RENEWABLE ENERGY APPLICATIONS, GRID-CONNECTED PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS IN BUILDINGS

Panom Parinya
The Joint Graduate School of Energy and Environment , King Mongkuts University of Technology Thonburi, Bangkok, Thailand

Abstract: To assessment the valuable of renewable energy, Photovoltaic (PV) systems in buildings have to consider the clearly parameters for comparison. These acceptable parameters are Energy Pay-Back Time (EPBT), Life-cycle CO2 emission and Cost of energy. In term of energy, the energy requirement for PV module production process will be considered first, then the comparison of EPBT between each type of PV systems are presented. During the manufacturing of PV module and balance of systems cause emit the pollution gas such as CO2, SO2 and NOx. Typically, all of energy technologies can cause the CO2 emission, therefore this paper will present the comparison how different of CO2 emission of each interesting types of PV systems and renewable energies. After that, the problems and barriers of PV systems especially, PV systems in buildings will be offered for the understanding of this kind of PV technology. The last one is the considering of progress and potential in future of PV systems in buildings that illustrate the challenge of renewable energy technology for the next generation.

1.

INTRODUCTION

At present, energy deficient and climate fluctuation problems become obviously occur and affect to human being. Mostly energy used come from fossil fuel, the carbon based consistent that mainly cause the previous problems. Therefore, non-carbon based energy or sustainable energy has been developed and applied for resolving these problems. Renewable energy is the one that the best solution that source of energy can sustain ecosystem and sufficient for the next generation. All of renewable energy in the universe, the most imperative and greatest is solar energy. For the earth, solar energy plays a role as the driver of all activities both direct and indirect way. From the studying of solar radiation show that average 1000 watts per square meter that the earth ground receive from the sun, compare with energy consumption of human that average 2 kilowatts per person [1]. If assume that all of solar energy can be used, so only 2 square meter per person that enough for each one. Reality, only 20 percents or below that we can utilize from solar energy. One of the technology that convert solar energy for human use is called Photovoltaic (PV) , more than 160 years that photovoltaic effect was discovered [3]. PV effect can change the solar energy into direct electricity. By the characteristics of semiconductor, photons from light of a suitable wavelength fall within the p-n junction, they can transfer their energy to valence electrons in the material, thus promoting them to a higher energy level or excited state that electrons become free to conduct electric current. With the different production technology and substrate of semiconductor, type of PV cell can be divided to mono-crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon and thin film or amorphous silicon. From these PV cells are connected together to PV module. After that PV modules and other components such as converters are connected together to the PV system. There are several categories of PV system using now such as grid-connected, off grid and stand alone PV system but the most popular is grid-connected PV system especially, the system in building [2]. Even though there are not release emission during operating but they use energy for their manufacturing and lead to emit pollution as well. Furthermore the low efficiency converting energy and high cost of PV cell still be problem in order to considering until now.

2.

PARAMETERS FOR PHOTOVOLTAIC SYSTEMS ASSESSMENT AND COMPARISON.

By the concept of renewable energy, environment impact and energy source sustainability are regarded together to asses that kind of energy technology. PV system technologies do not cause emissions during operation, but they do cause emissions during manufacturing and possibly on decommissioning. Because of energy using both thermal form and electrical form during manufacturing, we need to compare the energy use in production process of all equipments with the energy gain from the PV system. The results will indicate the useful and valuable for decision further. For environment impacts that are pointed to CO2 (carbon dioxide) emission mainly. The less CO2 emission means the friendlier and prefer for environment and human being. Due to the different of substrate or component and production process that be varied by the type of PV system can lead to differ level of energy use and CO2 emission. The several parameters that be suggested for life-cycle assessment (LCA) are 1) Energy Pay-Back Time (EPBT): The energy pay-back time of a PV system (in years) in which the energy input during the module life-cycle is compensated by electricity generated with the PV module. The EPBT depends on several factors, including cell technology, PV system application and irradiation. 2) Life-cycle CO2 emission: CO2 mitigation potential of PV systems are the result of simplified form of LCA use to give the first indication of environmental aspects. The operation of PV power system does not involve the combustion of carbon-containing fuels but indirect emission of CO2 occurs in other stages of the life-cycle of PV power systems. 3) Cost of energy: Even though LCA does not include the economic term but we cannot neglect the consequence from economic system because this will become main marker choosing energy technology for worldwide. So, taking into account to cost of energy and potential of price are required. To compare the useful of each type of PV systems, these 3 terms above are the main indicators for assessment. However, other factors such as energy requirement, lacking of materials, greenhouse gas emission, health, safety, economic aspects and environmental aspects and etc. should be considered depend on the level of impacts.

3.

LIFE-CYCLE ANALYSIS ASSESSMENT OF PV SYSTEMS IN BUILDING.

3.1 Energy requirement for PV modules productions. In this paper, the three main types of PV cell are concerned these are mono-crystalline silicon, polycrystalline silicon and thin film type: amorphous silicon. These types of PV technology are the mostly commercial shared about 34.6%, 50.2% and 8.9%, respectively [2]. From the study of Kasuhiko Kato [5], each type of PV cell has different production technique and substrate that lead to require the different energy production. This paper will be described some of concerned information. The mono-crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV module (12.2% efficiency STD) The production of the c-Si PV module has main 5 processes as be shown in figure 3.1-1. At first the quartz (SiO2) or raw silica is baked with high temperature about 1200 degree Celsius result the metallurgical (MG-Si) and then trichlorosilane (SiHCl3) is produced from MG-Si. Second process, SiHCl3 reacts with H2 in a large-scale of electric furnace at 1200 degree Celsius result the poly-Si and silicon tetrachloride (SiCl4). Third process, with the Czochralski (Cz) process, the poly-Si is molten and poured into a silica crucible. At around 1400 degree Celsius a c-Si ingot is pulled up and cooled spontaneously. Both top and bottom of the ingot are cut off as so called off-grade Si that about 15-20 percents of weight of the ingot. Then off-grade Si is supplied to the Cz process again and result the c-Si ingot which is then sliced into wafers of roughly 350 m thick using a multi-wire saw. About 50-60 percents of weight of the ingot becomes Si wafers. Fourth process, The Si wafers are doped with dopants in a diffusion furnace to make p-n junctions after surface etching and then assembled in PV cells by a forming electrode. The last process, the PV cells are strung by solder-coated copper ribbons, laminated by EVA, covered with sheet glass and finally packed into aluminium frames.

Mono-crystalline silicon ( c-Si)

Polycrystalline silicon (p-Si)

Amorphous silicon (a-Si)

Figure 3.1-1 Show the c-Si PV, p-Si PV and a-Si PV module production process, respectively.

The polycrystalline silicon (p-Si) PV module (11.6-15.7% efficiency STD) In case of p-Si PV module, new production technologies are expected to be in practical use in the near future that is solar-grade silicon (SOG-Si) production from raw silica and electromagnetic casting. A crucible process was adapted for the SOG-Si production, which is continuously cast in ingot with electromagnetic technology. The ingots are then cut into wafers using multi-wire saw. Several PV cells are laminated in EVA between a glass sheets and finally aluminium frames are added as present in Figure 3.1-1. The thin film: amorphous silicon (a-Si) PV module (8-12% efficiency STD) Amorphous silicon layers are deposited by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition of the transparent conducting electrode; the a-Si and the back electrode are carried out on a continuous operating line. By this technology only cells production process and the after are concerned as show in Figure 3.1-1.

a-Si CO2 p-Si CO2 c-Si CO2 a-Si E.R.

CO2 emission

Energy requirement
p-Si E.R. c-Si E.R.
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 7000 8000 9000 10000 11000 12000 13000 14000 15000 16000 17000 18000 19000 20000 21000 22000 23000

Enegy requirement (MJ/m2) and CO2 emission (1/100 kgC/m2)

MG-Si C&cut Poly-Si Cell Prod Cz-Si Modu Ass SOG-Si Other

Figure 3.1-2 Show the energy requirement for 1 m2 of three kinds of PV module.

From Figure 3.1-2, Worst value from three cases of c-Si PV cell production process will be explained. Case A-1, the SiCl4 be neglected, thereforethat all the energy and the materials from MG-Si production to poly-Si production were covered to estimate the energy content of the off-grade Si. In case A-2, the SiCl4

was dealt with as a by-product. In case B the off-grade Si is considered as a waste product from semiconductor production, thereforeonly the processes after the primary Cz-Si production were evaluated. Considering p-Si and a-Si, worst values of three annual cell production scales are considered which are 10, 30 and 100 megawatts per year. By the results, the energy requirement for c-Si PV modules production is noticeably higher than p-Si and a-Si PV modules production. This cause from a large amount of heat requires producing of c-Si especially, Cz-Si production process. Although those for SOG-Si production were approximately half of the total and more than any other processes, they were much less in comparison with c-Si production. Considering a-Si, the energy requirement is less than the c-Si PV modules and nearly half of those for pSi PV modules at the same production scale. This cause from only energy require for PV cell and module production process different from c-Si and p-Si PV module production that use much of energy to prepare PV cell.

3.2 Energy pay-back time (EPBT) of PV systems and energy content of BOS. In term of energy, the shorter of EPBT refers to the more useful energy that we can gain from the rest of all life time of PV systems after pay off. The two interesting studies will be described about the energy pay-back time and energy content of PV systems. These studies indicate that the different of technology and installation can significantly make the different EPBT for each PV system. The first study is from the results of the study before of Kasuhiko Kato [5], the EPBT comparison between each type of PV modules production can be described in the figure 3.2-1. Considering three types of PV cells those are c-Si, p-Si and a-Si, the longest of EPBT is c-Si PV module due to the most energy use in production that has already presented. For p-Si and a-Si PV modules quite similar in EPBT due to the SOG-Si of p-Si that require less of energy. Considering the less EPBT of the bigger annual cells production scale, by the bigger scale lead to rise the annually energy gain up cause the EPBT become lower.
EPBT (years) and CO2 emission (10g-C/kWh)

100MW/year 30MW/year 10MW/year 100MW/year 30MW/year 10MW/year case B case A-2 case A-1 0 100MW/year 30MW/year 10MW/year 100MW/year 30MW/year 10MW/year case B case A-2 case A-1

0.9 1.3 1.7 1.3 1.8 2 2.5 6.1

CO2 emission

8.3 0 1.1 1.7 2.1 1.5 2.2 2.4 3.3 8.9 11.8 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14

EPBT

Energy pay-back time (years) and CO2 emission per unit electrical output (10g-C/kWh)

Figure 3.2-1 Represent the energy pay-back time EPBT (years) of a 3-kilowatts peak residential PV power system [5].

The second study is from the study of P.Frankl [5], the objective of the study is twofold; the first goal is to quantify the relevance of balance-of-system (BOS) in terms of energy consumption and emissions during manufacturing and installation of PV systems. The second objective is to quantify the

benefits of the integration og PV systems in buildings over there entire life-cycle, in terms of energy consumption and related emissions. The emissions will be described after this chapter. As spoken already about the categories of PV system, the PV power plant and sub-category of PV systems in building will be revealed and compared the value of EPBT. PV power plant: This installation requires a careful preparation of land and special structures to support the PV panels. An electric efficiency about 85 percents has been assume for these systems. Flat roof PV: PV modules are fixed on the flat surface of the rooftop by means of suitable light structure. Exposure is optimized. Tilted roof PV: There are two kind of tilted roof, retro-fit that is directly applied to the existing surface of the roof and integrated that PV system and building are designed together. Facade PV: Again there are 2 kinds of faade that are retro-fit and integrated faade.
2000 1800
Primary energy content (MJth/m2)

steel primary aluminium concrete reinforced concrete PVC clay copper

Retrofit tilted roof, S.T.Roma Retrofit tilted roof, Switz Retrofit faade, Roma Integrated tilted roof, Switz Retrofit PV cladding, Univ Northumbria
Copper

1600 1400 1200 1000 800 600 400 200 0 Flat roof, S.T. Roma PV plant, Serre Flat roof, Switz Integrated faade, Switz PV tile, German
Glass

Figure 3.2-2 Primary energy content of the BOS of present PV systems.

For PV systems, balances of systems (BOS) are considered in term of energy content that are different for each category of PV systems as show in figure 3.2-2. The energy requirement and energy content of BOS both are necessary for considering which system could be significantly interesting in term of energy. The optimization of BOS in the future can lead to reduce the energy consumption and also decrease the EPBT of PV systems for example using a large fraction of recycled, secondary material. For example, Table 3.2-1, show that the secondary aluminium has energy content particularly less than primary aluminium.
Table 3.2-1 Total energy content and specific CO2 emissions of BOS material (total values adapted from Refs 31)
Parameters Materials

Steel

Primary aluminium

Secondary aluminium

Light concrete 4.4 0.92 0.28

Concrete

PVC

Clay

Total primary energy content of materials (MJth/kg) Converted Electricity (MJth/kg) CO2 emission (kgCO2/kg)

32 20.25 1.91

198 156.51 10.59

12.6 0 0.51

1.63 0.37 0.16

70 43.45 3.09

14.4 1.1 0.77

66.8 39.22 4.2

10.7 0.46 0.66

14 Energy pay-back time (years) 12 10 8 6 4 2 0

PV plant flat roof

EPBT (years)

11.8 9 7.6

11

8.2

7.5 6.4 4.2

tilted faade roof Retrofit

tilted glass roof faade Integrated

tilted glass roof faade Heat recovery

Figure 3.2-2 Illustrate the energy pay-back time of present mono-crystalline silicon PV systems (mean annual insolation 1700 kWh m-2 year on a 30 tilted south-oriented surface, cell efficiency 14.5%)

The EPBT of the PV systems that show in Figure 3.2-2 is quite high, even if the systems are installed in places with a relatively high sun radiation. The main reason is the low efficiency of crystalline silicon feedstock and wafer production process which are not optimized for PV cell production. The most effective PV systems are the simple installation on flat roofs that can adjustable the direction received sun light for optimized energy yield. Faade show even worse results because of the bad exposure to the sun at these latitudes. Conclusion from two studies above, if interest only in energy term the optimized case are the PV systems in building base on amorphous silicon technology especially, the flat roofs PV systems. The energy pay back time now three to nine years and will decrease to one to two years. There is a matter of debate for PV systems that have storage components with lead-acid battery such as standalone PV system, solar home system, and etc. The energy pay back time is now 7 to 10 years cause from life time of battery (lead-acid) is five years or less [1]. However, these results are not enough to compare and evaluate the benefit with the other kind of PV system such as stand alone PV systems or hybrid PV systems or the other type of energy technology. Thereforethe environmental term and economic term should be lead to consider for comparison and evaluation the benefit next.

3.3 Life-cycle CO2 emission and some significant gasses (GHG) emission. From the study of Kasuhiko and P.Framkl [5], the results of CO2 emission are quite similar to the energy term that show the optimized case is the PV systems base on amorphous silicon technology. For mono-crystalline silicon the high CO2 emission come from the Cz-Si and wafer production process. The worst case of PV systems is not faade PV but is from PV power plant (of polycrystalline silicon) because from the high primary energy content of BOS of PV power plant that leads to produce more CO2 emission. The study of M.E.Watt [5], three options of household at the same level of annual energy demand are compared the CO2, SO2 and NOx emission that are represented in the figure 3.3-1. The first option is PV stand alone or off-grid power supply system with 2 kWp polycrystalline silicon PV array, 36 kWh of lead acid battery storage (85% efficiency and 50% maximum depth of discharge), 3 kW inverter (90% efficiency) and 5 kVA diesel generator. The second option is grid-connected PV system with 2 kWp polycrystalline silicon PV array, 3 kW inverter (95% average efficiency) and 10 kVA pole top transformer. Network losses average 12% and central grid generation is modeled on the Australian average, which is largely coal based with minor use of hydro and natural gas.

The third option is grid connection that the same grid extension is used as for option 2, with no PV related components.

Emission per year

100 90 80 70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0

91 64 68 50 34 25 10
CO2 emission (1/100 kg/year) SO2 emission (kg/year) NOx emission (kg/year)

73
Off Grid PV/Grid Grid

21

Figure 3.3-1 Represent life-cycle CO2, SO2, NOx emission for the different energy supply/demand options (only concerned information is presented adapted from Refs 32).

In case of CO2 emission, the high emission come from both grid connection and off-grid PV supply option because the use of fossil fuel-based electricity generation. In case of NOx emission, the highest obviously come from the off-grid PV supply option due to the use of the back-up diesel generator. In case of SO2 emission, the highest come from the grid connection due to the high coal component of the Australian central grid generation mix. The lowest emission come from off-grid PV supply option but in case of low electricity use that only PV supply in grid-connected PV system, the lowest emission come from grid-connected PV system due to the batteries in off-grid PV supply cause the higher SO2 emission. Even more, the figure 3.3-2 show specific CO2 emission of different kind of electrical power plants, the different type of PV cell emit the different level of CO2 because the different of technology production [6].
Emission of CO2 (g/kWhel)
1200 1000 800 600 420.1 400 200 17.3 16.9 Gas (NG) Lignite Wind a Hydro Coal Oil 0 74.9 PV (c-Si) b 1140.1 915.8 755.6

60 PV (p-Si) c

50 PV (a-Si) c

Although PV power system emission obviously less than fossil fuel-based power plant but comparison with wind and hydro power plant, PV power system quite higher emit CO2 due to the energy using during manufacturing that already presented in the topic before. In the other word, if consider only CO2 emission term, PV power systems are not the best choice when compare with the other renewable energy technology but vastly better than fossil fuel-based power system. ------------------------------------------------From figure 3.3-2 a - At 5.5 m/s b - For conditions in central Europe c - Produced in Europe, irradiance:1700 kWh/m2-a

Figure 3.3-2 Comparison specific CO2 emission of different kind of electrical power plants (adapted from Refs 22)

4.

PROBLEMS AND BARRIERS OF RESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT OF PV TECHNOLOGY.

Although the PV systems are no emission when operating and comfortable use for general but this kind of technology still has main problems that cause unaccepted for worldwide. These problems are the low efficiency of PV modules as show in figure 4.1-1 [2] and the very high cost of PV systems compare with conventional energy systems at present as show in figure 4.1-2 [1]. 4.1 Efficiency of PV technology
Solar cell material Cell efficiency (laboratory) 24.7% 19.8% 19.7% 19.2% 13.0%
a a

Cell efficiency (production) 18.0% 16.0% 14.0% 9.5% 10.5% 10.7% 17.3% 14.0% 10.0%

Module effiency (series production) 14.0% 13.0% 13.0% 7.9% 7.5% 9.1% 15.2% 10.0% 9.0% 27.0% 5% b

Mono-crystalline silicon Polycrystalline silicon Ribbon silicon Crystalline thin-film silicon Amorphous silicon Micromophous silicon Hybrid HIT solar cell CIS, CIGS Cadmium telluride III-V semiconductor Dye-sensitized cell
a In stabilized state b measured with concentrated irradience c small production runs

12.0% 20.1% 18.8% 16.4% 35.8% 12.0%

b

27.4% 7.0%

Figure 4.1-1 Show maximum efficiency in photovoltaic.

In case of mono-crystalline silicon that has the highest commercially module efficiency. The hybrid HIT solar cell still unaccepted in commercial and III-V semiconductor though achieve the highest efficiency but they are not competitive in price. The main cause of low efficiency of PV module is the restriction of material that cannot convert all of solar energy into electricity due to the losses of solar energy in PV cell and mismatching between band gap of material and the spectrum of the light incident [3]. Although the best material has found now such as gallium arsenide (GaAs), but can reach efficiency only 27% for PV module with very high cost [2]. 4.2 Cost of PV systems. In order to consider cost of PV system, the figure 4.2-1 show significant barrier that can cause the PV technology still tiny accept for worldwide. Due to main cost of PV system come from cost of PV module [2], thereforethe research and the development have direction to rise efficiency up and reduce the cost of PV system for example the amorphous silicon technology that quite low cost production or the hybrid HIT solar cell that rise the efficiency up on based of crystalline and amorphous silicon technology. For integrated PV systems in building, especially in countries where additional subsidies are available, this can lead for saving in construction materials for the roof and faade. From the study of M.E.Watt [5] above, a 2-km single phase extension is priced at around $21,200, with electricity priced around $0.12/ kWh. It should be noted that a higher grid extension cost, resulting from tree clearing, difficult terrain or a greater distance, would make the demand management options even more cost effective. When a PV system is added to grid, the capital cost increase to $41,860. The off-grid option has the highest capital cost and annual average costs but show significant reductions with reduced electricity demand.

Current and potential future electricity cost (/kWh)

Current cost 160 140 120 100 80 60 40 20 0 25 Minimum 15 5 5 1 25 8 13 5 125 18 20 12 3 8 2 10 10 4 2 5 15 20 15 10 8 8 4 5 10 10 25 10 10 1 6 3 5 4 2 8 2 10 3 8 1 5 Potential future cost Maximum 15 7 5

0.5 8

0.5 8

Marine Wave

Marine Current

Marine Wave

Bio Ethanol (/GJ)

Bio Ethanol (/GJ)

Geothermal Heat

Figure 4.2-1 Illustrate the current and potential future energy cost of renewable energy technology (2003) [1]. Grid-supplied electricity in urban areas: off-peak 2-3 /kWh and peak 15-25 /kWh.

From the IEA-PVPS reported [4], in 2003 system prices in the off-grid sector up to 1 kW varied from about 8 USD to 25 USD per watt. The large range of reported prices is a function of country and project specific factors. A system price of about 10 USD to 12 USD per watt appears to be common. Off-grid systems greater than 1 kW tend to show similar variation and prices. The installed price of grid-connected systems in 2003 also varied, both within and between countries. The lowest reported prices were close to 4 USD per watt and are unlikely to be a true reflection of costs; prices of 5 USD to 7 USD per watt are more typical prices. System prices for off-grid applications in each country tend to be higher by about a factor of two than those for grid-connected applications as the latter do not require storage batteries and associated equipment. Some unique building integrated projects provide an exception to this situation. Considering the grid-connected PV systems, one more important factor of efficiency is indicated by the parameter called PR - Performance Ratio that is used to indicate the overall effect of losses on the arrays rated output as show in Table4.1-1. From the analysis of grid-connected PV systems in the IEAPVPS database, it was learnt that the average annual yield (Yf) only slightly fluctuates from one year to another.
Table 4.1-1Estimated losses of energy flow from a grid-connected PV system. [2] Loss Factors of PV system 1.Module efficiency deviation 2.Module soiling 3.Module Temperature 4.Shading 5.Mismatching and DC losses 6.MPP mismatch error 7.Inverter losses 8.AC losses, meter % losses total ( PR = 72 %) % losses 4.50 2.50 3.50 2.00 3.50 1.50 7.50 3.00 28.00

From annual performance ratios (PR) calculated from 387 annual datasets of 170 grid-connected PV systems. The annual performance ratio (PR) significantly differs from plant to plant and ranges between 0.25 and 0.9 with an average PR value of 0.66 for 170 PV systems. It was found that well maintained PV systems operating well show an average PR value of typically 0.72[7]. From 27 domestic standalone and standalone hybrid systems. Annual performance ratios range from 0.2 to 0.6 for off-grid domestic applications depending whether they have a back-up system and from 0.05 to 0.25 for off-grid professional systems, which are often oversized for reliability reasons. The analysis of standalone systems in terms of performance ratio shows that the PR does not reflect the proper technical operation of a system as is the case for grid-connected systems [7].

Geothermal Heat

Geothermal Elec

Geothermal Elec

Marine Current

Solar PV

Hydro-Large

Solar PV

Hydro-Large

Marine Tidal

Hydro-Small

Solar thermal

Biomass Heat

Biomass Heat

Biomass Elec

Biomass Elec

Solar thermal

Hydro-Small

Marine Tidal

Wind elec

Low-temp.

Wind elec

Low-temp.

Each type of grid-connected PV systems in buildings such as PV flat rooftop, tilted roof PV or faade PV system, these can make the differ PR depend on the exposure to sun light and can cause the different level of energy pay-back time EPBT as already presented. Furthermore the grid-connected PV systems in buildings have to consider the quality of power yield and the term of safety when connect to the grid. For example: Islanding effect is a major problem for grid-connected systems. This can be defined as the operating condition where a distributed generation maintains the electric supply on a local section of distribution system, which is disconnected from utility source following an opening of a circuit breaker on a distribution line [8]. Islanding may cause problems such as human safety and equipment maintenance if it continues for a long time. It is important to clarify the condition under which continued islanding occurs, and verify the necessity of measures for prevent islanding and effectiveness of these countermeasures, especially when a large number of PV systems are interconnected to one distribution line [9]. Poor power factor condition: Many case studies found that at the low level of solar radiation, the power factor seems to be far from unity [10]. If there is power from many PV systems at low power factor generated to distribution line, the higher loss both from distribution line and generator will happen. Typically the allowable of power factor is 0.85 or higher. Thereforethe owner of PV systems have to improve power factor before connect to grid that means the addition of operating cost. Another way to avoid this cost may be not to connect PV system when the low power factor occurs. However, the annual energy yield will decrease cause from this technique. Harmonics distortion: Two case studies show that the less solar radiation, the THDC total harmonic distortion current will exponentially rise. As the number of grid interconnected increase when each harmonic from each PV system superimposes on one another or may decrease when harmonics cancel out one another. From the results, the third and fifth harmonic currents from inverter have almost the same phase displacement and the total harmonic current could be superimposed [9], while higher harmonics from inverters have different phase displacement even if the same control scheme is employed and total harmonic current could be cancelled. The increasing of the third and fifth harmonic with the number of connected cause from the excitation current of the isolation transformers [9]. Although, the power quality and safety problems are quite less than module efficiency barriers but these can cause the higher cost of system due to the more investment in protector or method to improve quality and safety.

5. PROGRESS AND TREND OF PV SYSTEMS IN BUILDING.

From the aim of the Kyoto Protocol is to reduce CO2 emissions. Even for countries choosing not to ratify the agreement there is still a commitment to reducing their emissions as well as encouraging the development of renewable energy technology. In order to attain these climate protection aims, two routes must be taken in parallel which should be given equal importance: - The use of renewable energies must be expanded. - All energy-saving potentials must be exhausted. In general, nearly every country has an enormous potential for using renewable energies as present in figure 5-1. Although PV technology today provides far less than 1% of the electricity supply, but it has large potential. Assume a 25% per year growth rate for world PV shipment (as projected by the National Centre for Photovoltaics in the US), cumulative growth of world PV shipment as shown in Figure 5-2 can be expected. Today, the applications where PV systems are economically competitive especially, grid-connected PV as show in figure 5-3, in comparison with conventional power systems are generally small applications or at locations remote from the mains grid. However, in some countries such as Spain, German, Italy, Japan and some states in the US where high feed in tariffs or grants are offered, gridconnected PV systems can be economically feasible. The extent to which grid-connected PV systems in general will come to form a significant proportion of power supply depends on the future reduction of costs.

2000.0 Cumulative installed PV power (MW) 1800.0 1600.0 1400.0 1200.0 1000.0 800.0 600.0 400.0 200.0 0.0 1992 CAN

1993 AUT

1994 MEX

1995 CHE

1996 FRA

1997 ITA

1998

1999 AUS

2000 NLD

2001 USA

2002 DEU

2003 JPN

ESP

Figure 5-1 show the Total installed capacity in the selected countries and Annual sales and key targets (MW) [4].
Off-grid developing countries 12% Off-grid industrial countries 6%

100 90 80

Communication 14% PV/diesel 10%

GigaWatts (peak)

70 60 50 40 30 20 10 0
2000 2002 2004 2006 2008 2010 2012 2014 2016 2018 2020

Consumer goods 14%

Solar power station >100 kW 2%

Gridconnected 42%

Ye ar

Figure 5-2 Show expected cumulative growth of world PV shipment [2].

Figure 5-3 Show the worldwide turnover of PV technology according to application areas, 2001.

Like the vast majority of PV generation capacity installed in the IEA PVPS countries, most PV installed in other parts of the world at present is being driven from the top-down (i.e. subsidized), through national targets and/or bilateral or multilateral development programs. Key applications for solar PV outside the IEA PVPS countries are small solar home systems, SHS, for households (typically 20 W 100 W), village power stations (typically 500 W - 2 500 W), and power for health centers, schools, water pumping and telecommunications systems. An important distinction is that for the remote or rural areas of developing countries which account for much of the market in non IEA PVPS countries, PV is often a cost effective solution to energy service provision.

6.

CONCLUSION

All of factors or parameters concerned for assessment PV systems in buildings have roughly divided into 3 levels of results. The simplified comparison between PV system technologies and between renewable energies will be illustrated in Table 6-1.
Table 6-1 Represent the conclusion divided into 3 levels comparison the results of the studies and reports. No.
1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Parameters
Energy requirement EPBT and CO2 emission EPBT PV grid-connected CO2 emission PV systems SO2 emission PV systems NOx emission PV systems CO2 emission Power plant Module Efficiency Market share of PV cell

High
mono-crystalline silicon mono-crystalline silicon Faade Grid system Grid system Off-grid PV Lignite,coal,oil Hybrid HIT p-Si , c-Si PV Off-grid PV Grid-connected PV Japan,German,US Grid-connected PV Wind, PV

Medium
polycrystalline silicon polycrystalline silicon PV plant, flat roof, tilted roof Off-grid PV grid-connected PV Grid system natural gas c-Si,p-Si, ribbon ribbon, a-Si Bio-ethanol, solar thermal, marine Grid-connected PV Off-grid PV Natherland,Australia, Spain, Italy, France, Switzerland communication, customer goods, off-grid Low-temp solar heat, Geothermal, Solar thermal

Low
amorphous silicon amorphous silicon PV system with heat recovery grid-connected PV Off-grid PV grid-connected PV PV power,Wind power thin-film silicon, a-Si, CIS, CIGS, Cadmium telluride CIS, Cadmium telluride wind, hydro, bio-teat, geothermal

10 Electricity cost RE 11 Cost of PV system 12 Performance Ratio 13 Installed Capacity 14 Worldwide turnover of PV 15 Percent increasing installed

Mexigo, Austria, Canada, Norway, Korea PV power station Biomass, Hydro, Marine

Although the PV systems in buildings cannot competitive with conventional energy at present cause from the higher cost of systems and the low efficiency, the trend show that the high growth of PV technology cause the reducing of cost and encouraging the development of technology that can lead to competitively compare with others energy technology in the near future. However, by the large amount of PV systems in the future can cause some problems influence the environment, thereforethe environmental impacts have to be noticeably considered further.

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REFERENCE

World Energy Assessment, Energy and the challenge of sustainability , United Nations Development Programme , 2000. The German Solar Energy Society,2005, Planing and Installing Photovoltaic System, James & James (Sciences publishers). Godfrey Boyle, Renewable Energy, The Open University, 1994.

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IEA-PVPS, TRENDS IN PHOTOVOLTAIC APPLICATIONS Survey report of selected IEA countries between 1992 and 2003, Report IEA-PVPS T1-13,2004. Available from http://www.oja-services.nl/ieapvps/products/download.htm, [accessed 1 July 2005]. Martin A. Green, Eduardo Lorenzo, Harold N. Post, Hans W. Schock, Ken Zweible and Paul A. Lynn, 1998, Progress in PHOTOVOLTAICS Research and Applications, Volume 6 Number 2, July-August 1998. S. Krauter, R. Ruther, 2003, Considerations for the calculation of greenhouse gas reduction by photovoltaic solar energy, Laborato rio Fotovoltaico, UFRJ-COPPE/EE, Caixa Postal 68504 Rio de Janeiro, 21945-970 RJ, Brazil, Lab Solar, UFSC-EMC, Available from www.sciencedirect.com , [ accessed 1 July 2005]. IEA-PVPS Task 5, 2002, Grid interconnection of Building integrated and other dispersed phovoltaic power systems, Available from http://www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/products/download.htm, [accessed 28 August 2002]., [accessed 28 August 2002]. Arindam Ghosh,Gerard Ledwich ,2002, Power Quality Enhancement Using Custom Power Devices, KLUWER Academic Publishers ,2002. IEA-PVPS T5-02 ,1999. Demonstration test results for grid interconnected photovoltaic power systems, Available from http://www.oja-services.nl/iea-pvps/products/download.htm, [accessed 28 August 2002]. Chenvidhya Dhirayut,2002, PV Grid-Connected Systems for Residential distribution System : DYNAMIC IMPEDANCE CHARACTERIZATION OF SOLAR CELLS AND PV MODULES , School of Energy and Material, KMUTT, 2002.

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