LITERATURE REVIEWS

1.) SHAPE, SIZING OPTIMIZATION AND MATERIAL SELECTION BASED ON MIXED VARIABLES AND GENETIC ALGORITHM Optim Eng (2011) 12: 111128 DOI 10.1007/s11081-010-9125-z Xingang Tang David Hicham Bassir Weihong Zhang Received: 3 November 2008 / Accepted: 24 August 2010 / Published online: 25 September 2010 INTRODUCTION: In this paper, a short description of the heuristic GA approach is firstly presented. The algorithm Considers the double coding aspects: discrete and continuous to allow the exploration of simultaneous geometry design and material selection for the structures. The efficiency of the proposed approach is demonstrated through one mathematical function and two mechanical examples of plate and beam structures. In this work, the simultaneous designs of materials selection and structural optimization is been explored. And also in this paper, material selection is considered together with the shape and sizing optimization in a framework of multiobjective optimization of tracking the Pareto curve. Continuous variables refer to structural parameters such as thickness; diameter and spring Elastic constants while material ID is defined as binary design variable for each material. Both mechanical and thermal loads are considered in this work with the aim of minimizing the maximum stress and structural weight simultaneously. The efficiency of the design procedure is demonstrated through various numerical examples.

Optimization With Mixed Variables: Here, the work is firstly focused upon the pure discrete problems for which the genetic algorithm is applied through the binary coding. Secondly, it describes the binary coding and the real coding by using a modified version of the NSGA-II program for the multiobjective optimization of mixed problems.

Genetic algorithms (GAs) Selection function Coding of the variables Constraints handling
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Numerical Experiments Benchmark function with mixed variables in multiobjective optimization Shape, sizing and material selection optimization for the square plate with a Central hole Sizing and material selection optimization of a multilayer beam supported by Springs Conclusion: This article is concerned with simultaneous designs of material selection and geometry optimization under static and thermal loads. Materials are selected from a database defined by an index to choose the best combination with the corresponding structure parameters (sizing and shape design). This mixed optimization considers either continuous or discreet parameter for the Optimization problem. Different numerical examples are presented to illustrate the influence of the discrete choice within a continuous range or a database. The originality of this work come out on the handling of the mixed parameters in the case of the multi-objective optimization with the difficulties we can face related to convexity and the continuity of the Pareto domain. As perspective of the approach introduced in this article, it can be easily extended to more complicated problems that consider not only sizing and shape optimization but also topology optimization.

1.) STRUCTURAL OPTIMIZATION WITH LIMITED NUMBER OF ELEMENT PROPERTIES

This note investigates the weight lost of a structure that presents a limited number of crosssections for its members. A combined genetic algorithm-gradient approach is used to obtain the minimum weight structure for various numbers of cross-sections. The problem is investigated for the well known ten-bar truss structure. Results show that decreasing the number of cross-sections from nine to four has a small impact on the weight of approximately 5.3%.

Structural optimization may produce a diversity of structural elements with different properties that require specific manufacturing and possibly even testing for local failure modes. In order to reduce manufacturing and testing costs, various constraints have been employed. For frame or truss structures, a constraint of using commercially available sections was applied in order to minimize construction cost. For composite structures, constraints were imposed on laminate ply angles and percentages to avoid the need to test for unexpected failure modes. However, not much work has been devoted to see how much structural performance or weight is compromise when using a limited set of laminates or element properties. Thus, to gain an understanding of the weight lost, this problem is first investigated for the well known ten-bar truss structure. Thus aim of this note is to assess the effect of restricting the number of cross-sections on the weight of a ten-bar truss structure. A combined genetic algorithm (GA)-gradient approach is used to obtain the global optimum or minimum weight structure for various numbers of cross-sections.

2.) OPTIMIZATION OF THE DESIGN OF 3D BUILDING STEEL STRUCTURES USING GENETIC ALGORITHMS Beln Prendes Gero, Francisco Ortega Fernndez, Antonio Bello Garca and Joaqun Villanueva Balsera

This paper shows the implementation of an elitist genetic algorithm (GA) that, when applied to 2D- and 3D- steel structures, is able to obtain structural elements with minimum weight and satisfy the safety factors or coefficients (Ultimate Limit States) of the applicable building code. In addition, the codification of the design variables has been modified so that all of them have the same probability of initial selection; a selection operator has been implemented to consider the dispersion of the individuals within the population as well as a crossover operator that interchanges the sections assigned to the structural elements without their prior modification. The final result is a robust genetic algorithm that is simple from a mathematical point of view and is able to work with complex structures under different load and constraint conditions. It does not need prior information about the objective function or the constraint functions and can work with complex structures under different load and constraint conditions. In addition, it permits the use of commercial sections catalogues as design variables and is able to apply the engineer experience in creating groups of identical section, selecting these variables and their
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relation with the structural members. The genetic algorithm developed by the authors is compared with common commercial solutions for complex structural optimization. Finally, the cost and weight improvements obtained and its trade-off with the higher computational cost, using the GA are discussed using some real cases. The result of the optimization is a 10% improvement on that obtained with conventional software.

Conclusions From the results obtained when applying the Elitist Genetic Algorithm to 3D structures, it may be concluded that: The final structure presents sections with safety coefficients very close to unity, i.e. the assigned sections have the sufficient strength to support the stresses but with a minimum weight. The different combinations of sections obtained for one single structure allow us to choose the most adequate one from a building perspective or the one whose sections are most easily obtained. The optimization process may be used to group together the elements of a structure in groups with the same section. The weight of the structure is lower than that obtained using conventional software, due fundamentally to the random assignment of sections. The elitist genetic algorithm is appropriated for the optimization of 3D structures.

3.) OPTIMUM DESIGN OF COLD-FORMED STEEL COLUMNS BY USING MICRO GENETIC ALGORITHMS Science direct Thin-Walled Structures 44 (2006) 952960 Jaehong Lee, Sun-Myung Kim, Hyo Seon Park Received 26 October 2005; received in revised form 4 August 2006; accepted 29 August 2006

In this study, micro genetic algorithm (MGA) is used to find an optimum cross section of coldformed steel channel and lipped channel columns under axial compression. Flexural, torsional and torsionalflexural buckling of columns and flat-width-to-thickness ratio of web, flange and lip are considered as constraints and the optimum design cross section is determined for various
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levels of loading and column length. The design curves are generated for optimum values of the thickness, the web flat depth- to-thickness ratio, the flange flat-width-to-thickness ratio for columns. As numerical results, the optimum design curves are presented for various load level and column lengths. MGAs showed excellent performance on the minimum weight design of cold-formed steel channel and lipped channel columns. It is found that the lipped-channel section is about 15% more efficient than the channel section for all the applied load level. According to the sensitivity analysis, the thickness and the flange length are found to be sensitive on the cross section and the allowable compressive load. The allowable compressive strength is the most significant constraint that determines the specification of optimum cross section, and in some cases, the flange and the lip flat width-to-thickness ratio, and the slenderness ratio operate become significant constraints. The study for more various sections of cold-formed steel awaits further attention.

4.) OPTIMIZATION-BASED DESIGN OF REACTIVE DISTILLATION COLUMNS USING A MEMETIC ALGORITHM Maren Urselmann and Sebastian Engell.. 20th European Symposium on Computer Aided Process Engineering ESCAPE20 S. Pierucci and G. Buzzi Ferraris (Editors) This contribution deals with the optimization of the design of reactive distillation columns by using a memetic algorithm (MA) which is a combination of an evolution strategy (ES) and a mathematical programming (MP) solver. The focus of this paper is on the restriction on the number of feed trays that introduces discrete variables into the problem formulation. The optimization of the number and of the location of the feed streams is addressed by the EA which can deal with discontinuous cost functions and integrality constraints. A minimization of the number of feed streams is achieved by adding penalties to the fitness function of the EA. The results of the new approach are compared to the results of the optimization without restriction on and the minimization of the number of feed streams. A memetic algorithm (MA) for the global solution of reactive distillation problems without restrictions on the number of feeds was introduced [1]. By the use of this method the computational effort needed for a local search of the continuous design optimization with a fixed number of trays could be reduced by 75% in comparison to the reference algorithm (OQNLP/CONOPT). The MA consists of an evolutionary algorithm (EA) and the mathematical NLP solver CONOPT. The EA generates initial points for the local solver. It works in the space of the design variables and the state variables of the
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column designs are computed by the same solver that performs the local optimization. The MA was able to identify a huge number of local solutions, but more than 80% of them represent column designs with more than three streams per feed. For the more complex model instances with N > 40 trays it was not possible to find good solutions with less than three feed streams in reasonable computation times.

5.) OPTIMISATION OF THE CONCEPTUAL DESIGN OF REACTIVE DISTILLATION COLUMNS Sanne Melles, Johan Grievink, Stany M. Schrans, Chemical Engineering Science 55 (2000) 2089-2097 (Received 3 December 1998; accepted 9 September 1999 )

In this paper the uniform holdup assumption is relaxed and the use of diwerent tray holdups per section of the column is investigated. The advantages of using a di!erent holdup per section are illustrated in a discussion of the in#uence of several process parameters on column design. Furthermore, the &Boundary Value Design Method' is extended to a more general case, taking heat e!ects and a non-zero stoichiometric sum into account. The e!ects of purity of the bottom product, the reaction enthalpy and the stoichiometric sum of the reaction on column design using a di!erent holdup per section are investigated. The premises of a three component mixture, single feed, ideal vapour}liquid equilibrium and constant volatilities are maintained. In this paper the possibility of designing a reactive distillation column with a di!erent tray holdup in both the rectifyer and the stripper section of the column is introduced. Physically this implies a deferent e!ective reaction volume per tray (amount of catalyst) in each section. It increases the possibility to design a column for any speci"ed top and bottom product and introduces an additional degree of freedom which results in a range of feasible designs. In this paper it is demonstrated that within this range of designs a minimum occurs for the total number of trays and the total column holdup. A possibility for optimisation is thus introduced.

6.) DESIGN OPTIMIZATION OF REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES: Andres Guerra and Panos D. Kiousis Computers and Concrete, Vol. 3, No. 5 (2006) 313-334 (Received April 18, 2006, Accepted August 25, 2006)

Optimal sizing and reinforcing for beam and column members in multi-bay and multistory RC structures incorporates optimal stiffness correlation among all structural members and results in cost savings over typical-practice design solutions. A Nonlinear Programming algorithm searches for a minimum cost solution that satisfies ACI 2005 code requirements for axial and flexural loads. Material and labor costs for forming and placing concrete and steel are incorporated as a function of member size using RS Means 2005 cost data. Successful implementation demonstrates the abilities and performance of MATLABs (The Mathworks, Inc.) Sequential Quadratic Programming algorithm for the design optimization of RC structures. A number of examples are presented that demonstrate the ability of this formulation to achieve optimal designs. This study implements an algorithm that is capable of producing cost-optimum designs of RC structures based on realistic cost data for materials, forming, and labor, while, at the same time, meeting all ACI 318-05 code and design performance requirements. The optimization formulation of the RC structure is developed so that it can be solved using commercial mathematical software such as MATLAB by Mathworks, Inc. More specifically, a sequential quadratic programming (SQP) algorithm is employed, which searches for continuous valued optimal solutions, which are rounded to discrete, constructible design values. Whereas the algorithm is inherently based on continuous variables, discrete adaptations relating the width and reinforcement of each element are imposed during the search. This optimization formulation is demonstrated with the use of design examples that study the stiffness distribution effects on optimal span lengths of portal frames, optimal number of supports for a given span, and optimal sizing in multi-story structures. RS Means Concrete and Masonry Cost data (2005) are incorporated to capture realistic, member size dependent costs. This paper presents a novel approach for optimal sizing and reinforcing multi-bay and multi-story RC structures incorporating optimal stiffness correlation among structural members. This study incorporates realistic materials, forming, and labor costs that are based on member dimensions, and implements a structural model with distinct design variables for each member. The resulting optimal designs show costs savings of up to 23% over a typical design method. Comparison between optimal costs and typical design method costs demonstrates instances where typical design assumptions resulted in efficient structures and where they did not. The formulation, including the structural FEA, the ACI-318-05 member sizing and the cost evaluation, was programmed in MATLAB (Mathworks, Inc.) and was solved to obtain the minimum cost design
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using the SQP algorithm implemented in MATLABs intrinsic optimization function fmincon. A number of fairly simple structural optimization problems were solved to demonstrate the use of the method to achieve optimal designs, as well as to identify characteristics of optimal geometric spacing for these structures. It was found that optimal portal frame designs follow different patterns for small and large bay lengths. More specifically it was found that short-span portal frames are optimized with girders that are stiff compared to the columns, thus ensuring girder simple supported action, while long-span portal frames are optimized with girders that are approximately as stiff as the columns, thus splitting the overall girder moment to approximately equal negative and positive parts. It was also found that girders that are supported by multiple supports, as in the case of multi-bay frames, have an optimal span length, below which the design becomes uneconomical because some members are controlled by code imposed minimum sizes, and above which the design also becomes uneconomical as the member sizes tend to become excessive. Finally it was found that optimal design multi-story frames present similar characteristics to onestory portal frames where short-bay designs are optimal with girders that are stiff compared to the columns, and long-span designs are optimal with girders that are approximately as stiff as the columns. For gravity dominated long-span multi-story frames, optimal designs tend to have alternating stiff and soft columns. It is not however clear that this pattern exists in optimal designs of multi-bay multistory frames, considering that the interior columns typically do not carry significant moments due to gravity. Finally, the alternating stiff/soft column pattern was not observed when the horizontal seismic loads had a significant influence on the design.

7.) FLEXURAL DESIGN OF REINFORCED CONCRETE FRAMES USING A GENETIC ALGORITHM Charles V. Camp; Shahram Pezeshk; and Hakan Hansson. 10.1061/(ASCE)0733-9445(2003)129:1(105)

A design procedure implementing a genetic algorithm is developed for discrete optimization of reinforced concrete frames ~RC-GA!. The design procedure conforms to the American Concrete Institute ~ACI! Building Code and Commentary. The objective of the RC-GA procedure is to minimize the material and construction costs of reinforced concrete structural elements subjected to serviceability and strength requirements described by the ACI Code. Examples are presented demonstrating the efficiency of the RC-GA procedure for the flexural design of simply-supported
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beams, uniaxial columns, and multi-story frames. The objective of this research is to design lowcost reinforced concrete frames that satisfy the limitations and specifications of the American Concrete Institute ~ACI! Building Code and Commentary using a genetic algorithm ~GA!. A procedure for designing low-cost reinforced concrete frames using a genetic algorithm is presented. The RC-GA design procedure minimizes the material and construction cost of reinforced concrete while satisfying the limitations and specifications of the ACI Code. Beam elements are evaluated based on their flexural response considering moment magnification factors due to frame stability. A rectilinear column strength interaction diagram is used to evaluate the feasibility of columns with moment magnification due to slenderness effects. The limitations and specifications of the ACI Code are formulated as a series of constraints to the discrete cost optimization problem and applied as penalties on the fitness function of the genetic algorithm. Several design examples are presented to demonstrate the effectiveness and efficiency of the RC-GA procedure. While the reduction in structural costs associated with a RC-GA design might be viewed as insignificant in the total cost of the structure, the systemic and automatic verification of the ACI Code limitations and restrictions can provide an increased level of confidence in the integrity of the design.

GENETIC ALGORITHMS INTRODUCTION

A genetic algorithm (GA) is a procedure used to find approximate solutions to search problems through application of the principles of evolutionary biology. Genetic algorithms use biologically inspired techniques such as genetic inheritance, natural selection, mutation, and sexual reproduction (recombination, or crossover). Along with genetic programming (GP), they are one of the main classes of genetic and evolutionary computation (GEC) methodologies. Genetic algorithms are typically implemented using computer simulations in which an optimization problem is specified. For this problem, members of a space of candidate solutions, called individuals, are represented using abstract representations called chromosomes. The GA consists of an iterative process that evolves a working set of individuals called a population toward an objective function, or fitness function. (Goldberg, 1989; Wikipedia, 2004). Traditionally, solutions are represented using fixed length strings, especially binary strings, but alternative encodings have been developed. The evolutionary process of a GA is a highly simplified and stylized simulation of the biological version. It starts from a population of individuals randomly generated according to some probability distribution, usually uniform and updates this population in steps called generations. Each generation, multiple individuals are randomly selected from the current population based upon some application of fitness, bred using crossover and modified through mutation to form a new population. Crossover exchange of genetic material (substrings) denoting rules, structural components, features of a machine learning, search, or optimization problem Selection the application of the fitness criterion to choose which individuals from a population will go on to reproduce Replication the propagation of individuals from one generation to the next Mutation the modification of chromosomes for single individuals This chapter begins with a survey of GA variants: the simple genetic algorithm, evolutionary algorithms, and extensions to variable-length individuals. It then discusses GA applications to data mining problems, such as supervised inductive learning, clustering, and feature selection and extraction. It concludes with a discussion of current issues in GA systems, particularly alternative search techniques and the role of building block (schema) theory.

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Three main points are involved when using genetic algorithms: the first point is the feature of the application: single or multiobjective optimization, the second point is the design space (discrete, continuous or mixed domain) and the third point is the constraints handling. In the case of multiobjective optimization, the operator that performs the selection is no more the same, because some solutions are not comparable any more in terms of criterion but rather in terms of ranking. The dominance relation that relates two solutions is therefore a binary operator. In general, the result of this operation for two individual solutions in the criteria space has two possibilities: either one solution dominates another or the solutions do not dominate each other. For one giving point in objective function space, it could be dominated or not dominated by another point, but it could also be incomparable or non-dominated to other points. Thus, various ranking methods have been suggested in the specialized literature. Such methods

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essentially sort the individuals in objective function space before selection. Each member of the list of possible points in objective function space is assigned a rank. The result of the dominance ranking is a strict partial ordered list which is used for sorting the points before employing a desired selection operator. To maintain the diversity of the population, these classified individuals are shared with their dummy fitness values. Then this group of classified individuals is ignored and another layer of non-dominated individuals is considered. The process continues until all individuals or a part of the population is classified. Since individuals in the first front have the maximum fitness value, they always get more copies than the rest of the population. The strategy within selection process used to represent the binary and real coding remains the same for both optimizations. Selection function In the case of single objective optimization, the selection operator works as follows: after creating randomly the first generation and evaluating the objective function for all individuals, we applied the process of selection on the population. There exist a number of selection operators in the literature of genetic algorithms. The main idea consists in choosing within a population P an N-number of individuals (to create a mating pool) that are well adapted to survive, to follow their evolution and to access to the next generation. The choice of keeping one individual is made by comparing its fitness function. One characteristic of the selection process is the selective pressure applied on the population. If this pressure is too strong, we lose the diversity within the population. If this pressure is too small, the genetic algorithm behaves randomly like Monte Carlo method. The individual with the greatest fitness value wins the tournament and is saved for the next generation. This operation (in the case of monoobjective optimization) is repeated until we obtain individuals for the next generation. It is entirely possible that some individuals participate in several tournaments: if they earn several times, they will therefore be copied several times. In the case of multiobjective optimization, the aim is to find the vector of design variables x = [x1, x2, x3, . . . , xn]T that minimizes a vector of objective functions given below.

Min F(x) = (f1,f2, . . . , fk) subject to gi(x) 0 i = 1 to m (1)

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The feasible domain (Fig. 3) defined by the constraints will be denoted by _.fi are called criteria or objective functions and they represent the design objectives. A vector x _ is called Pareto-optimal solution if there is no vector x _ which would decrease some criteria without causing a simultaneous increase of at least one criterion function.

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