Specification

content for Chemistry

Section C1: Principles of Chemistry

(a) Atoms All matter is made of tiny particles which constantly move around/vibrate. This can be proven through the following experiments: Coloured solutions diffuse and become diluted Gases diffuse (prove by HCL fumes and ammonia forming white ammonium chloride) Brownian motion smoke/dust particles in air/water get pushed around by smaller air/gas particles, resulting in random movement. Atom particles of which elements are composed of Molecules is two or more atoms chemically bonded together Element is a substance consisting of only one type of atom Compound is a substance consisting of two or more types of atoms which are chemically bonded together, in fixed proportions Mixture is when two or more types of atoms are physically, but not chemically, combined and will not be in fixed proportions

(b) Atomic structure Atom consists of a nucleus (protons and neutrons) surrounded by orbiting electrons Proton Neutron Electron 16 O 8 atomic number = number of protons = number of neutrons Relative Mass 1 1 1/1837 Relative Charge +1 0 -1

mass number grams/mol : number of protons and neutrons

Isotopes are atoms of the same elements which have same amount of protons and electrons, but different amount of neutrons, thus a different mass number.

Relative atomic mass (Ar) is the average mass number of all the isotopes of an element, weighted by the percentage, or relative abundance, of its isotope. Electronic configuration the arrangement of electrons in an atom First electron shell 2 electrons Second/Third electron shell 8 electrons

(c) Relative formula masses and molar volumes Relative formula masses (Mr) calculating the grams/mol of a compound A mole of an substance = 6.023 x 10^23 atoms of that substance Formulas for calculating moles!!! Mass of element (g) = mass number (grams/mol) * moles Moles of an element (mol) = mass of element (g) / mass number (grams/mol) In room temperature and air pressure, 1 mole of gas ALWAYS has a volume of 24liters / 24dm^3 / 24,000 cm^3 24(L) = volume of gas (L) / Mols (d) Chemical formulae and chemical equations calculate empirical formulae and molecular formulae write balanced chemical equations to represent the reactions studied in this specification use the state symbols (l), (s), (g) and (aq) in chemical equations to represent liquids, solids, gases and aqueous solutions respectively (e) Ionic compounds and (f) covalent compounds Ions are charge particles Metals becomes positive ions (cations) by losing one electron Non-metals become negative ions (anions) by gaining one electron Oxidation is gaining electrons Reduction is losing electrons Valency Table 1 2 3

Li + Na + K+ H+ Ag + OH NO3 + NH4+

Ca 2+ Cu 2+ O 2Mg 2+ Zn 2+ Lead 2+ Barium 2+ Iron (II) 2+ (CO3)2+ (SO4)2+

PO4 Al 3+ Fe (III) 3+

use the dot and cross model to explain the formation of an ionic compound by electron transfer, limited to combinations of Li+, Na+, Mg2+, F-, Cl- and O2 use dot and cross diagrams to represent single covalent bonds in hydrogen water methane hydrogen chloride nitrogen (N2) ethane (C2H6) carbon dioxide There can be double covalent bonds, or triple covalent bonds. Ionic Compounds What Bonding between bonding? metals and nonmetals. The metal atom transfers electrons to the nonmetal atom so that both elements gain full outer electron shell. When this occurs, the metal and non-metal become oppositely charged ions, which are consequently attracted to each other and form ionic Covalent Compounds Bonding between two non-metals. The atoms of two or more elements overlap out electron shell and share electrons so that all atoms gain a full outer electron shell. The shared electron means that the strong covalent bonds are formed. Metallic Compounds The electrons of metallic elements are delocalized, so they surround all the positive metal ions and bond them together with strong electrostatic forces of attraction.

Boiling/ melting points

bonds. Giant Ionic Structures: High melting points because there are strong intermolecular forces of attraction throughout the ionic structure. Lots of energy is required to break these bonds

Conduct electricity as solid in aqueous/ molten state

No, the ions arent free to move Yes, the ions are disassociated in water and are free to move to appropriate electrode and allow electricity to pass.

Simple Giant Covalent: Covalent: Lower melting High melting points because points because although there many these are strong structures intramolecular contain many forces of atoms joined attraction (within together by the molecule), strong covalent intermolecular bonds forces of attraction are weaker, so less energy is needed to break them apart No. They dont have ions. Mostly no, they dont have ions Some covalent compounds such as HCL dissolve in water to form ions, so they can conduct electricity

Giant Metallic: High melting points because lots of energy is required break the electrostatic forces of attraction between delocalized electrons and the ions

Yes, delocalized electrons free to move

Allotropes: substances made of same elements, but are bonded in a different structure so that they have different physical properties. Diamond and graphite are allotropes of carbon Diamond structure Each carbon molecule is covalently bonded to four other ones Graphite Each carbon molecule is covalently bonded to 3 other ones It has a layer structure, with weak forces of attraction between each other. Soft material, slippery feel less dense Silver Conduct electricity High sublimation point (solid to gas) because they are held together by

Properties

Hard More dense Shiny, transparent Does not conduct electricity High sublimation point (solid to gas) because they are held

Uses

together by strong covalent bonds lubricant

strong covalent bonds cutting

Section C2: Chemistry of the elements (a) The Periodic Table Periodic Table elements are arranged in order of atomic number Periods: the rows on the table. Elements going across a period: Increase in number of electrons on outer energy level/shell Change gradually from metal to non-metal Giant metallic > giant covalent > simple molecular

Groups: the columns on the table. Elements going down a group: have same number of electrons in the outer shell similar chemical properties trend of reactivity

Group 1: Alkali metals one electron on outer shell, forms +1 cation when reacted shiny when fresh cut low density compared to other metals (they float on water) soft metals low boiling/melting point good conductor of heat and electricity hydroxides (OH-1), halides, sulphates(SO4+2), nitrates (NO3+)and carbonates (CO3+2) are soluble in water oxides and hydroxides form alkaline solutions react with water: alkali metal + water metal hydroxide (alkaline solution) + Hydrogen (gas) reaction with oxygen: alkali metal + oxygen alkali metal oxide Alkali metal oxide + water metal hydroxide (alkaline solution) Alkaline metal + halogen alkaline metal halide

Trends in reactivity (as you go down the group) More reactive (when alkali metals react, they lose one electron to gain a full, stable outer electron shell. So as you go down the group, the electron size gets larger and the outer electron is further away from the nucleus so that the electrostatic forces of attraction between the electron and nucleus are weaker. This means less energy is required to remove the outer electron, so the element is more reactive)

More dense Lower boiling point Softer

Group 7: Halogens seven electrons on outer shell, forms -1 anion when reacted Low boiling/melting point Exists as diatomic molecules Brittle when solid Non-metal Poor conductor of heat/electricity Coloured fumes Iodine used as antiseptic for wounds, chlorine for killing microorganisms in pool A more reactive halogen will displace a less reactive one from its compound

Trends in reactivity (as you go down the group): Less reactive (when halogens react, they gain one electron to gain a full outer shell. So the further down the group, the further away the incoming electron is from the nucleus of the atom, so that the attractive forces are less) Higher boiling/melting point Density increases Colour darkens Gas > liquid > solid (at room temperature) Fluorine Pale yellow Gas Chlorine Pale green Gas Bromine Red brown Liquid Iodine Dark brown Solid If the halogen is displaced, the solution turns colour: Chlorine: milky coloured Bromine: yellow iodine: brown Chlorine + Hydrogen Hydrogen Chloride (g) Cl2 + H2 2HCL

Hydrogen Chloride + Water Hydrochloric Acid (H+ and Cl-) Hydrogen chloride is a gas. When dissolved in water, it splits into Cl- and H+, and the H+ gives it its acidic property. The disassociated ions (electrolytes) can move freely to appropriate electrodes, so they can conduct electricity. However, if Hydrogen Chloride is dissolved in methylbenzene, the Cl- and H+ remain as ionic compounds (are not split up), so it is not acidic and cannot conduct electricity

Group 0: Noble Gases Full outer shell Inert gases (very un-reactive) Single atom gases Low melting point Low density Colourless

Trends in reactivity (as you go down the group): Higher density Higher boiling/melting point Helium Neon Argon Less dense than air, helium ballons Produce light when electricity passes through (neon lights) Fill light bulbs as it is not reactive and wont react with the filament

(d) A transition metal copper Transition metals are harder than alkali metals They are more dense They are ductile and malleable They form coloured compounds Black Blue Blue Blue Green-blue Light Green

Copper (II) Oxide Copper (II) Hydroxide Copper (II) Nitrate Copper (II) Sulphate Copper (II) Carbonate Copper (II) Chloride

They may have variable valency (copper (I) and (II) / iron (II) and (III)) They form complex ions

(e) Reactivity series Potassium, Sodium, Lithium, Calcium, Magnesium, Aluminium, hydrogen, Zinc, Iron, Tin, Lead, carbon, Copper, Silver, Gold
More reactive elements displace less reactive ones from their compounds

Redox reaction more reactive metal takes the oxygen from the less reactive metal Displacement reaction (of aqueous solutions)

recall the reactions with oxygen, water and dilute acids used to establish reactivity
Metal + Oxygen Metal Oxide Metal + Water Metal Hydroxide + Hydrogen Metal + Acid Salt + Hydrogen Metal Oxide + Acid Salt + Water Metal Hydroxide +Acid salt + water Metal Carbonate + Acid Salt + water + Carbon dioxide

Rust is when iron or steel becomes oxidized (lose electrons) Conditions needed: water and oxygen Salts and acids accelerate rusting Rusting can be prevented by grease, oil, paint, plastic coating - these prevent oxygen and air getting in contact with the iron/steel and prevents rusting. Galvanising: zinc coating protects the iron/steel. The zinc slowly corrodes as the zinc looses electrons to the iron/steel to stop it oxidizing. Sacrificial protection: attach bars of zinc, or other metal, to the iron/steel being protected. Zinc is above iron in the reactivity series so it will lose electrons to iron, thus protecting it. This is used in hulls of ships, pipes and the sacrificial metal can be attached by wires to obtain same results. (f) Preparing and analysing Recall tests for the following elements Test Result Test for Gases Oxygen Glowing splint Relight Carbon dioxide Lime water (calcium Calcium hydroxide (aq) + Carbon Dioxide (g) hydroxide solution) Calcium Carbonate (s precipitate) + H20 (l) Hydrogen Ammonia (alkaline gas) Chlorine (acidic gas) Lighted splint Red litmus paper Hydrochloric Acid Blue litmus paper Silver nitrate (aq) Limewater goes cloudy from clear Squeaky pop H2 + O2 2H2O Turns blue White fumes of Ammonium Chloride formed NH3 + HCL NH4CL (g) Red Ag(NO3) + Cl AgCl (s) + NO3

White precipitate of silver chloride Test for metal ions (cations) (metal ions in compounds) Lithium Li+ Flame Test for metal Red cations Sodium Na+ Yellow Potassium K+ Lilac Calcium Ca+ Brick Red Ammonium Sodium Hydroxide NH4+(aq) + NaOH NH3(g) + H20(l) + ions (NH4 - ) Na+(aq) Copper 2+ Sodium hydroxide Ammonia Solution NH3 + H2O NH4+ + OH- (the OHreacts like from NaOH) Sodium hydroxide Ammonia (NH3) Sodium hydroxide Ammonia (NH3) Test for Anions Chloride ClBromide BrIodide ISulphate [SO4]2+ Carbonate [CO3]2+ HNO3 + Silver Nitrate (AgNO3) Barium Nitrate or Chloride HCL The NH3 (ammonia gas) is tested as above NaOH(aq) + Cu+ CuOH (s) + Na+ Blue precipitate (clear excess NaOH) Blue precipitate (dark blue excess the excess NH4+ added causes the precipitate to redissolve to form the complex ion [Cu(H2O)2(NH3)4)]2+ Green precipitate (clear excess NaOH) Green precipitate Brown-orange precipitate (clear excess NaOH) Orange precipitate AgCl forms a cloudy precipitate AgBr forms a creamy precipitate AgI forms a pale yellow precipitate Barium Sulphate forms a white precipitate form Carbonate + HCL salt + water + CO2 Test the CO2 using limewater as above

Iron 2+ Iron 3+

Solubility rules of common types of salts in water

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. Alkali Metals (Potassium, Lithium, Sodium) and Ammonium salts are soluble All nitrates are soluble Common chlorides are soluble, except for silver chloride Common suplhates are soluble, except barium and calcium Common carbonates and hydroxides are insoluble, except alkali metal and ammonium Silver compounds are mostly insoluble

Section C3: Organic chemistry (a) Alkanes Alkanes are saturated hydrocarbons Alkanes are compounds which only contain Carbon and Hydrogen Covalent compounds

They are saturated means that they only have single covalent bonds, so no more atoms can be added

Homologous Series: a family of compounds which have similar structure and chemical properties. A family of compounds can be represented by a general formula. Members of the same homologous series may show a gradual trend in their physical properties. General Formula: is the chemical formula used for compounds belonging to the same homologous series. 2 +2 : alkanes 2 : alkenes Isomerism (Isomers): same molecular formula, but different structural formula (their atoms are bonded in a different structure). Alkanes you must know how to draw them! CH4 Methane C2H6 Ethane C3H8 Propane C4H10 Butane C5H12 Pentane As you go down the homogenous series, in order of number of Carbons, the size and mass of the molecules increase, so the intermolecular forces increase. This means that the boiling/melting points increase as well and they change from gases (2-4 carbons), liquids (5-18 carbons), solids (18+ carbons). (b) Alkenes Alkenes are unsaturated hydrocarbons they have a double covalent bond, so it can be broken for two more atoms to be added. General formula: 2 Alkenes C2H4 C3H6 C4H8 Ethene Propene Butene

To test for alkenes, shake a few drops of bromine solution with the alkenes. If it is an alkene, a reaction will occur in which the bromine will break the alkene double bond and join to it. This results in the bromine losing its red/brown colour Section C4: Physical chemistry (a) States of matter Gas Takes up shape of its Liquid Take up shape of its Solid Fixed shape

container Takes up volume of its container Particles very loosely packed together, minimal forces of attraction between them Particles move freely and randomly around whole container. Collide less often that in liquids

container Fixed volume Particles more loose, weaker attractive forces between them than solids

Fixed volume

there are strong attractive forces between particles so they are held closely together Particles move around each Particles only vibrate about other more easily, collide fixed positions, and are with each other often arranged in a regular manner

Melting: as temperature increases, the particles gain more kinetic energy and vibrate more. This causes them to push each other further and further apart. Eventually, the particles gain enough energy to break free from the regular structure and the particles can now move around each other. The temperature at which this occurs is the substances melting point, and this is when it becomes a liquid. Boiling: as temperatures increase further, the particles gain more kinetic energy. Those on the surface of liquid may evaporate as they gain enough energy to break free from the surface of liquid. Condensation: as temperature decreases, particles loose energy and the particles move closer together. The forces of attraction between them now increase and cause the gas to condense into a liquid. Freeze: as temperatures decrease further, the particles loose even more energy, and eventually the forces of attractions becomes significant so that the liquid freezes into a solid. Techniques for separation: Distillation: evaporation for a mixture of solids and liquids Fractional distillation: separates mixtures of liquids by heating it up. The different component liquids in the mixture will evaporate separately at different temperatures, because they have different boiling points. Collect the evaporating gases through a condenser to condense them back into liquids to be collected separately. Filtration: separates mixtures of solid and liquids. filtering the solution through filter paper, leaving behind the residue and filtrate Paper chromatography: separates mixtures of ink. Place a drip of ink on a filter paper, and a drop of water next to it. The water will diffuse through the ink, carrying the ink with it up the filter paper. Different types of ink will travel different distances across the filter paper, due to their different solubility in water. Crystallization: to separate liquid and soluble salts. Heat mixture up until most of the liquid evaporates, leaving a saturated solution. Leave this to dry, and as the solvent evaporates, the solid will crystallize.

(b) Acidity, alkalinity and neutralisation Test for acidity and alkalinity using suitable indicators Acid (0=>ph>7) Neutral (ph7) pH scale (0-14) Below 7 7 Universal Indicator Red orange green Solution yellow Litmus paper Red Purple Phenolphthalein Clear Methyl Orange Red Base + Acid Salt + Water Metal + Acid salt + hydrogen (ionic equation: H+ (from acid) + e- (electrons from metal) H2) Metal Oxide/Hydroxide + Acid Salt + Water Metal Carbonate + Acid Salt + Water + Carbon dioxide Naming their Salts Chloride Sulphate Nitrate Phosphates Carbonates Alkaline (7>ph=>14) Above 7 Greenish-blue dark blue purple Blue Pink Yellow

Hydrochloric Acid HCL Sulphuric Acid H2SO4 Nitric Acid HNO3 Phosphoric Acid H3PO4 Carbonic Acid H2CO3

Preparing salts using an insoluble base (such as some metal oxides/hydroxides/carbonates): React excess base with dilute acid Filter off excess base Evaporate the solution to leave with salt Wash with distilled water and dry Preparing salts using alkalis (alkali metal compounds) - TRITATION: Use a pipette to measure a known volume of acid pour in conical flask and put a few drops of phenolphthalein indicator solution Fill a burette with alkali and let it drip into the flask slowly Just as the phenolphthalein changes from clear to pink, the acid has been neutralized. Evaporate solution to leave salt, wash and dry If the salt produced is insoluble, just filter it off, wash and dry (c) Energetics

Chemical reactions occur with energy changes which, in solution, can be detected as a temperature change. Chemical reactions which give off heat energy are exothermic. Chemical reactions which take in heat energy are endothermic.

In all reactions: Breaking bonds require energy (endothermic) Making bonds give out energy (exothermic) Combustion and neutralization is exothermic Solution (dissolving of a solute in solvent) takes in energy so they are endothermic. This is why the dissolution works better with added heat. Photosynthesis and combustion are also endothermic The energy stored in bonds is called the enthalpy. Change in enthalpy (also known as heat of reaction) is written as H, it is the result of bonds breaking and forming Positive enthalpy is energy taken in (endothermic) Negative enthalpy is energy given off (exothermic)

(d) Rates of reaction the rate in which chemicals react Rate of reaction can be affected by: Surface area of reactants: if the surface area to volume ratio is greater, then there is more surface area for the reactants to react, as reactions can only take place when particles from the two reactants collide. Concentration: as this increases, there will be more particles per dm^3, so that the particles are more likely to collide with each other, and with more frequency for reaction to occur more quickly. Temperatures: as this increases, the heat energy gives the particles more kinetic energy and they collide with greater force. Reactions are more likely to take place when the particles have more energy, as they must overcome the activation energy before they can react successfully. Use of catalysts catalysts are chemical substances which speed up reactions without being used up themselves. It provides a convenient surface for the reactions to occur, so they collide more often and react more. It also lowers the activation energy needed to start off the reaction
MEASURING THE RATE For reactions where gas is produced: 1. Carry out reaction in closed flask connected to a gas syringe 2. Record the volume of gas in the gas syringe every 5 seconds

3. Plot a graph, volume (of gas produced) against time. The gradient is the rate of reaction 4. Repeat at different temp/surface area/catalysts/ other conditions to compare answers Or 1. Carry reaction in a conical flask on an electronic balance. 2. Record the weight loss of the thing every 10 seconds 3. Plot a graph, the gradient is the rate of reaction For reactions where precipitate is formed: 1. 2. 3. 4. React in conical flask, over a piece of paper with a cross on it Measure the time needed for the precipitate to for most that the cross cannot be seen Repeat in different reactant conditions Plot on graph

(e) Equilibria Candidates will be assessed on their ability to discuss the idea of a simple reversible reaction, such as the hydration of anhydrous copper(II) sulphate or the effect of heat on ammonium chloride (C4.20) explain the concept of dynamic equilibrium and the use of the symbol in equations (C4.21) predict the effects of changing the conditions (pressure and temperature) on reversible reactions including the industrial processes outlined in section 5(d) Section C5: Chemistry in society (a) Extraction and uses of metals understand oxidation and reduction as the addition and removal of oxygen respectively describe and explain the extraction of aluminium from purified aluminium oxide by electrolysis, including use of molten cryolite need to replace the positive electrodes cost of the electricity as a major consideration (C5.2) write ionic half-equations for the reactions at the electrodes in aluminium extraction describe the reaction of carbon with metal oxides recall how iron is extracted from iron ore in a blast furnace using the raw materials iron oxide, coke, limestone and air describe and explain the main reactions involved in the extraction of iron, including the role of carbon dioxide and limestone explain how the methods of extraction of the metals in this section are related to their positions in the reactivity series

describe and explain the purification of copper by electrolysis using impure copper as the positive electrode and pure copper as the negative electrode in a solution of copper(II) sulphate recall some important uses of the metals in this section and relate the uses to specified properties

(b) Natural oil and gas Crude oil is a complex mixture of hydrocarbons Fractional distillation can be used to separate the hydrocarbons in crude oil, because the different fractions have different boiling/condensing points. So the crude oil is heated to about 400 degrees Celcius and passed into the fractionating column near the bottom. The different fractions evaporate up the column and condense at different levels in the column and collected onto trays. Fractions obtained from crude oil (paraffin) refinery gases used as bottled gas/ fuel gasoline/ petrol used as fuel for cars kerosene fuel for jet engines diesel fuel for diesel engines, such as trucks/trains fuel oil heating system or ship bitumen surfacing roads Complete combustion of hydrocarbon fuels Hydrocarbon fuel + oxygen carbon dioxide + water Incomplete combustion occurs when there isnt enough supply of oxygen, this produces carbon monoxide. It is dangerous for humans as it reduces the capacity of blood to carry oxygen. Combustion of hydrocarbon fuels may produce pollutant gases nitrogen oxides or sulphur dioxide, which may dissolve in rain cloud to form acid rain Fractional distillation produces more long-chain and fewer short-chain hydrocarbons than required, so long-chain hydrocarbons are cracked to give more short chain hydrocarbons alkanes and shorter, more useful akenes. To carry out cracking, you heat the long-chain alkane with a catalyst (broken, unglazed pottery/ aluminium and chromium oxides) to high temperatures (500 degrees). Cracking is the main source of alkenes. For instance C8H18 C4H10 + C4H8 (always produces a shorter alkane and ethane)

(c) Synthetic polymers

Polymers are formed by joining many small molecules of monomers By heating it up in high temperature, High pressure, In the presence of a catalyst This is possible because many alkenes possess double covalent bonds which can be broken down and joined with other monomers to form very large polymer chains. This is called polymerisation ethene Polyethene n[CH2=CH2] [ - CH2 CH2 - ] n Durable Does not corrode Good electrical insulator Easily moulded It is tough Carrier bags, bowls, buckets, packaging Durable, tough Ropes, packaging Same as ethane Slightly more stronger and harder, less flexible Pipes , electrical insulation (d) The manufacture of some important chemicals recall how nitrogen, from air, and hydrogen, from natural gas or the cracking of hydrocarbons, are used in the manufacture of ammonia (C5.23) recall the conditions used in the Haber process a temperature of about 450 C a pressure of about 200 atmospheres an iron catalyst how the ammonia produced is liquefied and any unused hydrogen and nitrogen recycled recall important uses of ammonia, including the manufacture of nitric acid and the manufacture of nitrogenous fertilisers (C5.25) recall that sodium hydroxide and chlorine are manufactured by the electrolysis of sodium chloride solution (brine) (C5.26) recall important uses of sodium hydroxide (manufacture of soap, paper, ceramics) and chlorine (in bleach and for sterilising water supplies) (C5.27).

Propene

Polypropene n[CH3 CH = CH2] [CH-CHCH3 - ]n Polychlorothene (PVC) n[CH2=CHCl] [ - CH2 CHCl - ] n

Chloroethene