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Vibrationofsingledegreeof Vibration of single degree of freedomsystems y

Assoc.Prof.Dr.PelinGundesBakir Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pelin Gundes Bakir gundesbakir@yahoo.com

CourseSchedule Course Schedule


Ashortreviewonthedynamicbehaviourofthesingledegreeoffreedomsystems A h i h d i b h i f h i l d ff d Ashortreviewonthedynamicbehaviourofmultidegreeoffreedomstructures Objectivesforvibrationmonitoring FourierSeriesExpansion,FourierTransforms,DiscreteFourierTransform Digitalsignalprocessing,problemsassociatedwithanalogtodigitalconversion,sampling, aliasing,leakage,windowing,filters l l k d fl Stepsininstrumentingastructure,selectionandinstallationofinstruments,maintenance, vibrationinstrumentation,exciters,transducers,performancespecification,dataacquisition ib ti i t t ti it t d f ifi ti d t i iti systems,strongmotiondataprocessing

CourseSchedule Course Schedule


Randomvariables,stochasticprocesses,statisticalanalysis,correlationandconvolution, R d i bl h i i i l l i l i d l i coherence,timeandfrequencydomainrepresentationofrandomdynamicloads Dynamicresponseofsingleandmultidegreeoffreedomsystemstorandomloads Dynamic response of single and multi degree of freedom systems to random loads Modalanalysis Applicationsinbridges,buildings,mechanicalengineeringandaerospacestructures MATLABexercises TermProjects

References
Modalanalysis: M d l l i HeylenW.,LammensS.AndSasP.,ModalAnalysisTheoryandTesting,Katholieke UniversiteitLeuven,1997. Ewins D J Modal Testing Theory Practice and Application (Mechanical Engineering EwinsD.J.,ModalTesting,Theory,Practice,andApplication(MechanicalEngineering ResearchStudiesEngineeringDesignSeries),ResearchStudiesPre;2edition(August2001) ISBN13:9780863802188 Maia, N. M. M. and Silva, J. M. M.Theoretical and Experimental Modal Analysis, Research Maia,N.M.M.andSilva,J.M.M.TheoreticalandExperimentalModalAnalysis,Research StudiesPressLtd,,Hertfordshire,1997,488pp.,ISBN0863802087 Signalprocessing: Blackburn,JamesA,Moderninstrumentationforscientistsandengineers,NewYork: , , f g , Springer,2001 StearnsS.D.andDavid,R.A.,SignalProcessingAlgorithmsinMatlab,PrenticeHallInc,1996 MitraS.K.,DigitalSignalProcessing,AComputerbasedapproach,McGrawHill,3rdEdition, 2006. HeylenW.,LammensS.AndSasP.,ModalAnalysisTheoryandTesting,Katholieke UniversiteitLeuven,1997. KeithWordenSignalProcessingandInstrumentation,LectureNotes, http://www.dynamics.group.shef.ac.uk/people/keith/mec409.htm

References
Signalprocessing: Lynn,P.A.IntroductoryDigitalSignalprocessingWithComputerApplications.JohnWiley& Sons,1994. StearnsD.D.andDavid,R.A.,SignalProcessingAlgorithmsinMatlab,PrenticeHallInc,1996 Ifeachor E.C.andJervisB.W.DigitalSignalProcessing:APracticalApproach,AddisonWesley, 1997

Generalvibrationtheory RaoS.S.,Mechanicalvibrations,Pearson,PrenticeHall,2004. InmanD.J.,EngineeringVibration,PrenticeHall,1994. MeirovitchL.,Fundamentalsofvibrations,McGrawHill,2001.

References
Randomvibrations: R d ib i
BendatJ.S.andPiersolA.G.,Randomdataanalysisandmeasurementprocedures,WileySeriesin ProbabilityandStatistics,3rdEdition,2004. y , , LutesL.D.andSarkani S.,RandomVibrations:Analysisofstructuralandmechanicalsystems,Elsevier,631 pp,2004. NewlandD.E.,Anintroductiontorandomvibrations,spectralandwaveletanalysis,Longman, 1975/1984/1993. SoongT.T.andGrigoriu,Randomvibrationofmechanicalandstructuralsystems,PrenticeHall,1993. Wirsching P.H.andPaez T.L.andOrtizK.Randomvibrations:TheoryandPractice,JohnWileyandsons, 1995. 199 Bendat J.S.and Piersol A.G.Engineeringapplicationsofcorrelationandspectralanalysis,JohnWileyand Sons,2nd Edition,1993. , ,

References
VibrationInstrumentation: Vib i I i Vibration,monitoring,testingandinstrumentationhandbook,CRCPress,TaylorandFrancis, Editedby:ClarenceW.DeSilva. Edited by Clarence W De Silva AszklerC.,Acceleration,shockandvibrationsensors,Sensorshandbook,Chapter5,pages 137159. 137 159 McConnellK.G.,Vibrationtesting,theoryandpractice,JohnWileyandSons,1995.

Prerequisites: Basicknowledgeonstructuralanalysis.

Vibrationbasedhealthmonitoring Vibration based health monitoring


BasicInformation: B i I f ti
Instructor:Assoc.Prof.Dr.PelinGundesBakir Instructor: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Pelin Gundes Bakir (http://atlas.cc.itu.edu.tr/~gundes Email:gundesbakir@yahoo.com OfficehoursTBDbyemailappointment

W b it Website: http://atlas.cc.itu.edu.tr/~gundes/lectures Lecturetime:Wednesday14.00 17.00 Lecture time: Wednesday 14 0017 00 Lecturevenue:NH404

Vibrationbasedhealthmonitoring Vibration based health monitoring


Vibrationbasedstructuralhealthmonitoringisamultidisciplinary Vibration based str ct ral health monitoring i ltidi i li researchtopic.Thecourseissuitablebothforundergraduateand graduatestudentsaswellasthefollowingdepartments: Civilengineering Earthquakeengineering Mechanical engineering Mechanicalengineering Aerospaceengineering Electricalandelectronicengineering

Vibrationbasedhealthmonitoring Vibration based health monitoring


BasicInformation:
70%attendanceisrequired.

Grading: Quiz+homeworks:35% Midtermproject:25% Finalproject:40%

Introduction
Concepts from vibrations Conceptsfromvibrations Degreesoffreedom Classificationofvibration

Conceptsfromvibrations Concepts from vibrations


NEWTONSLAWS Firstlaw: First law: Iftherearenoforcesactinguponaparticle,thentheparticlewillmovein astraightlinewithconstantvelocity. Secondlaw: Aparticleacteduponbyaforcemovessothattheforcevectorisequalto A particle acted upon by a force moves so that the force vector is equal to thetimerateofchangeofthelinearmomentumvector. Thirdlaw: Whentwoparticlesexertforcesupononeanother,theforcesliealongthe linejoiningtheparticlesandthecorrespondingforcevectorsarethe line joining the particles and the corresponding force vectors are the negativeofeachother.

Definition
Theminimumnumberofindependentcoordinatesrequiredtodetermine h b f d d d d d completelythepositionsofallpartsofasystematanyinstantoftime definesthedegreeoffreedomofthesystem.A singledegreeoffreedom system requiresonlyonecoordinatetodescribeitspositionatanyinstant oftime.

Singledegreeoffreedomsystem Single degree of freedom system


Forthesimplependuluminthefigure,themotioncanbestatedeitherintermsof orxandy.Ifthe F th i l d l i th fi th ti b t t d ith i t f d If th coordinatesxandyareusedtodescribethemotion,itmustberecognizedthatthesecoordinatesarenot independent.Theyarerelatedtoeachotherthroughtherelation

x2 + y2 = l 2
wherelistheconstantlengthofthependulum.Thusanyonecoordinatecandescribethemotionofthe pendulum.Inthisexample,wefindthatthechoiceof astheindependentcoordinatewillbemore convenientthanthechoiceofxandy. convenient than the choice of x and y.

Twodegreeoffreedomsystem Two degree of freedom system


Someexamplesoftwodegreeoffreedomsystemsareshowninthefigure.Thefirstfigureshowsatwo S l ft d ff d t h i th fi Th fi t fi h t mass twospringsystemthatisdescribedbytwolinearcoordinatesx1 andx2.Thesecondfiguredenotes atworotorsystemwhosemotioncanbespecifiedintermsof1and2.Themotionofthesysteminthe thirdfigurecanbedescribedcompletelyeitherbyXand orbyx,yandX.

Discreteandcontinuoussystems Discrete and continuous systems


Alargenumberofpracticalsystemscanbedescribedusingafinitenumberofdegreesoffreedom,suchas Al b f ti l t b d ib d i fi it b fd ff d h thesimplesystemshowninthepreviousslides. Somesystems,especiallythoseinvolvingcontinuouselasticmembers,haveaninfinitenumberofdegrees offreedomasshowninthefigure.Sincethebeaminthefigurehasaninfinitenumberofmasspoints,we needaninfinitenumberofcoordinatestospecifyitsdeflectedconfiguration.Theinfinitenumberof coordinatesdefinesitselasticdeflectioncurve.Thus,thecantileverbeamhasinfinitenumberofdegrees offreedom.

Discreteandcontinuoussystems Discrete and continuous systems


Systemswithafinitenumberofdegreesoffreedomarecalleddiscrete or S t ith fi it b fd ff d ll d di t lumpedparametersystems,andthosewithaninfinitenumberofdegrees offreedomarecalledcontinuous ordistributedsystems. Mostofthetime,continuoussystemsareapproximatedasdiscrete systems,andsolutionsareobtainedinasimplemanner.Although treatmentofasystemascontinuousgivesexactresults,theanalytical methodsavailablefordealingwithcontinuoussystemsarelimitedtoa narrowselectionofproblems,suchasuniformbeams,slenderrodsand thinplates. hi l Hence,mostofthepracticalsystemsarestudiedbytreatingthemasfinite , p y y g lumpedmasses,springsanddampers.Ingeneral,moreaccurateresults areobtainedbyincreasingthenumberofmasses,springsanddampers thatisbyincreasingthenumberofdegreesoffreedom.

Classificationofvibration Classification of vibration


Free ibration If Freevibration:Ifasystem,afteraninitialdisturbanceisleftto t ft i iti l di t b i l ft t vibrateonitsown,theensuingvibrationisknownasfreevibration. Noexternalforceactsonthesystem.Theoscillationofasimple pendulumisanexampleoffreevibration. pendulum is an example of free vibration Forcedvibration:Ifasystemissubjectedtoanexternalforce(often arepeatingtypeofforce),theresultingvibrationisknownasforced ti t ff ) th lti ib ti i k f d vibration.
Ifthefrequencyoftheexternalforcecoincideswithoneofthenatural frequenciesofthesystem,aconditionknownasresonanceoccurs, andthesystemundergoesdangerouslylargeoscillations.Failuresof suchstructuresasbuildings,bridges,turbines,andairplanewings such structures as buildings bridges turbines and airplane wings havebeenassoicatedwiththenoccurrenceofresonance.

Classificationofvibration Classification of vibration


Undampedvibration:Ifnoenergyislostordissipatedinfrictionorother d d ib i f l d d f h resistanceduringoscillation,thevibrationisknownasundampedvibration. Ifanyenergyislostinthiswayhowever,itiscalleddampedvibration.

Whilethespringformsaphysicalmodelforstoringkineticenergyandhence p g p y g gy causingvibration,thedashpot,ordamper,formsthephysicalmodelfor dissipatingenergyanddampingtheresponseofamechanicalsystem.A dashpotconsistsofapistonfitintoacylinderfilledwithoil.Thispistonis p p y p perforatedwithholessothatmotionofthepistonintheoilispossible.The laminarflowoftheoilthroughtheperforationsasthepistonmovescausesa dampingforceonthepiston. p g p

Classificationofvibration Classification of vibration


Linearvibration:If allthebasiccomponents Li ib ti If ll th b i t ofavibratorysystemthespring,themass, andthedamper,behavelinearly,the resultingvibrationisknownaslinear resulting vibration is known as linear vibration.Thedifferentialequationsthat governthebehaviourofvibratorylinear y , p p systemsarelinear.Therefore,theprincipleof superpositionholds. Nonlinearvibration:Ifhowever,anyofthe Nonlinear vibration: If however, any of the basiccomponentsbehavenonlinearly,the vibrationiscallednonlinearvibration.The differentialequationsthatgovernthe behaviourofvibratorynonlinearsystems arenonlinear.Therefore,theprincipleof superpositiondoesnothold.

Classificationofvibration Classification of vibration


Linearandnonlinearvibrationscontd: Li d li ib ti td Thenatureofthespringforcecanbe deducedbyperformingasimplestatic experiment.Withnomassattached,the experiment With no mass attached the springstretchestoapositionlabeledasxo=0 inthefigure. As successively more mass is attached to the Assuccessivelymoremassisattachedtothe spring,theforceofgravitycausesthespring tostretchfurther.Ifthevalueofthemassis recorded,alongwiththevalueofthe recorded, along with the value of the displacementoftheendofthespringeach timemoremassisadded,theplotofthe force(massdenotedbym,timesthe accelerationduetogravity,denotedbyg), versusthisdisplacementdenotedbyx,yields acurvesimilartothatshowninthefigure.

Classificationofvibration Classification of vibration


Linearandnonlinearvibrationscontd: d l b d Notethatintheregionofvaluesforx between0andabout20mm,thecurveis , astraightline.Thisindicatesthatfor deflectionslessthan20mmandforces lessthan1000N,theforcethatisapplied less than 1000 N the force that is applied bythespringtothemassisproportional tothestretchofthespring. Theconstantofproportionalityistheslope ofthestraightline. g

Classificationofvibration Classification of vibration


Deterministicvibration:Ifthevalueormagnitudeoftheexcitation(forceor i i i ib i f h l i d f h i i (f motion)actingonavibratorysystemisknownatanygiventime,theexcitationis calleddeterministic.Theresultingvibrationisknownasdeterministicvibration. Nondeterministicvibration:Insomecases,theexcitationisnondeterministic or random;thevalueofexcitationatagiventimecannotbepredicted.Inthese cases,alargecollectionofrecordsoftheexcitationmayexhibitsomestatistical regularity.Itispossibletoestimateaveragessuchasthemeanandmeansquare valuesoftheexcitation.

Classificationofvibration Classification of vibration


Examplesofrandomexcitationsarewindvelocity,roadroughness,and l f d d l d h d groundmotionduringearthquakes. Iftheexcitationisrandom,theresultingvibrationiscalledrandom , g vibration.Inthecaseofrandomvibration,thevibratoryresponseofthe systemisalsorandom:itcanbedescribedonlyintermsofstatistical quantities. quantities

Mathematicalbackground
Homogeneous linear ODEs with HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients NonhomogeneousODEs N h ODE

Introduction
Th d Thedynamicbehaviourofmechanicalsystemsisdescribedbywhat i b h i f h i l t i d ib d b h t wecallsecondorderOrdinaryDifferentialEquations. Theinputtothemechanicalstructureappearsontherighthand sideoftheequationandistheForceandthesolutionofthe equationgivestheoutputwhichisusuallythedisplacement. Inordertobeablesolvetheseequations,itisimperativetohavea solidbackgroundonthesolutionofhomogeneousand g g nonhomogeneousOrdinaryDifferentialEquations. Homogeneous Ordinary Differential Equations represent the Free HomogeneousOrdinaryDifferentialEquationsrepresentthe Free VibrationsandthenonhomogeneousOrdinaryDifferential EquationsrepresentForcedVibrations.

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
WeshallnowconsidersecondorderhomogeneouslinearODEswhose h ll d d d h l h coefficientsaandbareconstant.

y + ay + by = 0 y y + ky = 0

ThesolutionofafirstorderlinearODE:

Byseparatingvariablesandintegrating,weobtain: Takingexponentsonbothsides: Taking exponents on both sides:


y ( x) = ce
y=e
kdx

dy = kdx y

ln y = kdx + c *

= ce kx

Letstrytheabovesolutioninthefirstequation.Usingaconstant y q g coefficientk: x
Subs u g s de v ve Substituting its derivatives : y = e x (2 + a + b)e x = 0 and y = 2 e x d

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Henceif isasolutionoftheimportantcharacteristicequation(or f l f h h ( auxiliaryequation)

2 + a + b = 0

y = e x Thentheexponentialsolutionisasolutionofthe

y + ay + by = 0 y
Nowfromelementaryalgebrawerecallthattherootsofthisquadratic equationare: equation are: 1 = (a + a 2 4b)
2 1 2 = (a a 2 4b) 2
1

Thefunctionsbelowaresolutionsto y + ay + by = 0
y1 = e 1x and y 2 = e 2 x

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Fromalgebraweknowthatthequadraticequationbelowmayhavethree l b k h h d b l h h kindsofroots: 2 + a + b = 0 CaseI:Tworealrootsif a 2 4b > 0 CaseII:Arealdoublerootif a 2 4b = 0 CaseIII:Complexconjugaterootsifa 2 4b < 0 CASEI:Inthiscase,abasisofsolutionsof CASE I: In this case a basis of solutions of y + ay + by = 0 x x inanyintervalis: y1 = e and y2 = e becausey1 andy2 aredefinedandrealforallxandtheirquotientisnot y y q constant.Thecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis:
1 2

y = c1e 1x + c2 e 2 x

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEII:Realdoubleroot=a/2 l d bl / a 2 4b Ifthediscriminantiszero,weseefrom
1 2 1 2 = (a a 2 4b) 2

1 = (a + a 2 4b)

thatwegetonlyoneroot:

= 1 = 2 = a / 2,
hence only one solution : y1 = e ( a / 2) x

Toobtainasecondindependentsolutiony2 neededforabasis,weusethe T b i di d d l i d df b i h methodoforderofreduction.Setting


y2 = uy1 , Substituting this and its derivatives y 2 ' = u ' y1 + uy1 ' and y2 ' ' into

y + ay + by = 0

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEII:Realdoubleroot=a/2 l d bl / Wehave: (uy1 + 2uy1 + uy1) + a(uy1 + uy1 ) + buy1 = 0 Collecting terms uy + u(2 y + ay ) + u( y + ay + by ) = 0 Collectingterms Thisexpressioninthelastparanthesisiszero,sincey1 isasolutionof
1 1 1 1 1 1

y + ay + by = 0

2y Theexpressioninthesecondparanthesisiszerotoosince = ae Wearethusleftwith
1

ax / 2

= ay1

u y1 = 0 Hence u = 0

By two integrations u = c1 x + c2

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEII:Realdoubleroot=a/2 l d bl / Togetasecondindependentsolutiony2=uy1,wecansimplychoosec1=1 andc2=0andtakeu=x.Theny2=xy1.Sincethesesolutionsarenot y y proportional,theyformabasis.Henceinthecaseofadoublerootof 2 + a + b = 0 abasisofsolutionsof b i f l i f onanyintervalis:
y + ay + b = 0 by

e ax / 2 , xe ax / 2

Thecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis: y = (c1 + c2 x)e ax / 2

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEIII:Complexrootsa/2+i anda/2i CASE III: Complex roots a/2+i and a/2 i Thiscaseoccursifthediscriminantofthecharacteristicequation

2 + a + b = 0

isnegative.Inthiscase,therootsoftheaboveequationandthusthesolutionsoftheODE comeatfirstoutcomplex.However,weshowthatfromthemwecanobtainabasisofrealsolutions:

y + ay + by = 0

where

y1 = e ax / 2 cos x ,

y 2 = e ax / 2 sin x i

2 = b a2
Thisisprovedinthenextslides.Itcanbeverifiedbysubstitutionthatthesearesolutionsinthepresent case.Theyformabasisonanyintervalsincetheirquotientcotxisnotconstant.Hence,arealgeneral solutioninCaseIIIis: l ti i C III i

1 4

y = e ax / 2 ( A cos x + B sin x )

( A , B arbitrary )

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients:Proof
Complexnumberrepresentationofharmonicmotion:Since l b fh r r X = OP thisvectorcanberepresentedasacomplexnumber: this vector can be represented as a complex number: r X = a + ib r X i = 1 whereandaandbdenotexandycomponentsof.Components aandbarealsocalledtherealandtheimaginarypartsofthevectorX.IfA denotesthemodulusortheabsolutevalueofthevectorX,and denotes r X theargumentoftheanglebetweenthevectorandthexaxis,thencan g g , alsobeexpressedas:

HomogeneouslinearODEswithconstantcoefficients: Proof P f
Complexnumberrepresentationofharmonicmotion

r r X = OP
r X = a + ib
r X

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients:Proof
Asapparentwehavetwocomplexroots.Theseare: A t h t l t Th
1 = a + i and 1 = a i
1 2 1 2

Weknowfrombasicmathematicsthatacomplexexponentialfunctioncan beexpressedas: r + it r it r
e = e e = e (cos t + i sin t )

ThustherootsofthesecondorderOrdinaryDifferentialEquationcanbe e x = e ( a / 2) x +ix = e ( a / 2) x (cos x + i sin x) expressedas:


1

e 2 x = e ( a / 2 ) x ix = e ( a / 2) x (cos x i sin x)

Wenowaddthesetwolinesandmultiplytheresultby.Thisgives: y1 = e ax / 2 cos x Thenwesubtractthesecondlinefromthefirstandmultiplytheresultby 1/2i.Thisgives: y 2 = e ax / 2 sin x

HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Case I Roots Distinctreal 1,2 II Realdoubleroot =a/2 III Complex Complex conjugate
1 2 1 2 = a i 2

Basis

General solution

e 1x , e 2 x

y = c1e 1x + c2 e 2 x y = (c1 + c2 x)e ax / 2

ax / 2

, xe

ax / 2

1 = a + i

y1 = e ax / 2 cos x y2 = e ax / 2 sin x

y = e ax / 2 ( A cos x + B sin x )

NonhomogeneousODEs Nonhomogeneous ODEs


Inthissection,weproceedfromhomogeneoustononhomogeneous h df h h ODEs.

y + p ( x) y + q ( x) y = r ( x)

Thegeneralsolutionconsistsoftwoparts:
y ( x) = yh ( x) + y p ( x) where yh = c1 y1 + c2 y2 is a general solution of the homogeneous ODE ODE.

Terminr(x)

Choiceforyp(x)

kex
kx n (n = 0,1,2,...)

Cex
K n x n + K n 1 x n 1 + .... + K1 x + K 0

k cos x k sin x
kex cos x kex sin x

K cos x + M sin x

ex ( K cos x + M sin x)

NonhomogeneousODEs Nonhomogeneous ODEs


Choicerulesforthemethodofundeterminedcoefficients
a) Basicrule:Ifr(x)isoneofthefunctionsinthefirstcolumnintheTable, choosey inthesamelineanddetermineitsundeterminedcoefficients choose yp in the same line and determine its undetermined coefficients bysubstitutingyp anditsderivativesinto y + p ( x) y + q ( x) y = r ( x)

b) Modificationrule:Ifaterminyourchoiceforyp happenstobeasolution ofthehomogeneousODEcorrespondingtotheaboveequation,multiply y yourchoiceofyp byx(orx^2ifthissolutioncorrespondstoadoubleroot y y ( p ofthecharacteristicequationofthehomogeneousODE) c) Sumrule:Ifr(x)isasumoffunctionsinthefirstcolumnofthetable, choosefory thesumofthefunctionsinthecorrespondinglinesofthe choose for yp the sum of the functions in the corresponding lines of the secondcolumn.

FreeVibrationofSingleDegree Free Vibration of Single Degree ofFreedomSystems y


HarmonicMotion FreevibrationofundampedSDOFsystems FreevibrationofdampedSDOFsystems p y

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


O ill t Oscillatorymotionmayrepeatitselfregularly,as ti t it lf l l inthecaseofasimplependulum,oritmay displayconsiderableirregularity,asinthecaseof display considerable irregularity as in the case of groundmotionduringanearthquake. Ifthemotionisrepeatedafterequalintervalsof time,itiscalledperiodicmotion. time, it is called periodic motion. The simplest type of periodic motion is harmonic Thesimplesttypeofperiodicmotionisharmonic motion.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Showninthefigureisavector Shown in the figure is a vector OPthatrotates counterclockwisewith g y constantangularvelocity. Atanytimet,theanglethat OPmakeswiththehorizontal is=t.

Let y be the projection of Letybetheprojectionof OPontheverticalaxis.Then y=Asint.Herey,a functionoftimeisplotted p versust.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Aparticlethatexperiencesthis A particle that experiences this motionissaidtohaveharmonic motion. Themaximumdisplacementofa vibratingbodyfromitsequilibrium positioniscalledtheamplitudeof vibration.AmplitudeAisshownin vibration Amplitude A is shown in thefigure. Range2Aisthepeaktopeak displacement. Nowconsidertheunitsof.LetC bethecircumferenceofthecircle be the circumference of the circle showninthefigure.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


ThusC=2A.OrwecanwriteC=A, Thus C=2A Or we can write C=A where=2 foronerevolution.Thus defined, issaidtobeinradiansandis equivalentto360.Therefore,one radianisapproximatelyequalto58.3 . radian is approximately equal to 58.3. Ingeneral,foranyarclength, s=A ,where isinradians.Itfollows that inthefigurewouldbeinradians that in the figure would be in radians persecond. Asseeninthefigure,thevectorial methodofrepresentingharmonic method of representing harmonic motionrequiresthedescriptionofboth thehorizontalandverticalcomponents. Thetimetakentocompleteonecycle Th ti t k t l t l ofmotionisknownastheperiodof oscillationortimeperiodandis denotedby.Theperiodisthetimefor themotiontorepeat(thevalueof in the motion to repeat (the value of in thefigure).

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Notethat =2 where denotesthe angularvelocityofthecyclicmotion.The angularvelocity isalsocalledthe circularfrequency. i l f Themovementofavibratingbodyfrom itsundisturbedorequilibriumpositionto itsextremepositioninonedirection, thentotheequilibriumposition,thento itsextremepositionintheother direction,andbacktoequilibrium positioniscalledacycleofvibration. ii i ll d l f ib i Onerevolution(i.e.,angular displacementof2 radians)ofthepinP p ) p inthefigureoronerevolutionofthe vectorOPinthefigureconstitutesa cycle.Cycleisthemotioninoneperiod, asshowninthefigure.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Frequencyisthenumberofcyclesperunittime. h b f l Themostcommonunitoftimeusedinvibrationanalysisisseconds. The most common unit of time used in vibration analysis is seconds CyclespersecondiscalledHertz. ThetimethecycletakestorepatitselfistheperiodT.Intermsofthe period,thefrequencyis: 1

f =

Thefrequencyfisrelatedto: f = 2 = 2f

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Phaseangle:Considertwovibratorymotionsdenotedby: h l d b d db
x1 = A1 sin t x2 = A2 sin(t + )

Thesetwoharmonicmotionsarecalledsynchronous becausetheyhave thesamefrequencyorangularvelocity.Twosynchronousoscillations neednothavethesameamplitude,andtheyneednotattaintheir g maximumvaluesatthesametimeasshowninthefigure.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Inthisfigure,thesecondvectorOP2 l d h f h f h d leadsthefirstoneOP1 b byanangle l knownasthephaseangle.Thismeansthatthemaximumofthesecond vectorwouldoccur radiansearlierthanthatofthefirstvector.These twovectorsaresaidtohaveaphasedifferenceof.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Fromintroductoryphysicsanddynamics,thefundamentalkinematical d h dd h f d lk l quantitiesusedtodescribethemotionofaparticlearedisplacement, velocityandaccelerationvectors. Theaccelerationofaparticleisgivenby:

dv d 2 x a= = 2 = && x dt dt
Thus,displacement,velocity,andaccelerationhavethefollowing Thus displacement velocity and acceleration have the following relationshipsinharmonicmotion:

x = A sin t & v = x = A cos t a = && = A 2 sin t x

Operationsonharmonicfunctions Operations on harmonic functions


Usingcomplexnumberrepresentation,therotatingvectorcanbe l b h b X writtenas:
r X where denotesthecircularfrequency(rad/sec)ofrotationofthevector r

incounterclockwisedirection.Thedifferentiationoftheharmonicsgiven bytheaboveequationgives: b h b i i

Thusthedisplacement,velocityandaccelerationcanbeexpressedas:

Operationsonharmonicfunctions Operations on harmonic functions


Itcanbeseenthatthe b h h accelerationvectorleadsthe velocityvectorby90degrees andthevelocityvectorleads thedisplacementvectorby90 degrees. g

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Naturalfrequency: Ifasystem,afteraninitialdisturbance,isleftto lf f f ld b l f vibrateonitsown,thefrequencywithwhichitoscillateswithoutexternal forcesisknownasitsnaturalfrequency.Aswillbeseen,avibratory systemhavingndegreesoffreedomwillhave,ingeneral,ndistinct naturalfrequenciesofvibration. Beats: When two harmonic motions with frequencies close to one Whentwoharmonicmotions,withfrequenciesclosetoone another,areadded,theresultingmotionexhibitsaphenomenonknown asbeats.Forexampleif:
x1 (t ) = X cos t x2 (t ) = X cos( + )t where is a small quantity.

Theadditionofthesetwomotionsyield: The addition of these two motions yield:


x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) = X [cos t + cos( + )t ]

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Beats:
x(t ) = x1 (t ) + x2 (t ) = X [cos t + cos( + )t ]

Usingtherelation

A+ B A B cos A + cos B = 2 cos cos 2 2

Thefirstequationcanbewrittenas:

x(t ) = 2 X cos

cos( + )t 2 2

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Beats: Itcanbeseenthattheresultingmotionx(t)representsacosinewave + withfrequencywhichisapproximatelyequalto andwithavarying q y pp y q y g 2 t amplitude 2 X cos 2 .Whenever,theamplitudereachesamaximumitis calledabeat. In machines and in structures the beating phenomenon occurs when the Inmachinesandinstructures,thebeatingphenomenonoccurswhenthe forcingfrequencyisclosetothenaturalfrequencyofthesystem.Wewill laterreturntothistopic.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


O t Octave: Wh th Whenthemaximumvalueofarangeof i l f f frequencyistwiceitsminimumvalue,itisknown asanoctaveband. as an octave band For example each of the ranges 75 150 Hz 150 Forexample,eachoftheranges75150Hz,150 300Hz,and300600Hzcanbecalledanoctave band. In each case the maximum and minimum values Ineachcase,themaximumandminimumvalues offrequency,whichhavearatioof2:1,aresaidto y differbyanoctave.

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Considerthesingledegreeoffreedom(SDOF)systemshowninthefigure. d h l d ff d ( ) h h f Thespringisoriginallyintheunstretchedpositionasshown.Itisassumed thatthespringobeysHookeslaw.Theforceinthespringisproportional todisplacementwiththeproportionalityconstant(springconstant)equal tok.

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Thestiffnessinaspringcanberelatedmoredirectlytomaterialand h ff b l d d l l d geometricpropertiesofthespring.Aspringlikebehaviourresultsfroma varietyofconfigurations,includinglongitudinalmotion(vibrationinthe directionofthelength),transversemotion(vibrationperpendiculartothe length),andtorsionalmotion(vibrationrotatingaroundthelength).

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Aspringisgenerallymadeofanelasticmaterial.Foraslenderelastic ll d f l l l d l materialoflengthl,crosssectionalareaAandelasticmodulusE(or Youngsmodulus),thestiffnessofthebarforvibrationalongitslengthis givenby: EA
k= l

ThemodulusEhastheunitsofPascal(denotedPa)whichareN/m2. The modulus E has the units of Pascal (denoted Pa) which are N/m2

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Whenthemassm(weightW)isapplied,thespringwilldeflecttoastatic h h ( h ) l d h ll d fl equilibriumpositionst. Atthisposition,wefindthat:
W = mg = k st

Ifthemassisperturbedandallowedtomovedynamically,the displacementx,measuredfromtheequilibriumposition,willbeafunction oftime.Here,x(t)istheabsolutemotionofthemassandtheforceinthe , () springcanbeexpresssedas: k ( x + st ) Todeterminethepositionasafunctionoftime,theequationsofmotion T d i h ii f i f i h i f i areemployed;thefreebodydiagramsaredrawnasshowninthefigure. Notethatxismeasuredpositivedownward.

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
ApplyingNewtonssecondlaw, l dl
W k ( x + st ) = m&& x

Butfromthestaticcondition,notethatW=kst.Thus,theequationof But from the static condition note that W=kst Thus the equation of motionbecomes: m&& + kx = 0 x Withthestandardformof:

k x=0 m This is Case III that has complex roots where the general solution was ThisisCaseIIIthathascomplexrootswherethegeneralsolutionwas computedas: x = e ax / 2 ( A cos t + B sin t ) && + x
Sinceintheaboveequation:
a=0

2 = b a2

1 4

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Itisshownthat h h
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

whereAandBareconstantsofintegrationand where A and B are constants of integration and


k (rad / sec) m Heren definesthenaturalfrequencyofthemass.Thisisthefrequencyat whichthemasswillmoveregardlessoftheamplitudeofthemotionas longasthespringinthesystemcontinuestoobeyHooke slaw.The long as the spring in the system continues to obey Hookes law The naturalfrequencyinHertzis:

n =

fn =

1 2

k m

( Hz )

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Theinitialconditionsx = xo at t=0 and x = x o at t = 0 are used to evaluate h l d 0 d & & d l the constants of integration A and B. When substituted into the equation
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

weget:
A = xo and B =

& xo

andconsequently x(t ) = xo cos n t +

& xo

sin n t

Thesumintheequation The sum in the equation

x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

2 2 canalsobecombinedtoaphaseshiftedcosinewithamplitude C = A + B p p andphaseangle=arctan(B/A).Forthispurposelet:

A = C cos and B = C sin

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
IntroducingthenewvaluesofAandBinto d h l f d x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt weget: Since

x(t ) = C cos cos nt + C sin sin n t


cos( x y ) = cos x cos y + sin x sin y x(t ) = C cos(nt )
2

x(t)canbeexpressedas: () b d

Where arctan(B/A)andconsequently: Where =arctan(B/A) and consequently:


x & x & 2 o and C = A2 + B 2 = xo + o = arctan n xo n

FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems

x(t ) = xo cos n t + o sin n t i Theequationisaharmonicfunctionof h h f f

& x

time.Thus,thespring masssystemiscalledaharmonicoscillator.The time Thus the springmass system is called a harmonic oscillator The natureofharmonicoscillationisshowninthefigure.IfCdenotesavector ofmagnitudeC,whichmakesananglent withrespecttotheverticalx axis,thenthesolutioncanbeseentobethe axis then the solution x(t ) = C cos(nt ) can be seen to be the projectionofvectorConthexaxis.

Damping
Undampedanddampedvibration:Theresponseofaspringmassmodelpredicts U d d dd d ib ti Th f i d l di t thatthesystemwilloscillateindefinitely.However,everydayobservationindicates thatmostfreelyoscillatingsystemseventuallydieoutandreducetozeromotion. Thechoiceofrepresentativemodelfortheobserveddecayinanoscillatingsystem Th h i f i d lf h b dd i ill i isbasedpartiallyonphysicalobservationandpartiallyonmathematical convenience.Thetheoryofdifferentialequationssuggeststhataddingatermto & x equationoftheform,wherecisaconstant,willresultina equation m&&(t ) + kx(t ) = 0 of the form cx where c is a constant will result in a solutionx(t)thatdiesout. Physicalobservationagreesfairwellwiththismodelanditisusedvery successfullytomodelthedampingordecayinavarietyofmechanicalsystems. f ll t d l th d i d i i t f h i l t Thistypeofdampingiscalledtheviscousdamping.

Damping
Thelaminarflowoftheoilthroughtheperforationsasthepistonmoves h l fl f h l h h h f h causesadampingforceonthepiston. Theforceisproportionaltothevelocityofthepiston,inadirection p p y p , oppositethatofthepistonmotion.Thisdampingforcehastheform: & f c = cx(t ) wherecisaconstantofproportionalityrelatedtotheoilviscosity.The h i f i li l d h il i i h constantc,calledthedampingcoefficient,hasunitsofNs/m,orkg/s.

DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem Damped free vibration of SDOF system


Considerthespringmasssystemwithanenergydissipatingmechanism d h h d h describedbythedampingforceasshowninthefigure.Itisassumedthat thedampingforceFD isproportionaltothevelocityofthemass,asshown; thedampingcoefficientisc.WhenNewtonssecondlawisapplied,this modelforthedampingforceleadstoalineardifferentialequation,

m&& + cx + k = 0 x & kx

DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem Damped free vibration of SDOF system


TheODEishomogeneouslinearandhasconstantcoefficients.The h h l dh ff h characteristicequationisfoundbydividingthebelowequationbym:
s2 + c k s+ =0 m m

Bytherootsofaquadraticequation,weobtain:
s1 = + , s2 = , where c = 2m and = 1 c 2 4mk 2m

Itisnowmostinterestingthatdependingontheamountofdamping (much,mediumorlittle)therewillbethreetypesofmotion correspondingtothethreecasesI,IIandIII.

DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem Damped free vibration of SDOF system


Case C I Roots Definition fi i i Overdamping s1,s2 II

c > 4mk
2

Distinctrealroots

c 2 = 4mk

Realdoubleroot

Criticaldamping p g

III

c 2 < 4mk

Complexconjugateroots

Underdamping

DampedfreevibrationofSDOFsystem Damped free vibration of SDOF system


Definethecriticaldampingcoefficientccasthatvalueofcthatmakesthe f h ld ff h l f h k h radicalequaltozero,
cc = 2m k = 2mn m

Definethedampingfactoras:
=

c c = cc 2mn

Introducingtheaboveequationinto
s1, 2 k c c = 2m 2m m
2

Wefind: s1, 2 = 2 1 n Thenthesolutioncanbewrittenas:

x(t ) = Ae

+ 2 1 t n

+ Be

2 1 t n

Threecasesofdamping Three cases of damping


Heavydampingwhenc>cc Criticaldampingc=cc Lightdamping0<c<cc

Heavydamping(c>c or>1) Heavy damping (c > cc or >1)


Therootsarebothreal.Thesolutiontothedifferentialequationis: h b h l h l h d ff l

x(t ) = Ae s1t + Be s2t


whereAandBaretheconstantsofintegration.Boths ands willbe where A and B are the constants of integration Both s1 and s2 will be 2 =2 k /m <2 negativebecause >0, >0,and.Since
s1 = + , s2 = , where = c 2m and = 1 c 2 4mk 2m

Thus,givenanyinitialdisplacement,themasswilldecaytothe equilibriumpositionwithoutvibratorymotion.Anoverdampedsystem doesnotoscillatebutratherreturnstoitsrestpositionexponentially. p p y 2 2 x(t ) = Ae ( + 1 )nt + Be ( 1 )nt

Criticaldamping(c=c or=1) Critical damping (c = cc,or =1)



= c 2 4mk Sinceiszerointhiscase,s1=s2==cc/ h /2m=n. 2m x(t ) = ( A + Bt )e t Bothrootsareequalandthegeneralsolutionis:. & & Substitutingtheinitialconditions,x = xo at t=0 and x = x o at t = 0 g , & A = xo and B = xo + n xo
n

and the solution becomes : & x(t ) = [xo + ( xo + n xo )t ]e nt

Themotionisagainnotvibratoryanddecaystotheequilibriumposition.

Lightdamping(0<c<c or<1) Light damping (0 < c < cc or <1)


Thiscaseoccursifthedampingconstantcissosmallthat h f h d ll h

c 2 < 4mk Then isnolongerrealbutpureimaginary. Then is no longer real but pure imaginary
1 k c2 2 4mk c = = i * where * = 2m m 4m 2

Therootsofthecharacteristicequationarenowcomplexconjugate:
s1 = + i*, with = c 2m s2 = i *

Hencethecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis: Hence the corresponding general solution is:


x = e t ( A cos * t + B sin * t ) = Ce t cos( * t o ) where C 2 = A 2 + B 2 and tan o = B/A

Lightdamping(0<c<c ) Light damping (0 < c < cc )


Thesolutioncanalsobeexpressedas: h l l b d

x(t ) = e nt A cos 1 2 nt + B sin 1 2 nt

Therootsarecomplex.Itiseasilyshown,usingEulersformulathatthe t generalsolutionis: x(t ) = [C cos(d t o )]e whereCand aretheconstantsofintegration.Thedampednatural 2 frequencydisgivenby d = n 1

Lightdamping(0<c<c ) Light damping (0 < c < cc )


Fortheinitialconditions h l d
x(t = 0) = xo & & x(t = 0) = xo

Theequation

x(t ) = e nt A cos 1 2 nt + B sin 1 2 nt


canbeexpressedas:

x(t ) = e
where

n t

& xo + n xo 2 2 xo cos 1 nt + sin 1 nt d


=
c 2mn

Natureoftherootsinthecomplex plane
For=0,weobtaintheimaginaryroots F 0 bt i th i i t in andin andasolutionof
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt

For0<<1,therootsarecomplex conjugateandarelocatedsymmetrically conjugate and are located symmetrically abouttherealaxis. Asthevalueof approaches1, bothrootsapproachthepoint n on the real axis nontherealaxis. If isgreaterthan1,bothrootslieonthe realaxis,oneincreasingandtheotherdecreasing.

Logarithmicdecrement Logarithmic decrement


Thelogarithmicdecrementrepresentstherateatwhichtheamplitudeof h l h d h h h h l d f afreedampedvibrationdecreases.Itisdefinedasthenaturallogarithm oftheratioofanytwosuccessiveamplitudes. Lett1 andt2 denotethetimescorrespondingtotwoconsecutive amplitudes(displacements)measuredonecycleapartforan amplitudes (displacements) measured one cycle apart for an underdampedsystemasshowninthefigure.

Logarithmicdecrement Logarithmic decrement

Using,wecanformtheratio: f h x(t ) = [ A cos(d t )]e t


n

x1 X o e nt1 cos(d t1 o ) = x2 X o e nt2 cos(d t 2 o )

Butt2=t1+d ,hence

Logarithmicdecrement Logarithmic decrement


Thelogarithmicdecrementcanbefoundfrom: h l h d b f df

Forsmalldamping,theaboveequationcanbeapproximatedas:

Logarithmicdecrement Logarithmic decrement


Figureshowsthevariationofthe h h f h logarithmicdecrement with asshownintheequations: as shown in the equations:

Itcanbenoticedthatforvaluesupto It can be noticed that for values up to =0.3,thetwocurvesaredifficultto distinguish.

Logarithmicdecrement Logarithmic decrement


Thelogarithmicdecrementisdimensionlessandisactuallyanotherform ofthedimensionlessdampingratio.Once isknown, canbefoundby solving: g

Ifweuse

insteadof wehave:

Logarithmicdecrement Logarithmic decrement


Ifthedampinginthegivensystemisnotknown,wecandetermineit f h d h k d experimentallybymeasuringanytwoconsecutivedisplacementsx1 and x2.Bytakingthenaturallogarithmoftheratiox1 andx2,weobtain.By using

wecancomputethedampingratio. Infactthedampingratio canalsobefoundbymeasuringtwo p g y g displacementsseparatedbyanynumberofcompletecycles.Ifx1 andxm+1 denotetheamplitudescorrespondingtotimest1 andtm+1=t1+md wherem isaninteger,weobtain: is an integer we obtain:

Logarithmicdecrement Logarithmic decrement


Sinceanytwosuccessivedisplacementsseparatedbyonecyclesatisfythe d l db l f h equation:

theequation becomes: Theaboveequationyields whichcanbesubstitutedintotheeitheroftheequationstoobtainthe q viscousdampingratio:

ForcedVibration
Harmonic excitation Harmonicexcitation Baseexcitation

Harmonicallyexcitedvibration Harmonically excited vibration


Amechanicalorstructuralsystemissaidtoundergoforcedvibration h l l d d f d b wheneverexternalenergyissuppliedtothesystemduringvibration. Externalenergycanbesuppliedtothesystemthrougheitheranapplied forceoranimposeddisplacementexcitation. Theappliedforceordisplacementexcitationmaybeharmonic, nonharmonicbutperiodic,nonperiodicorrandominnature.Theresponse nonharmonic but periodic nonperiodic or random in nature The response ofasystemtoharmonicexcitationiscalledharmonicresponse. Thenonperiodicexcitationsmayhavealongorshortduration.The responseofadynamicsystemtosuddenlyappliednonperiodicexcitations f d i dd l li d i di i i iscalledtransientresponse. Inthispartofthecourse,weshallconsiderthedynamicresponseofa p , y p singledegreeoffreedomsystemunderharmonicexcitationsoftheform
F (t ) = Fo ei (t + ) or F(t) = Fo cos (t + ) or F(t) = Fo sin (t + ) h where Fo is the amplitude, is the frequency, and is the phase angle of the harmonic excitation.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Somesingledegreeoffreedom(SDOF)systemswithanexternalforceare l d ff d ( ) h lf showninthefigure.ForcecanbeappliedbothasanexternalforceF(t),or asabasemotiony(t),asshown.Thecoordinatex(t)istheabsolutemotion ofthemass.TheforcesWandkst areignoredinthefreebodydiagrams asweknowtheywilladdtozerointheequationofmotion.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Considertheforceexcitedsystemofthefigure,wheretheappliedforceis d h f d f h f h h l df F (t ) = Fo sin t harmonic, ApplyingNewtonssecondlaw,theequationofmotionbecomes: pp y g , q m&& + cx + kx = Fo sin t x & Thegeneralsolutionforthissecondordernonhomogeneouslinear differentialequationis x(t ) = xh (t ) + x p (t ) diff i l i i wherexh isthecomplementarysolutionorsolutiontothehomogeneous equation.Butthissolutiondiesoutsoon.Ourinterestfocusesonxp,the q , particularsolution.Invibrationtheory,theparticularsolutionisalsocalled thesteadystatesolution.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Thevariationsofhomogeneous,particular,andgeneralsolutionswith h fh l d l l h timeforatypicalcaseareshowninthefigure. () () () ( Itcanbeseenthatxh(t)diesoutandx(t)becomesxp(t)aftersometime( inthefigure). Thepartofthemotionthatdiesoutduetodamping(thefreevibration part)iscalledtransient.Theparticularsolutionrepresentsthesteady part) is called transient The particular solution represents the steady statevibrationandispresentaslongastheforcingfunctionispresent.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Theverticalmotionsofamassspringsystemsubjectedtoanexternal h l f b d l forcer(t)canbeexpressedas:

mx + cx + kx = r (t ) (

Mechanically,thismeansthatateachtimeinstantt,theresultantofthe internalforcesisinequilibriumwithr(t).Theresultingmotioniscalleda forcedmotionwithforcingfunctionr(t),whichisalsoknownastheinput forced motion with forcing function r(t) which is also known as the input forceorthedrivingforce,andthesolutionx(t)tobeobtainediscalledthe output ortheresponseofthesystemtothedrivingforce. Ofspecialinterestareperiodicexternalforces,andweshallconsidera drivingforceoftheform: r (t ) = Fo cos t ThenwehavethenonhomogeneousODE: Then we have the nonhomogeneous ODE:
m x + c x + kx = Fo cos t

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
SolvingthenonhomogeneousODE
Tofindyp,weusethemethodofundeterminedcoefficients:

x p (t ) = a cos t + b sin t i x p (t ) = a sin t + b cos t x p (t ) = 2 a cos t 2 b sin t


Substitutingtheaboveequationsinto m x + c x + kx = Fo cos t Andcollectingthecosineandthesineterms,weget
[( k m 2 ) a + cb ] cos t +[ ca + ( k m 2 )b ] sin t = Fo cos t b

Thecosinetermsonbothsidesmustbeequal,andthecoefficientofthe sinetermontheleftmustbezerosincethereisnosinetermontheright.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Thisgivesthetwoequations: h h
(k m 2 )a + cb = Fo ca + (k m 2 )b = 0

fordeterminingtheunknowncoefficientsaandb.Thisisalinearsystem. for determining the unknown coefficients a and b This is a linear system Wecansolveitbyeliminationtofind:
k m 2 a = Fo (k m 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2 c b = Fo (k m 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2 2 m(o 2 ) a = Fo 2 2 m (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2 c b = Fo 2 2 m (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2

Ifweset,weobtain: If we set m = we obtain:


o

WethusobtainthegeneralsolutionofthenonhomogeneousODEinthe form: x(t ) = xh (t ) + x p (t )

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
CaseI:Undampedforcedoscillations: d df d ll Ifthedampingofthephysicalsystemissosmallthatitseffectcanbe neglectedoverthetimeintervalconsidered,wecansetc=0.Then g ,
a = Fo b = Fo
2 m(o 2 ) 2 m 2 (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2

c m ( 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
2 2 o

reducesto Hence becomes

a=

Fo m(o2 2 )

b=0

x p (t ) = a cos t + b sin t
x p (t ) = Fo Fo cos t = cos t 2 2 m(o 2 ) k[1 ( ) ]

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Wethushavethegeneralsolutionoftheundampedsystemas: h h h l l f h d d
x(t ) = C cos(o t ) + Fo cos t 2 m(o 2 )

Weseethatthisoutputisasuperpositionoftwoharmonicoscillationsof thenaturalfrequencyo/2 [cycles/sec]ofthesystem,whichisthe frequencyoftheundampedmotionandthefrequency/2 [ l / ] f f h d d i d h f / [cycles/sec] ofthedrivingforce.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Beats: Asmentionedbefore,ifthefrequencyoftheforcingfunctionandthe frequencyofthesystemareveryclosetoeachother,thenagainbeatingeffect frequency of the system are very close to each other, then again beating effect shouldbeexpected. Ifweforexampletaketheparticularsoluton: If we for example take the particular soluton:
x(t ) =

Fo (cos t cos ot ) 2 2 m(o )

( o )

which can be rewritten as : x(t ) = 2 Fo + o t sin t sin o 2 m(o 2 ) 2 2

Since isclosetoo,thedifferenceo issmall.Hencetheperiodofthelast sinefunctionislarge.Thisisbecausethegreaterthequantityunderthesine, thesmallertheperiodis.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Beats:
Tb = 2TTo 4 = o T To

4 + o

x(t ) =

Fo + o sin o t sin t 2 2 m(o ) 2 2

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Beats: Thisphenomenonisalsofrequentlyobservedinlightlydampedsytemswithclosecouplingofthetorsional andtranslationalfrequencies. AtypicalexampleisthethirteenstoreysteelframedSantaClaraCountyOfficeBuildingasreportedin: A typical example is the thirteen storey steel framed Santa Clara County Office Building as reported in : CelebiandLiu,Beforeandafterretrofit responseofabuildingduringambientandstrongmotions, JournalofWindEngineeringandIndustrialAerodynamics,77&78(1998)259268. Theproximityofthetorsionalfrequencyat0.57Hztothetranslationalfrequencyat0.45Hzcausesthe observedcouplingandbeatingeffectinthisstructure.

Harmonicmotion Harmonic motion


Comparisonofthefrequenciesofthebuilding ThirteenstoreysteelframedSantaClaraCountyOfficeBuildingasreportedin: CelebiandLiu,Beforeandafterretrofit responseofabuildingduringambientandstrongmotions, JournalofWindEngineeringandIndustrialAerodynamics,77&78(1998)259268. Journal of Wind Engineering and Industrial Aerodynamics 77&78 (1998) 259 268

Resonance
Ifthedampingofthesystemissosmallthatitseffectcanbeneglected If th d i f th t i ll th t it ff t b l t d overthetimeintervalconsidered,wecansetc=0.Thentheparticular responsecanbeexpressedby:
xp = Fo Fo cos t = cos t 2 m( o ) 2 k 1 o
2

Puttingcost=1,weseethatthemaximumamplitudeoftheparticular g , p p solutionis: F
ao =
o

where =

1
2

If

1- o o , then and ao tend to infinity.

Thisexcitationoflargeoscillationsbymatchinginputandnatural frequenciesiscalledresonance.

Resonance
x Inthecaseofresonanceandnodamping,theODE && + o2 x = o cos ot h f d d h m becomes: m&& + cx + kx = Fo cos t x & Then from the modification rule the particular solution becomes: Thenfromthemodificationrule,theparticularsolutionbecomes:

x p (t ) = t (a cos ot + b sin ot )

Bysubstitutingthisintothesecondequation,wefind:
x p (t ) = Fo t sin ot 2mo

Weseethatbecauseofthefactort,theamplitudebecomeslargerand larger.Practicallyspeaking,systemswithverylittledampingmayundergo larger Practically speaking systems with very little damping may undergo largevibrationsthatcandestroythesystem.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
CaseII:Dampedforcedoscillations:Ifthedampingofthemassspring df d ll f h d f h systemisnotnegligiblysmall,wehavec>0andadampingtermcxin m&& + cx + kx = r (t ) x & ( m&& + cx + kx = 0 x & Thenthegeneralsolutionyh ofthehomogeneousODEapproacheszeroas tgoestoinfinity.Practically,itiszeroafterasufficientlylongtime.Hence thetransientsolutiongivenby the transient solution given by

y (t ) = yh (t ) + y p (t )

approachesthesteadystatesolutionyp.Thisprovesthefollowing: pp y y p g Steadystatesolution:Afterasufficientlylongtime,theoutputofa dampedvibratingsystemunderapurelysinusoidaldrivingforcewill d d ib i d l i id l d i i f ill practicallybeaharmonicoscillationwhosefrequencyisthatoftheinput.

Responseofadampedsystemunder harmonicforce
Iftheforcingfunctionisgivenbytheequationofmotion f h f f b h f becomes: Theparticularsolutionisalsoexpectedtobeharmonic;weassumeitin thefollowingform: whereXand areconstantstobedeterminedthatdenotetheamplitude p g p , p y y g andthephaseangleoftheresponse,respectively.Bysubstitutingthe secondequationintothefirst: Usingthetrigonometricrelationsbelowintheaboveequation Ui h i i l i b l i h b i

Responseofadampedsystemunder harmonicforce
Weobtain: b Ifwesolvetheaboveequation,wefind: If we solve the above equation we find:

Ifweinserttheaboveintothe,wefindthe particularsolution.Using:

r=

Responseofadampedsystemunder harmonicforce
Weobtain: b

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
ThequantityM=X/st isknownasthemagnificationfactor,amplification h / k h f f lf factor ortheamplituderatio.Theamplitudeoftheforcedvibration becomessmallerwithincreasingvaluesoftheforcingfrequency(thatis, M0asr)
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Afactthatcreatesdifficultyfordesignersisthattheresponsecanbecome f h d ff l f d h h b largewhenriscloseto1orwhen iscloseton.Thisconditioniscalled resonance.ThereductioninMinthepresenceofdampingisvery significantatornearresonance.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Foranundampedsystem(=0),thephaseangleiszerofor0<r<1and180 d d ( ) h h l f d degreesforr>1.Thisimpliesthattheexcitationandresponseareinphase for0<r<1andoutofphaseforr>1when=0.
= arctan
2r 2 1 r

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
For>0and0<r<1,thephaseangleisgivenby0<<90,implyingthatthe d h h l b l h h responselagstheexcitation.
= arctan
2r 2 1 r

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
For>0andr>1,thephaseangleisgivenby90<<180,implyingthatthe d h h l b l h h responseleadstheexcitation.
= arctan
2r 2 1 r

Responseofadampedsystemunder p p y
F (t ) = Fo e it
Usingcomplexalgebra,lettheharmonicforcebe: l l b l h h f b
F (t ) = Fo eit whereF isarealconstantandi istheimaginaryunit.Assumethatthe where Fo is a real constant and i is the imaginary unit Assume that the responsehasthesamefrequencyastheforce,butis,ingeneral,outof phasewiththeforce

~ X whereXo istheamplitudeofthedisplacementandisthecomplex displacement, p , ~ i

~ x(t ) = X o e i (t + ) = Xe it
X = X oe

Substitutingthisintothedifferentialequationofmotion
~ (m 2 + ic + k ) Xeit = Fo eit

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Definethetransferfunction(orfrequencyresponsefunction)H()asthe f h f f ( f f ) ( ) h complexdisplacementduetoaforceofunitmagnitude(Fo=1).Thus,

H ( ) =

1 (k m 2 ) + ic

Rationalizing,thetransferfunctionbecomes:
(k m 2 ) ic H ( ) = (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

Thisisalsotheratiobetweenthecomplexdisplacementresponseandthe p p p complexinputforcingfunction.

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Definethegainfunctionasthemodulusofthetransferfunction f h f h d l f h f f

H ( ) = H ( ) H * ( ) = (Re H ) 2 + (Im H ) 2
whereH*isthecomplexconjugate.Fortheforceexcitedsystemunder consideration,
H ( ) = 1 (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

ThegainfunctionistheamplitudeofthedisplacementforFo=1.Thus,
Xo = H ( ) Fo

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Itisconvenienttodevelopanondimensionalformofthegainfunction. d l d lf f h f Firstdefinethefrequencyratio
r=

n
1

Multiplyingtheequation
H ( ) = (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

bykandemployingthedefinitionsfor,cc andn,itiseasilyshownthat
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

andthephaseangleis: p g

= arctan

2r 2 1 r

ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Transferfunctionsexpressingthevelocityandaccelerationresponsescan T f f ti i th l it d l ti bewrittenbasedonequation bymultiplyingH()inequation
H ( ) =

x(t ) = X o e

i (t + )

~ i t = Xe

1 (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

byi and(i)^2=^2 respectively.Theresultinggainfunctionforthe velocityoutputwouldbederivedbymultiplyingbothsidesoftheabove equationandtheequation equation and the equation


Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

by andnotingthatXoistheamplitudeofthevelocity.Similarly,the gainfunctionfortheaccelerationcanbeobtainedbymultiplyingboth sidesby^2.

Qualityfactorandbandwidth Quality factor and bandwidth


Forsmallvaluesofdampingwecantake: ll l fd k
X st X max st 1 = =Q 2 = n

where X denotes the amplitude of the response and F st = o = deflection under the static force Fo k

ThevalueoftheamplituderatioatresonanceiscalledtheQfactororthe Th l f h li d i i ll d h Q f h qualityfactorofthesystem.ThepointsR1 andR2,wheretheamplification factorfallstoQ/2,arecalledhalfpowerpointsbecausethepower absorbed(W)bythedamper(orbytheresistorinanelectricalcircuit), respondingharmonicallyatagivenfrequency,isproportionaltothe q p squareoftheamplitude.

Qualityfactorandbandwidth Quality factor and bandwidth


Thedifferencesbetweenthefrequencies h d ff b h f associatedwiththehalfpowerpointsR1 andR iscalledthebandwidth ofthesystem. and R2 is called the bandwidth of the system TofindthevaluesofR1 andR2,weset sothat

or Fromwhich,wecanget:

Qualityfactorandbandwidth Quality factor and bandwidth


Forsmallvaluesof,theroots ll l f h

canbesimplifiedas:

Then Then

Qualityfactorandbandwidth Quality factor and bandwidth


Usingtherelationintheequation h l h wefindthatthebandwidth isgivenby: we find that the bandwidth is given by: Combiningtheaboveequationandtheequation
X st X max st 1 = =Q 2 = n

Weobtain: W b i

ItcanbeseenthatthequalityfactorQcanbeusedforestimatingthe equivalentviscousdampinginamechanicalsystem.

Electricalsystems Electrical systems


Anelectroniccircuitisaclosedpathformedbytheinterconnectionof An electronic circuit is a closed path formed by the interconnection of electroniccomponentsthroughwhichanelectriccurrentcanflow. WehavejustseenthatlinearODEshaveimportantapplicationsin We have just seen that linear ODEs have important applications in mechanics.Similarly,theyaremodelsofelectriccircuitsastheyoccuras portionsoflargenetworksincomputersandelsewhere. Thecircuitsweshallconsiderherearebasicbuildingblocksofsuch networks. Theycontainthreekindsofcomponents,namely,resistors,inductorsand capacitors. KirchhoffsVoltageLaw(KVL): Thevoltage(theelectromotiveforce) impressedonaclosedloopisequaltothesumofthevoltagedropsacross p theotherelementsoftheloop.

Electricalsystems Electrical systems


FigureshowssuchaRLCcircuit.Initaresistorofresistance Fi h h RLC i i I i i f i R (ohms),aninductorofinductanceLH(Henrys)anda capacitorofcapacitanceCF(farads)arewiredinseriesas shown,andconnectedtoanelectromotiveforceE(t) , () V(volts)(ageneratorforinstance),sinusoidalasshownin thefigureorsomeotherkind. R,L,C,andEaregivenandwewanttofindthecurrentI(t) A(Amperes)inthecircuit. AnODEforthecurrentI(t)intheRLCcircuitinthefigureis obtainedfromtheKirchhoffsVoltageLaw. Inthefigure,thecircuitisaclosedloopandtheimpressed voltageE(t)equalsthesumofthevoltagedropsacrossthe threeelementsR,L,C,oftheloop.

Electricalsystems Electrical systems


Voltagedrops: ExperimentsshowthatthecurrentIflowingthrougha l d h h h fl h h resistor,inductorandcapacitorcausesavoltagedrop(voltagedifference, measuredinvolts)atthetwoends.Thesedropsare: RI(Ohmslaw)VoltagedropforaresistorofresistanceRohms dI LI = L l d f i d fi d h ( ) dt VoltagedropforaninductorofinductanceLhenrys(H) Q VoltagedropforacapacitorofcapacitanceCfarads(F)
C

HereQcoulombsisthechargeonthecapacitor,relatedtothecurrentby
I (t ) = dQ equivalently Q(t) = I(t)dt dt

Electricalsystems Electrical systems


TableElementsinanRLCcircuit bl l
Name Ohms resistor Inductor Capacitor p Symbol Notation Ohms resistance,R Inductance,L Unit Ohms () henrys (H) Voltage Drop RI LdI/dt Q/C

Capacitance,C farads p (F)

AccordingtoKirchhoffvoltagelawwethushaveanRLCcircuitwith electromotiveforceE(t)=Eo sint(Eo constant)asamodelfortheintegro () ( ) g differentialequation. 1


LI + RI + C Idt = E (t ) = Eo sin t

Electricalsystems Electrical systems


Togetridoftheintegralin T t id f th i t li
LI + RI + 1 Idt = E (t ) = Eo sin t C

Wedifferentiatetheaboveequationwithrepecttot,obtaining:
LI + RI + 1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C

ThisshowsthatthecurrentinanRLCcircuitisobtainedasthesolutionof thisnonhomogeneoussecondorderODEwithconstantcoefficients. 1 LI + RI + Idt = E (t ) = Eo sin t UsingandnotingthatI=QandI=Q,we C havedirectly: 1


LQ + RQ + C Q = Eo sin t

Butinmostpracticalproblems,thecurrentI(t)ismoreimportantthanthe chargeQ(t)andforthisreason,weshallconcentrateonthebelow q equationratherthantheabove.


LI + RI + 1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C

SolvingODEforthecurrent Solving ODE for the current


A general solution of
LI + RI + 1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C

is the sum I Ih+Ip , where Ih is a general solution of the homogeneous ODE I=I corresponding to the above equation and Ip is a particular solution. We first determine Ip by the method of undetermined coefficients. We substitute:
I p = a cos t + b sin t I = (a sin t + b cos t ) p I = 2 (a cos t b sin t ) p

into the first equation. Then we collect the cosine terms and equate them to Eocost on the right, and we equate the sine terms into zero because there is i no sine term on the right. i h i h
a = Eo C b L 2 (b) + R ( a) + = 0 C L 2 ( a) + Rb + (Cosine terms) (Si t Sine terms)

SolvingODEforthecurrent Solving ODE for the current


Tosolvethissystemforaandb,wefirstintroduceacombinationofLandC, T l thi t f db fi t i t d bi ti fL dC calledthereactance: 1
S = L

Dividingtheprevioustwoequationsby,orderingthemandsubstitutingS gives: Sa + Rb = E
o

Ra Sb = 0

WenoweliminatebbymultiplyingthefirstequationbySandthesecondbyR, andadding.ThenweeliminateabymultiplyingthefirstequationbyRand secondbyS,andadding.Thisgives:


a= Eo S R2 + S 2 b= Eo R R2 + S 2
I p = a cos t + b sin t I = (a sin t + b cos t ) p I = 2 (a cos t b sin t ) p

EquationforIpwithcoefficientsaandbasgivenaboveisthedesired particularsolutionofthenonhomogeneousODEgoverningthecurrentIinan RLCcircuitwithsinusoidalelectromotiveforce.

SolvingODEforthecurrent Solving ODE for the current

a= 2 o 2 b= 2 o 2 UsingwecanwriteIp intermsofphysically f h ll E S R +S ER R +S

visiblequantities,namely,amplitudeI andphaselag ofthecurrent visible quantities namely amplitude Io and phase lag of the current behindtheelectromotiveforce,thatis,
I p (t ) = I o sin(t )

where
Io = a2 + b2 = a S = b R R 2 + S 2 is called the impedance. Our formula shows that the impedance equals the ratio p p q Eo . Io Eo R2 + S2

tan =

The quantity q y

This is somewhat analogous to E/I = R (Ohm' s law)

SolvingODEforthecurrent Solving ODE for the current


Ageneralsolutionofthehomogeneousequationcorrespondingto l l f h h d
LI + RI +

is:

1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C

I h = c1e 1t + c2 e 2t

where1 and2 aretherootsofthecharacteristicequation:


2 +
R 1 + =0 L LC

Wecanwritetherootsintheform + and ,where We can write the roots in the form 1=+ and 2=, where
R R2 1 1 4L = , = = R2 2L 4 L2 LC 2 L C

Nowinanactualcircuit,Risneverzero(henceR>0).Fromthis,itfollowsthat pp , y , p y Ihapproacheszero,theoreticallyast,butpracticallyafterashorttime.

SolvingODEforthecurrent Solving ODE for the current


HencethetransientcurrentI=Ih+Ip tendstothesteadystatecurrentIp and h d h d d aftersometimetheoutputwillpracticallybeaharmonicoscillation, whichisgivenby:
I p (t ) = I o sin(t )

andwhosefrequencyisthatoftheinput(oftheelectromotiveforce)

Analogyofelectricalandmechanical quantities
Entirelydifferentphysicalorothersystemsmayhavethesame E ti l diff t h i l th t h th mathematicalmodel.Forinstance,theODEofamechanicalsystemand theODEofanelectricRLCcircuitcanbeexpressedby:
LQ + RQ + 1 Q = Eo sin t C

m y + c y + ky = Fo cos t

TheinductanceL correspondstothemass,andindeedaninductor p , opposesachangeincurrent,havinganinertiaeffectsimilartothatofa mass. TheresistanceR correspondstothedampingconstantcandaresistor The resistance R corresponds to the damping constant c and a resistor causeslossofenergy,justasadampingdashpotdoes. Thisanalogyisstrictlyquantitativeinthesensethattoagivenmechanical systemwecanconstructanelectricalcircuitwhosecurrentwillgivethe system we can construct an electrical circuit whose current will give the exactvaluesofthedisplacementinthemechanicalsystemwhensuitable scalefactorsareused.

Analogyofelectricalandmechanical quantities
Thepracticalimportanceofthisanalogyisalmostobvious.Theanalogymaybe h i li f hi l i l b i h l b usedforconstructinganelectricalmodelofagivenmechanicalmodel,resulting insubstantialsavingsoftimeandmoneybecauseelectriccircuitsareeasyto assmeble,andelectricquantitiescanbemeasuredmuchmorequicklyand bl d l ti titi b d h i kl d accuratelythanmechanicalones. 1 m y + c y + ky = Fo cos t LQ + RQ + Q = Eo sin t C Table:Analogyofelectricalandmechanicalquantities Electricalsystem Inductance,L Resistance,R Reciprocalofcapacitance,1/C Reciprocal of capacitance 1/C ElectromotiveforceEo sint Current,I(t)=dq/dt , ( ) q/ Charge,Q(t) Mechanicalsystem Massm Dampingc Springmodulusk Spring modulus k DrivingforceFocost Velocity,v(t)=dy/dt y , ( ) y/ Displacement,y(t)

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion Base excited systems: absolute motion


Considerthebaseexcitedsystem d h b d ofthefigure.Thegoaloftheanalysis willbetodeterminetheabsolute will be to determine the absolute responsex(t)(typicallyaccelerationor displacementofthemass)giventhebase motiony(t). Fromthefreebodydiagram,application F h f b d di li i ofNewtonssecondlawleadsdirectlyto thedifferentialequation: the differential equation:

& m&& + cx + kx = ky + cy x &

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion Base excited systems: absolute motion


Assumethatthebasemotionisharmonic, h h b h

y (t ) = Yo e it
Andassumethattheresponsewillbeharmonic, And assume that the response will be harmonic

~ x(t ) = Xe it
~ whereisthecomplexresponse.Thetransferfunctionandthegain where X is the complex response. The transfer function and the gain functionarederivedinthesamemannerasfortheforceexcitedsystem. Thetransferfunctionis: k + ic H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic

Thegainfunctionis The gain function is


Xo k 2 + (c ) 2 1 + (2r ) 2 = H ( ) = = 2 2 2 2 Yo (k m ) + (c ) (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r )

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion Base excited systems: absolute motion



Xo 1 + (2r ) 2 Innondimensionalform d lf = Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Thegainfunctionfortheabsolutedisplacementforthebase excited The gain function for the absolute displacement for the baseexcited systemisshowninthefigure.

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion Base excited systems: absolute motion


ThevalueofTd i h l f isunityatr=0andclosetounityforsmallvaluesofr. i 0 d l i f ll l f Foranundampedsystem=0,Td atresonance(r=1). ThevalueofTd islessthanunity(Td<1)forvaluesofr>2(foranyamountof damping) ThevalueofTd isequaltounity(Td=1)forallvaluesof atr=2

Xo 1 + (2r ) 2 = Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Baseexcitedsystems:absolutemotion Base excited systems: absolute motion


Theequations h
Xo 1 + (2r ) 2 = Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2 Xo k 2 + (c ) 2 = H ( ) = Yo (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

canbeinterpretedasthegainfunctionsforaccelerationoutputgiven accelerationinput.Andagainnotethatthetransferfunctionforvelocity acceleration input And again note that the transfer function for velocity andaccelerationresponsescanbederivedbymultiplyingtheequation k + ic H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic byi and^2,respectively.

Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion Base excited system: Relative motion


Considerthefreebodydiagraminthe C id th f b d di i th figure.Nowtheresponsevariableunder considerationwillbetherelative displacement, displacement

z (t ) = x(t ) y (t )
Inthemodel,thespringrepresentsa structuralelement.Thestressinthat elementwillbeproportionaltoz.Thus, thisproblemwouldberelevantto designersofstructuressubjectedtobase motions,forexample,earthquakes. Lettingz=x-y intheequationofmotion eads d ec y o z & leadsdirectlyto m&& + z + kz = m&& y

Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion Base excited system: Relative motion


Assumingthatthebasemotionisharmonic, h h b h

y (t ) = Yo e it
Andassumingtheresponseisalsoharmonic,

~ z (t ) = Z eit
Followingtheprocedureasdescribedabove,thetransferfunctionis:

m 2 H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic And the gain function is Andthegainfunctionis


Zo m 2 = H ( ) = Yo (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2

Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion Base excited system: Relative motion



Zo r2 Innondimensionlessform, d l f = Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Thegainfunctionfortherelativemotionforthebase excitedsystemis The gain function for the relative motion for the baseexcited system is showninthefigure:

Baseexcitedsystem:Relativemotion Base excited system: Relative motion


Againnotethatthetransferfunctionforrelativevelocityandacceleration h h f f f l l d l responsescanbederivedbymultiplying

m 2 H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic
byi and^2,respectively. Thegainfunctionsforvelocityandaccelerationresponsescanbeobtained bymultiplyingbothsidesoftheequations by multiplying both sides of the equations Zo m 2 Zo r2 = H ( ) = = 2 2 2 Yo Yo (k m ) + (c ) (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2 by and^2,respectively.

Gainfunctionsforforceexcited systems

Gainfunctionsforbaseexcited systems

Example
Afixedbottomoffshorestructureissubjectedtooscillatorystormwaves. A fi d b tt ff h t t i bj t d t ill t t Inafirstapproximation,itisestimatedthatthewavesproduceaharmonic forceF(t)havingamplitudeF=122kN.Theperiodofthesewavesis=8 sec.Thestructureismodeledashavingalumpedmassof110tons sec The structure is modeled as having a lumped mass of 110 tons concentratedinthedeck.Theweightofthestructureitselfisassumedto benegligible.Thenaturalperiodofthestructurewasmeasuredasbeing n= 4 0 sec It is assumed that the damping factor is =5% It is required to =4.0sec.Itisassumedthatthedampingfactoris=5%.Itisrequiredto determinethesteadystateamplitudeoftheresponseofthestructure. Solution: Asmodeled,thiswillbeaforceexcitedsystem,andthe responsecanbecomputedfromthegainfunctionof response can be computed from the gain function of
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Theproblemreducestooneoffindingthefrequencyratiorandthe stiffnessk.

Example
Becauseristheratiooftheforcingfrequencytothenaturalfrequency,it h f h f f h lf followsthatrwillalsobetheratioofthenaturalperiodtotheforcing period.Thus, 4
8 Tocomputek,firstnotethatthenaturalfrequencyis
fn = 1

r=

= 0 .5

= 0.25 Hz.

Thennotingthattheexpressionforthenaturalfrequencyis Then noting that the expression for the natural frequency is
fn = 1 2 k W /g

Wecomputek=27667N/m

Example
Finallysubstitutinginto ll b
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2

Xo=5.87m.

Resonance
ForresonancepleasedownloadtheMillenium g g bridgeandTacomaBridgevideosinthe websiteofthecourse.

Backgroundforresponseof Background for response of SDOFsystemtorandomforces y


ResponseofSDOFsystemtoimpulsiveforces Responseofsingledegreeoffreedomsystemtoarbitraryloading Response of single degree of freedom system to arbitrary loading Relationshipbetweentheimpulseresponseandthetransfer function RelationshipbetweentheFouriertransformofdisplacementand p p force

Responseunderanonperiodicforce Response under a nonperiodic force


WewillseethatperiodicforcesofanygeneralwaveformcanberepresentedbyFourierseriesasa We will see that periodic forces of any general wave form can be represented by Fourier series as a superpositionofharmoniccomponentsofvariousfrequencies. Theresponseofalinearsytemisthenfoundbysuperposingtheharmonicresponsetoeachofthe excitingforces. exciting forces WhentheexcitingforceF(t)isnonperiodic,suchasthatduetoblastfromanexplosion,adifferent methodofcalculatingtheresponseisrequired. Variousmethodscanbeusedtofindtheresponseofthesystemtoanarbitraryexcitationas follows:
RepresentingtheexcitationbyaFourierintegral Representing the excitation by a Fourier integral Usingthemethodofconvolutionintegral UsingthemethodofLaplacetransforms FirstapproximatingF(t)byasuitableinterpolationmodelandthenusinganumericalprocedure Numericallyintegratingtheequationsofmotion.

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
Anonperiodicexcitingforceusuallyhasamagnitudethatvarieswithtime; A nonperiodic exciting force usually has a magnitude that varies with time itactsforaspecifiedperiodoftimeandthenstops. Thesimplestformistheimpulsiveforce aforcethathasalarge The simplest form is the impulsive force a force that has a large magnitudeFandactsforaveryshortperiodoftimet. Fromdynamics,weknowthatimpulsecanbemeasuredbyfindingthe From dynamics we know that impulse can be measured by finding the changeinmomentumofthesystem. TheunitimpulseFactingatt=0isalsodenotedbytheDiracdelta The unit impulse F acting at t=0 is also denoted by the Dirac delta function,(t).TheDiracdeltafunctionattimet=,denotedas (t ) hastheproperties

(t )dt = 1
0

(t ) F (t )dt = F ( )
0

where0<<.Thusanimpulsiveforceactingatt= canbedenotedas:
F (t ) = F (t )

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
ConsideraSDOFsystemsubjectedtoimpulsiveloadingasshowninfigure. d b d l l d h f Theexternalforceis:
F (t ) = Fo (t )

where(t)istheDiracdeltafunction.

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
Theequationofmotionofthemasswillbesimilarto h f f h ll b l

m&& + cx + kx = Fo sin t x &


withtheimpulsiveforceof with the impulsive force of
F (t ) = Fo (t )

ontherighthandside.TheunitimpulseisdefinedasFo=1.Theresponse x(t)totheunitimpulseisdenotedash(t):

&& & mh + ch + kh = (1) (t )


Physicallyspeaking,fort0,aradicalchangeinthesystemmotiontakes Physically speaking for t0 a radical change in the system motion takes placewhentheshortdurationhighamplitudeforceexcitesaninitial motioninthesystem.Butfort>0,theresponsewillbefreevibration. Usingelementarymechanics,F(t)=m(v)itcanbeshownthatthe Ui l h i F( ) ( ) i b h h h velocityofthesystemjustaftertheimpulseis: 1 & h (0 + ) = m

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
Usingtheinitialconditions: U i th i iti l diti

1 & h (0 + ) = m

h(0) = 0

& x + n xo x(t ) = e nt xo cos 1 2 nt + o sin 1 2 n t Intheequation: d

Thefreevibrationresponseis:
h(t ) = 1 nt e sin d t md t >0

Hereh(t)isknownastheforceexcitedabsolutedisplacementresponse, impulseresponsefunctionofthesingledegreeoffreedomsystem.Notethat h(t)characterizesasystemjustlikethetransferfunctionH( )does.The h(t) characterizes a system just like the transfer function H() does The velocityandaccelerationimpulseresponsefunctionscanalsobeobtainedas derivativesofh(t).

Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
IfthemagnitudeoftheimpulseisF If the magnitude of the impulse is F & xo insteadofunity,theinitialvelocityis F/mandtheresponseofthesystem becomes:
x(t ) = F nt e sin d t = Fg (t ) md

IftheimpulseFisappliedatanarbitrary timet= byanamountF/masshownin thefigure,itwillchangethevelocityat t= byanamountF/m.Assumingthatx=0 untiltheimpulseisapplied,the until the impulse is applied, the displacementhatanysubsequenttimet, causedbyachangeinthevelocityattime isgivenbytheaboveequationwitht replacedbythetimeelapsedafterthe replaced by the time elapsed after the applicationoftheimpulse,thatis,t .As showninFig.b,weobtain
x(t ) = Fg (t )

ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Foralinearsystem,theimpulseresponsefunctioncanbeusedtoderive l h l f b d d theresponseofasystemunderanarbitraryloadinghistory.Considerthe forceshowninthefigure

ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Theimpulseduring i ( ) h h i l d i isF().The responsetothisimpulseatanytime t> isapproximately[F()]h(t ). Thentheresponseattisthesumof Th th t t i th f theresponsesduetoasequenceof impulses.Inthelimitas0
x(t ) =

F ( )h(t )d

wheretheinputF(t)isaccountedfor ast,forexample,F(t)couldbe definedaszerofort<0.Theexpression forx(t)iscalledtheconvolution integral.

ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Notethath(t)=0when>t.Thus, wecanexpandthelimitstothe interval(,):

x(t ) =

F ( )h(t )d

Anotherusefulformisobtainedby letting=t:
x(t ) =

F (t )h( )d

ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Bysubstitutingtheequation B b tit ti th ti
h(t ) = 1 nt e sin d t md

t >0

into weobtain: we obtain:

x(t ) =
1 x(t ) = md
t

F ( )h(t )d
n ( t )

F ( )e
0

sin d (t )d

whichrepresentstheresponseofanunderdampedsingledegreeof freedomsystemtothearbitraryexcitationF(t). Notethattheaboveequationdoesnotconsidertheeffectofinitial conditionsofthesystem. Theintegralineitherofthetwoaboveequationsiscalledtheconvolution orDuhamelintegral.

Relationshipbetweenh(t)andH() Relationship between h(t) and H()


AnimportantresultfromFouriertransformtheoryisthath(t)andH() l f f h h h( ) d ( ) formaFouriertransformpair.Thisrelationshipisusefulwhenderiving responsesofdynamicsystemstorandomvibrationinputs.Let,
F (t ) = eit
x(t ) = H ( )e it = h(t )e i d

Then, h

= h( )e i (t ) d

=e

it

h( )e

whichimpliesthath(t)andH()formaFouriertransformpair.
H ( ) = h( )e
i

1 h(t ) = 2

H ( )e

it

Relationshipbetweenh(t)andH() Relationship between h(t) and H()


BasedontheFouriertransformofaconvolution,theexpressionforthe B d th F i t f f l ti th i f th responsetoanarbitraryinputinequation

x(t ) =
andrepresentationin

F ( )h(t )d
1 h(t ) = 2

H ( ) = h( )e i d

H ( )e

i t

itisclearthatwecanalsoexpresstheresponsetoanarbitraryinputas:
1 x(t ) = 2

F ( ) H ( )e

it

whereF()istheFouriertransformofF(t).Thisexpressionisusefulforthe where F() is the Fourier transform of F(t). This expression is useful for the analysisornumericalcomputationofsystemresponseorasthebasisfor randomvibrationcomputations.

RelationshipbetweenX()andF Relationship between X() and F ()


TherelationshipbetweentheFouriertransformsofx(t)andF(t)isusedto h l h b h f f () d () d deriveresponsesofdynamicsystemstorandomvibrationinputinrandom vibrationtheory.TaketheFouriertransformofbothsidesof
x(t ) =

F (t )h( )d

tofind fi d

F (t )h( )d e it dt Let = t , dt = d 1 X ( ) = 2 F ( )h( )d e i ( + ) d Rearranging : 1 X ( ) = 2


X( ) = h( )e
-

-i

1 d 2

F ( )e

RelationshipbetweenX()andF Relationship between X() and F ()


From
H ( ) = h( )e i d

andthebasicrelationshipoftheFouriertransform:
1 u ( ) = 2
+

g (t )e it dt

it follows that X( ) = H( )F( )

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