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References
Modalanalysis: M d l l i HeylenW.,LammensS.AndSasP.,ModalAnalysisTheoryandTesting,Katholieke UniversiteitLeuven,1997. Ewins D J Modal Testing Theory Practice and Application (Mechanical Engineering EwinsD.J.,ModalTesting,Theory,Practice,andApplication(MechanicalEngineering ResearchStudiesEngineeringDesignSeries),ResearchStudiesPre;2edition(August2001) ISBN13:9780863802188 Maia, N. M. M. and Silva, J. M. M.Theoretical and Experimental Modal Analysis, Research Maia,N.M.M.andSilva,J.M.M.TheoreticalandExperimentalModalAnalysis,Research StudiesPressLtd,,Hertfordshire,1997,488pp.,ISBN0863802087 Signalprocessing: Blackburn,JamesA,Moderninstrumentationforscientistsandengineers,NewYork: , , f g , Springer,2001 StearnsS.D.andDavid,R.A.,SignalProcessingAlgorithmsinMatlab,PrenticeHallInc,1996 MitraS.K.,DigitalSignalProcessing,AComputerbasedapproach,McGrawHill,3rdEdition, 2006. HeylenW.,LammensS.AndSasP.,ModalAnalysisTheoryandTesting,Katholieke UniversiteitLeuven,1997. KeithWordenSignalProcessingandInstrumentation,LectureNotes, http://www.dynamics.group.shef.ac.uk/people/keith/mec409.htm
References
Signalprocessing: Lynn,P.A.IntroductoryDigitalSignalprocessingWithComputerApplications.JohnWiley& Sons,1994. StearnsD.D.andDavid,R.A.,SignalProcessingAlgorithmsinMatlab,PrenticeHallInc,1996 Ifeachor E.C.andJervisB.W.DigitalSignalProcessing:APracticalApproach,AddisonWesley, 1997
References
Randomvibrations: R d ib i
BendatJ.S.andPiersolA.G.,Randomdataanalysisandmeasurementprocedures,WileySeriesin ProbabilityandStatistics,3rdEdition,2004. y , , LutesL.D.andSarkani S.,RandomVibrations:Analysisofstructuralandmechanicalsystems,Elsevier,631 pp,2004. NewlandD.E.,Anintroductiontorandomvibrations,spectralandwaveletanalysis,Longman, 1975/1984/1993. SoongT.T.andGrigoriu,Randomvibrationofmechanicalandstructuralsystems,PrenticeHall,1993. Wirsching P.H.andPaez T.L.andOrtizK.Randomvibrations:TheoryandPractice,JohnWileyandsons, 1995. 199 Bendat J.S.and Piersol A.G.Engineeringapplicationsofcorrelationandspectralanalysis,JohnWileyand Sons,2nd Edition,1993. , ,
References
VibrationInstrumentation: Vib i I i Vibration,monitoring,testingandinstrumentationhandbook,CRCPress,TaylorandFrancis, Editedby:ClarenceW.DeSilva. Edited by Clarence W De Silva AszklerC.,Acceleration,shockandvibrationsensors,Sensorshandbook,Chapter5,pages 137159. 137 159 McConnellK.G.,Vibrationtesting,theoryandpractice,JohnWileyandSons,1995.
Prerequisites: Basicknowledgeonstructuralanalysis.
Introduction
Concepts from vibrations Conceptsfromvibrations Degreesoffreedom Classificationofvibration
Definition
Theminimumnumberofindependentcoordinatesrequiredtodetermine h b f d d d d d completelythepositionsofallpartsofasystematanyinstantoftime definesthedegreeoffreedomofthesystem.A singledegreeoffreedom system requiresonlyonecoordinatetodescribeitspositionatanyinstant oftime.
x2 + y2 = l 2
wherelistheconstantlengthofthependulum.Thusanyonecoordinatecandescribethemotionofthe pendulum.Inthisexample,wefindthatthechoiceof astheindependentcoordinatewillbemore convenientthanthechoiceofxandy. convenient than the choice of x and y.
Mathematicalbackground
Homogeneous linear ODEs with HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients NonhomogeneousODEs N h ODE
Introduction
Th d Thedynamicbehaviourofmechanicalsystemsisdescribedbywhat i b h i f h i l t i d ib d b h t wecallsecondorderOrdinaryDifferentialEquations. Theinputtothemechanicalstructureappearsontherighthand sideoftheequationandistheForceandthesolutionofthe equationgivestheoutputwhichisusuallythedisplacement. Inordertobeablesolvetheseequations,itisimperativetohavea solidbackgroundonthesolutionofhomogeneousand g g nonhomogeneousOrdinaryDifferentialEquations. Homogeneous Ordinary Differential Equations represent the Free HomogeneousOrdinaryDifferentialEquationsrepresentthe Free VibrationsandthenonhomogeneousOrdinaryDifferential EquationsrepresentForcedVibrations.
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
WeshallnowconsidersecondorderhomogeneouslinearODEswhose h ll d d d h l h coefficientsaandbareconstant.
y + ay + by = 0 y y + ky = 0
ThesolutionofafirstorderlinearODE:
dy = kdx y
ln y = kdx + c *
= ce kx
Letstrytheabovesolutioninthefirstequation.Usingaconstant y q g coefficientk: x
Subs u g s de v ve Substituting its derivatives : y = e x (2 + a + b)e x = 0 and y = 2 e x d
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Henceif isasolutionoftheimportantcharacteristicequation(or f l f h h ( auxiliaryequation)
2 + a + b = 0
y = e x Thentheexponentialsolutionisasolutionofthe
y + ay + by = 0 y
Nowfromelementaryalgebrawerecallthattherootsofthisquadratic equationare: equation are: 1 = (a + a 2 4b)
2 1 2 = (a a 2 4b) 2
1
Thefunctionsbelowaresolutionsto y + ay + by = 0
y1 = e 1x and y 2 = e 2 x
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Fromalgebraweknowthatthequadraticequationbelowmayhavethree l b k h h d b l h h kindsofroots: 2 + a + b = 0 CaseI:Tworealrootsif a 2 4b > 0 CaseII:Arealdoublerootif a 2 4b = 0 CaseIII:Complexconjugaterootsifa 2 4b < 0 CASEI:Inthiscase,abasisofsolutionsof CASE I: In this case a basis of solutions of y + ay + by = 0 x x inanyintervalis: y1 = e and y2 = e becausey1 andy2 aredefinedandrealforallxandtheirquotientisnot y y q constant.Thecorrespondinggeneralsolutionis:
1 2
y = c1e 1x + c2 e 2 x
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEII:Realdoubleroot=a/2 l d bl / a 2 4b Ifthediscriminantiszero,weseefrom
1 2 1 2 = (a a 2 4b) 2
1 = (a + a 2 4b)
thatwegetonlyoneroot:
= 1 = 2 = a / 2,
hence only one solution : y1 = e ( a / 2) x
y + ay + by = 0
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEII:Realdoubleroot=a/2 l d bl / Wehave: (uy1 + 2uy1 + uy1) + a(uy1 + uy1 ) + buy1 = 0 Collecting terms uy + u(2 y + ay ) + u( y + ay + by ) = 0 Collectingterms Thisexpressioninthelastparanthesisiszero,sincey1 isasolutionof
1 1 1 1 1 1
y + ay + by = 0
2y Theexpressioninthesecondparanthesisiszerotoosince = ae Wearethusleftwith
1
ax / 2
= ay1
u y1 = 0 Hence u = 0
By two integrations u = c1 x + c2
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEII:Realdoubleroot=a/2 l d bl / Togetasecondindependentsolutiony2=uy1,wecansimplychoosec1=1 andc2=0andtakeu=x.Theny2=xy1.Sincethesesolutionsarenot y y proportional,theyformabasis.Henceinthecaseofadoublerootof 2 + a + b = 0 abasisofsolutionsof b i f l i f onanyintervalis:
y + ay + b = 0 by
e ax / 2 , xe ax / 2
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
CASEIII:Complexrootsa/2+i anda/2i CASE III: Complex roots a/2+i and a/2 i Thiscaseoccursifthediscriminantofthecharacteristicequation
2 + a + b = 0
isnegative.Inthiscase,therootsoftheaboveequationandthusthesolutionsoftheODE comeatfirstoutcomplex.However,weshowthatfromthemwecanobtainabasisofrealsolutions:
y + ay + by = 0
where
y1 = e ax / 2 cos x ,
y 2 = e ax / 2 sin x i
2 = b a2
Thisisprovedinthenextslides.Itcanbeverifiedbysubstitutionthatthesearesolutionsinthepresent case.Theyformabasisonanyintervalsincetheirquotientcotxisnotconstant.Hence,arealgeneral solutioninCaseIIIis: l ti i C III i
1 4
y = e ax / 2 ( A cos x + B sin x )
( A , B arbitrary )
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients:Proof
Complexnumberrepresentationofharmonicmotion:Since l b fh r r X = OP thisvectorcanberepresentedasacomplexnumber: this vector can be represented as a complex number: r X = a + ib r X i = 1 whereandaandbdenotexandycomponentsof.Components aandbarealsocalledtherealandtheimaginarypartsofthevectorX.IfA denotesthemodulusortheabsolutevalueofthevectorX,and denotes r X theargumentoftheanglebetweenthevectorandthexaxis,thencan g g , alsobeexpressedas:
HomogeneouslinearODEswithconstantcoefficients: Proof P f
Complexnumberrepresentationofharmonicmotion
r r X = OP
r X = a + ib
r X
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients:Proof
Asapparentwehavetwocomplexroots.Theseare: A t h t l t Th
1 = a + i and 1 = a i
1 2 1 2
Weknowfrombasicmathematicsthatacomplexexponentialfunctioncan beexpressedas: r + it r it r
e = e e = e (cos t + i sin t )
e 2 x = e ( a / 2 ) x ix = e ( a / 2) x (cos x i sin x)
HomogeneouslinearODEswith constantcoefficients
Case I Roots Distinctreal 1,2 II Realdoubleroot =a/2 III Complex Complex conjugate
1 2 1 2 = a i 2
Basis
General solution
e 1x , e 2 x
ax / 2
, xe
ax / 2
1 = a + i
y1 = e ax / 2 cos x y2 = e ax / 2 sin x
y = e ax / 2 ( A cos x + B sin x )
y + p ( x) y + q ( x) y = r ( x)
Thegeneralsolutionconsistsoftwoparts:
y ( x) = yh ( x) + y p ( x) where yh = c1 y1 + c2 y2 is a general solution of the homogeneous ODE ODE.
Terminr(x)
Choiceforyp(x)
kex
kx n (n = 0,1,2,...)
Cex
K n x n + K n 1 x n 1 + .... + K1 x + K 0
k cos x k sin x
kex cos x kex sin x
K cos x + M sin x
ex ( K cos x + M sin x)
b) Modificationrule:Ifaterminyourchoiceforyp happenstobeasolution ofthehomogeneousODEcorrespondingtotheaboveequation,multiply y yourchoiceofyp byx(orx^2ifthissolutioncorrespondstoadoubleroot y y ( p ofthecharacteristicequationofthehomogeneousODE) c) Sumrule:Ifr(x)isasumoffunctionsinthefirstcolumnofthetable, choosefory thesumofthefunctionsinthecorrespondinglinesofthe choose for yp the sum of the functions in the corresponding lines of the secondcolumn.
f =
Thefrequencyfisrelatedto: f = 2 = 2f
dv d 2 x a= = 2 = && x dt dt
Thus,displacement,velocity,andaccelerationhavethefollowing Thus displacement velocity and acceleration have the following relationshipsinharmonicmotion:
incounterclockwisedirection.Thedifferentiationoftheharmonicsgiven bytheaboveequationgives: b h b i i
Thusthedisplacement,velocityandaccelerationcanbeexpressedas:
Usingtherelation
Thefirstequationcanbewrittenas:
x(t ) = 2 X cos
cos( + )t 2 2
FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Considerthesingledegreeoffreedom(SDOF)systemshowninthefigure. d h l d ff d ( ) h h f Thespringisoriginallyintheunstretchedpositionasshown.Itisassumed thatthespringobeysHookeslaw.Theforceinthespringisproportional todisplacementwiththeproportionalityconstant(springconstant)equal tok.
FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Thestiffnessinaspringcanberelatedmoredirectlytomaterialand h ff b l d d l l d geometricpropertiesofthespring.Aspringlikebehaviourresultsfroma varietyofconfigurations,includinglongitudinalmotion(vibrationinthe directionofthelength),transversemotion(vibrationperpendiculartothe length),andtorsionalmotion(vibrationrotatingaroundthelength).
FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Aspringisgenerallymadeofanelasticmaterial.Foraslenderelastic ll d f l l l d l materialoflengthl,crosssectionalareaAandelasticmodulusE(or Youngsmodulus),thestiffnessofthebarforvibrationalongitslengthis givenby: EA
k= l
ThemodulusEhastheunitsofPascal(denotedPa)whichareN/m2. The modulus E has the units of Pascal (denoted Pa) which are N/m2
FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Whenthemassm(weightW)isapplied,thespringwilldeflecttoastatic h h ( h ) l d h ll d fl equilibriumpositionst. Atthisposition,wefindthat:
W = mg = k st
FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
ApplyingNewtonssecondlaw, l dl
W k ( x + st ) = m&& x
Butfromthestaticcondition,notethatW=kst.Thus,theequationof But from the static condition note that W=kst Thus the equation of motionbecomes: m&& + kx = 0 x Withthestandardformof:
k x=0 m This is Case III that has complex roots where the general solution was ThisisCaseIIIthathascomplexrootswherethegeneralsolutionwas computedas: x = e ax / 2 ( A cos t + B sin t ) && + x
Sinceintheaboveequation:
a=0
2 = b a2
1 4
FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Itisshownthat h h
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt
n =
fn =
1 2
k m
( Hz )
FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
Theinitialconditionsx = xo at t=0 and x = x o at t = 0 are used to evaluate h l d 0 d & & d l the constants of integration A and B. When substituted into the equation
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt
weget:
A = xo and B =
& xo
& xo
sin n t
2 2 canalsobecombinedtoaphaseshiftedcosinewithamplitude C = A + B p p andphaseangle=arctan(B/A).Forthispurposelet:
FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
IntroducingthenewvaluesofAandBinto d h l f d x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt weget: Since
x(t)canbeexpressedas: () b d
FreevibrationofundampedSDOF systems
& x
time.Thus,thespring masssystemiscalledaharmonicoscillator.The time Thus the springmass system is called a harmonic oscillator The natureofharmonicoscillationisshowninthefigure.IfCdenotesavector ofmagnitudeC,whichmakesananglent withrespecttotheverticalx axis,thenthesolutioncanbeseentobethe axis then the solution x(t ) = C cos(nt ) can be seen to be the projectionofvectorConthexaxis.
Damping
Undampedanddampedvibration:Theresponseofaspringmassmodelpredicts U d d dd d ib ti Th f i d l di t thatthesystemwilloscillateindefinitely.However,everydayobservationindicates thatmostfreelyoscillatingsystemseventuallydieoutandreducetozeromotion. Thechoiceofrepresentativemodelfortheobserveddecayinanoscillatingsystem Th h i f i d lf h b dd i ill i isbasedpartiallyonphysicalobservationandpartiallyonmathematical convenience.Thetheoryofdifferentialequationssuggeststhataddingatermto & x equationoftheform,wherecisaconstant,willresultina equation m&&(t ) + kx(t ) = 0 of the form cx where c is a constant will result in a solutionx(t)thatdiesout. Physicalobservationagreesfairwellwiththismodelanditisusedvery successfullytomodelthedampingordecayinavarietyofmechanicalsystems. f ll t d l th d i d i i t f h i l t Thistypeofdampingiscalledtheviscousdamping.
Damping
Thelaminarflowoftheoilthroughtheperforationsasthepistonmoves h l fl f h l h h h f h causesadampingforceonthepiston. Theforceisproportionaltothevelocityofthepiston,inadirection p p y p , oppositethatofthepistonmotion.Thisdampingforcehastheform: & f c = cx(t ) wherecisaconstantofproportionalityrelatedtotheoilviscosity.The h i f i li l d h il i i h constantc,calledthedampingcoefficient,hasunitsofNs/m,orkg/s.
m&& + cx + k = 0 x & kx
Bytherootsofaquadraticequation,weobtain:
s1 = + , s2 = , where c = 2m and = 1 c 2 4mk 2m
c > 4mk
2
Distinctrealroots
c 2 = 4mk
Realdoubleroot
Criticaldamping p g
III
c 2 < 4mk
Complexconjugateroots
Underdamping
Definethedampingfactoras:
=
c c = cc 2mn
Introducingtheaboveequationinto
s1, 2 k c c = 2m 2m m
2
x(t ) = Ae
+ 2 1 t n
+ Be
2 1 t n
Themotionisagainnotvibratoryanddecaystotheequilibriumposition.
c 2 < 4mk Then isnolongerrealbutpureimaginary. Then is no longer real but pure imaginary
1 k c2 2 4mk c = = i * where * = 2m m 4m 2
Therootsofthecharacteristicequationarenowcomplexconjugate:
s1 = + i*, with = c 2m s2 = i *
Theequation
x(t ) = e
where
n t
Natureoftherootsinthecomplex plane
For=0,weobtaintheimaginaryroots F 0 bt i th i i t in andin andasolutionof
x(t ) = A cos nt + B sin nt
For0<<1,therootsarecomplex conjugateandarelocatedsymmetrically conjugate and are located symmetrically abouttherealaxis. Asthevalueof approaches1, bothrootsapproachthepoint n on the real axis nontherealaxis. If isgreaterthan1,bothrootslieonthe realaxis,oneincreasingandtheotherdecreasing.
Butt2=t1+d ,hence
Forsmalldamping,theaboveequationcanbeapproximatedas:
Ifweuse
insteadof wehave:
wecancomputethedampingratio. Infactthedampingratio canalsobefoundbymeasuringtwo p g y g displacementsseparatedbyanynumberofcompletecycles.Ifx1 andxm+1 denotetheamplitudescorrespondingtotimest1 andtm+1=t1+md wherem isaninteger,weobtain: is an integer we obtain:
ForcedVibration
Harmonic excitation Harmonicexcitation Baseexcitation
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Somesingledegreeoffreedom(SDOF)systemswithanexternalforceare l d ff d ( ) h lf showninthefigure.ForcecanbeappliedbothasanexternalforceF(t),or asabasemotiony(t),asshown.Thecoordinatex(t)istheabsolutemotion ofthemass.TheforcesWandkst areignoredinthefreebodydiagrams asweknowtheywilladdtozerointheequationofmotion.
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Considertheforceexcitedsystemofthefigure,wheretheappliedforceis d h f d f h f h h l df F (t ) = Fo sin t harmonic, ApplyingNewtonssecondlaw,theequationofmotionbecomes: pp y g , q m&& + cx + kx = Fo sin t x & Thegeneralsolutionforthissecondordernonhomogeneouslinear differentialequationis x(t ) = xh (t ) + x p (t ) diff i l i i wherexh isthecomplementarysolutionorsolutiontothehomogeneous equation.Butthissolutiondiesoutsoon.Ourinterestfocusesonxp,the q , particularsolution.Invibrationtheory,theparticularsolutionisalsocalled thesteadystatesolution.
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Thevariationsofhomogeneous,particular,andgeneralsolutionswith h fh l d l l h timeforatypicalcaseareshowninthefigure. () () () ( Itcanbeseenthatxh(t)diesoutandx(t)becomesxp(t)aftersometime( inthefigure). Thepartofthemotionthatdiesoutduetodamping(thefreevibration part)iscalledtransient.Theparticularsolutionrepresentsthesteady part) is called transient The particular solution represents the steady statevibrationandispresentaslongastheforcingfunctionispresent.
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Theverticalmotionsofamassspringsystemsubjectedtoanexternal h l f b d l forcer(t)canbeexpressedas:
mx + cx + kx = r (t ) (
Mechanically,thismeansthatateachtimeinstantt,theresultantofthe internalforcesisinequilibriumwithr(t).Theresultingmotioniscalleda forcedmotionwithforcingfunctionr(t),whichisalsoknownastheinput forced motion with forcing function r(t) which is also known as the input forceorthedrivingforce,andthesolutionx(t)tobeobtainediscalledthe output ortheresponseofthesystemtothedrivingforce. Ofspecialinterestareperiodicexternalforces,andweshallconsidera drivingforceoftheform: r (t ) = Fo cos t ThenwehavethenonhomogeneousODE: Then we have the nonhomogeneous ODE:
m x + c x + kx = Fo cos t
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
SolvingthenonhomogeneousODE
Tofindyp,weusethemethodofundeterminedcoefficients:
Thecosinetermsonbothsidesmustbeequal,andthecoefficientofthe sinetermontheleftmustbezerosincethereisnosinetermontheright.
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Thisgivesthetwoequations: h h
(k m 2 )a + cb = Fo ca + (k m 2 )b = 0
fordeterminingtheunknowncoefficientsaandb.Thisisalinearsystem. for determining the unknown coefficients a and b This is a linear system Wecansolveitbyeliminationtofind:
k m 2 a = Fo (k m 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2 c b = Fo (k m 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2 2 m(o 2 ) a = Fo 2 2 m (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2 c b = Fo 2 2 m (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
CaseI:Undampedforcedoscillations: d df d ll Ifthedampingofthephysicalsystemissosmallthatitseffectcanbe neglectedoverthetimeintervalconsidered,wecansetc=0.Then g ,
a = Fo b = Fo
2 m(o 2 ) 2 m 2 (o 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
c m ( 2 ) 2 + 2 c 2
2 2 o
a=
Fo m(o2 2 )
b=0
x p (t ) = a cos t + b sin t
x p (t ) = Fo Fo cos t = cos t 2 2 m(o 2 ) k[1 ( ) ]
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Wethushavethegeneralsolutionoftheundampedsystemas: h h h l l f h d d
x(t ) = C cos(o t ) + Fo cos t 2 m(o 2 )
( o )
4 + o
x(t ) =
Resonance
Ifthedampingofthesystemissosmallthatitseffectcanbeneglected If th d i f th t i ll th t it ff t b l t d overthetimeintervalconsidered,wecansetc=0.Thentheparticular responsecanbeexpressedby:
xp = Fo Fo cos t = cos t 2 m( o ) 2 k 1 o
2
Puttingcost=1,weseethatthemaximumamplitudeoftheparticular g , p p solutionis: F
ao =
o
where =
1
2
If
Thisexcitationoflargeoscillationsbymatchinginputandnatural frequenciesiscalledresonance.
Resonance
x Inthecaseofresonanceandnodamping,theODE && + o2 x = o cos ot h f d d h m becomes: m&& + cx + kx = Fo cos t x & Then from the modification rule the particular solution becomes: Thenfromthemodificationrule,theparticularsolutionbecomes:
x p (t ) = t (a cos ot + b sin ot )
Bysubstitutingthisintothesecondequation,wefind:
x p (t ) = Fo t sin ot 2mo
Weseethatbecauseofthefactort,theamplitudebecomeslargerand larger.Practicallyspeaking,systemswithverylittledampingmayundergo larger Practically speaking systems with very little damping may undergo largevibrationsthatcandestroythesystem.
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
CaseII:Dampedforcedoscillations:Ifthedampingofthemassspring df d ll f h d f h systemisnotnegligiblysmall,wehavec>0andadampingtermcxin m&& + cx + kx = r (t ) x & ( m&& + cx + kx = 0 x & Thenthegeneralsolutionyh ofthehomogeneousODEapproacheszeroas tgoestoinfinity.Practically,itiszeroafterasufficientlylongtime.Hence thetransientsolutiongivenby the transient solution given by
y (t ) = yh (t ) + y p (t )
Responseofadampedsystemunder harmonicforce
Iftheforcingfunctionisgivenbytheequationofmotion f h f f b h f becomes: Theparticularsolutionisalsoexpectedtobeharmonic;weassumeitin thefollowingform: whereXand areconstantstobedeterminedthatdenotetheamplitude p g p , p y y g andthephaseangleoftheresponse,respectively.Bysubstitutingthe secondequationintothefirst: Usingthetrigonometricrelationsbelowintheaboveequation Ui h i i l i b l i h b i
Responseofadampedsystemunder harmonicforce
Weobtain: b Ifwesolvetheaboveequation,wefind: If we solve the above equation we find:
Ifweinserttheaboveintothe,wefindthe particularsolution.Using:
r=
Responseofadampedsystemunder harmonicforce
Weobtain: b
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
ThequantityM=X/st isknownasthemagnificationfactor,amplification h / k h f f lf factor ortheamplituderatio.Theamplitudeoftheforcedvibration becomessmallerwithincreasingvaluesoftheforcingfrequency(thatis, M0asr)
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Afactthatcreatesdifficultyfordesignersisthattheresponsecanbecome f h d ff l f d h h b largewhenriscloseto1orwhen iscloseton.Thisconditioniscalled resonance.ThereductioninMinthepresenceofdampingisvery significantatornearresonance.
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Foranundampedsystem(=0),thephaseangleiszerofor0<r<1and180 d d ( ) h h l f d degreesforr>1.Thisimpliesthattheexcitationandresponseareinphase for0<r<1andoutofphaseforr>1when=0.
= arctan
2r 2 1 r
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
For>0and0<r<1,thephaseangleisgivenby0<<90,implyingthatthe d h h l b l h h responselagstheexcitation.
= arctan
2r 2 1 r
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
For>0andr>1,thephaseangleisgivenby90<<180,implyingthatthe d h h l b l h h responseleadstheexcitation.
= arctan
2r 2 1 r
Responseofadampedsystemunder p p y
F (t ) = Fo e it
Usingcomplexalgebra,lettheharmonicforcebe: l l b l h h f b
F (t ) = Fo eit whereF isarealconstantandi istheimaginaryunit.Assumethatthe where Fo is a real constant and i is the imaginary unit Assume that the responsehasthesamefrequencyastheforce,butis,ingeneral,outof phasewiththeforce
~ x(t ) = X o e i (t + ) = Xe it
X = X oe
Substitutingthisintothedifferentialequationofmotion
~ (m 2 + ic + k ) Xeit = Fo eit
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Definethetransferfunction(orfrequencyresponsefunction)H()asthe f h f f ( f f ) ( ) h complexdisplacementduetoaforceofunitmagnitude(Fo=1).Thus,
H ( ) =
1 (k m 2 ) + ic
Rationalizing,thetransferfunctionbecomes:
(k m 2 ) ic H ( ) = (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2
Thisisalsotheratiobetweenthecomplexdisplacementresponseandthe p p p complexinputforcingfunction.
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Definethegainfunctionasthemodulusofthetransferfunction f h f h d l f h f f
H ( ) = H ( ) H * ( ) = (Re H ) 2 + (Im H ) 2
whereH*isthecomplexconjugate.Fortheforceexcitedsystemunder consideration,
H ( ) = 1 (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2
ThegainfunctionistheamplitudeofthedisplacementforFo=1.Thus,
Xo = H ( ) Fo
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Itisconvenienttodevelopanondimensionalformofthegainfunction. d l d lf f h f Firstdefinethefrequencyratio
r=
n
1
Multiplyingtheequation
H ( ) = (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2
bykandemployingthedefinitionsfor,cc andn,itiseasilyshownthat
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
andthephaseangleis: p g
= arctan
2r 2 1 r
ForcedExcitedSystem:Harmonic Excitation
Transferfunctionsexpressingthevelocityandaccelerationresponsescan T f f ti i th l it d l ti bewrittenbasedonequation bymultiplyingH()inequation
H ( ) =
x(t ) = X o e
i (t + )
~ i t = Xe
1 (k m 2 ) 2 + (c ) 2
where X denotes the amplitude of the response and F st = o = deflection under the static force Fo k
or Fromwhich,wecanget:
canbesimplifiedas:
Then Then
Weobtain: W b i
ItcanbeseenthatthequalityfactorQcanbeusedforestimatingthe equivalentviscousdampinginamechanicalsystem.
HereQcoulombsisthechargeonthecapacitor,relatedtothecurrentby
I (t ) = dQ equivalently Q(t) = I(t)dt dt
Wedifferentiatetheaboveequationwithrepecttot,obtaining:
LI + RI + 1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C
is the sum I Ih+Ip , where Ih is a general solution of the homogeneous ODE I=I corresponding to the above equation and Ip is a particular solution. We first determine Ip by the method of undetermined coefficients. We substitute:
I p = a cos t + b sin t I = (a sin t + b cos t ) p I = 2 (a cos t b sin t ) p
into the first equation. Then we collect the cosine terms and equate them to Eocost on the right, and we equate the sine terms into zero because there is i no sine term on the right. i h i h
a = Eo C b L 2 (b) + R ( a) + = 0 C L 2 ( a) + Rb + (Cosine terms) (Si t Sine terms)
Dividingtheprevioustwoequationsby,orderingthemandsubstitutingS gives: Sa + Rb = E
o
Ra Sb = 0
a= 2 o 2 b= 2 o 2 UsingwecanwriteIp intermsofphysically f h ll E S R +S ER R +S
visiblequantities,namely,amplitudeI andphaselag ofthecurrent visible quantities namely amplitude Io and phase lag of the current behindtheelectromotiveforce,thatis,
I p (t ) = I o sin(t )
where
Io = a2 + b2 = a S = b R R 2 + S 2 is called the impedance. Our formula shows that the impedance equals the ratio p p q Eo . Io Eo R2 + S2
tan =
The quantity q y
is:
1 I = E (t ) = Eo cos t C
I h = c1e 1t + c2 e 2t
Wecanwritetherootsintheform + and ,where We can write the roots in the form 1=+ and 2=, where
R R2 1 1 4L = , = = R2 2L 4 L2 LC 2 L C
Nowinanactualcircuit,Risneverzero(henceR>0).Fromthis,itfollowsthat pp , y , p y Ihapproacheszero,theoreticallyast,butpracticallyafterashorttime.
andwhosefrequencyisthatoftheinput(oftheelectromotiveforce)
Analogyofelectricalandmechanical quantities
Entirelydifferentphysicalorothersystemsmayhavethesame E ti l diff t h i l th t h th mathematicalmodel.Forinstance,theODEofamechanicalsystemand theODEofanelectricRLCcircuitcanbeexpressedby:
LQ + RQ + 1 Q = Eo sin t C
m y + c y + ky = Fo cos t
TheinductanceL correspondstothemass,andindeedaninductor p , opposesachangeincurrent,havinganinertiaeffectsimilartothatofa mass. TheresistanceR correspondstothedampingconstantcandaresistor The resistance R corresponds to the damping constant c and a resistor causeslossofenergy,justasadampingdashpotdoes. Thisanalogyisstrictlyquantitativeinthesensethattoagivenmechanical systemwecanconstructanelectricalcircuitwhosecurrentwillgivethe system we can construct an electrical circuit whose current will give the exactvaluesofthedisplacementinthemechanicalsystemwhensuitable scalefactorsareused.
Analogyofelectricalandmechanical quantities
Thepracticalimportanceofthisanalogyisalmostobvious.Theanalogymaybe h i li f hi l i l b i h l b usedforconstructinganelectricalmodelofagivenmechanicalmodel,resulting insubstantialsavingsoftimeandmoneybecauseelectriccircuitsareeasyto assmeble,andelectricquantitiescanbemeasuredmuchmorequicklyand bl d l ti titi b d h i kl d accuratelythanmechanicalones. 1 m y + c y + ky = Fo cos t LQ + RQ + Q = Eo sin t C Table:Analogyofelectricalandmechanicalquantities Electricalsystem Inductance,L Resistance,R Reciprocalofcapacitance,1/C Reciprocal of capacitance 1/C ElectromotiveforceEo sint Current,I(t)=dq/dt , ( ) q/ Charge,Q(t) Mechanicalsystem Massm Dampingc Springmodulusk Spring modulus k DrivingforceFocost Velocity,v(t)=dy/dt y , ( ) y/ Displacement,y(t)
y (t ) = Yo e it
Andassumethattheresponsewillbeharmonic, And assume that the response will be harmonic
~ x(t ) = Xe it
~ whereisthecomplexresponse.Thetransferfunctionandthegain where X is the complex response. The transfer function and the gain functionarederivedinthesamemannerasfortheforceexcitedsystem. Thetransferfunctionis: k + ic H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic
Thegainfunctionfortheabsolutedisplacementforthebase excited The gain function for the absolute displacement for the baseexcited systemisshowninthefigure.
Xo 1 + (2r ) 2 = Yo (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
canbeinterpretedasthegainfunctionsforaccelerationoutputgiven accelerationinput.Andagainnotethatthetransferfunctionforvelocity acceleration input And again note that the transfer function for velocity andaccelerationresponsescanbederivedbymultiplyingtheequation k + ic H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic byi and^2,respectively.
z (t ) = x(t ) y (t )
Inthemodel,thespringrepresentsa structuralelement.Thestressinthat elementwillbeproportionaltoz.Thus, thisproblemwouldberelevantto designersofstructuressubjectedtobase motions,forexample,earthquakes. Lettingz=x-y intheequationofmotion eads d ec y o z & leadsdirectlyto m&& + z + kz = m&& y
y (t ) = Yo e it
Andassumingtheresponseisalsoharmonic,
~ z (t ) = Z eit
Followingtheprocedureasdescribedabove,thetransferfunctionis:
Thegainfunctionfortherelativemotionforthebase excitedsystemis The gain function for the relative motion for the baseexcited system is showninthefigure:
m 2 H ( ) = (k m 2 ) + ic
byi and^2,respectively. Thegainfunctionsforvelocityandaccelerationresponsescanbeobtained bymultiplyingbothsidesoftheequations by multiplying both sides of the equations Zo m 2 Zo r2 = H ( ) = = 2 2 2 Yo Yo (k m ) + (c ) (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2 by and^2,respectively.
Gainfunctionsforforceexcited systems
Gainfunctionsforbaseexcited systems
Example
Afixedbottomoffshorestructureissubjectedtooscillatorystormwaves. A fi d b tt ff h t t i bj t d t ill t t Inafirstapproximation,itisestimatedthatthewavesproduceaharmonic forceF(t)havingamplitudeF=122kN.Theperiodofthesewavesis=8 sec.Thestructureismodeledashavingalumpedmassof110tons sec The structure is modeled as having a lumped mass of 110 tons concentratedinthedeck.Theweightofthestructureitselfisassumedto benegligible.Thenaturalperiodofthestructurewasmeasuredasbeing n= 4 0 sec It is assumed that the damping factor is =5% It is required to =4.0sec.Itisassumedthatthedampingfactoris=5%.Itisrequiredto determinethesteadystateamplitudeoftheresponseofthestructure. Solution: Asmodeled,thiswillbeaforceexcitedsystem,andthe responsecanbecomputedfromthegainfunctionof response can be computed from the gain function of
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
Theproblemreducestooneoffindingthefrequencyratiorandthe stiffnessk.
Example
Becauseristheratiooftheforcingfrequencytothenaturalfrequency,it h f h f f h lf followsthatrwillalsobetheratioofthenaturalperiodtotheforcing period.Thus, 4
8 Tocomputek,firstnotethatthenaturalfrequencyis
fn = 1
r=
= 0 .5
= 0.25 Hz.
Thennotingthattheexpressionforthenaturalfrequencyis Then noting that the expression for the natural frequency is
fn = 1 2 k W /g
Wecomputek=27667N/m
Example
Finallysubstitutinginto ll b
Xo 1 = Fo / k (1 r 2 ) 2 + (2r ) 2
Xo=5.87m.
Resonance
ForresonancepleasedownloadtheMillenium g g bridgeandTacomaBridgevideosinthe websiteofthecourse.
Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
Anonperiodicexcitingforceusuallyhasamagnitudethatvarieswithtime; A nonperiodic exciting force usually has a magnitude that varies with time itactsforaspecifiedperiodoftimeandthenstops. Thesimplestformistheimpulsiveforce aforcethathasalarge The simplest form is the impulsive force a force that has a large magnitudeFandactsforaveryshortperiodoftimet. Fromdynamics,weknowthatimpulsecanbemeasuredbyfindingthe From dynamics we know that impulse can be measured by finding the changeinmomentumofthesystem. TheunitimpulseFactingatt=0isalsodenotedbytheDiracdelta The unit impulse F acting at t=0 is also denoted by the Dirac delta function,(t).TheDiracdeltafunctionattimet=,denotedas (t ) hastheproperties
(t )dt = 1
0
(t ) F (t )dt = F ( )
0
where0<<.Thusanimpulsiveforceactingatt= canbedenotedas:
F (t ) = F (t )
Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
ConsideraSDOFsystemsubjectedtoimpulsiveloadingasshowninfigure. d b d l l d h f Theexternalforceis:
F (t ) = Fo (t )
where(t)istheDiracdeltafunction.
Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
Theequationofmotionofthemasswillbesimilarto h f f h ll b l
ontherighthandside.TheunitimpulseisdefinedasFo=1.Theresponse x(t)totheunitimpulseisdenotedash(t):
Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
Usingtheinitialconditions: U i th i iti l diti
1 & h (0 + ) = m
h(0) = 0
Thefreevibrationresponseis:
h(t ) = 1 nt e sin d t md t >0
Hereh(t)isknownastheforceexcitedabsolutedisplacementresponse, impulseresponsefunctionofthesingledegreeoffreedomsystem.Notethat h(t)characterizesasystemjustlikethetransferfunctionH( )does.The h(t) characterizes a system just like the transfer function H() does The velocityandaccelerationimpulseresponsefunctionscanalsobeobtainedas derivativesofh(t).
Responseofsingledegreeoffreedom systemtoimpulsiveforces
IfthemagnitudeoftheimpulseisF If the magnitude of the impulse is F & xo insteadofunity,theinitialvelocityis F/mandtheresponseofthesystem becomes:
x(t ) = F nt e sin d t = Fg (t ) md
IftheimpulseFisappliedatanarbitrary timet= byanamountF/masshownin thefigure,itwillchangethevelocityat t= byanamountF/m.Assumingthatx=0 untiltheimpulseisapplied,the until the impulse is applied, the displacementhatanysubsequenttimet, causedbyachangeinthevelocityattime isgivenbytheaboveequationwitht replacedbythetimeelapsedafterthe replaced by the time elapsed after the applicationoftheimpulse,thatis,t .As showninFig.b,weobtain
x(t ) = Fg (t )
ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Foralinearsystem,theimpulseresponsefunctioncanbeusedtoderive l h l f b d d theresponseofasystemunderanarbitraryloadinghistory.Considerthe forceshowninthefigure
ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Theimpulseduring i ( ) h h i l d i isF().The responsetothisimpulseatanytime t> isapproximately[F()]h(t ). Thentheresponseattisthesumof Th th t t i th f theresponsesduetoasequenceof impulses.Inthelimitas0
x(t ) =
F ( )h(t )d
ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Notethath(t)=0when>t.Thus, wecanexpandthelimitstothe interval(,):
x(t ) =
F ( )h(t )d
Anotherusefulformisobtainedby letting=t:
x(t ) =
F (t )h( )d
ResponseofSingleDegreeof FreedomSystemtoArbitraryLoading
Bysubstitutingtheequation B b tit ti th ti
h(t ) = 1 nt e sin d t md
t >0
x(t ) =
1 x(t ) = md
t
F ( )h(t )d
n ( t )
F ( )e
0
sin d (t )d
Then, h
= h( )e i (t ) d
=e
it
h( )e
whichimpliesthath(t)andH()formaFouriertransformpair.
H ( ) = h( )e
i
1 h(t ) = 2
H ( )e
it
x(t ) =
andrepresentationin
F ( )h(t )d
1 h(t ) = 2
H ( ) = h( )e i d
H ( )e
i t
itisclearthatwecanalsoexpresstheresponsetoanarbitraryinputas:
1 x(t ) = 2
F ( ) H ( )e
it
whereF()istheFouriertransformofF(t).Thisexpressionisusefulforthe where F() is the Fourier transform of F(t). This expression is useful for the analysisornumericalcomputationofsystemresponseorasthebasisfor randomvibrationcomputations.
F (t )h( )d
tofind fi d
X( ) = h( )e
-
-i
1 d 2
F ( )e
andthebasicrelationshipoftheFouriertransform:
1 u ( ) = 2
+
g (t )e it dt