Annex B AIR, LAND, SEA AND SPACE FOD ISSUES

(by J. Warren, C. Gorton, S. Hoff and F. Alby)

B.1 EFFECTS OF SAND AND DUST ON SMALL GAS TURBINE ENGINES

B.1.1 Background

NATO military helicopters and ground vehicles can operate in severe sand/dust environments as shown in Figures 1 and 2. Prior to the early 1960s, just as the turbine engine was increasing its application as a primary power plant for military aircraft and ground vehicles, engine erosion from ingested sand and dust was considered to be a minor irritant, not a major problem. Engines in the test cell had been subjected to what were believed to be unrealistically heavy sand concentrations without catastrophic failure, and turbine powered helicopters were flown in what were considered to be abnormally severe desert missions with no indication of significant deterioration in either power or structural integrity. These test results led to a false sense of security with regard to erosion, and a corresponding lack of interest in providing engine erosion protection. In the United States, for example, this attitude persisted until the mid-1960s, when aircraft operating with the US Army at Fort Benning, Georgia started to experience severe engine erosion. The average operating time of the engines removed due to erosion during these operations was only about 300 hours, with some being much lower. This experience brought the problem of sand and dust ingestion into focus. Substantial damage to helicopter and ground vehicle engines due to erosion was experienced in Vietnam, which again emphasized the concern for engine sand and dust protection. The typical dirt-related malfunctions experienced were erosion of engine rotating components, wear of oil wetted components caused by contaminated lubricant, jamming of pneumatic controls, clogging of small ports and fouling of heat exchange surfaces. This problem has been exacerbated during recent desert operations in the Middle East, where sand erosion can impact helicopter and tank performance and require engine removal in as little as 100 hours.

Figure 1: Helicopter in Sand/Dust Environment.

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Figure 2: Tank in Sand/Dust Environment.

B.1.2

Problems

Small gas turbine engines that operate in dusty and dirty environments are exposed to severe erosion, especially the compressor and turbine components, causing engine performance deterioration. Sand and dust erosion is one of the major problems facing the military users of small gas turbine engines. The extent of erosion damage depends upon the amount and type of sand and dust injected into the engine, but basically, erosion is an environmental problem. Sand and dust can cause severe damage to a turbine engine compressor in as little as 20-100 hours as depicted in Figure 3. This will cause failures during startup that have been known to happen to aircraft and ground vehicles operating in desert environments.

Figure 3: Eroded Centrifugal (left) and Axial (right) Compressors.

As well as eroding compressor and turbine blades, vanes and shrouds, sand and dust can clog turbine cooling passages and blade attachments, deposit a glass coating on turbine and combustor components, and can cause corrosion and over-heating. Sand and dust can also contaminate an engines oil system, leading to blockage of oil system passages, oil seal erosion, filter blockage and failure of pumping elements that can cause internal sump fires. Erosion in small gas turbine engines presents material and design problems uniquely different from those in large gas turbine engines, even though the blade tip speeds and impact velocities may be similar.
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ANNEX B AIR, LAND, SEA AND SPACE FOD ISSUES Inherent design factors which make erosion a major problem in small gas turbine engines are the greater sensitivity of engine performance to compressor tip clearances, the use of thinner rotor blade and stator vane trailing edges, the smoother surface finish and the smaller physical dimensions of compressor blades, in conjunction with the higher rotating speeds. All these factors contribute to a greater performance and damage sensitivity for small turbine engines in an erosive sand/dust environment. In addition, helicopters and tanks with these smaller gas turbines tend to spend much more time in a sand/dust environment. Thus, operations of these aircraft and ground vehicles in erosive environments are subjected to increased performance deterioration and experience more damage. Any improvements that can reduce performance deterioration and increase engine time-on-wing in the desert operational environment will have the effect of reducing engine down time, prolonging engine component life, improving flight safety, and saving significant operating and maintenance costs. Recent studies have demonstrated the high return-oninvestment (ROI) benefit of fitting engines with effective inlet protection systems and erosion-resistant coating systems. Recent military operations in the Middle East, including Kuwait, Iraq and Afghanistan, have exposed aircraft and ground vehicles to excessive amounts of ingested sand. Fine particles, less than 10 microns in diameter, were able to bypass the particle separators and enter the main engines. Engine teardown and post-maintenance performance tests verified that sand erosion of compressor airfoils accounted for most of the performance loss. Unusual amorphous deposits have been observed on the leading edges of first stage turbine vanes. Deposits were quite thick and covered a portion of the airfoil. Continued operation in desert environments significantly decreases the life of small gas turbine engines and adversely influences their performance.

B.1.3 Engine Protection Systems

B.1.3.1 Inlet Particle Separators (IPS) In 1969-1970, a feasibility study was conducted to incorporate the inlet protection system as an integral part of a turboshaft engine. The study proved successful, and as a result, the specification for the UH-60 engine required that an inlet particle separator be an integrated part of the engine. The T700 engine, manufactured by General Electric (GE), became the first engine to be military qualified with a separator as an integral part. The integral swirl type separator provided protection to the engine during the 50-hour sand and dust test with minimal additions to the engine envelope. Both the UH-60 Blackhawk and AH-64 Apache model aircraft are now equipped with the self-protected T700 engine. The sand separation efficiency for the T700 engine is 91.7% for coarse sands and 64% for fine sands. The T700 inlet particle separator (IPS) is so completely integral with the engine that it cannot be removed. There is a continuous pressure drop into the engine and an inherent weight penalty even when operating in environments that do no require the extra protection offered by the IPS. Since the design of the T700, the US Army has adopted a policy that all engines must have some type of protection system and it must be removable. The aircraft Auxiliary Power Units (APUs) are also operating in dusty and dirty environments without any inlet protection system. Recently, the US Army developed a quick and inexpensive way to provide erosion protection for APUs in dusty/dirty environments. The APU protection consists of an APU intake plenum and two barrier filters. The US Armys Abrams M1A1 and M1A2 tanks are equipped with Honeywells AGT 1500 and LV100 gas turbine engines, respectively. Both engines inlet system consists of a vehicle air inlet, plenum system pre-cleaner, barrier filters (known as V-packs) and an engine inlet screen. There are three barrier filters used for the AGT 1500 engine and two barrier filters for the LV100 engine. The media in the barrier filters is capable of removing particles as small as 10 microns. Most vehicles are being converted to the Pulse Jet System (PJS) that self-cleans the V-packs. The system works well to eliminate FOD and sand when maintained properly. However, maintenance errors allow debris to enter the engine inlet and bypass the filter system, causing 40% to 50% of compressor blades to be replaced prematurely due to erosion.
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Vortex Tube Separators: The vortex tube separator is also known as an inertial separator and is shown
in Figure 4. These tubes are available in a variety of sizes ranging from 2.5 6 inches (6 15 mm) in length and 0.75 1.5 inches (2 4 mm) in diameter. Dirty air is drawn through the tube by the engine suction and is caused to swirl by a fixed vortex generator. The swirling flow imparts a centrifugal force on the dust particles causing them to migrate towards the outer wall of the tube. An annular gap exists between the vortex body and outlet tube through which the dust particles are extracted. The scavenge system used is dependent on installation type, but generally scavenge flow can be introduced by either mechanical scavenge fans or engine bleed air injectors.

Figure 4: Vortex Tube Separator.

Vortex tube separators are used together in tube banks and are often referred to as Engine Air Particle Separators (EAPS) shown in Figure 5. The EAPS is designed specifically to each helicopter type and offers high separation efficiency and low pressure loss given a sufficiently large bank. Separation efficiency can vary with installation type and design, but is typically between 93% and 98.5% for coarse sands. A disadvantage of the vortex tube is the large banks which require a large installation volume and much frontal area which increases drag in forward flight. They have the additional disadvantage of being impractical to anti-ice, necessitating the use of inlet bypass doors for all weather applications. Uniform extraction of scavenge flow from all tubes is these banks can be difficult.
DUST LADEN AIR

INLET TUBE SHEET EJECTOR NOZZLE SCAVENGE AIR OUTLET EJECTOR

abc
HIGH PRESSURE AIR SUPPLY CLEAN AIR OUT

Figure 5: Vortex Tube Pack.

Integral Separators: The integral separator is also know as an inertial separator and is shown in Figures 6 and 7. Dirty air enters the inlet and makes a sharp turn. Due to the inertia of the dust particles, they tend to go into a scavenge duct while the clean air goes into the compressor. The scavenge system uses a blower to rid the scavenge duct of dust particles.
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Figure 6: T700 Vaned Separator.

Figure 7: T800 Vaneless Separator.

Unlike the EAPS, integral separators are designed and qualified with the engine. They typically offer the most compact design; however pressure loss (hence, power loss) is higher. Integral separators are particularly effective against large particles, but less effective against smaller particles because the smaller particles are less susceptible to inertial separation. Efficiency levels are typically between 85% and 95% for coarse sands and approximately 65% for fine sands. A disadvantage of the integral separator is the problem with particle bounce. With particle bounce, separation efficiency is reduced on the largest, most erosive particles to below 90%. B.1.3.2 Erosion-Resistant Coatings

There are numerous erosion-resistant coatings that have been developed and are available from various vendors. Each must be considered on its own merits for the environment in which it operates and its ROI cost benefits. For example, one particular erosion-resistant coating was originally developed by the Russians for the TV2-117 engine used in their MI-8 helicopter that experienced severe sand erosion during Siberian and Afghanistan operations. The coating, known as ER-7 by the coating vendor, MDS-PRAD Technologies, is a multi-layered coating that has been developed and used in various Russian turbine engine applications for over ten years. The US Navy successfully evaluated this coating under a Foreign Comparative Testing

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ANNEX B AIR, LAND, SEA AND SPACE FOD ISSUES (FCT) program and is starting to incorporate it on its USMC CH-53 helicopters (GE T64 engine). This coating has been shown to minimize the impacts of sand erosion based on Russian experience and Navy testing. As dramatically shown by the results of the US Navys FCT full-scale T64 sand ingestion test (Figure 8), the uncoated blades (grey) experienced significant sand erosion, whereas the coated blades (gold) retained their original blade profile. Included in the US Navy FCT test program was a fully-coated T64 lead-the-fleet engine (LTFE) which subsequently accumulated almost 400 hours in desert operations, whereas the average uncoated T64 engine operating in the same environment averaged 110 hours time-on-wing before requiring removal for low power. Other US Navy aviation engine types are now considering the use of erosion-resistant coatings, as are other US services and the UK MOD for their erosion-prone engines. The US Armys AGT-1500 community is similarly investigating erosion-resistant coatings for use on the compressor blades of their M1A1 tank engines.

Eroded Portion of Blade

Coated Compressor Blade

Uncoated Compressor Blade

Figure 8: Results of US Navy Sand Ingestion Test on T64 Engine.

B.1.4

Conclusion

During recent desert operations, a large number of military aircraft and ground vehicles have experienced fine sand ingestion into their turbomachinery, which compromised engine performance and significantly reduced the normal life expectancy of the engines. Existing inlet particle separators utilizing conventional inertial or vortex-tube type designs are capable of removing large sand particles, but experience a dramatic decrease in removal efficiency as particle sizes decrease. For example, extremely fine sand particles below 10 microns in diameter, prevalent in the Middle East, have proven to be especially problematic during recent desert operations. In addition to efficiency problems, conventional IPS designs have proven difficult to retrofit to existing APUs currently in the field. Erosion-resistant coatings have shown promise in retarding the effects of sand erosion experienced by turbine engine compressor airfoils in the desert environment. Use of erosion-resistant coatings must be evaluated on a case-by-case basis for any particular engine application, taking into account such factors as compressor blade material, component size, potential fatigue debit, operating temperatures, blade tip speeds, impact angles, etc., while ensuring that a cost-effective case can be made for their implementation. Experience in desert operations demonstrated that a substantial improvement is needed in inlet protection systems and engine erosion resistance. Sand ingestion causes severe performance degradation, excessive
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ANNEX B AIR, LAND, SEA AND SPACE FOD ISSUES wear, increased maintenance and eventually premature failure of the engines. In order to extend the life of military aircraft and ground vehicles main engines and APUs in severe sand environments, the rapid incorporation of new and innovative inlet protection system concepts and erosion-resistant coating technologies must be pursued.

B.2 FOD AVOIDANCE IN INDUSTRIAL GAS TURBINES

Foreign object damage (FOD) is a common, but usually preventable, problem in industrial gas turbines. It is frequently the result of failure to sufficiently clean the inlet and variable bypass valve (VBV) duct, and can also be caused by debris hidden in the inlet seals or joints. Loss of sealing in the inlet screen/sock is a common source of FOD.

Figure 9: Industrial Gas Turbine Engine.

FOD in industrial gas turbines can result in LPC/HPC damage, including dents, tears or blade loss. Even a partial blade loss can precipitate major compressor damage. FOD may also cause deposits on combustor and HPT airfoils that require additional cleaning to remove. These consequences can result in engine performance loss, compressor stall, or even require costly engine removal to repair. To avoid FOD in industrial gas turbines, it is important to conduct periodic inlet cleaning and inspection. The inlet and VBV duct should be thoroughly cleaned of dirt and debris. Any weld splatter should be scraped from inlet walls. The perforated silencer plate should be carefully cleaned. The inlet should be completely wiped and vacuumed initially and after every access. Inlet plenum drains should be flushed clean after maintenance. Plenum, filter house, inlet screen/sock and VBV duct should be periodically cleaned as part of a regularly scheduled maintenance program.

B.3 SEA-RELATED FOD ISSUES

Although instances of FOD do occur in ship engines, they are very infrequent and are caused primarily by internal engine component failures and/or maintenance-induced errors. Since ship engines are usually derivatives of engines used in aircraft, much of the FOD design, analysis, inspection and repair procedures identified in this report are equally applicable to ship engine components as they are to their aviation counterparts.

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Figure 10: Turbine Engine Powered Ship Applications.

B.4 SPACE-RELATED FOD ISSUES

FOD is not unique to air breathing propulsion systems. Rocket propulsion systems with both fuel and oxidizer supplied from closed supply tanks are also vulnerable to FOD. For these kinds of systems, the FOD may occur externally in the form of debris either in or out of the atmosphere that strikes the external portions of the rocket systems. The most vulnerable component for this kind of FOD is the nozzle. Flight weight space nozzles are very fragile and susceptible to damage if even very small particles strike them. Particles can originate from the flight or spacecraft system or from the external environment. The recent failure of the US Space Shuttle illustrates the existence of foreign object debris arising from the launch system. If debris such as was lost at launch should strike a nozzle, it is probable that severe damage would be inflicted. Fast moving particles while in space can also damage rockets. The particles can be natural (meteors) or man-made (space debris from other space activities). The other form of FOD experienced by rockets is caused by internally generated foreign object debris. The debris can be pieces of filters used in the propellant systems or other materials liberated by various material failures. Of particular concern for rockets using cryogenic propellants is the presence of water in the supply systems. An example of this is provided in Figure 11, in which the FOD occurred to the injector of the combustion chamber after only 3.12 seconds.

Figure 11: Water-Induced FOD on Rocket Combustion Chamber Injector.

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ANNEX B AIR, LAND, SEA AND SPACE FOD ISSUES More information about space FOD prevention can be found at the following website: http://www.nafpi. com/presentations/2000/rocketdyne%20_fod_prevention.pdf.

B.5 SPACE DEBRIS

Since the start of the space conquest, human activity has resulted in the production of a very large number of objects in space. Indeed, for most sizes of objects, the pollution created by human beings has now become greater than that caused in the natural environment by meteorites. The objects have various origins: first of all, they involve satellites that have arrived at the end of their orbital lifetime but remain in orbit around the Earth; secondly, they are produced by objects placed into orbit at the same time as satellites, such as the final stage of launch vehicles, separation systems or protective covers. The vast majority of orbital debris results from explosions, either deliberate or accidental, having taken place in space or been caused by collisions between objects. Finally, the ageing of materials in space also produces a great deal of debris (such as the separation of photoelectric cells, disintegration of heat shields etc.). See Figures 12 and 13.

1,E+07 1,E+05 1,E+03 1,E+01 1,E-01 1,E-03 1,E-05 1,E-07 1,E-09 1,E-11 0,0001

flux (#/m2/year).

debris meteorites

0,001

0,01

0,1

10

diameter (cm)

Figure 12: Flux (per year) of Debris and Meteorites per Diameter for a 940 km Altitude.

Operating satellites 6% Small fragments 42%

Non operating satellites 22%

Part of satellites 13%

upper stages 17%

Figure 13: Repartition of Objects around the Earth (small fragments are due to explosions or impacts).

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ANNEX B AIR, LAND, SEA AND SPACE FOD ISSUES The debris is found above all on useful orbits where human activity is most important, such as the geostationary orbits on which most telecommunication satellites are placed, low orbits between 600 and 1500 km that correspond to many of the Earth observation missions, and very low orbits that are used for inhabited missions. The objects travel at relative speeds that can reach 15 to 20 km/s. At these speeds, the kinetic energy of a particle is considerable even when small in size. At present, no shielding can withstand objects whose size is greater than 1 or 2 cm in diameter. Fortunately the probability of a collision remains low, but on certain orbits it is far from negligible: for example for the Hubble space telescope, the probability of an impact by debris larger than 1 cm is estimated to be 4% over its entire orbital lifetime. See Figure 14.

Figure 14: Example of Impact on the Solar Panel of Hubble Telescope.

At the present time, there is no technical solution for removing debris already in orbit. The only mechanism of cleaning is natural: the effect is produced by atmospheric drag, which causes orbits to descend until the objects involved re-enter the Earths atmosphere. This phenomenon only applies, however, to low orbits: at the altitude of the SPOT satellites (800 km), the orbital lifetime is already between 1 and 2 centuries. On the higher orbits, service lives are counted in millennia or tens of millennia. Finally, in geostationary orbits, there is no trace of the Earths atmosphere and orbital lifetime is infinite. Developments in the number of debris items are difficult to forecast because they depend on estimates about the annual number of launches or the efficiency of the preventive measures under consideration. This being said, for many years there has been continuous growth in the number of objects in space, and the emergence of new constellation projects involving a large number of satellites in orbit can only accentuate the trend. In order to identify the magnitude of space debris and micro-meteor impacts, measurements are continually being taken. An example of this effort is shown in Figure 15, where the Long Duration Exposure Facility (LDEF) satellite stayed in space for six years to capture data on micro-meteor impacts and space debris before being brought back to Earth for the data to be analysed.

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Figure 15: Picture of LDEF (Long Duration Exposure Facility).

Since there is no solution to do away with the debris already created, the main actors in the space industry have started to take preventive measures to try to reduce the production of debris: these measures consist, for example, of placing satellites that have arrived at the end of their orbital lifetime on a graveyard orbit, in order to free the useful orbit, or to make launcher stages inert after they have been placed into orbit to avoid any risk of explosion at a later date. These measures, the cost premium for which is far from negligible, are used today by most operators on a voluntary basis, but they will no doubt ultimately be subject to regulation that may be more coercive. On the international level, the subject is currently being discussed within a committee known as the IADC (Inter-Agency Space Debris Co-ordination Committee), which includes the principal actors in the space industry around the world: the United States, Russia, Japan, China, India, ESA, the United Kingdom, Germany, Italy and France. Finally, the issue of space debris has already been taken into account by the United Nations within the Committee on the Peaceful Uses of Outer Space (COPUOS).

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