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Certification of aircraft weight and performance 1st type- domestic certification under the jurisdiction of the state of design

& manufacture 2nd type- involves the validation of the basic aircraft certification by the local or national, authority of the country in which aircraft will be operated Manufacturers Weight Empty (MWE)- weight of the aircraft as it has been billed by manufacturer without seats, galleys, Pallets or containers, fuel, payload & other items necessary for actual operation of the aircraft Operating Weight Empty- This is the weight of the aircraft prepared for services and it is composed of MWE plus operators items. It does not include any payload or fuel Maximum Zero-Fuel Weight (MZFW)- weight of the aircraft with payload added with OWE, but no fuel in the tanks Maximum Design Take-off Weight (MDTOW)- This the maximum certified weight at which the can take-off, as measured at brake release point on the runway. The simplified version of this weight is known as Maximum Take-off Weight (MTOW) Maximum Landing Weight (MLW)- The maximum certified weight at which an aircraft can land is determined by the loads that impact on the landing gear. The value consists of the OWE plus the payload and any reserve fuel not consumed

Payload- it includes the items boarded in the aircraft for which airline receives payment from passengers or shippers. These are passengers, baggage & cargo. It can also be derived by subtracting OWE from MZFW Main deck payload: Cabin layout must be defined to confirm number of seats by class, nos. of galley & toilet & cabin attendant seats are

necessary. These are depend upon airline brand image. A weight should be assigned for each pax plus checked-in baggage & carry-on baggage. International standard is 84 kg for an adult pax with carryon baggage & 20 kg for checked-in baggage. The defined seats are multiplied by assigned weight of pax to build up payload. Lower deck payload: This area is first used for loading pax checked-in baggage and then loaded with the available cargo. Arrangement must be decided whether to accommodate pallets or containers or else under floor pax facilities. Baggage volume vary according to geographical region, nature of services (scheduled or charter or Low Cost Carrier), distances of routes (short or long haul) The maximum range of a given aircraft is confirmed at the time of finalization of design. The payload of a given aircraft can be determined once the OWE is confirmed and the maximization of the weight of Payload is limited by MDTOW. The combination of weight of payload & fuel added beyond OWE will determine how far the aircraft travel with how much payload and the payload-range combination is limited by MDTOW. In order to continue to fly further, we need to enforce a trade-off between weight of more fuel in the tanks and a sacrifice of payload. The straight-line relationship now continues until the fuel tanks, indeed, full. It is usual to indicate the range that could be achieved with full load of pax & their baggage. This range, along with that achieved with maximum structural payload, is the most often quoted reference to indicate the ability of a particular aircraft Changing the MZFW or OWE- If the manufacturer can improve this certificated value by demonstrating the structural integrity of the airframe, then more payload can be made available up to

the MDTOW. Similar impact will be reflected upon changes in OWE Changing the MDTOW limit- A development in MDTOW by the manufacturer would enable the aircraft to either carry more payloads at a given range, or fly further for given payload or a mixture of both. Changing the MFC (Maximum Fuel Capacity) limit- The fuel capacity of an aircraft can be improved by installation of additional fuel tanks in the under floor space. This improvement is done at the cost of: - Cargo tanks take up space that might be used for cargo or pax baggage - Weight of fuel tanks increases the MWE of the aircraft, thereby reducing the available payload. The most common uses for additional fuel tanks are for corporate or VIP aircraft Changing the MLW limit- A MLW operational limit occurs where the distance between the destination airfield and diversion airfield is relatively long, necessitating a higher amount of reserve fuel. Airfield Performance Analysis Runway: A number of important definitions exist for runway lengths, and we must distinguish between those distances which are designated as available and which are required for a specific take-off. Take-off Run (TOR) required enabling the aircraft to start its roll from brake-release, pass through the required speed, lift and clear an altitude of 35 feet at the end of the runway Acceleration & Stop Distance (ASD) required which, for a given weight, is the distance necessary to ensure that the aircraft can come to stand safely on the runway if the take-off is aborted

-Finally, the Take-Off Run (TOR) is the distance from brake-release point up to a point halfway between lift-offs to the 35 feet point. The Take-off weight of the aircraft must be such as the TOD, ASD & TOR required must be equivalent to the TOD, ASD & TOR available. Obstacles: An aircraft take off from a runway it is likely, at some stage, to pass over obstacles in the flight path. These obstacles, whether they be building or mountains, may impinge upon the allowable take-off weight which is calculated according to the ambient conditions. If obstacles are present the runway length must be artificially reduced in order to ensure that aircrafts weight is such that a better climb performance can be achieved to clear the obstacles Ambient conditions: The efficiency of an aircraft & its engines is a function of the density of the air. The less dense the air, the less efficient the aircraft. Air density decreases as altitude and temperature increase, so at hot or high airfield an aircraft needs longer distance to take-off. Some of the classic problem airfield is in Mexico, Madrid, Nairobi, Johannesburg, Addis Ababa, Harare, Sanaa, Quito & La Paz Wet & Dry conditions: Standing water on a runway will obviously impede the progress of an aircraft across the surface. Energy that could have been used to accelerate the aircraft is dissipated and braking distance expands. The practical effect is that the required runway distances are increased Wind: A head wind reduces the acceleration distance required because the can take-off at a lower ground speed. A tailwind has opposite effect and acceleration distance is increased. A pilot must take into consideration the effect of the wind component for a real take-off case.

Flight & Block time: The block time describes the time taken between block off and block on in other words, engine star-up, ground maneuvers or taxi time are included. The flight time incorporates the mission time from start of take-off run to the landing of the aircraft. The

distinction is important as one economic calculation, maintenance cost, is based upon flight times whereas the others are based on block time. Reserve Policies: The purpose of a reserve policy is, naturally, to ensure that aircraft is carrying enough fuel to reach another airfield in the event of the destination airfield being unavailable. Selection of alternatives: Diverting to alternative airfield usually occurs owing to poor weather condition, but may also be due to an obstruction on the runway. The longer the distance from the intended destination to the alternative, the higher becomes the amount of fuel to be loaded at departure. A long alternate means that fuel burn is increased, as the aircraft must burn fuel to carry fuel. Fuel requirement for a typical flight profile: -Segment or stage fuel- the fuel burnt during climb, cruise and decent -Trip fuel- Fuel brunt during take-off, climb, cruise, decent and approach. -Block fuel- Fuel burnt during trip, taxi-out and taxi-in -Total fuel loaded- Fuel burnt (Block Fuel) + allowance+ diversion (Allowance is usually 5% of the trip fuel) Tankering : There are some airfield where either fuel supplies are unreliable or there is no fuel supply available at all e.g. Lhasa. Sufficient fuel has to be uplifted at the departure point to return from the destination. Carrying fuel for an onward stage obviously imposes some penalties structural limitation & payload. There is an economic balance to be struck between the price difference of fuel between the origin and destination, the value of the payload surrendered, and the cost of fuel burned to carry additional fuel

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