6.

Writing your research proposal and Your Final Research

6.1

Purposes of Research Proposal

To organize our ideas. It will help us in organizing our ideas

in a coherent manner.

To convince other people, like other researchers, research

funding agencies, educational institutions, and supervisors that your

research is worth spending scarce resources on.

Your convince

people of the value of your work by showing them how your research
will make a difference to the world or by identifying a dilemma in
existing theory which your research will help resolve.

To demonstrate expertise in a particular area of study. You

want to convince people that you have enough understanding of the

research topic to be able to do the research properly. You do this by
intelligently summarizing, comparing and integrating all the relevant
theory and existing research pertaining to your topic.

To demonstrate competency in a particular area of study. It

is also vital that you proposal convinces the reader that you have all
the necessary skill to carry out the proposed study. You do this by
describing n appropriate and feasible research method.

To serve as a contract.

Research often involves contracts

between different individuals or groups or people.

The proposal

states clearly what each party is expected to bring.

To serve as a planning tool.

Many research projects fail

because they are not properly planned. Even when badly planned
research does eventually reach its conclusion, it is typically very
stressful to the researcher. When a clear plan of action is in place
from the beginning the research is much more likely to proceed
smoothly and to be successful.

6.2

Planning The Actual Research

6.2.1

1)

The contents of The Research Proposal

Title: This title may be your first attempt and you may change

the title as your work progresses.

The title should closely

mirror/reflect the content of your proposal.

2)

Background/ introduction: you will show that the research you

intend to do worth the effort. You may start from general to specific
by referring to the literature. You may express the research problem
that needs solving.

3)

Research question/ problem:

The background should lead

smoothly to the research problem and objectives. You should have

one research problem.

And you must be careful to write the

research objectives precisely and can be observed.

Before our

proposal can make sense to a reader, he or she must understand

clearly what the proposed research will be about. Therefore, you
would do well to being this section with a clear and simple
formulation of your research question.
4)

Hypothesis: You may identify it in a question form, a

correlation, and they come in two main forms the null and the
alternative hypothesis.
5)

Method: You will mention how you will perform your research.

It includes two elements the research design in which you identify

research sample, population, and the data collection which consist of
primary data, secondary data.
6)

Literature review: The literature review presents one of the

greatest challenges of the research proposal to experienced and

inexperienced researchers alike.

The literature review provides a

conceptual framework for the reader so that the research question

and methodology can be better understood. And demonstrates to
the expert reader that the researcher is aware of the breadth and
diversity of literature that relates to the research question.

7)

Research Structure: this includes the structure of the

research and the research body, by identifying the chapters that will
be included and the sections in each chapter.
8)

Reference: the references with different types, in other words

the research bibliography are identified.

6.3

Writing your Final Research

Writing the final research consists of some rules and

methods.

We will focus on the rules related to quotations and how to

reference in the footnotes of a research.

We will also talk about some methods of documenting the

research bibliography.

6.4

Quotation: Rules and Methods

Writing proposals, researches and any scientific plan requires

the researcher to check and collect the related information from

different secondary and primary resources.

When the researcher collects the relative information from

the secondary resources such as book, articles, or even from

interviews, he is required to document the quoted information from a
specific resource, this is the meaning of documentation.

In this section, we are going to talk about quotation, the

process of documenting and quoting information included in the

research to avoid plagiarism and to identify the meanings of the
research problem from a theoretical perspective.

6.4.1

We have some rules and methods used in this context.

Direct Quotation
One of the two main types of quotation is the direct

quotation.

Using direct quotation, the research extract the needed text

from the original reference, and paste it typically as it's included in

the original reference.

We have two formulas of the direct quotation, the first one is

a direct quotation with less than four lines, and the direct quotation
of more than four lines.

The process is simply done by extracting the quoted text and

link it with the text with double quotations " ", and with the page
number in the original reference which includes the quoted text.

For example, we need to include in our research a quoted

text from a specific book, we simply do the following:

An

author

called

John

Smith

defines

the

strategic

management in his book that it is the managerial concept which

looks to the organization a comprehensive look to enhance the
competitive advantage.

This exact text is needed to be quoted and included in the

research body and it's found in page number 131 in the original text.

The direct quotation will take the following formula.

Johan Smit, in his book titled strategic management defines

the strategic management as "the managerial concept which looksto

the organization a comprehensive look to enhance the competitive
advantage" (1995, P 131).

The direct quotation with more than four lines as mentioned

is the other formula of the direct quotation.

Here we need to

distinguish that the quoted material is not produced by the

researcher and to do that, we will separate the quoted material from
the body and put it between double quotations " " in the middle of
the page.

For example

"The mysterious and hateful power carried by the glance of a certain

persons. The evil eye implies that things or persons on holds dear
are continually vulnerable to damage or destruction caused by other
peoples envy projected through their eyes. The processor of an evil
eye usually has no control over his unconscious wishes and their
working" (Abuznaid, 1995, p 47)

Quotation could be discrete, by typing the original text and

deleting or omitting the not needed phrases which if omitted will not
affect the general meaning of the paragraph.

If the material to be omitted does not needed phrases which

if omitted will not affect the general meaning of the paragraph.

If the material to be omitted does not exceed two lines we put

three dots ().

For example:
"
...
....
.(135 1994 " )

6.4.2

Indirect Quotation

The researcher quotes the idea but not the exact text.

He uses his own explanation, his own word and his own

language.

The quoted material is not put between double quotations.

And it's not needed to mention the page number, although it's
recommended.

6.5

Footnotes

Using footnotes is common in the scientific researches1.

When do we use footnotes, the answer is summarized in the

following points.
1)

To mention a reference that the research quoted an original

text from it, n this case the researcher puts the full information
about the reference such as author's name, book title, publisher,
publishing area, year, edition number and page number.

2)

To clarify an idea, phrase or terminology identified in the

research body, but for more explanation, the researcher talks much
about the idea in the footnote to avoid confusing the reader. For
example, it's needed to identify a phrase included in research body
such as reengineering2. The researcher will talk more about it in
the footnote.
3)

Used for thanking people who have helped the researcher in

the research?
1

This is what do we mean by footnotes.

Reengineering: Radoca; Redesign for the organization business process using information technology
as the key resources for achieving the standard operating procedures.
2

4)

To direct the reader for more reference to increase his

knowledge in a specific area.

6.6

Research Bibliography
Different methods and rules are to be used when referencing the

used secondary data or primary data resources. We will talk about these
rules.
1)

Referencing a book: when you need to reference a book, use

the following steps

Write the author first name and family name, you can start

with either the first name or the family name, both are true but
you should use one standard in referencing your data sources.

Write the book title with italic, bold or underlined font.

Write the edition number.

Write the publisher name and area, and the publishing year.

If the publishing year is not found write n.d which means no

date.

For example:

Hall, D. and Raffo, C., Business Studies.

Lancs: causeway

Press Ltd., 1997, P. 505.

If the book itself is repeated and used as a reference two

times or more, we need to reference the second time but this is

done simply by writing (Ibid, P) which means that the reference is
mentioned with full details and it's used frequently with different
page number.

For example

Hall, D. and Raffo, C., Business Studies.

Lancs: Causeway

Press Ltd., 1997, P. 505.

Ibid, P. 250.
.

15 1998 :

If the reference book is used twice or more but not frequently,

or in other words you have used it, then you used another book
and at the third time you used it again. You should write the
Authors name then Op. City.

For example

Hall and Raffo, Op. City, P230.

21

If the authors for a book are two or three we us the following

rules:

Two

Authors:

David,

fred

and

Scot,

James,

Strategic

Management: Concepts & Cases, 7th Edition, New Jersey: Prentice

Hall, 1999.

Three Authors: David, Fred, Scot, James and Smith, John,

Strategic management: Concepts & Cases, 7th Edition, New

Jersey: Prentice Hall, 1999.
:

1997

If the authors are more than three we use the first authors

name and put (and others) or (et. al.)

From example: Hannagan, Tim, et al., Management Concepts

and Practices, London, Publishing, 1998.

.( )

.2000
:

" "

: ( )120 1998 1 6
.1995
2)

Referencing a dissertation

Masri, Asied (Project Management in Palestine) (Master

Thesis), University of Cambridge, UK, 2001, P 120.

3)

Referencing an article

Lesch, ann, Gaza: Forgotten Corner of Palesrine, Journal of

Palestine Studies, Vol. (57), No. (1) 1990, P.35

4)

Referencing interviews

Write (interview with ), interviewee name/

Interview jobs title

The place of the interview

The date of the interview

For example: interview with masri, Saied, Pepsi General

Manager, Gaza, Palestine National Authority, Dec,15th, 2002.

5)

Referencing internet publishing

If the references an article from the internet, but the same

electronic article is also printed out and found in a library, we use

the same method of documenting plush adding the phrase
)(Electronic Version
For example, Stoney, Chrostopher Strategic Management or

Strategic Taylarism? A case study into change within UKK local

authority (Electronic Version), the International Journal of Public
Sector Management, Volume 14, November 1,2001, P 30.

s only electronic and its not printed out in If the reference

libraries, we do the following:

Stoney, Chrstopher Strategic Management or Strategic

Taylarism? A case study into change within UKK local authority

(Electronic Version), the International Journal of Public Sector
Management, Volume 14, November 1,2001, P 30., Retrieved

http://www.emerlad.library.com

December, 5, 2002 from

Appendix
-1

-:
-1:

-1

: .1998

-2

.1995

-3

.1990

-4

: .1994

-2:
" "

-1

3.2003

-2

" " :

.2003
-3

-1

.11/11/2007

-2

.14/11/2007

-3

.14/11/2007

-4
.20/11/2007

-:

-2

A. Books:

1- Buckley waiter, Modern System Research for the behavioral Scientist, 2nd
Edition, Chicago: Aldine publishing co., USA, 1968.

2- James A.Senn, Information Technology in Business, 2nd Edition, New Jersey:

Prentice Hall, USA, 1998.

3- Kenneth C.Laudon & Jane P.Laudon, Management Information Systems, 4th

Edition, Prentice Hall-Inc., USA, 1996.

4- Mockler Robert J., Information Systems for Management, 1st Edition, Ohio
Bell and howell, USA, 1974.

5- Mudric Robert G., and Ross Joel E., Information Systems for Modern
Manangement, 2nd Edition, New Jersey: Prentice Hall Inc., USA, 1976.

6- Peter Artill & Eddie Mclaney, Management Accounting: An Active Learning

Approach, 2nd Edition, Blackwell Publisher, USA, 1998.

7- Ralph M.Stair & Goerge W. Reynolds, Principles of Information Systems, 6th

Edition, New York, USA, 2003.

8- Steven Alter, Information Systems- A management perspective, 2nd Edition,

California: Benjamin Cummings Co. Inc., USA, 1996.

9- Thomas G. Cummings & Chistopher G. Worley, Organizational Development

and Change, 5th Edition, West Publishing Company, USA, 1993.

B. Articles:

1- Mo Adam Mohamood, "Measuring the organizational impact of information

technology investment: an exploratory study", Journal of Management
Information Systems, Vol.10, Issue 1, 1993.

2- Paul Strassman, "Does Information Technology provides banks with profit",

Information and Management, vol. 42, Issue 5, 2005.

Exercise No. 2:

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9.

Analyzing Data Using SPSS

9.1

What is Statistics

Statistics is the science of gaining information from numerical data.

Statistics provides tools and ideas from using data to gain

understanding of some other subject.

The practice of statistics: We can divide the practice of statistic into

two parts:

Descriptive Statistics

Statistical inference (or Inferential Statistics)

Descriptive Statistics: concerns methods and ideas from organizing

and describing data using graphs, numerical summaries and more elaborate
mathematical descriptions.

Statistical inference moves beyond the data in hand to draw

conclusions about some wider universe.

Statistical inference not only draws conclusions, but accompanies

those conclusions with a statement about how trustworthy they are.

9.1.1 Different Definitions

Variable: Any characteristic of an individual. A variable can take on
different values for different individuals.
Statistics: is a descriptive measurement about a sample.
Parameter: is a descriptive measurement about population.
Qualitative (Categorical/Nominal) Variable: Places an individual into
one or several categories.

Quantitative (Numerical) Variable: Takes numerical values for which

arithmetic operations make sense.

9.1.2 Types of Data:

Interval: Values are real numbers and all calculations are valid
Ordinal: Values must represent the ranked order of the data,
Calculations based on an ordering process are valid.
Nominal Values: are the arbitrary numbers that represent categories
and only calculations based on the frequencies of occurrence are
valid.

9.2

Numerical Descriptive Techniques

Measures of Central Tendency (Mean and Median)

How to find the mean (Average):

Add the values together.

Divide the total by the number of observation

Example: Test Scores

56, 65, 54, 55, 57, 54, 61, 62, 60, 55, 57, 56, 57, 61, 62, 60, 49, 66,

59, 80

Step 1: 56 + 65 + 54 + + 59+ 80 = 1186

Step 2: 1186/ 20 = 59.3

How to find the median:

How to find the median M:

Arrange the observations in order from smallest to largest.
If the number of observations is odd, them the median is
located at the center of the list. So, if there are n observations,
then the median is located in spot 9n + 1) / 2
If the number of observations is even, then the median is the
average of the two terms in the middle spots. These are
located in spots (n / 2) and (n / 2 ) + 1
The sample and population medians are computed in the same
way.

Measures of Linear Relationship:

 If we are doing a study which involves more than one variable,

how can we tell if there is a relationship between two (or more)
of the variables?
Dependent (Response0 Variable: A dependent variable
measures an outcome of a study.
Independence (Explanatory) Variable: An independent variable
explains or causes changes in the response variable.
Three types of Correlations:
Pearson Correlation coefficient: For numerical data that is
normally distributed.
Spearman Correlation coefficient: For numerical data that
is not normally distributed. For ordinal data.
Chi Square test of independence: At least one is nominal
data and the other is either Ordinal data or Numerical
data is coded as categorical data.

9.3

Statistical Inferences
Statistical inference involves using data collected in a sample make

statements (inferences) about unknown population parameters.

Two types of statistical inference are:

Estimation of parameters (Point and Confidence estimation).

Statistical tests about parameters (Testing Hypothesis)

9.3.1 Tests of Significance
There are two common types of formal statistical inference:
Confidence intervals

Confidence Intervals: They are appropriate when our goal is

to estimate a population parameter.

Hypothesis Testing: To assess the evidence provided by the

data in favor of some claim about the population.

9.3.2 Hypothesis and Decisions

The null hypothesis, denoted by H0, is a conjecture about a

population parameter that is presumed to be true.

It is usually a statement of no effect or no change.

Example: The population is all students taking the SAT text. The

parameter of interest is the mean math SAT score. ( = mean math SAT
score) Suppose we believe that the mean math SAT score is 420. Them H0:

= 420

The alternative (or research) hypothesis, denoted by Ha, or H1, is a

conjecture about a population parameter that the researcher suspects or

hopes is true.

Example: A new course has been developed which will hopefully

improve students scores on the math SAT. We want to test or see if there is
an improvement. Then Ha:

> 420

The null hypothesis H0 will always contain an equality statement (an equal
to sign: =). When we carry out the test we assume that the null hypothesis
is true, and we want our data to provide sufficient evidence against the null
hypothesis so that we can reject the null hypothesis in favor of the research
hypothesis.

The research hypothesis Ha will contain either a greater than sign, a

less than sign, or a not equal to sign. Greater than : > results if the problem
says increases, improves, better, result is higher, etc. Less than :< results if
the problem says decreases, reduces, worse than, result is lower, etc. Not
equal to : results if the problem says different from , no longer the same,
changes, etc.

When we carry out the test we assume the null hypothesis is true.

Hence the test will result in one of two decisions.

Reject H0: Hence we have sufficient evidence to conclude that the

alternative hypothesis is true. Such a test is said to be significant.

Fail to reject H0: Hence we do not have sufficient evidence to

conclude that the alternative hypothesis is true. Such a test is said to be

insignificant.

Once the p-value is calculated, it is used to make the decision to

reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis. We sometime take one final step
to assess he evidence against H0. We compare the P-value with a fixed
value, called the significance level (a). Typical value of a used is 0.05 and
0.01. If we choose a = 0.05, we are requiring that the data give evidence
against H0 so strong that it would happen only 5% of the time if H0 is in fact
true.

The decision to reject or fail to reject the null hypothesis is based on

the p-value of the test.

Situation 1: If significance level a is specified, we make a decision

about the significance of the test by comparing the p-value directly to a. If

p-value < a, then we reject H0 and hence can conclude that there is
sufficient evidence in favor of the alternative hypothesis. If p-value > a,
then we fail to reject H0 and hence can conclude that there is not sufficient
evidence in favor of the alternative hypothesis. Small p-values favor the
alternative hypothesis.

If P-value is as small as or smaller then a, we say that data are

statistically significant at level a. That is, we reject H0 at significance level a

if the P-value is smaller than a. Statistically significant at the a = 0.05
means that if H0 is true, we have observed outcomes that occur less than
5% of the time.

General Testing Procedure

1)

State the null and alternative hypothesis.

2)

Carry out experiment, collect the data,

3)

Verify the assumptions, and computer the value of the test.

4)

Calculate the p-value.

5)

Make a decision on the significance of the test, reject or fail to

reject.
6)

Make a conclusion statement in the words of the original

Problem.

9.4

Parametric Tests
To know whether the suitable tool to test your data belongs to the

normal distribution or not you should use the Test of Normality.

Test of Normality has the null hypothesis which states that the

distribution is normal, and has the alternative hypothesis which states that
the distribution is not normal.

Using SPSS go to analyze Menu, Descriptive Statistics and choose

Explore then normality.

The name of normality test is Kolmogrov-Smirnov.

The default value to compare with is alpha = 0.05, if the sig. value is

less than 0.05 them we can reject the H0 and conclude that the distribution
is nor normal.

9.4.1 One-Sample T-Test

Used if the distribution is normal.

We look to the sig. value in the SPSS output of the T-Test.

If the sig. value is less than 0.05 them we reject H0 and Prove H1.

One Sample T-Test used to compare means of a specific sample.

Example: The average retail price for bananas in 1998 was 51cent

per pound, as reported by the US Department of Agriculture in Food cost

Review. Recently, a random sample of 15 markets gave the following price
for bananas in cents per pound: 55, 53, 55, 53, 50, 57, 58, 54, 48, 47, 57,
57, 51, 55, 50. at level 0.05 can you conclude that the current mean retail
price for bananas is different from the 1998 means of 51 cents per pound?

All we need is to insert the given incomes with SPSS and then choose

from the Analyze menu Compare Means One Sample T-Test, and
insert the test value as 51.

In the example H0: Mean = 51 and is not different But H1: the

mean is different from 51 in 1998.

The output could be the as follows:

Look at the table, the sig. value is .021 and this value is less than .05

which means that we reject H0 and Prove H1.

We conclude that the current mean retail price for bananas is

different from 51 in 1998 and it's equal to 53.4.

9.4.2 Matched Pairs T-Test

With matched-sample design, each sampled item provides a pair of

data values.

To compare the responses to the treatments in a matched pair

design.

Example: the following data belong to 20 persons who are chosen to

test a diet system on them, the data shows their weights before using the

diet system and after the using of the diet system. Can you conclude that
the diet system was efficient to reduce their weights at level 0.05?

The solve this problem, we note that this is a paired sample because

each case has two values, or each person has a value of his/her weight
before using the diet and another weight after the diet system.

Using SPSS, go to Analyze menu Compare Means Paired-Sample

T-Test.

H0: There is no difference before and after using the diet system.

H1: There is a difference before and after using the diet system.

We note sig. value = .000 and it's less than .05 so we reject H0 and

Prove h1 which proves that there is a difference before using the diet
and after using the diet. So the diet system was efficient.

9.4.3 Independent Sample T-Test

Now suppose we have two independent populations, and of interest

is to make statistical inferences about the difference between the two

population means: m1-m2.

Suppose one population consists of all male students, and the

second population consists of all female students.

We could be interested in making inferences about the difference

between the mean of IQ of male students and the mean IQ female students.

To apply this test using SPSS, we fill the data of the both

independent population; say the males and females population samples.

Then we apply the compare means independent sample T-Test tool from
Analyze menu.

The result will be an independent sample T-Test Table.

Exercise: Recently, a local newspaper reported that part time

students are older then full time students. In order to test the validity of its
statement, two independent samples of students were selected. The
following shows the age of the students in the two samples. Using the
following data, test to determine whether or not the average age of part
time students is significantly more than full time students. Use an Alpha of
0.05. Assume the populations are normally distributed and have equal
variances. Part time: 21 71 25 19 20 18, Full-time 19 18 17 22 18 19 20.
Than full time students. Use an Alpha of 0.05. Assume the populations are
normally distributed and have equal variances. Part-time: 21 17 25 19
20 18, Full-time 19 18 17 22 18 19 20.

In such analysis types we must make sure which line to use in

analyzing the data.


If you look to the table in figure 6.5 you will note that the table
consists of two data lines. We need to use on of them in analyzing our data.

Look at the LEVENE'S Test section of the table. The sig. value of the
levene's test = .10 which is > 0.05 so we choose the first line.

If the sig. value of the levene's test is less than 0.05 we choose the
second line of data.

Why do we that? Because the levene's test has two hypothesis the
H0 states that equal variances assumed, so if the sig. value is bigger than
0.05 then we fail to reject H0, so we use the first line. But if the sig. value is
less than 0.05 so we prove the H1 not H0 which proves that equal variances
not assumed, and this is the second line.

Ok, we have chosen the first line data, now the next step is to look at
the T-sig. value which is equal to 0.945 and this values is bigger than 0.05
so we fail to reject H0, and we conclude that the average age of the part
time students is not differ significantly from the average age of the full time
students.

In such analysis types we must make sure which line to use in

analyzing the data.

If you look to the table in figure 6.5 you will note that the table
consists of two data lines. We need to use on of them in analyzing our data.

Look at the LEVENE'S Test section of the table. The sig. value of the
levene's test = .10 which is > 0.05 so we choose the first line.

If the sig. value of the levene's test is less than 0.05 we choose the
second line of data.

Why do we that? Because the levene's test has two hypothesis the
H0 states that equal variances assumed, so if the sig. value is bigger than
0.05 then we fail to reject H0, so we use the first line. But if the sig. value is
less than 0.05 so we prove the H1 not H0 which proves that equal variances
not assumed, and this is the second line.

Ok, we have chosen the first line data, now the next step is to look at
the T-sig. value which is equal to 0.945 and this values is bigger than 0.05
so we fail to reject H0, and we conclude that the average age of the part
time students is not differ significantly from the average age of the full time
students.

9.4.4 Analysis of Variance (ANOVA)

We use ANOVA when we have more than two samples. Three or

more.

To use ANOVA we must do the followings:

In SPSS, Open Analyze Menu Compare Means One Way ANOVA.

After filling the data you will have the following outputs, look at the

exercise to understand.

A chain of convenience stores wanted to test three different

advertising policies:

Policy 1: No advertising.

Policy 2: Advertise in neighborhoods with circulars.

Policy 3: Use circulars and advertise in newspapers.

Eighteen stores were randomly selected and divided randomly into

three groups of six stores. Each group used on of the three policies.
Following the implementation of the policies, sales figures were obtained
for each of the stores during a 1-month period. Using the SPSS output,
give an interpretation for each of the following:
1) Test of Homogeneity of Variances.
2) Explain the result of the ANOVA Table.
3) Discus all the multiple comparisons.
The test of Homogeneity states which case to choose, H0: Equal
Variances Assumed or, H1: Equal Variances not assumed.
If the sig. Value in the test of homogeneity table is less than 0.05
then we can reject the H0 and prove H1. But if the sig. Value is more
than 0.05 then we fail to reject H0.
Once you reject H0 or fail to reject it you can choose from between
the two ANOVA analyses.
If you failed to reject H0 then you analyze based on ANOVA
Bonferroni Table, but if you reject H0 and accept H1 then you analyze
your data based on Tamhane.

Now, look at the test of homogeneity table you will see that sig.
Value = .451 > 0.05 fail to reject H0. so, Equal Variances Assumed.
Because Equal Variances Assumed we choose the first ANOVA TABLE
(Bonferroni).

But before choosing the table, we must look to the sig. value of the
ANOVA itself which is equal to 0.003 < 0.05 prove H1 which states
that there is a relationship between the policies 1 and 3,2 and 3.

9.5 Nonparametric Statistics

All of the prevous tests were parametric.

To prove which is the suitable tool to use when you analyze the data

you should use the test of normality as a key.

The H0 of the test of normality states that the distribution is normal

so the test is parametric, whereas the H1 states that the distribution is

not normal or non-parametric.

We have different types of nonparametric tests.

9.4.5 Wilcoxon rand sum Test

Used when you check in the test of normality that the distribution is
not normal.
If the distribution is not normal, then you must use this test instead
of using Matched Paired Sample T-Test.
In the test of normality table, if at least on sig. value is > 0.05 then
the distribution is not normal and we use wilcoxon.

9.4.6 Mann-Whitney

In the test of normality table, if at lease one sig. value is >0.05 then
the distribution is not normal and we use Mann-Whitney.
If the distribution is not normal, then you must use this test instead
of using Independent samples T-Test.

In the test of normality table, if at least on sig. Value is > 0.05 then
the distribution is not normal and we use Wilcoxon.

9.4.7 Kruskal Walis Test

In the test of normality table, if at least one sig. value is > 0.05 then
the distribution is not normal and we use Kruskal Wallis.
If the distribution is not normal, then you must use this test instead
of using ANOVA.
In the test of normality table, if at least on sig. Value is > 0.05 then
the distribution is not normal and we use wilcoxon.

9.5

Chi-Square
The Chi-Square statistic is typically used whenever we are interested
in examining the relationship between two categorical variables
summarized in two-way table with r rows and c columns.
The Chi-Square distributions form a family described by
degrees of freedom.

The Chi-Square distributions take only positive values.

The Chi-Square is skewed to the right.

H0: The two variables are independent (not related).

H1: The two variables are independent (related).

Reject H0 if p-value < , this means that the two variables are
dependent (related).
Example: 150 persons were chosen form a huge population, every
person was classified based on the quantity of meat he eats in KG per
month with respect to his heart case. As follows
Quantity of
Meat/Heart
Case
0-1
1-2
2-3
More than 3

Good
(1)

Medium
(2)

Bad
(3)

23
30
21
12

13
6
4
10

3
9
7
12

Figure 9.11
Test whether the classifications are dependent with a relationship or
independent without relationship, use alpha = 0.05
We simply use chi-square test and based on the output we prove a
relationship or not.
If the sig. value of the chi-square table is less than 0.05 then we
reject H0 and prove H1 which states that there is a relationship between
the quantities of meat eaten by a person and his heart case.

Look at the sig. Value of Pearson chi-square which is 0.000.

So we reject H0 and prove H1 which says that there is a relationship

between the quantity of meat eaten by a person and his heart case.