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Thermal confort This article is about comfort zones in building construction.

For other uses, see Comfort zone (disambiguation). Thermal comfort is a term used by the American Society of Heating, Refrigerating and AirConditioning Engineers, an international body. It is defined as the state of mind in humans that expresses satisfaction with the surrounding environment (ANSI/ASHRAE Standard 55[1]). Maintaining this standard of thermal comfort for occupants of buildings or other enclosures is one of the important goals of HVAC (heating, ventilation, and air conditioning) design engineers. Thermal comfort is affected by heat conduction, convection, radiation, and evaporative heat loss. Thermal comfort is maintained when the heat generated by human metabolism is allowed to dissipate, thus maintaining thermal equilibrium with the surroundings. It has been long recognized that the sensation of feeling hot or cold is not just dependent on air temperature alone. Factors determining thermal comfort include:

Personal factors (health, psychology, sociology & situational factors) Insulative clothing (Clo Value) Activity levels (Met Rate)

General Factors Air temperature Mean radiant temperature Relative humidity (see also perspiration) Drifts and ramps in operative temperature

Localized factors Air movement/velocity (see wind chill factor) Radiant asymmetry Floor surface temperatures (see underfloor heating) Air temperature stratification

[edit] Metabolism
When measuring metabolic rates, many factors have to be taken into account. Each person has a different metabolic rate, and these rates can fluctuate when a person is performing certain activities, or under certain environmental conditions. Even people who are in the same room can feel significant temperature differences due to their metabolic rates, which makes it very hard to find an optimal temperature for everyone in a given location.[5][6][7] Food and drink habits may have an influence on metabolic rates, which indirectly influences thermal preferences. These effects

may change depending on food and drink intake.[8] Body shape is another factor that affects thermal comfort. Heat dissipation depends on body surface area. A tall and skinny person has a larger surface-to-volume ratio, can dissipate heat more easily, and can tolerate higher temperatures than a more rounded body shape.[8]

[edit] Clothing insulation


Main article: Clothing insulation During cold weather, layers of insulating clothing can help keep a person warm. At the same time, if the person is doing a large amount of physical activity, lots of clothing layers can prevent heat loss and possibly lead to overheating. Generally, the thicker the garment is the greater insulating abilities it has. Depending on the type of material the clothing is made out of, air movement and relative humidity can decrease the insulating ability of the material.[9][10] The amount of clothing is measured against a standard amount that is roughly equivalent to a typical business suit, shirt, and undergarments. Activity level is compared to being seated quietly, such as in a classroom. This standard amount of insulation required to keep a resting person warm in a windless room at 70 F (21.1 C) is equal to one clo. Clo units can be converted to R-value in SI units (mK/W) or RSI) by multiplying clo by 0.155 (1 clo = 0.155 RSI). (In English units 1 clo corresponds to an R-value of 0.88 Ffth/Btu.) ASHRAE 55-2004 mentioned a Table B1 and Table B2 for more clothing information.

[edit] Relative humidity


The human body has sensors that are fairly efficient in sensing heat and cold, but they are not very effective in detecting relative humidity. Relative humidity creates the perception of an extremely dry or extremely damp indoor environment. This can then play a part in the perceived temperature and their thermal comfort. The recommended level of indoor humidity is in the range of 30-60%.
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A way to measure the amount of relative humidity in the air is to use a system of dry-bulb and wetbulb thermometers. A dry-bulb thermometer measures the temperature not relative to moisture. This is generally the temperature reading that is used in weather reports. In contrast, a wet-bulb thermometer has a small wet cloth wrapped around the bulb at its base, so the reading on that thermometer takes into account water evaporation in the air. The wet-bulb reading will thus always be at least slightly lower than the dry bulb reading. The difference between these two temperatures can be used to calculate the relative humidity. The larger the temperature difference between the two thermometers, the lower the level of relative humidity.[13][14] The wettedness of skin in different areas also affects perceived thermal comfort. Humidity can increase wetness on different areas of the body, leading to a perception of discomfort. This is usually localized in different parts of the body and local thermal comfort limits for local skin wettedness differ between different skin locations of the body.[15] The extremities are much more sensitive to thermal discomfort from wetness than the trunk of the body. Although local thermal

discomfort can be caused from wetness, the thermal comfort of the whole body will not be affected by the wetness of certain parts[12]. Recently, the effects of low relative humidity and high air velocity were tested on humans after bathing. Researchers found that low relative humidity engendered thermal discomfort as well as the sensation of dryness and itching. It is recommended to keep relative humidity levels higher in a bathroom than other rooms in the house for optimal conditions.[16]

[edit] Thermal stress


The concept of thermal comfort is closely related to thermal stress. This attempts to predict the impact of solar radiation, air movement, and humidity for military personnel undergoing training exercises or athletes during competitive events. Values are expressed as the Wet Bulb Globe Temperature or Discomfort Index.[17][18] Generally, humans do not perform well under thermal stress. Peoples performances under thermal stress is about 11% lower than their performance at normal thermal conditions. Also, human performance in relation to thermal stress varies greatly by the type of task you are completing. Some of the physiological effects of thermal heat stress include increased blood flow to the skin, sweating, and increased ventilation.[19][20]

[edit] Adjustment mechanisms


The body has several thermal adjustment mechanisms to survive in drastic temperature environments. In a cold environment the body utilizes vasoconstriction; which reduces blood flow to the skin, skin temperature and heat dissipation. In a warm environment, vasodilation will increase blood flow to the skin, heat transport, and skin temperature and heat dissipation.[21] If there is an imbalance despite the vasomotor adjustments listed above, in a warm environment sweat production will start and an evaporative cooling mechanism will be provided. If this is insufficient, hyperthermia will set in, body temperature may reach 40C and heat stroke may occur. In a cold environment shivering will start, involuntarily forcing the muscles to work and increasing the heat production by up to a factor of 10. If equilibrium is not restored, hypothermia will set in which, can be fatal.[21] Long term adjustments to extreme temperatures of a few days to 6 months may result in cardiovascular and endocrine adjustments. A hot climate may create increased blood volume, improving the effectiveness of vasodilation, enhanced performance of the sweat mechanism, and the readjustment of thermal preferences. In cold or underheated conditions, vasoconstriction can become permanent resulting in decreased blood volume, and increased body metabolic rate.[22]

[edit] Effects of natural ventilation of thermal comfort


Many buildings use a HVAC (Heating Ventilation Air Conditioning) unit to control their thermal environment. Recently, with the current energy and financial situation, more environmentally friendly methods for indoor temperature control are being used. One of these is natural ventilation. Buildings designed with natural ventilation in mind, according to the climate of the site, drastically reduce the need for mechanical heating or cooling. Badly designed, this process can make the controlled indoor air temperature more susceptible to the outdoor weather, and during the seasonal

months the temperatures inside can become too extreme. During the summer months, the temperature inside can rise too high and cause the need for open windows and fans to be used. In contrast, the winter months could call for more insulation and layered clothing to deal with the less than ideal temperatures.[23][24]

[edit] Operative temperature


The ideal standard for thermal comfort can be defined by the operative temperature. This is the average of the air dry-bulb temperature and of the mean radiant temperature at the given place in a room. In addition, there should be low air velocities and no 'drafts,' little variation in the radiant temperatures from different directions in the room, and humidity within a comfortable range. The operative temperature intervals varied by the type of indoor location. They also vary by the time of year.[25] ASHRAE has listings for suggested temperatures and air flow rates in different types of buildings and different environmental circumstances. For example, a single office in a building has an occupancy ration per square meter of 0.1. In the summer the suggested temperature is between 23.5 (74.3 F) and 25.5 degrees Celsius (77.9 F) , and airflow velocity of 0.18 m/s. In the winter, the recommended temperature is between 21.0 and 23.0 degrees Celsius with an airflow velocity of 0.15 m/s.[26]

[edit] Thermal sensitivity of individuals


Further information: Cold sensitivity The thermal sensitivity of an individual is quantified by the descriptor FS, which takes on higher values for individuals with lower tolerance to non-ideal thermal conditions.[27] This group includes pregnant women, the disabled, as well as individuals whose age is below 14 or above 60, which is considered the adult range. Existing literature provides consistent evidence that sensitivity to hot and cold surfaces declines with age. There is also some evidence of a gradual reduction in the effectiveness of the body in thermoregulation after the age of 60.[28] This is mainly due to a more sluggish response of the counteraction mechanisms in the body that are used to maintain the core temperature of the body at ideal values.[27] Situational factors include the health, psychological, sociological and vocational activities of the persons.

[edit] Gender differences


While thermal comfort preferences between genders seems to be small, there are some differences. Studies have found men report discomfort due to rises in temperature much earlier than women. Men also estimate higher levels of their sensation of discomfort than women. One recent study tested men and women in the same cotton clothing, performing mental jobs while using a dial vote to report their thermal comfort to the changing temperature.[29] Many times, females will prefer higher temperatures. But while females were more sensitive to temperatures, males tend to be more sensitive to relative humidity levels.[30][31]

[edit] Models of thermal comfort


When discussing thermal comfort, there are two different models that can be used. These are the static model and the adaptive model. The adaptive model states that there is an optimal temperature for a given indoor environment depending on the outdoor air temperature. It takes into account that humans can adapt and tolerate different temperatures during different times of the year. The optimal temperature for a given time is determined by looking at the mean outdoor temperatures of each month of the year. Also, field studies are performed in these areas to see what the majority of people would prefer as their setpoint temperature indoors at different times of the year.[32] On the other side, the static model states that the indoor temperature should not change as the seasons do. Rather, there should be one set temperature year-round. This is taking a more passive stand that humans do not have to adapt to different temperatures since it will always be constant.[33]
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More advanced research on thermal comfort considers the heat balance of the human body and calculates sensation and comfort for local body parts.[35][36][37]

[edit] Thermal comfort in different regions


In different areas of the world, thermal comfort needs may vary based on climate. In China there are hot humid summers and cold winters causing a need for efficient thermal comfort. Energy conservation in relation to thermal comfort has become a large issue in China in the last several decades due to rapid economic and population growth.[38] Researchers are now looking into ways to heat and cool buildings in China for lower costs and also with less harm to the environment. In tropical areas of Brazil, urbanization is causing a phenomenon called urban heat islands (UHI). These are urban areas, which have risen over the thermal comfort limits due to a large influx of people and only drop within the comfortable range during the rainy season.[39] Urban Heat Islands can occur over any urban city or built up area with the correct conditions.[40] Urban Heat Islands are caused by urban areas with few trees and vegetation to block solar radiation or carry out evapotranspiration, many structures with a large proportion of roofs and sidewalks with low reflectivity that absorb heat, high amounts of ground-level carbon dioxide pollution that retains heat released by surfaces, great amounts of heat generated by air conditioning systems of densely packed buildings and large amount of automobile traffic generating heat from engines and exhaust.
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In the hot humid region of Saudi Arabia, the issue of thermal comfort has been important in mosques where Muslims go to pray. They are very large open buildings which are used only intermittently (very busy for the obligatory noon prayer on Fridays) making it hard to ventilate them properly. The large size requires a large amount of ventilation but this requires a lot of energy since the buildings are used only for short periods of time. Some mosques have the issue of being too cold from their HVAC systems running for too long and others remain too hot. The stack effect

also comes into play due to their large size and creates a large layer of hot air above the people in the mosque. New designs have placed the ventilation systems lower in the buildings to provide more temperature control at ground level.[42] Also new monitoring steps are being taken to improve the efficiency.[43]

[edit] Thermal comfort of livestock


Although thermal comfort of humans is the main focus of thermal comfort studies, the needs of livestock must be met as well for better living and production. The Department of Animal Production in Italy produced a study on ewes, which tested rumen function and diet digestibility of ewes chronically exposed to a hot environment.[44] These two bodily functions were reduced by the hot temperatures offering insight that thermal comfort levels are important to livestock productivity.

[edit] Research
These factors were explored experimentally in the 1970s. Many of these studies led to the development and refinement of ASHRAE Standard 55 and were performed at Kansas State University by Ole Fanger and others. Perceived comfort was found to be a complex interaction of these variables. It was found that the majority of individuals would be satisfied by an ideal set of values. As the range of values deviated progressively from the ideal, fewer and fewer people were satisfied. This observation could be expressed statistically as the % of individual who expressed satisfaction by comfort conditions and the predicted mean vote (PMV) This research is applied to create Building Energy Simulation (BES) programs for residential buildings. Residential buildings can vary much more in thermal comfort than public and commercial buildings. This is due to their smaller size, the variations in clothing worn, and different uses of each room. The main rooms of concern are bathrooms and bedrooms. Bathrooms need to be at a temperature comfortable for a human with or without clothing. Bedrooms are of importance because they need to accommodate different levels of clothing and also different metabolic rates of people asleep or awake.[45] Thermal comfort research in clothing is currently being done by the military. New air-ventilated garments are being researched to improve evaporative cooling in military settings. Some models are being created and tested based on the amount of cooling they provide.[46]

[edit] See also

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