INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIORUAL SCIENCES

April 30, 2012

Introduction To Behavioral Sciences Project Topic: Bad Behavior Section A BBA 02093

Submitted by: Ali Adnan Submitted To: Mam Shazia Gulzar

Lahore Business School (LBS) University of Lahore (UOL)

Lahore Business School (LBS) Submitted By: Ali Adnan

INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIORUAL SCIENCES

April 30, 2012

Bad behavior
Hypertension, most commonly referred to as "high blood pressure" or HTN, is a medical condition in which the blood pressure is chronically elevated. It was previously referred to as arterial hypertension, but in current usage, the word "hypertension" without a qualifier normally refers to arterial hypertension. Hypertension can be classified as either essential (primary) or secondary. Essential hypertension indicates that no specific medical cause can be found to explain a patient's condition. Secondary hypertension indicates that the high blood pressure is a result of (i.e. secondary to) another condition, such as kidney disease or certain tumors (especially of the adrenal gland). Persistent hypertension is one of the risk factors for strokes, heart attacks, heart failure and arterial aneurysm, and is a leading cause of chronic renal failure. Even moderate elevation of arterial blood pressure leads to shortened life expectancy. At severely high pressures, defined as mean arterial pressures 50% or more above average, a person can expect to live no more than a few years unless appropriately treated. Hypertension is considered to be present when a person's systolic blood pressure is consistently 140 mmHg or greater, and/or their diastolic blood pressure is consistently 90 mmHg or greater. Recently, as of 2003, the Seventh Report of the Joint National Committee on Prevention, Detection, Evaluation, and Treatment of High Blood Pressure has defined blood pressure 120/80 mmHg to 139/89 mmHg as "prehypertension." Prehypertension is not a disease category; rather, it is a designation chosen to identify individuals at high risk of developing hypertension. The Mayo Clinic website specifies blood pressure is "normal if it's below 120/80" but that "some data indicate that 115/75 mm Hg should be the gold standard." In patients with diabetes mellitus or kidney disease studies have shown that blood pressure over 130/80 mmHg should be considered high and warrants further treatment. Even higher numbers are considered diagnostic using home blood pressure monitoring devices. Hypertension (HTN) or high blood pressure, sometimes called arterial hypertension, is a chronic medical condition in which the blood pressure in the arteries is elevated. This requires the heart to work harder than normal to circulate blood through the blood vessels. Blood pressure involves two measurements, systolic and diastolic, which depend on whether the heart muscle is contracting (systole) or relaxed between beats (diastole). Normal blood pressure at rest is within the range of 100-140mmHg systolic (top reading) and 60-90mmHg diastolic (bottom reading). High blood pressure is said to be present if it is persistently at or above 140/90 mmHg. Hypertension is classified as either primary (essential) hypertension or secondary hypertension; about 9095% of cases are categorized as "primary hypertension" which means high blood pressure with no obvious underlying medical cause. The remaining 510% of cases (secondary hypertension) is caused by other conditions that affect the kidneys, arteries, heart or endocrine system. Hypertension is a major risk factor for stroke, myocardial infarction (heart attacks), heart failure, aneurysms of the arteries (e.g. aortic aneurysm), peripheral arterial disease and is a cause of
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chronic kidney disease. Even moderate elevation of arterial blood pressure is associated with a shortened life expectancy. Dietary and lifestyle changes can improve blood pressure control and decrease the risk of associated health complications, although drug treatment is often necessary in people for whom lifestyle changes prove ineffective or insufficient.

Adults
In people aged 18 years or older hypertension is defined as a systolic and/or a diastolic blood pressure measurement consistently higher than an accepted normal value (currently 139 mmHg systolic, 89 mmHg diastolic: see table Classification (JNC7)). Lower thresholds are used (135 mmHg systolic or 85 mmHg diastolic) if measurements are derived from 24-hour ambulatory or home monitoring. Recent international hypertension guidelines have also created categories below the hypertensive range to indicate a continuum of risk with higher blood pressures in the normal range. JNC7 (2003) uses the term prehypertension for blood pressure in the range 120-139 mmHg systolic and/or 80-89 mmHg diastolic, while ESH-ESC Guidelines (2007) and BHS IV (2004) use optimal, normal and high normal categories to subdivide pressures below 140 mmHg systolic and 90 mmHg diastolic. Hypertension is also sub-classified: JNC7 distinguishes hypertension stage I, hypertension stage II, and isolated systolic hypertension. Isolated systolic hypertension refers to elevated systolic pressure with normal diastolic pressure and is common in the elderly. The ESH-ESC Guidelines (2007) and BHS IV (2004), additionally define a third stage (stage III hypertension) for people with systolic blood pressure exceeding 179 mmHg or a diastolic pressure over 109 mmHg. Hypertension is classified as "resistant" if medications do not reduce blood pressure to normal levels.

Neonates and infants

Hypertension in neonates is rare, occurring in around 0.2 to 3% of neonates, and blood pressure is not measured routinely in the healthy newborn. Hypertension is more common in high risk newborns. A variety of factors, such as gestational age, postconceptional age and birth weight needs to be taken into account when deciding if a blood pressure is normal in a neonate.

Children and adolescents

Hypertension occurs quite commonly in children and adolescents (2-9% depending on age, sex and ethnicity) and is associated with long term risks of ill-health. It is now recommended that children over the age of 3 have their blood pressure checked whenever they attend for routine medical care or checks, but high blood pressure must be confirmed on repeated visits before characterizing a child as having hypertension. Blood pressure rises with age in childhood and, in children, hypertension is defined as an average systolic or diastolic blood pressure on three or more occasions equal or higher than the 95th percentile appropriate for the sex, age and height of the child. Prehypertension in children is defined as average systolic or diastolic blood pressure that is greater than or equal to the 90th percentile, but less than the 95th percentile. In adolescents, it has been proposed that hypertension and pre-hypertension are diagnosed and classified using the same criteria as in adults.
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INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIORUAL SCIENCES

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Signs and symptoms

Hypertension is rarely accompanied by any symptoms, and its identification is usually through screening, or when seeking healthcare for an unrelated problem. A proportion of people with high blood pressure reports headaches (particularly at the back of the head and in the morning), as well as lightheadedness, vertigo, tinnitus (buzzing or hissing in the ears), altered vision or fainting episodes. On physical examination, hypertension may be suspected on the basis of the presence of hypertensive retinopathy detected by examination of the optic fundus found in the back of the eye using ophthalmoscopy.[10] Classically, the severity of the hypertensive retinopathy changes is graded from grade IIV, although the milder types may be difficult to distinguish from each other.[10] Ophthalmoscopy findings may also indicate how long a person has been hypertensive.

Secondary hypertension
Some additional signs and symptoms may suggest secondary hypertension, i.e. hypertension due to an identifiable cause such as kidney diseases or endocrine diseases. For example, trance obesity, glucose intolerance, moon faces, a "buffalo hump" and purple striate suggest Cushing's syndrome. Thyroid disease and acromegaly can also cause hypertension and have characteristic symptoms and signs. An abdominal bruit may be an indicator of renal artery stenosis (a narrowing of the arteries supplying the kidneys), while decreased blood pressure in the lower extremities and/or delayed or absent femoral arterial pulses may indicate aortic coarctation (a narrowing of the aorta shortly after it leaves the heart). Labile or paroxysmal hypertension accompanied by headache, palpitations, pallor, and perspiration should prompt suspicions of pheochromocytoma.

Hypertensive crises
Severely elevated blood pressure (equal to or greater than a systolic 180 or diastolic of 110 sometime termed malignant or accelerated hypertension) is referred to as a "hypertensive crisis", as blood pressures above these levels are known to confer a high risk of complications. People with blood pressures in this range may have no symptoms, but are more likely to report headaches (22% of cases) and dizziness than the general population. Other symptoms accompanying a hypertensive crisis may include visual deterioration or breathlessness due to heart failure or a general feeling of malaise due to renal failure. Most people with a hypertensive crisis are known to have elevated blood pressure, but additional triggers may have led to a sudden rise. A "hypertensive emergency", previously "malignant hypertension", is diagnosed when there is evidence of direct damage to one or more organs as a result of the severely elevated blood pressure. This may include hypertensive encephalopathy, caused by brain swelling and dysfunction, and characterized by headaches and an altered level of consciousness (confusion or drowsiness). Retinal papilledema and/or fundal hemorrhages and exudates are another sign of target organ damage. Chest pain may indicate heart muscle damage (which may progress to
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April 30, 2012

myocardial infarction) or sometimes aortic dissection, the tearing of the inner wall of the aorta. Breathlessness, cough, and the expectoration of blood-stained sputum are characteristic signs of pulmonary edema, the swelling of lung tissue due to left ventricular failure an inability of the left ventricle of the heart to adequately pump blood from the lungs into the arterial system. Rapid deterioration of kidney function (acute kidney injury) and microangiopathic hemolytic anemia (destruction of blood cells) may also occur. In these situations, rapid reduction of the blood pressure is mandated to stop ongoing organ damage. In contrast there is no evidence that blood pressure needs to be lowered rapidly in hypertensive urgencies where there is no evidence of target organ damage and over aggressive reduction of blood pressure is not without risks[11] Use of oral medications to lower the BP gradually over 24 to 48 h is advocated in hypertensive urgencies.

In pregnancy
Hypertension occurs in approximately 8-10% of pregnancies. Most women with hypertension in pregnancy have pre-existing primary hypertension, but high blood pressure in pregnancy may be the first sign of pre-eclampsia, a serious condition of the second half of pregnancy and puerperium. Pre-eclampsia is characterized by increased blood pressure and the presence of protein in the urine. It occurs in about 5% of pregnancies and is responsible for approximately 16% of all maternal deaths globally. Pre-eclampsia also doubles the risk of perinatal mortality.[11] Usually there are no symptoms in pre-eclampsia and it is detected by routine screening. When symptoms of pre-eclampsia occur the most common are headache, visual disturbance (often "flashing lights"), vomiting, epigastria pain, and edema. Pre-eclampsia can occasionally progress to a life-threatening condition called eclampsia, which is a hypertensive emergency and has several serious complications including vision loss, cerebral edema, seizures or convulsions, renal failure, pulmonary edema, and disseminated intravascular coagulation (a blood clotting disorder).

In infants and children

Failure to thrive, seizures, irritability, lack of energy, and difficulty breathing can be associated with hypertension in neonates and young infants. In older infants and children, hypertension can cause headache, unexplained irritability, fatigue, failure to thrive, blurred vision, nosebleeds, and facial paralysis.

Complications
Hypertension is the most important preventable risk factor for premature death worldwide. It increases the risk of ischemic heart disease strokes, peripheral vascular disease, and other cardiovascular diseases, including
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INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIORUAL SCIENCES

April 30, 2012

heart failure, aortic aneurysms, diffuse atherosclerosis, and pulmonary embolism. Hypertension is also a risk factor for cognitive impairment and dementia, and chronic kidney disease. Other complications include:

Hypertensive retinopathy Hypertensive nephropathy

Cause
Primary hypertension
Primary (essential) hypertension is the most common form of hypertension, accounting for 90 95% of all cases of hypertension. In almost all contemporary societies, blood pressure rises with aging and the risk of becoming hypertensive in later life is considerable. Hypertension results from a complex interaction of genes and environmental factors. Numerous common genes with small effects on blood pressure have been identified as well as some rare genes with large effects on blood pressure but the genetic basis of hypertension is still poorly understood. Several environmental factors influence blood pressure. Lifestyle factors that lower blood pressure, include reduced dietary salt intake, increased consumption of fruits and low fat products (Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH diet)), exercise, loss and reduced alcohol intake. The possible role of other factors such as stress, caffeine consumption, and vitamin D deficiency are less clear cut. Insulin resistance, which is common in obesity and is a component of syndrome X (or the metabolic syndrome), is also thought to contribute to hypertension.[30] Recent studies have also implicated events in early life (for example low birth weight, maternal smoking and lack of breast feeding) as risk factors for adult essential hypertension, although the mechanisms linking these exposures to adult hypertension remain obscure.

Secondary hypertension
Secondary hypertension results from an identifiable cause. Renal disease is the most common secondary cause of hypertension.[11] Hypertension can also be caused by endocrine conditions, such as Cushing's syndrome, hyperthyroidism, hypothyroidism, acromegaly, Conn's syndrome or hyperaldosteronism, hyperparathyroidism and pheochromocytoma. Other causes of secondary hypertension include obesity, sleep apnea, pregnancy, coarctation of the aorta, excessive liquorice consumption and certain prescription medicines, herbal remedies and illegal drugs. Typical tests performed in hypertension System Tests Microscopic urinalysis, proteinuria, serum BUN (blood urea nitrogen) Renal and/or creatinine Serum sodium, potassium, calcium, TSH (thyroid-stimulating hormone). Endocrine Fasting blood glucose, total cholesterol, HDL and LDL cholesterol, Metabolic triglycerides Hematocrit, electrocardiogram, and chest radiograph Other
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INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIORUAL SCIENCES

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Hypertension is diagnosed on the basis of a persistently high blood pressure. Traditionally, this requires three separate sphygmomanometer measurements at one monthly interval. Initial assessment of the hypertensive people should include a complete history and physical examination. With the availability of 24-hour ambulatory blood pressure monitors and home blood pressure machines, the importance of not wrongly diagnosing those who have white coat hypertension has led to a change in protocols. In the United Kingdom, current best practice is to follow up a single raised clinic reading with ambulatory measurement, or less ideally with home blood pressure monitoring over the course of 7 days. Once the diagnosis of hypertension has been made, physicians will attempt to identify the underlying cause based on risk factors and other symptoms, if present. Secondary hypertension is more common in preadolescent children, with most cases caused by renal disease. Primary or essential hypertension is more common in adolescents and has multiple risk factors, including obesity and a family history of hypertension. Laboratory tests can also be performed to identify possible causes of secondary hypertension, and to determine whether hypertension has caused damage to the heart, eyes, and kidneys. Additional tests for diabetes and high cholesterol levels are usually performed because these conditions are additional risk factors for the development of heart disease and require treatment. Serum creatinine is measured to assess for the presence of kidney disease, which can be either the cause or the result of hypertension. Serum creatinine alone may overestimate glomerular filtration rate and recent guidelines advocate the use of predictive equations such as the Modification of Diet in Renal Disease (MDRD) formula to estimate glomerular filtration rate (eGFR). eGFR can also provide a baseline measurement of kidney function that can be used to monitor for side effects of certain antihypertensive drugs on kidney function. Additionally, testing of urine samples for protein is used as a secondary indicator of kidney disease. Electrocardiogram (EKG/ECG) testing is done to check for evidence that the heart is under strain from high blood pressure. It may also show whether there is thickening of the heart muscle (left ventricular hypertrophy) or whether the heart has experienced a prior minor disturbance such as a silent heart attack. A chest X-ray or an echocardiogram may also be performed to look for signs of heart enlargement or damage to the heart.

What causes hypertension?

Though the exact causes of hypertension are usually unknown, there are several factors that have been highly associated with the condition. These include:

Smoking Obesity or being overweight Diabetes Sedentary lifestyle Lack of physical activity High levels of salt intake (sodium sensitivity) Insufficient calcium, potassium, and magnesium consumption Vitamin D deficiency High levels of alcohol consumption
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INTRODUCTION TO BEHAVIORUAL SCIENCES

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Stress Aging Medicines such as birth control pills Genetics and a family history of hypertension Chronic kidney disease Adrenal and thyroid problems or tumors

Statistics in the USA indicate that African Americans have a higher incidence of hypertension than other ethnicities.

What are symptoms of hypertension?

There is no guarantee that a person with hypertension will present any symptoms of the condition. About 33% of people actually do not know that they have high blood pressure, and this ignorance can last for years. For this reason, it is advisable to undergo periodic blood pressure screenings even when no symptoms are present. Extremely high blood pressure may lead to some symptoms, however, and these include:

Severe headaches Fatigue or confusion Dizziness Nausea Problems with vision Chest pains Breathing problems Irregular heartbeat Blood in the urine

How is hypertension diagnosed?

Hypertension may be diagnosed by a health professional who measures blood pressure with a device called a sphygmomanometer - the device with the arm cuff, dial, pump, and valve. The systolic and diastolic numbers will be recorded and compared to a chart of values. If the pressure is greater than 140/90, you will be considered to have hypertension. A high blood pressure measurement, however, may be spurious or the result of stress at the time of the exam. In order to perform a more thorough diagnosis, physicians usually conduct a physical exam and ask for the medical history of you and your family. Doctors will need to know if you have any of the risk factors for hypertension, such as smoking, high cholesterol, or diabetes. If hypertension seems reasonable, tests such as electrocardiograms (EKG) and echocardiograms will be used in order to measure electrical activity of the heart and to assess the physical structure of the heart. Additional blood tests will also be required to identify possible causes of
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secondary hypertension and to measure renal function, electrolyte levels, sugar levels, and cholesterol levels. Hypertension is the term used to describe high blood pressure. Blood pressure is a measurement of the force against the walls of your arteries as your heart pumps blood through your body. Blood pressure readings are usually given as two numbers -- for example, 120 over 80 (written as 120/80 mmHg). One or both of these numbers can be too high. The top number is called the systolic blood pressure, and the bottom number is called the diastolic blood pressure.

Normal blood pressure is when your blood pressure is lower than 120/80 mmHg most of the time. High blood pressure (hypertension) is when your blood pressure is 140/90 mmHg or above most of the time. If your blood pressure numbers are 120/80 or higher, but below 140/90, it is called prehypertension.

If you have pre-hypertension, you are more likely to develop high blood pressure. If you have heart or kidney problems, or if you had a stroke, your doctor may want your blood pressure to be even lower than that of people who do not have these conditions.

Causes, incidence, and risk factors

Many factors can affect blood pressure, including:

How much water and salt you have in your body The condition of your kidneys, nervous system, or blood vessels The levels of different body hormones

You are more likely to be told your blood pressure is too high as you get older. This is because your blood vessels become stiffer as you age. When that happens, your blood pressure goes up. High blood pressure increases your chance of having a stroke, heart attack, heart failure, kidney disease, and early death. You have a higher risk of high blood pressure if you:

Are African American Are obese Are often stressed or anxious Drink too much alcohol (more than one drink per day for women and more than two drinks per day for men)
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Eat too much salt in your diet Have a family history of high blood pressure Have diabetes Smoke

Most of the time, no cause of high blood pressure is found. This is called essential hypertension. High blood pressure that is caused by another medical condition or medication is called secondary hypertension. Secondary hypertension may be due to:

Chronic kidney disease Disorders of the adrenal gland (pheochromocytoma or Cushing syndrome) Pregnancy (see: preeclampsia) Medications such as birth control pills, diet pills, some cold medications, and migraine medications Narrowed artery that supplies blood to the kidney (renal artery stenosis) Hyperparathyroidism

Symptoms
Most of the time, there are no symptoms. For most patients, high blood pressure is found when they visit their health care provider or have it checked elsewhere. Because there are no symptoms, people can develop heart disease and kidney problems without knowing they have high blood pressure. If you have a severe headache, nausea or vomiting, bad headache, confusion, changes in your vision, or nosebleeds you may have a severe and dangerous form of high blood pressure called malignant hypertension.

ABC MODEL:
A major aid in cognitive therapy is what Albert Ellis called the ABC Technique of Irrational Beliefs[2]. The first three steps analyze the process by which a person has developed irrational beliefs and may be recorded in a three-column table. A. Activating Event or objective situation. The first column records the objective situation, that is, an event that ultimately leads to some type of high emotional response or negative dysfunctional thinking. B. Beliefs. In the second column, the client writes down the negative thoughts that occurred to them. C. Consequence. The third column is for the negative feelings and dysfunctional behaviors that ensued. The negative thoughts of the second column are seen as a connecting bridge between the situation and the distressing feelings. The third column C is next explained
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by describing emotions or negative thoughts that the client thinks are caused by A. This could be anger, sorrow, anxiety, etc.

For example, Gina is upset because she got a low mark on a math test. The Activating event, A, is that she failed her test. The Belief, B, is that she must have good grades or she is worthless. The Consequence, C, is that Gina feels depressed. After irrational beliefs have been identified, the therapist will often work with the client in challenging the negative thoughts on the basis of evidence from the client's experience by reframing it, meaning to re-interpret it in a more realistic light. This helps the client to develop more rational beliefs and healthy coping strategies.

From the example above, a therapist would help Gina realize that there is no evidence that she must have good grades to be worthwhile, or that getting bad grades is awful. She desires good grades, and it would be good to have them, but it hardly makes her worthless. If she realizes that getting bad grades is disappointing, but not awful, and that it means she is currently bad at math or at studying, but not as a person, she will feel sad or frustrated, but not depressed. The sadness and frustration are likely healthy negative emotions and may lead her to study harder from then on. Another way of viewing the ABC's of Cognitive Behavioral Therapy A. Activating Stimulus this is the stimulus that activates the irrational fear or anxiety in the person. B. Blank this is the blank process that lies in between the stimulus and the irrational thinking. The person would have to identify this gap and create a bridge in their thought process in order to be able to be treated. C. Conditioned Response this is the irrational fear or anxiety with which the person has conditioned them to respond with to the stimulus.

The way the treatment works is that by going back and thinking over what the stimulus was and the irrational reaction to it and then try to follow the chain events that led from one to another, thereby filling in the blank in between, the person can identify what causes their thinking to become irrational. For example; A person walks out of his home and hears an ambulance siren. The person gets anxious from this and runs back into his home. The Activating Stimulus was the ambulance siren. The Conditioned Response was severe anxiety and running into his home. The person now has to fill in the Blank and try to understand what was the exact thought process that went through his mind that caused the irrational response to take place. By bridging this gap in his thought, he is identifying the faulty thought process that caused the extreme response. The person can now work on replacing
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these faulty thoughts with realistic ones, thereby correcting the undesired chain of thoughts and activating a functional one. Antecedents Behaviors Consequences Actions: Emotions:

Characteristics to behavior modification:

Behavior modification is the use of empirically demonstrated behavior change techniques to increase or decrease the frequency of behaviors, such as altering an individual's behaviors and reactions to stimuli through positive and negative reinforcement of adaptive behavior and/or the reduction of behavior through its extinction, punishment and/or satiation. Most behavior modification programs currently used are those based on applied behavior analysis (ABA), formerly known as the experimental analysis of behavior which was pioneered by B. F. Skinner.

Description
The first use of the term behavior modification appears to have been by Edward Thorndike in 1911. His article Provisional Laws of Acquired Behavior or Learning makes frequent use of the term "modifying behavior". Through early research in the 1940s and the 1950s the term was used by Joseph Wolpe's research group. The experimental tradition in clinical psychology used it to refer to psycho-therapeutic techniques derived from empirical research. It has since come to refer mainly to techniques for increasing adaptive behavior through reinforcement and decreasing maladaptive behavior through extinction or punishment (with emphasis on the former). Two related terms are behavior therapy and applied behavior analysis. Emphasizing the empirical roots of behavior modification, some authors consider it to be broader in scope and to subsume the other two categories of behavior change methods. Since techniques derived from behavioral psychology tend to be the most effective in altering behavior, most practitioners consider behavior modification along with behavior therapy and applied behavior analysis to be founded in behaviorism. While behavior modification encompasses applied behavior analysis and typically uses interventions based on the same behavioral principles, many behavior modifiers who are not applied behavior analysts tend to use packages of interventions and do not conduct functional assessments before intervening. In recent years, the concept of punishment has had many critics, though these criticisms tend not to apply to negative punishment (time-outs) and usually apply to the addition of some aversive event. The use of positive punishment by board-certified behavior analysts is restricted to extreme circumstances when all other forms of treatment have failed and when the behavior to
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be modified is a danger to the person or to others (see professional practice of behavior analysis). In clinical settings positive punishment is usually restricted to using a spray bottle filled with water as an aversive event. When misused, more aversive punishment can lead to affective (emotional) disorders, as well as to the receiver of the punishment increasingly trying to avoid the punishment (i.e., "not get caught"). Martin and Pear indicate that there are seven characteristics to behavior modification, they are:

There is a strong emphasis on defining problems in terms of behavior that can be measured in some way. The treatment techniques are ways of altering an individual's current environment to help that individual function more fully. The methods and rationales can be described precisely. The techniques are often applied in everyday life. The techniques are based largely on principles of learning specifically operant conditioning and respondent conditioning There is a strong emphasis on scientific demonstration that a particular technique was responsible for a particular behavior change. There is a strong emphasis on accountability for everyone involved in a behavior modification program

Behavior Modification Techniques:

Behavior is the way a person reacts to a particular stimulus and varies from individual to individual. Behavior modification technique is the way you improve the behavior of a person, through use of some positive and negative reinforcements and punishments. It is the process of altering a persons reaction to stimuli. Behavior modification is much used in clinical and educational psychology, particularly in case of people with learning difficulties. In the day to day life, it is mostly used in the classroom scenario, where the teachers use such techniques to reform the behavior of a child. Read on to know more about techniques used for modifying behavior.

Stages of Behavior Modification

Behavior modification is based on two types of theories. One involves antecedents i.e. events which occur before a particular behavior is demonstrated and the other is observable behavior i.e. those events that occur after a particular behavior has been occurred. A behavior modification technique is applicable only after a series of changes. An inappropriate behavior is observed, identified, targeted, and stopped. Meanwhile, a new, appropriate behavior must be identified, developed, strengthened, and maintained. Reinforcements and Punishment Positive reinforcements are the ways in which you encourage the desired behavior. It increases the future frequency of the desired behavior. Patting the back, passing a smile or sometimes even giving a chocolate when a person behaves properly is called positive reinforcement. Negative
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reinforcement, on the other hand, increases the likelihood that a particular negative behavior would not happen in the future. It is often confused with punishment. While punishment is negative, negative reinforcement is positive. It is a positive way of reducing a particular behavior. Behavior Modification Techniques

Classroom Monitoring: Effective teaching practices, frequent monitoring, strict rules and regulations, social appraisal, etc Pro-social Behavior: Positive and negative reinforcements , modeling of pro-social behavior, verbal instruction, role playing, etc Moral Education: Moral Science classes on real-life situations, imaginary situations and literature. Let students play different roles as a teacher, principal, parents, etc and participate in school administration. Social Problem Solving (SPS): Direct teaching of SPS skills (e.g. alternative thinking, means-ends thinking), dialoguing, self-instruction training, etc Effective Communication Models: Values explanation activities, active listening, importance of communication and interpersonal skills, training for students and teachers

Many professionals who dispense parenting advice tell parents to use rewards or create "behavior modification" token systems to teach children a skill, to get children to take on a responsibility, or to curb an unwanted behavior or habit. Often, however, rewarding good behavior with behavior charts has the same effect as bribery. Long-term studies of work incentives, behavior management programs for children, weight loss and stop smoking plans have all found similar, revealing results: Performance and quality of work declines over time because people are thinking only about the incentive or reward, instead of the value of what they are doing. If there is a loss of interest in the reward, people become less motivated to do the task? The work becomes an unpleasant task that is endured strictly to get the reward. People try to take short cuts to find the easiest way to finish the task, rather than challenging themselves to do the best job possible. Change is short-term. When the incentives are gone, so is the motivation for doing the task. B.F. Skinner, the father of behavior modification sciences, made a name for himself with his scientific research of the 1950's. He trained rats (and children later on), to repeat certain behavior by rewarding them for desired behavior and withholding rewards or applying punishment for
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poor behavior. His theories and practices have greatly influenced schools and psychologists for years. Recently, B.F. Skinner himself has recanted some of his own earlier conclusions. He realized that rewards work well on rats, but humans have deeper motivations. He also lived long enough to see the negative long-term results of "conditioned responses." After producing a generation of young adults who expect rewards for every little accomplishment, it is becoming obvious that creating such expectations and dependency is neither healthy nor realistic. In several of my other articles (see list below), I share many ideas for motivating children to cooperate without resorting to bribery. However, you might choose to use a behavior chart anyway. If so, here are some suggestions for using behavior charts with fewer negative long-term consequences (although there will always be some): Promote internal competitiveness (doing one's best) rather than competing against others. Competition destroys teamwork and damages relationships. This especially applies to siblings. Make the tasks challenging, with a chance to learn new things. Explain the task in a way that makes it a meaningful contribution which will improve the family or person. Involve the people who will be using the charts in developing the charts. With children, use creative ideas, like gluing pictures of tasks, to make this a fun project. Have "rewards" be extra privileges or non-monetary bonuses, such as picking the place for a weekly family outing, having a friend overnight, extra time out on Friday night, choosing a family game or video, or choosing the dinner menu and helping cook it. Gradually phase out the chart as children learn new skills are reform habits. Wean children from rewards before they become addictive. Increase internal motivators through descriptive encouragement. Use the charts as reminders of agreements, not a record of rewards or payoffs. Focus on the child's accomplishments instead of giving demerits for poor performance. When children accomplish something new or improve their behavior voluntarily, they feel a sense of self-respect that no sticker, candy, money, or reward can give them. Help children understand the value behind the changes you ask them to make and help them take responsibility for making those changes -- to feel better about themselves, not just to please you.

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