakar encases in his tale of love and devotion. In his effort to unveil the man whose inner forces are realised in action, not a savant whose inner life is found in his thoughts, Kakar peels away the deadening layers of godliness that have reduced Gandhi to dust and replaces it with the aura of a saint who was also a fine human being. The backdrop and the context of the Mira-Mahatma relationship is often the Sabarmati ashram and later the ashram at Wardha, where Kakar describes Kasturba mechanically rubbing ghee on her husbands forehead and feet while Gandhi and Mira are engrossed in their nightly conversations. This daily activity of wifely devotion and duty, later in the book, becomes the reference point for Miras slow inroads into the personal space between Gandhi and Kasturba. As Gandhi and Mira grow closer, Mira takes over the task of preparing Gandhis food, the cool wrap for his head in summer, and finally, rubbing ghee on his feet, while Kasturba watches mutely. In short Miras intimacy and ease of intercourse with Gandhi, and the intensity with which she adores him often lead to tensions between her, the Mahatma, and Kasturba. But what is worth noting is that Kakar does not fall into the trap of simplifying this relationship. He unearths Miras own growing dependence on Gandhi, the myriad levels

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at which Gandhi connects with his devoted English disciple, and the pain and struggle both go through to arrive at their own vision of truth. Mira seems to have been often saddled with the burden of choice, her head understanding Mahatmas letters in one way, and her heart reading it differently. Before coming to India, Mira also had experienced a violent and passionate disturbance with a Scottish pianist, an exponent of Beethoven, and later she would have an intimate but failed relationship with Prithvi Singh, who got converted to Gandhism from the revolutionary Ghadar party. At the very end of the novel, the readers find Mira leading a retired life in Austria, while her Indian, male, servant expressing a desire to leave her and return to India. Apart from taking genuine extracts from Miras diaries, her letters to Gandhi and his to her, as well as Gandhis other writings, Kakar ties together with his own set of fictitious letters some like the ones from Madeline to Romain Rolland and the ones to from Madeline to Navin , to unfold the inner dynamics of the Mira-Mahatma relationship, as also their personal worlds. In one such letter to her godfather, Madeline (or rather, Kakar) writes, You wanted me to encounter. This seems to be the crux of the novel. Kakar underlines it yet again, when he quotes Gandhi telling Mira, What people listen to is your life, not your ideas. Without drawing conclusions Navin or Kakar wonders: Was hers (Miras) a tragic story whose heroine insisted on seeing it as a romantic quest in which, after withstanding the perils of the road, she had been rewarded by an exaltation beyond normal human experience? Yet, one cannot agree or disagree. It is indeed impossible to judge success or failure of someone elses life. This perhaps is in the spirit of Gandhi, who once said to Prithvi Singh, I disbelieve history so far as the details of acts of heroes are concerned. I accept broad facts of history and draw my own lessons for my conduct as long as they do not contradict the highest laws of life, but I positively refuse to judge men from the scanty material furnished to us by history. Sudhir Kakars Mira and the Mahatma is indeed a welcome venture, since his standpoints and psychoanalytic insights presented in the book enriches our understanding of Gandhijis inner struggles remained his eternal prooccupation. The work has been very masterfully crafted in the methodology of psychoanalytic deconstruction and add new meanings to the topic discussed other similar works like Nirmal Kumar Boses My Days with Gandhi, Erik H. Eriksons Gandhis Truth: On the Origins of Militant Nonviolence, Larry Collins and Dominique Lapierres Freedom at Midnight. The book has opened up new vistas for research scholars in understanding Gandhis spiritual struggles in their psycho-historic perspective. * All the quotes are from the work under review.

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GANDHIJIS CONCEPT OF GRAM SWARAJ : ROLE AND RELEVANCE OF KHADI AND VILLAGE INDUSTRIES IN A SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC ORDER
Deenabandhu Das* Growth and development of rural industries has been regarded as an integral part of rural development. Rural industrialization and rural development are essential for ensuring over all economic development of our nation. Inclusion of small scale and other village industries would continue to be the major components of the programme for industrialization. Development and expansion of cottage and village industries not only help emergence of efficient and decentralized sectors but also create further avenues of employment in a self-sustaining economy. Growth of village industries in rural areas contributes to alleviation of poverty of the rural people and provides a new dimension to their occupational pattern. There is, therefore, as Schumacher has said a need for production by masses, rather than mass production. This can be possible if we could develop decentralized, small-scale, tiny, cottage and village industries in rural areas. Mahatma Gandhi in appropriate words has said, Our villages are on the verge of destruction owing to disappearance of village industries. They can be revived only by a revival of the village industries. A society based on ethical and moral foundations in which truth (Satya) and nonviolence (Ahimsa) would remain as the corner-stones to enable each individual to enjoy full freedom, equality and social justice, was the vital concern of Gandhi. It would be a Stateless society a society in which there would be no police and military, no law courts, no heavy transport and centralized means of production. His concept of state was democratic, but with limited powers and functions. Gandhiji valued individual freedom but emphasized that a balance had to be struck between individual freedom and social restrains. He wanted a class less society in which there would be no exploitation a society which would be much similar to a family having close interdependence among each other. In Gandhijis concept of Ramarajya in kingdom of God on earth, the Sate must be based n truth and non-violence and must consist of prosperous, happy and selfcontained villages and village communities. Village Economy : A Self-Sustaining Rural Economic Order Gandhiji believed that a society must follow certain norms of life where mere material well being would not be the only motivating force. There must be proper values in an ideal community. He emphasized that true economics stands for social justice and for moral values2. His idea of society was based on the theory of equality. He advocated that everybody should have equal opportunities in life although their capacities would differ.
*Registrar, Utkal University, Vani Vihar, Bhubanswar 751 004, Orissa.

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People with greater talents may earn more by utilizing their intellect, but the greater earnings should be used for the good of the State. He therefore argued that in a society, nobody should own or enjoy more than ones necessity. He believed in the infinite goodness of human beings. The fundamental tenets of Gandhis concept of trusteeship were based on these assumptions. Gandhijis emphasis on moral aspects distinguishes his economic ideas from other socialist and materialist philosophers. He emphasized on equality of men and equal distribution of wealth. The rich should utilize their surplus wealth for the benefit of the other poorer classes of the society. Gandhi believed that trusteeship is a peaceful way of liquidating class conflict and establishing class collaboration. Trusteeship is therefore, a means of transforming the capitalist order of society into an egalitarian one. Gandhi asserted that the economics that disregard moral and sentimental considerations are like wax works that being life like, still lack the life of the living flesh That economics is untrue, which ignores or disgraces moral values. Gandhi stressed on equal distribution of national wealth. A firm believer in the quality and divinity of man, Gandhiji said that economics that hurts the moral well being of any individual or nation are immoral and therefore are sinful. Thus, the economics that permit one country to prey upon another are immoral. He believed that India needs an economic system based on self reliance and self respect and must fulfill certain basic human values. The economic ideas of Mahatma Gandhi aimed at material upliftment and moral elevation of human life both at the national and individual level. Gram Swaraj (Village Republic) : The Concept Gandhi laid emphasis on the fact that India lived in villages and that only through their salvation India would regain her glory and prosperity. His concept of Gram Swaraj or Gram Raj (Village Republic) can be interpreted from his idea of Soul-force. He used to say that Indias soul lives in villages. To Gandhi, villages were the basic units of social organization. The villages should therefore be self-sufficient in the matters of their vital requirements. Gandhiji said that in the villages, the means of production of elementary necessities of life must be available to all as Gods air and water and were not to be a vehicle of traffic for exploitation of others. Gandhi was against the idea of massive and indiscriminate industrialization of the Western variety because that would be harmful to society, as all persons could not be provided with work. He favoured the idea of decentralization of production and nationalization of big industries and factories. He argued for the concept of State ownership of major means of production and wealth. He favoured the idea of autonomous and self-contained villages in which there would be intimate human relationship and self-rule through village Panchayats having executive, legislative and judicial powers. Thus, we may sum up that the structure of Gandhian economy would be labourintensive and not capital intensive. There would be decentralized system of planning

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production and decision-making. The planning model based on Gandhian ideology would be built on the economic principles like non-violent ownership (trusteeship) non-violent production or appropriate, technology, non-possession, (Aparigraph), non-violent work or bread-labour, co-operation, equality, self-reliant village, economy and simplicity and limited wants. This model of Gandhian economy would be founded on a non-violent, nonexploitative and egalitarian social order guided by the fundamental principle of Sarvodaya (Welfare of all). It has been said that Gandhijis philosophy of Swadeshi has ultimately led to the concept of self-reliance as a major objective of Indian planning. And real planning, Gandhi wrote consist of best utilization of the entire manpower of India. Gandhi always stressed on the human factor in economic development. Because, according to Gandhiji the supreme consideration is man. In order to provide full employment opportunities to the people, Gandhiji emphasized on spread and expansion of khadi and village industries network in the country. He said If the government can provide full employment to our people without the help of khadi and village industries, I shall be prepared to wind up my constructive programme in this sphere. Gandhi believed in the body-labour or bread-lobour theory and emphasized that each man should do bodily or physical labour to satisfy his most essential needs. From Ruskins, Unto This Last, Gandhi realised6 that the good of the individual is contained in the good of all. Gandhi pioneered the cause of spinning as the only ready means of driving away penury and making famine of work and wealth impossible. Ideas on Khadi & Village Industries Khadi and village industries, Gandhiji believed symbolized economic independence and equality. He said that khadi and village industries would remove dullness of mind, banish greed and reduce inequality. He laid much emphasis on khadi as providing relief to the poor masses. Spinning and weaving of hand-woven khadi was regarded as techniques not only for obtaining Swaraj or independence from foreign rule but also as a symbol of unity of Indian people and dignity of labour, but also as a link between the masses and the classes, the common citizen and the elitists. Khadi, Gandhi said, included village industries as well. Khadi was considered to be the key to Swaraj, a means of mass education. Gandhi said, Khadi is the central sun around which the other village industries evolve like so many planets. They have no independent existence. Nor khadi will exist without other industries. Gandhi considered khadi as a means of securing even distribution of production and consumption. Wearing of khadi was regarded as the beginning of the Gandhian way of socialization and a measure to end the sense of alienation of the educational elite. Khadi was also a way of discipline and self-sacrifice for each Indian and in the words of Nehru the very livery of Indias freedom. Gandhi believed that the economic and moral regeneration of India lay mainly in the revival of Charkha (Khadi spirit). Village industries along with khadi were considered by Gandhi to ensure selfsufficiency in the village economy. They were regarded as effective means for removal of

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unemployment and under-employment, eradication of rural poverty and creation of a more equal society. The village industries being more labour-intensive, there would be greater opportunities to provide employment to all able and willing people. Gandhi justified that promotion of village industries would eliminate the use of sophisticated machinery and arrest the scope for rapid and indiscriminate industrialization. Gandhi was not against industrialization or use of machines but was opposed to its indiscriminate and large-scale use. He had a Swadeshi mentality and a strong determination to meet all the needs and necessaries of life in the country and within the villages. He said We should not substitute lifeless machines for living machines scattered over the seven lakhs villages in India. The machine is well used if it aids mans labour and simplifies it. Today, it is used to pour wealth in the pockets of the chosen few. Little attention is paid to crores of people from whom the machine snatches away their bread. Gandhi argued that village and small-scale industries will lead to decentralization of production and even distribution of vital necessaries of life. He believed that village and agro-based industries would help maintaining harmony between men and nature and would avert ecological crises. G.D.H. Cole10 observed that Gandhijis campaign for the development of home-made cloth-khadar is no more the fad of a romantic eager, to revive the past, but a practical attempt to relieve the poverty and uplift the standard of villages. In the perspective of fast-moving changes brought out by scientific progress and technological advancements the world over, the Gandhian model of development can not be fully side-trucked as stereotype or static. It still holds considerable relevance in the context of growing economy of under-developed and developing countries. Gandhijis ideal of Gram Swaraj and village economy can be given a fair trial with necessary modifications to suit to the changing times. His deeper concern for man or human factor, development of village economy, self-reliance, appropriate technology and several such ideas needs to be given appropriate thinking in the context of our planning and programmes for development. The appropriateness or relevance of Gandhian economy and development model may be well appreciated from the great Nobel laureate Gunnar Myrdal expressed in Bapus birth centenary year. Often when labouring with Indias staggering development problems, I have felt inclined to believe that what the great country needs today, more than foreign aid and day-to-day adjustment of policies to meet the recurring emergencies, is a spiritual leader of Gandhis is greatness, his love, and fearlessness. Together with the group of patriots who would come to surround such a leader, he mighty electrify the nation to undertake, late, but not too late revolutionary changes in social, economic and political institutions, attitudes and practices which are now so separately needed. Role and Importance of Khadi and Village Industries The role and importance of khadi and village industries ahs been well espoused by Mahatma Gandhi in his ideas and statements expressed in several forums as discussed

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earlier. In recognition of the role and significance of khadi and village industries in the Indian economy, the Constitution of India has incorporated appropriate provisions in the Directive Principles of Sate Policy for promoting this cause by the governments at national and sate level. The importance of khadi and village industries and their role in the economic development of the country has been well emphasized in several industrial Policy Resolutions pronounced by the Union Government from time to time. The Industrial Policy Resolutions of 1948 and more particularly of 1956, 1977 and of 1980 have made categorical assertion on the importance and need for development of khadi and village industries in appropriate scale and manner. Commenting on the role of cottage, village and small scale industries, the industrial Policy Resolution of 1956 stated, they provide immediate large scale employment; they offer a method of ensuring among equitable distribution of the national income and they facilitate and effective mobilization of resources of capital and skill, which might otherwise remain unutilized. Some of the problems that unplanned urbanization tends to create will be avoided by the establishment of small centres of industrial production all over the country. In the context of our national planning, almost all successive Five Year Plans up to the Eighth Plan (1985-90), have emphasized on the important role of village and small industries sector and particularly on khadi and village industries in alleviating rural poverty and in fighting rural unemployment. The First Plan (1950-51) described village industries as a central place in the rural development programme. The Planning Commission while drafting the First Plan laid due emphasis on VSI sector not only out of pure economic considerations but also for its social significance, as it forms an inseparable part of the socio-cultural milieu of the rural society in India. The Third Plan (1961-66) stressed on encouraging the further growth of industries in rural areas and in small towns with the objective of providing opportunities of income and employment in a dispersed manner all over the country. The Sixth Plan (1980-85) also recognized the importance of village and small scale industries and the land document stated that promotion village and small industries will continue to be an important element in the national development strategy. Khadi and village industries have got a distinct role to play and have some distinctive features which require them to be kept at a separate footing different from small scale industries. Village industries have got separate work culture, earnings, tools and technology, inputs and investments which necessitate separate policy support and promotional measures like funding and marketing etc. Although village industries have been kept together with small industries as VSI sector in our Industrial Policy Resolutions and Five Year Plan documents, village industries should be regarded as a separate sector along with khadi on a distinct footing. Subsequently, the Planning Commission has appropriately held, Although khadi and village industries fall in the category of small industries, the benefit meant for small industries do not flow to khadi and village industries. It is a high time to

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small industries instead of grouping them together in one VSI sector and devise measures for support of each of them on different basis providing a weightage in favour of village industries, since what is good for small scale sector is not necessarily so far khadi and village industries sector, especially in areas, where both product similar products that would complete with each other. With adoption of appropriate planning policies and strategies for development, khadi, village and small scale industries have a greater role to play in achieving the national objectives of maximum economic growth together with social justice and equitable distribution of national wealth and income. In a country as big as the dimensions of a sub-continent where 76.6 per cent of the total population live in rural areas and with more than 40% of people living below the poverty line with average per capita agriculture holding being less than 75 decimals, the prospects of a gainful employment to the rural people would continue to be a distant dream unless appropriate strategies of development are adopted and suitable measures undertaken to accelerate economic growth. Rural industrialization may appear as a possible answer to the problem of unemployment and poverty, but indiscriminate industrialization may in its chain bring further hazards of pollution and ecological imbalances. Khadi and village industries not only generate grater employment potential in rural areas but the tools and technology applied in such production activities do not give rise to threats of environmental hazards. In an economy of ours, the importance of khadi and village industries should no more be treated as an ideological obsession or a fad of some few vanishing Gandhians, but as a national imperative with potential to face the challenge of mounting unemployment and appalling poverty. Khadi and Village Industries : Its Relevance The important of khadi and village industries, their role in meeting many of our national issues and in bringing out rural development, and the robust rationale which keeps hem on a distinct and separate footing from other sectors of our developing economy, speak in no uncertain terms about their present relevance. Khadi, cottage and village industries along with handicrafts have been an inescapable pat of our developing economy since several centuries. In spite of awe-inspiring advancements made by man in science and technology space and cybernetics, progress in information technology, and computerization, mens taste and appreciation for things of artistic value and excellence would continue to go unabated. Al our formal mechanisms of planning, methods and strategies for development have emphasized on the relevance of khadi and village industries sector in bringing out rural development and industrializing, the rural economy. Industrial Policy Resolutions of 1948, 1956 of 1977 and of 1980 have in unequivocal terms reiterated the relevance of this sector in the context of our economic growth and social development. In the context of our

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national planning beginning with the First Five Year Plan (1951-56) to Sixth Five year Plan (1985-90), the role and relevance of khadi, village and small industries has been well recognized plan outlays made for their development, although not very adequately. Industrial Policy Resolution in July, 1991, marked a great reversal in important policies and programmes of our government in the context of national planning. The New Economic Policy of liberalization and globalization of Indian economy unleased several changes and challenges to our vast industrial sector hitherto controlled and regulated by policies of protection. Linking up of our domestic economy to the global economy had led to a stiff international competition with increasing demand for quality and excellence in products and services. In spite of these changes and challenges in the context of globalization and economic liberalization, the khadi and village industries sector would continue to keep its relevance and play a significant role as a major provider of opportunities for work and employment to a large number of people in the rural areas of our countries. However, in order to maintain its uniqueness and to sustain itself as an important sector in the first growing Indian economy, khadi and village industries segment must reorient and revitalize its structure with modern tools and techniques, update its processes and technologies and diversify its activities in a greater varieties of products. Appropriate backward and forward linkages should be provided for expanding its scope and ambience for enhanced sale and marketing. References 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. Biswas, S.C. (Ed.)(1990): Gandhi- Theory & Practice-Social Impact & Contemporary Relevance, Indian Institute of Advance Studies, Simla. Gandhi, M.K.: The Harijan, Oct.9, 1937. Gandhi, M.K.: Autobiography (Story of My Experiment with Truth), Navajiban Trust, Ahmedabad. Gandhi, M.K.: Young India, Nov.,3, 1921. Gandhi, M.K.: The Harijan, March 23, 1947. KVIC: Khadi Gramodyog, No.4, January, 1989, Bombay. Planning Commission, Govt. of India: The Second Five Year Plan. Panandikar, P.A. & A.: Rural Industrialization, Oxford & IBH Publishing Co., New Delhi.

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WELCOME NOTE BY DR. DEENABANDHU DAS REGISTRAR, UTKAL UNIVERSITY

At the outset I have the pleasure of welcoming you all to this State level Seminar on Gandhian Philosophy and its Impact on Modern Society in the Direction of International Peace and Universal Brotherhood being organized by the Utkal University at the behest of Higher Education and Culture and I & PR Department, Government of Orissa. This is the first of its kind in Utkal University. We congratulate the Government of Orissa for having bestowed this honourous responsibility on us. We consider ourselves singularly formulate for having in our midst great freedom fighters like Maa Annapurna Moharana and Sri Goparaj Labanam. The entire country is celebrating the 150 years of First War of Indian Independence 1857 and 60th year of India's Independence. As a part of this National celebration , the Government of Orissa is organizing several functions to commemorate these two events. The Government in addition to celebrating the memorable contribution of various revolutionary leaders also thought of holding of a Seminar on Gandhian Philosophy and its Impact on Modern Society in the Direction of International Peace and Universal Brotherhood and choose Utkal University for organizing the same. Our Vice-Chancellor Prof. L.N. Misra, being a teacher of Political Science and Public Administration and a specialist on International Studies has been chosen as the Chief Coordinator. Though it is tempting speak on the theme of the Seminar I shall not intrude upon the responsibility of others. However to set the tone of the Seminar I may be allowed to add few words. Many thought that Gandhis influence both during era of freedom struggle and post Independent India has been over estimated and even at the cost of side lining contribution of others. Half a century and a decade has passed since India's freedom and Gandhi's death. Automatically with the passage of time Gandhi's place in India's freedom struggle has ceased to be a matter of great debate. Yet Gandhi refuse to die out from our mind. For Gandhi is more than his contemporary times for his ideas, ideals and practices have found a new lease of life in contemporary world. At times his philosophy seems more relevant presently than in his own times. Gandhi can be innovatively reinvented to meet the challenges of contemporary world. Einstein once felt that the future would not believe that a man like Gandhi ever lived with flesh and blood and walked. Probably such fear has been disproved. The young India today does not reject the whole of Gandhi. And in fact finds truth in his own way the relevance of Gandhian methods of reconciliation, arbitration and carrying forward the essential truth. Gandhi is being humanized more and more and the essence is now being separated from his fads. There is a need for de-romanticizing Gandhi and making him more accessible. I shall not ponder more about these thing. On this memorable occasionUtkal University has organized several talks. These include the deliberation of Sri Goparaj Labanam, Maa Annapurna Moharana, Prof. S.N. Rath, Prof. K.M. Patra and Mr. Berkana from the US Consulate, Kolkata. Several papers are going to be presented in this Seminar by distinguished faculty members of the Universities of Orissa and other colleges. DDCE, Utkal University on this occasion is releasing a special issue at "SEARCH", their journal of Arts, Humanities and Management, devoted to Gandhi. Numerous articles of great value and quality find place in the journal. I once again welcome Sri R.B. Nayak, Commissioner-com-Secretary, Department of Higher Education, Sri Labanam, Smt. Moharana, Prof. S.N. Rath, Prof. K.M. Patra and all other dignitaries and participants to this one day Seminar. I look forward along with all of you to a successful academic and cerebral experience. I welcome you all and thank all for a patient hearing. Jai Hind Deenabandhu Das

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GANDHISM AND UNIVERSAL PEACE

B.K. Mahakul*

Abstract
Mahatma Gandhi is recognised as the preeminent theorist of non-violent, Civil disobedience, the leader of Indias Independence Movement, and an architect of Modern Indian Self-identity (Nehru, 1946:36). Throughout his life, he seeks a non-violent, peaceful world, a stable and corporative society and a coherent, spiritual life based on mutual respect and assistance. He sees these goals as desirable but difficult to get in the modern world. He argues that struggle and resistance are requirements for a self-governing life and the individual in ultimately the pivot on which the entire edifice of Gandhis thought revolves. Hence it is imperative to analyse his vision of man and his roles in the society and the polity, because Gandhis vision of man is the vision of Satyagrahi. While insisting on the adoption of moral means for realization of the ultimate end of life, Gandhi requires the Satyagrahi at the first instance to purify himself. Self-purification according to him, demands strict observance of and adherence to five moral vows such as Satya (Truth), Ahimsa (Non-violence), Asteya (Non-stealing), Aparigraha (Non-possession), and Brahmacharya (Celibacy) by the Satyagrahi throughout his life. Then vows constitute a moral discipline absolutely necessary for the Satyagrahis self-purification leading to selfrealization.* Practicing the ethical discipline to the best of his ability, the individual is required to play his roles as a Satyagrahi for the realization of the goal of truth and Justice n the society and the polity. He is to live the life renunciation and sacrifice but not of inertia; he is to dedicate his life for the service of all with love and with a sacrificial spirit. He is also to denote himself to the cause of social reconstruction for the establishment a just social order, and to undertake activities non-violently for realizing it. Such an endeavour for transformation of social relationships in conformity with injustice, what Gandhi terms as politics, is to be considered by the individual as a religious or dharma is based on justice, and makes the individual conscious of the spiritual unity of all human beings and their dignity and equality. As true religion does not permit toleration of exploitation and injustice on social relationship but encourages to fight against them non-violently, and to strive for the establishment of justice and harmony among human beings in the society, Gandhi emphasizes that every truly religious man must be active in politics and every political actor must become genuinely imbued with ethical and spiritual values of the true religion. This spiritualization of politics and of the political man is, indeed, a novel contribution Gandhi to mankind as it tends to provide an effective panacea for eliminating and eradicating the ills and evils of corruption violence, crime, conflict and disharmony that afflict contemporary societies and politics throughout the world.
* Lecturer, Department of Political Science & Public Administration, Sambalpur University, Jyoti Viahr: 768019 (Orissa).

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Gandhi and Universal Humanism

Johani Xaxa *
Abstract Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi, the father of nation was not only a great political leader but also a radical social reformer. It was under his towering leadership that India achieved her independence from the mighty British Rule and that too, by the successful use of and adherence to the technique of Ahimsa and Satyagraha. He had attached immense significance to these values, for which he stood for his whole life and for which he also scarified his life. He is physically no more in the world but his teachings and principles of life, still have relevance in socio-economic, and political life of the Indians and also that of the world. The contemporary society is a fragmented society, a society with an absence of a basic consensus. In such a society it requires reform the mind of individuals. Gandhi believed that the end of the life of the individual is God-realization. As for him God is Truth and Truth is God. The individual ought to strive for realization of Truth and Justice. The ultimate end ought to be realized by the individual not merely in his own life but he also ought to work for its realization in the life of his fellow human beings in the society. While insisting on the adoption of moral means for realization of the ultimate end of life, Gandhi requires the individual at the first instance, to purify himself. Self-purification according to him demand strict observance of and adherence to five moral vows such as Satya (Truth), Ahimsa (Non-violence, Brahmacharya (celibacy), Asteya (Non-stealing) and Aparigrah (Non-possession) by the individual throughout his life, which would lead, according to him, a disciplined moral life, purify his soul to realize his ultimate goal. For Gandhi, the basic structure of human society is cofederal; the larger society is union of smaller communities, consisting of oppressor and oppressed. According to Gandhi, Satyagraha is a form of struggle against injustice and oppression. For Gandhi, human society is its ideal form is the coming together of individual consciences that is mutual toleration. The individual's performance of role in the society, Gandhi believes is greatly influenced by the education he received during the formative years of his life. He, therefore prescribed for a scheme of education known as the Nayi Talim in which every child ought to be educated and trained for the realization of his ethical goal in life and also the goal of a just social order. In the economic sphere, the role of the individual, Gandhi believes, is determined by the values of Aparigrapha and Asteya. In practicing these values he should not acquire and possess those maternal things, which he does not need for the sustenance of his life, otherwise, it would distract him from his spiritual quest for truth and involve him in violence and exploitation. The earning beyond the minimum requirement should be used for the good of community. For the possessions beyond the minimum requirement Gandhi prescribe the *Reader, Post Graduate Department of Political Science and Public Administration, Sambalpur University Orissa.

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institution of Trusteeship, where the individuals has equal right over the property, as even a labourer has to behave like a trustee in providing his skill. Gandhi had rejected both industrialization and the western way of life. Rather he advocated cottage industry. It is a means not only of achieving self-sufficiency but also of generating large-scale employment in the country. He pleads for localization of production and consumption, which is contrary to globalisation of twenty first century. In fact, Gandhis idea of production is very much rooted in his philosophy of village economy. Gandhiji was deeply religious but had respect for the religious sentiments of the followers of other faiths. His nationalism was based on a secular ideology, which he defined as Servadharma Sambhav, equal respect for all faith. He understood the fact that religion is binding foce which all for peace and brotherhood amongst men. In the political sphere, Gandhi had advocated for the establishment of a just socio-political order. As justice in the Gandhian scene, is the synthesis of the eternal values of Non-violence, Freedom and Equity Gandhi lays down its framework in Hind Swaraj and calls it as 'Ram Raj' means 'Divine Rule', a state-less republic. Gandhiji used to regard every village as a 'republic within the republic'. Gandhi thus lays down the framework of Decentralized Republic Federal Government. For Gandhi, non-violence is the means to achieve the end, that is Truth., while, 'Satyagraha' as a method of non-violence direct against injustice. Satyagrahi is characterized by non-violence coupled with fearlessness, and is undertaken not against evil-doer but against his principles policies and actions for which he is responsible and in the process must be ready for self-suffering to removing injustice. Thus, Gandhian values in the society and in the polity reconciles the goal of spiritual Development of the individual with the obligations of social and political life. It, therefore, seems to be most relevant and essential for the construction and establishment of a just political society by awakening the individuals and making them conscious of their true-self and humanizing and socializing them in spiritual and ethical values as prescribed by Gandhi.

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GANDHIAN PHILOSOPHY AND ITS IMPACT ON MODERN SOCIETY IN THE DIRECTION OF INTERNATIONAL PEACE AND UNIVERSAL BROTHERHOOD.
Dalee Sethy*

ABSTRACT
Gandhian Philosophy is formally described as the Phillosophy of Neither.....Nor as distinguished from the Philosophy of Either .... Or. The latter smacks duality, division, exclusion and opposition. But the Philosophy Neither....Nor, is a proposal for excluding all exclusion, i.e. airing at in all inclusive all (whole). It aims at good of all, happiness af all, and the well being of all. As often it has been called Sarvodaya. Nothing is genuine unless it tends to establish universal goodness. In every field of human concern this exclusion of all exclusions or segregation, must be brought to real practise, if at all the world is to saved from ruins. Gandhiji fought against all forms of apartheid laws as immoral, unjust, and definitely unspiritual. Segregation in one form or other is basically wrong. It is untruth, which must be corrected by the balanced judgment of a Satyagrahi. A satyagrahi is he, who holds steadfastly to the truth of essential unity of all beings, no animal and plants in exclusion. All the Gandhian principle can be logically drawn from this doctrine of the essential unity of all beings. This basic outlook on life and the world is at the root of Gandhian thought. The foundational insight is supplied by the Upanishads, where identity of Self of all beings is declared to be the central theme. The Upanishads declares, he who perceives all beings as his self, how can be hate(segregates) any body? Gandhiji found this insight basic to all religions. He pronounced in unmistakable terms that all religions are dear to him as his own religion i.e. Hinduism. Respect for all religion is the basic note Gandhian out look. But he very much wished for their reform in the light of this central insight. The political , social and economic ideal of Gandhiji was founded on this basic insight of unity, equality, and the spiritual identity of all beings. Gandhiji gathered from the Upanishada that where there is division, segregation there is the cause of conflict. No peace is possible in a world divided on ideological grounds. All separation, segregration, is due to ignorance. One must try to remove this ignorance by selfeducation if one wants to reap the golden harvest of lasting peace within and without. The concept of world citizenship, the world community, the world Government and globalize economic order is what Gandhiji tried to establish in a world torn by strife and dissension. Gandhiji emphasis to avoid violence at every step to establish amity, is progressively paving the path for the global understanding and global concern on this planet; the earth. *Lecturer (SS) In Geography, Ravenshaw University, Cuttack.

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DIRECTORATE OF DISTANCE & CONTINUING EDUCATION

UTKAL UNIVERSITY
D.D.C.E. EDUCATION FOR ALL

VANI VIHAR , BHUBANESWAR-751007.

ONE YEAR P.G. DIPLOMA IN BANKING & INSURANCE MANAGEMENT

REGULAR COURSE UNDER CONTINUING MODE
DDCE, UTKAL UNIVERSITY & ICICI BANK INDUSTRY- ACADEMIA PARTNERSHIP

Eligibility

: Any Graduate

No. of Seats : 60 (Usual reservation policy of Utkal University applicable). Selection : Candidates would be selected through Entrance Test / Group Discussion / Personal Interview.

LOOK FOR ADMISSION NOTICE IN MAY 2008 VISIT OUR website:www.ddceutkal.org for further details. Sd/DIRECTOR

UTKAL UNIVERSITY IS NAAC ACCREDITED . B++ Grade with more than 80% score.

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Advt.No.-Adm-

STATE LEVEL SEMINAR ON

"Gandhian Philosophy and its impact on Modern Society in the Direction of International Peace and Universal Brotherhood" 20 January, 2008. Organized By UTKAL UNIVERSITY, VANI VIHAR, BHUBANESWAR ON BEHALF OF THE GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA In commemoration of 150 years of First War of Independence 1857 and 60 years of Independence.

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From the Vice-Chancellor's Desk

Prof. L.N. Misra, Ph.D.(JNU) Vice-Chancellor
Gandhi belonged to mankind and not to India alone. Gandhi had honed the skill of achieving universal brotherhood and peace. He symbolizes the flowering of the seeds that were laid by men like Buddha and Jesus. He reflected the best of religion for coming centuries, Gandhi would continue to symbolize a new political weapon, Satyagraha-non-violent resistance, which can affect social change for which no war is necessary. Many can hold that non-violence is only half of the truth. Yet this half is more useful to make oppression uneasy and to allow the conscience to come to forefront and prevail. His quest for peace was not that of an ascetic but of a man of the world. Concerns for conflict resolution , the globalized economy and the need for democratization of quality life places Gandhi in a unique position. It is in fitness that we would be thinking aloud on Gandhi, his ideal, practices and legacy. The Government of Orissa is commemorating 150th anniversary of the First War of Independence 1857 and 60th year of Independence. On behalf of the Department of Higher Education, Government of Orissa, Utkal University is organizing a Seminar on "Gandhian Philosophy and its Impact on Modern Society in the Direction of International Peace and Universal Brotherhood", on 20th January, 2008. Utkal University deems it a honour to host the one day Seminar on behalf of the Govt. of Orissa. Notwithstanding the time constraint my colleagues in the Utkal University have succeeded in meeting the challenge. We have honoured guests including Sri Goparaj Labanam, a noted freedom fighter from Andhra Pradesh and an erudite Gandhian scholar and Smt. Annapurna Moharana, noted freedom fighter and social activist of Orissa besides others. As many as twenty research papers of prime interest are being presented in this state level Seminar. Few papers from outside the state of Orissa are also being presented. The first Academic Session is devoted to Gandhi : International Peace & Universal Brotherhood. The Second Academic Session is devoted to Gandhi : Education, Literature, Management, Economy, Political Thought and other issues. As many as eighteen full papers have been published by DDCE, Utkal University in a special issue of "SEARCH ", a journal of arts , humanities and management, on this occasion. A supplement consisting of three additional abstracts are also being published. I am confident that the Seminar would leave its impact in the academia. I place on record our sense of appreciation for the support from Government of Orissa.

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( L.N. Misra )

PROGRAM
10.00 A.M. Inaugural Function Guests: Sri Goparaj Labanam, Noted freedom fighter from Andhra Pradesh Smt. Annapurna Maharana, Noted freedom fighter from Orissa Sri R.B. Nayak, IAS, Com.-cum-Secy., Deptt. of Higher Education Prof. L.N. Misra, Vice-Chancellor, Utkal University

Chairman:

11.30 A.M.

First Academic Session Theme: Gandhi:International Peace & Brotherhood Chairman: Prof. Benudhar Pradhan Co-ordinator:Prof. Brahmananda Satapathy

1.00-2.00 P.M.LUNCH BREAK 2.00 P.M. Second Academic Session Theme: Chairman: Gandhi: Education, Literature, Management, Economy & Other Issues. Prof. K.M. Patra Co-ordinators: Prof. S. Pradhan & Prof. S.P. Pani

3.30 P.M.

Valedictory Function Guests: Mr. Moulik D. Berkana, Deputy Director, American Centre, Kolkata Sri.G.Mohanty,IAS,Com.-cum-Secy.,Deptt.Of I&PR and Culture Prof. P.K. Sahoo, Chairman, P.G. Council, Utkal University

Chairman:

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HONOURED GUESTS Sri Goparaj Labanam Noted Freedom Fighter from Andhra Pradesh

ORGANISING COMMITTEE

Prof. L.N. Misra, Chairman Vice-Chancellor Prof. P.K. Sahoo, Chief Host Chairman, P.G. Council Dr. D. Das , OAS(S) Smt. Annapurna Maharana Registrar Noted Freedom Fighter from Orissa Sri H.K. Panda, OFS(S) Comptroller of Finance Prof. R.C. Mohapatra Mr. Moulik D. Berkana Warden, P.G. Hostels Deputy Director, American Centre, Kolkata Prof. B. Satapathy, Academic Co-ordinator Director, Students Welare Prof. D.N. Jena Sri R.B. Nayak, IAS Advisor, Students' Union Comissioner-Cum-Secretary, Deptt. Of Prof. S. Pradhan Higher Education, Govt. of Orissa HOD, Deptt. Of AIHC&A Prof. A.K. Patnaik HOD. Deptt. Of History Sri Gopinath Mohanty, IAS Commissioner-Cum-Secretary, Deptt. Of Prof. A. Misra HOD, Deptt. Of Pol.Sc. I&PR and Culture, Govt. of Orissa Dr. B. Padhi Development Officer Prof. H.K. Patra Prof. Benudhar Pradhan Director, CDC Noted Gandhian Scholar Sri S. Panda Dy. Registrar(Gl.) Sri P.C. Rath A.O., PG Central Office Prof. K.M. Patra Prof. S.P. Pani, Organising Secretary Noted Historian Director, DDCE

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