22 Chapter 1: Functions

81. 3(x - I)' + 2(y + 2)' ~ 6

82. + + ~ ) ' + + -t)' ~ 54
83. Write an equation for the ellipse (x'/16) + (y'/9) ~ I shifted 4
units to the left and 3 units up. S1retch the ellipse and ideotifY its
center and major axis.
84. Write an equation for the ellipse (x'/4) + (y'/25) ~ I shifted 3
units to the right and 2 units down. S1retch the ellipse and ideotifY
its center and major axis.
Comlrining Functions
85. Assume that f is an even function, g is an odd function, and both
f andg are dermed on the entire real line R. Which of the follow-
ing (where dermed) are flNeo? odd?
1.3
Trigonometric Functions
a. fg
d. f' ~ If
b. f/g
. g ' ~ g g
e. g/f
r. fog
g. gof h. fof i. gog
86. Can a function be both flNeo aod odd? Give reasons for your
answer.
D 87. (Continuation of Example 1.) Graph the functions f(x) ~ Vx
and g(x) ~ ~ together with their (a) sum, (b) product,
(c) two differences, (d) two quotients.
D 88. Let f(x) ~ x - 7 aod g(x) ~ x'. Graph f and g together with
f 0 gandg 0 f.
TIris section reviews radian measure and the basic trigonometric functions.
<
C""10 of ,ifo""
FIGURE 1.38 TIre radian measure of the
central aogleA'CB' is the number 9 ~ s/r.
For a unit circle of radius r = 1,8 is the
length of arc AB that central angle ACB
cuts from the unit circle.
Angles
Angies are measured in degrees or radians. The number of radians in the central angle
A' CB' within a circie of radius r is defined as the number of ''radius units" contained in
the arc s subtended by that central angie. If we denote this central angie by () when meas-
ured in radians, this means that fJ = sir (Figure 1.38), or
s = rJ (fJ in radians). (1)
If the circie is a unit circle having radius r = i, then from Figure 1.38 and Equation (i),
we see that the central angle fJ measured in radians is just the iength of the arc that the an-
gle cuts from the unit circie. Since one compiete revoiution of the unit circie is 360
0
or 21T
radians, we have
1T radians = i80 (2)
and
1 radian = i!O ('" 57.3) degrees or 1 degree = 1 ~ 0 ('" 0.017) radians.
Tabie 1.2 shows the equivalence between degree and radian measures for some basic
angles.
TABLE 1.2 Angles measured in degrees and radians
Degrees -180 -135 -90 -45 0 30
fJ (radians) -1T
-31T
4
o
1T
6
45
1T
4
60 90 120 135 150 180 270 360
1T 1T
3 2
hypotenuse
adjacent
sin {1 = opp
byp
d

opp
tan 9 adj
csc {1 = hyp
opp
byp
sec {1 = adj
cot {1 = adj
opp
opposite
FIGURE 1.41 Trigonometric
ratios of an acute angle.
y
FIGURE 1.42 The trigonometric
functions of. general angle 6 are
defmed in terms ofx,y, and r.
1.3 Trigonometric Functions 23
An angle in the xy-plane is said to be in standard position if its vertex lies at the origin
and its initial ray lies along the positive x-axis (Figure 1.39). Angles measured counter-
clockwise from the positive x-axis are assigned positive measures; angles measured clock-
wise are assigned negative measures.
y y
Initial ray

FIGURE 1.39 Angles in staodard position in the xy-plaoe.
Angles describing counterclockwise rotations can go arbitrarily far beyond 2" radi-
ans or 360. Similarly, angles describing clockwise rotations can have negative measures
of all sizes (Figure lAO).
y
9"
4
y
3"
- -"-H --'....+----x
y y
-----*--,---->X
FIGURE 1.40 Nonzero radiao measures cao be positive or negative and cao go beyond 2"..
Angle Convention: Use Radians From now on, in this book it is assumed that all angles
are measured in radians unless degrees or some other unit is stated explicitly. When we talk
about the angle ,,/3, we mean ,,/3 radians (which is 60), not ,,/3 degrees. We use radians
because it simplifies many of the operations in calculus, and some results we will obtain
involving the trigonometric functions are not true when angles are measured in degrees.
The Six Basic Trigonometric Functions
You are probably familiar with derming the trigonometric functions of an acute angle in
terms of the sides of a right triangle (Figure 1041). We extend this dermition to obtuse and
negative angles by first placing the angle in standard position in a circle of radius r.
We then derme the trigonometric functions in terms of the coordinates of the point P(x, y)
where the angle's terminal ray intersects the circle (Figure 1.42).
sine:
sin l/ = )I
cosecant:
r
r
cscl/=y
cosine:
x
secant: sec l/ = l'
cosO = r
x
tangent:
tan 0 =)1
x
cotangent: cotO =""
y
These extended dermitions agree with the right-triangle definitions when the angle is acute.
Notice also that whenever the quotients are defined,
lanO = sinO
cosO
secO
cos v
I
cotO = lanO
I
cseO = sinO
24 Chapter 1: Functions
zj
2 ~ 1
'" '"
- -
4 2
1
FIGURE 1.43 Radian angles and side
leng1hs of two common 1riangles.
y
S A
sinpos all pos
x
T C
tanpos cospos
FIGURE 1.44 The CAST rule,
remembered by the statement
"Calculus Activates Student
Thinking," tells which
trigonometric functions are
positive in each quadrant.
As you can see, tan IJ and sec IJ are not defined if x = cos IJ = O. This means they are not
defined iflJ is 1T/2, 31T/2, ... . Similarly, cot 0 and csc 0 are not defined for values of 0
forwhichy = O,namelyO = 0, 1T, 21T, ....
The exact values of these trigonometric retios for some angles can be read from the
triangles in Figure 1.43. For instance,
. 1T 1
sm-=-
4v'Z
1T 1
cos-= -
4v'Z
tan
1T
=1
4
. 1T 1
sm
6
=2
1T V3
cos
6
=2
tan 1T = _1_
6V3
. 1T V3
smT=2
1T 1
cosT = 2
The CAST rule (Figure 1.44) is useful for remembering when the basic trigonometric func-
tions are positive or negative. For instance, from the triangle in Figure 1.45, we see that
21T 1
cosT = -2'
tan 2; = -V3.
(cos 2;, sin 2;) = t - ~ , ~ )
y
FIGURE 1.45 The 1riangle for
calculating the sine and cosine of21f/3
mdians. The side leog1hs come from the
geometty of right triangles.
Using a similar method we determined the values of sin 0, cos 0, and tan 0 shown in Table 1.3.
TABLE 1.3 Values of sin 0, cos 0, and tan 0 for selected values of 0
Degrees -180 -135 -90 -45 0 30 45 60 90 120 135 150 180 270 360
o (radians)
-31T -1T -1T
0
1T 1T 1T 1T 21T 31T 51T 31T
21T -1T
4 2 4 6 4 3 2 3 4 6
1T
2
sinO 0
-v'Z
-I
-v'Z
0
1 v'Z V3
1
V3 v'Z 1
0
-I
0
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
cosO
-I
-v'Z
0
v'Z
1
V3 v'Z 1
0
1 -v'Z
-V3
-I
0 1
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2
tan 0 0 1 -I 0
V3
1 V3 -V3
-I
-V3
0 0
3 3
I Period. of Trigonometric Functions
Period 'IT : tan (x + ".) ~ tan x
cot(x + ".) ~ cotx
Period 2'IT: sin(x + 2".) ~ sinx
cos(x + 2".) ~ cosx
sec(x + 2".) ~ .. cx
csc(x + 2".) ~ cscx
Even
cos ( -x) ~ cosx
sec ( -x) ~ secx
Odd
sin( -x) ~ -sinx
tan(-x) ~ -tanx
esc ( -x) ~ -cscx
cot ( -x) ~ -COlx
y
FIGURE 1.47 The reforenoe
triangle for a general angle 8.
1.3 Trigonometric Functions 25
Periodicity and Graphs of the Trigonometric Functions
When an angle of measure 8 and an angle of measure 8 + 21T are in standard position, their
terminal rays coincide. The two angles therefore have the same trigonometric fimction values:
sin(8 + 21T) = sin 8, tan(8 + 21T) = tan 8, and so on. Similarly, cos(8 - 21T) ~ cos 8,
sin(8 - 21T) = sin 8, and so on. We describe this repeating behavior by saying that the six
basic trigonometric functions are periodic.
DEFINmON A function f(x) is periodic ifthere is a positive number p such that
f(x + p) ~ f(x) for every value ofx. The smallest such value ofp is the period of f.
When we graph trigonometric functions in the coordinate plane, we usually denote the in-
dependent variable by x instead of 8. Figure 1.46 shows that the tangent and cotangent
functions have period p ~ 1T, and the other four functions have period 21T. Also, the sym-
metries in these graphs reveal that the cosine and secant functions are even and the other
four functions are odd (although this does not prove those results).
Domajn: _00 < x < co
Range: -1:s y :s 1
Period: 2'1T
(a)
y
y = socx
\v
- , t - = - t n t - t - ~ ~ ~ ,
_3 (\ 0 n
Domain' "" + 1T + 31T
X -2'-2 ...
Range: y:s -1 ory ~ 1
Period: 2'17"
(d)
Domain: -co < x < 00
Range: -1:s y:s 1
Period: 2'1J"
(b)
y
Domain: x "'" 0, '1f, 2'1f,
Range: y::5 -lory 2:: 1
Period: 271'
(0)
y
y - tunx
Domajn' *+'1r + 3'17"
.X -2'- 2.
Range: -co < y < 00
Period: '1T (c)
y
y - cotx
Domain: x "'" 0, '1f, 2'1f, ...
Range: _00 < y < 00
Period: '1T
(I)
FIGURE 1.46 Graphs of the six hasic trigonometric functions using radian measure. The shading
for each trigonometric function indicates its periodicity.
Trigonometric Identities
The coordinates of any point P(x, y) in the plane can be expressed in terms of the point's
distance r from the origin and the angle 8 that ray OP makes with the positive x-axis
(Figure 1.42). Since xlr ~ cos 8 andylr = sin 8, we have
x = rcos6, y ~ rsin8.
When r = 1 we can apply the Pythagorean theorem to the reference right triangle in
Figure 1.47 and obtain the equation
(3)
26 Chapter 1: Functions
TIris equation, true for all values of 6, is the most frequently used identity in trigonometry.
Dividing this identity in turn by cos
2
6 and sin
2
6 gives
1 + tan
2
6 = sec
2
6
I + cot' 6 = csc
2
6
The following formulas hold for all angles A and B (Exercise 58).
Additioo Formulas
cos(A + B) = cosA cosB - sinA sinB
sin(A + B) = sinA cosB + cosA sinB
(4)
There are similar formulas for cos (A - B) and sin (A - B) (Exercises 35 and 36). All
the trigonometric identities needed in this book derive from Equations (3) and (4). For ex-
ample, substituting 6 for both A and B in the addition formulas gives
Double-Angle Formulas
cos 26 = cos
2
6 - sin
2
6
sin 26 = 2 sin 6 cos 6
Additional formulas come from combining the equations
cos
2
6 + sin
2
6 = I, cos
2
6 - sin
2
6 = cos 26.
(5)
We add the two equations to get 2 cos
2
6 = I + cos 26 and subtract the second from the
first to get 2 sin
2
6 = I - cos 26. TIris results in the following identities, which are useful
in integral calculus.
Half-Angle Formulas
The Law of Cosines
cos2 6 = 1 + cos 26
2
sin2 6 = I - cos 26
2
If a, b, and c are sides of a triangle ABC and if 6 is the angle opposite c, then
TIris equation is called the law of cosioes.
(6)
(7)
(8)
y
B(a cos 8, a sin 8)
- - - - - - ~ ~ - - ~ ~ ~ ~ ~ x
C b A(b,O)
FIGURE 1.48 The square of the distance
betweeo A and B gives the law of cosines.
1.3 Trigonometric Functions 27
We can see why the law holds if we introduce coordinate axes with the origin at C and
the positive x-axis along one side of the triangle, as in Figure 1,48. The coordinates of A
are (b, 0); the coordinates of B are (a cos II, a sin II). The square of the distance between A
and B is therefore
c
2
= (acosll- b)2 + (a sin 11)2
= a
2
(cos
2
11 + sin
2
11) + b
2
- Zabcosll
I
= a
2
+ b
2
- Zabcosll.
The law of cosines generalizes the Pythagorean theorem. If II = 7T /Z, then cos II = 0
andc
2
= a
2
+ b
2

Transfonnations of Trigonometric Graphs
The rules for shifting, stretching, compressing, and reflecting the graph of a function sum-
marized in the following diagram apply to the trigonometric functions we have discussed
in this section.
Vertical stretch or compression; ~ / Vertica1 shift
reflection about x-axis ifnegative ~
y = af(b(x + c)) + d
Horizontal stretch or compression; / ~ Horizontal shift
reflection about y-axis if negative
The transformation rules applied to the sine function give the general sine function
or sinusoid formula
f(x) = A Sin(Z; (x - C) + D,
where I A I is the amplitude, I B I is the period, C is the horizontal shift, and D is the
vertical shift. A graphical interpretation of the various terms is revealing and given below.
y
y = A sin (2;<x - C) + D
o
Two Spedallnequalities
For any angle II measured in radians,
-1111 :5 sinll:5 1111 and -1111 :5 I - cos II :5 1111.
28 Chapter 1: Functions
y
p
To establish these inequalities, we picture fJ as a nonzero angle in standard position
(Figure 1.49). The circle in the figure is a unit circle, sollil equals the length of the circular
arc AP. The length of line segmentAP is therefore less than IfJl.
cos 6
1-cosO
Triangle APQ is a right triangle with sides of length
QP = IsinfJl, AQ = I - cosfJ.
From the Pythagorean theorem and the fact that AP < I fJ I, we get
sin
2
fJ + (I - cos fJ)2 = (AP)2 :5 6'. (9)
The terms on the left-band side of Equation (9) are both positive, so each is smaller than
their sum and hence is less than or equal to 6':
and (I - cos 11)2 :5 6'.
FIGURE 1.49 From the geometry
of this figure, drawn for
By taking square roots, this is equivalent to saying that
8 > 0, we get the inequality
sin
2
8 + (I - cos 8)2 :5 0'.
so
and 11- cosfJl
-161 :5 sinfJ:5 161 and -161 :5 I - cosll :5 161.
These inequalities will be useful in the next chapter.
Exercises 1.3
Radians and Degrees
1. On a circle of radius 10m, how long is an arc that subtends a cen-
tral angle of (8) 4'1f/5 radiaos? (b) 110'?
2. A central aogle in a circle of radius 8 is subtended by ao arc of
length 101r. Find the aogle's radian and degree measures.
3. You waot to ma1re ao 80' aog1e by marking ao arc on the perime-
ter of. 12-in.-diarneter disk and drawing lines from the ends of
the arc to the disk's ceoter. To the nearest tenth of an incb, how
long should the arc be?
4. If you roll a I-m-diaroeter wheel forward 30 em over level
grouod, through what aogle will the wheel turn? Aoswer in radi-
aos (to the nearest tenth) aod degrees (to the nearest degree).
Evaluating Trigonometric Functions
S. Copy aod complete the following table of function values. If the
function is undefmed at a given angle, enter "UND." Do not use a
calculator or tables.
(} -". -2"./3 o "./2 3"./4
sinO
cosO
tan 8
cot 8
sec 0
esc 8
6. Copy and complete the following table of function values. If the
function is undefmed at a given angle, enter "UND." Do not use a
calculator or tables.
fJ
sinO
cos 8
tan 8
cot 8
sec 0
esc 8
-3"./2 -"./3 -"./6 "./4 S1r/6
In Exercises 7-12, one of sin x, cos x, and tan x is given. Find the other
two if x lies in the specified interval.
7
. 3
smx = 5'
I
9. cosx = 3'
XE [f, 'If]
XE[-f,o]
8. tanx = 2, XE [o,f]
10. cosx = -1
5
3' XE [f,'lT]
12. sinx = -t, XE ['If, 3;]
Graphing Trigonometric Functions
Graph the functions in Exercises 13-22. What is the period of each
function?
13. sin 2x 14. sin (x/2)
15. cos 71'X
17
. 'If X
-
8m
T
19. cos(X - f)
'If X
16. cosT
18. - cos 2 '1TX
21. Sin(X - -;f) + I 22. COS(X + 2:) - 2
Graph the functioos in Exercises 23-26 in the Is-plane (taxis horizoo
tal, s-axis vertical). What is the period of each function? What sym
metries do the graphs have?
23. s = cot2t 24. s = -tao 'ITt
25. s = 26. s = csc(f)
D 27. a. Graph y = cos x and y = sec x together for - 3'IT /2 ,;; x
,;; 3'IT /2. Cornmeot on the behavior of sec x in relatioo to the
signs and values of cos x.
b. Grapby = sin x andy = c8Cxtogetherfor-w x 2'17".
Comment on the behavior of esc x in relation to the signs and
values of sin x.
D 28. Graph y = taox aod y = cotx together for -7 ,;; x ,;; 7. Com-
ment on the behavior of cot x in relation to the signs and values of
taox.
29. Graph y = sinx aod y = l sin x J together. What are the domain
and raoge of l sin x J ?
30. Graph y = sinx aod y = r sin x 1 together. What are the domain
and raoge of r sin x 1 ?
Using the Addition Formulas
Use the addition formulas to derive the ideotities in Exercises 31-36.
31. cos(x - I-) = sinx 32. cos (x + 1-) = -sinx
33. Sin(X + f) = cosx 34. Sin(X - -I-) = -cosx
35. cos(A - B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB (Exercise 57 provides a
different derivation.)
36. sin(A - B) = sinA cosB - cosA sinB
37. What happeos if you take B = A in the trigoooroetric ideotity
cos(A - B) = cosA cosB + sinA sinB? Does the result agree
with something you already know?
38. What happeos if you take B = 2'IT in the addition formulas? Do
the results agree with something you already know?
In Exercises 39-42, express the giveo quaotity in terms of sin x aod
cosx.
39. cos('IT + x)
41. Sin(3; - x)
40. sin(2'IT - x)
42. cose; + x)
43 E al
. 7'IT . ('IT 'IT)
. v uatesffi12assm 4+3.
44. Evaluate cos If; as cos (-;f + 2:).
45. Evaluate cos . 46. Evaluate sin ;; .
Using the Double-Angle Formulas
Find the functioo values in Exercises 47-50.
47. cos
2
'!!
8
48 2
5
'IT
cos 12
49.
. 2 'IT
SO. sin
231T
sm 12
8
1.3 Trigonometric Functions 29
Solving Trigonometric Equations
For Exercises 51-54, solve for the angle 0, where 0 ,;; 0 ,;; 2'IT.
51. sin' 0 = t 52. sin' 0 = cos' 0
53. sin20 - cosO = 0 54. cos20 + cosO = 0
Theory and Examples
55. The tangent snm formula The staodard formula for the tao-
goot of the smn of two aogles is
taoA+taoB
tao(A + B) = I - taoA taoB'
Derive the formula.
56. (ContinUIJtion of Exercise 55.) Derive a formula for tao (A - B).
57. Apply the law of cosines to the triaogle in the accoropaoying fig-
ure to derive the formula for cos (A - B).
y
1

o
58. a. Apply the formula for cos(A - B) to the ideotity sinO =
cos(I - 0) to obtain the addition formula for sin(A + B).
b. Derive the formula for cos (A + B) by substituting - B for B
in the formula for cos (A - B) from Exercise 35.
59. A triaogle has sides a = 2 aod b = 3 aod angle C = 60. Find
the leogtil of side c.
60. A triaogle has sides a = 2 aod b = 3 aod aogle C = 40. Find
the leogtil ofside c.
61. The law of sine. The law of sines says that if a, b, aod c are the
sides opposite the angles A, B, and C in a triangle, then
sinA sinB sin C
abe .
Use the accoropaoying figures aod the identity sin('IT - 0) =
sin 0 , if required, to derive the law.
A A
B "---"' . - -'-----' C B ..----: . ,----.J
62. A triaogle has sides a = 2 aod b = 3 and aogle C = 60 (as in
Exercise 59). Find the sine of aogle B using the law of sines.
30 Chapter 1: Functions
63. A triangle has side c = 2 and angles A = 1f/4 and B = 1f/3.
Find the length a of the side opposite A.
D 64. The appnDimation sin x '" x It is often useful to know that,
whenx is measured in radians, sin x ~ x for n'lDDerically small val-
ues of x. In Sectioo 3.9, we will see why the approximation holds.
The approximatioo error is less than 1 in 5000 if Ixl < 0.1.
L With your grapher in radian mode, graph y = sinx and y = x
together in a viewiog wiodow about the otigin. What do you
see happening as x nears the origin?
b. With your grapher in degree mode, graph y = sinx and
y = x together about the origin again. How is the picture dif-
ferent froru the ooe obtained with radian mode?
General Sine Curves
For
f(x) = A Sine: (x - C) + D,
identify A, B, C, and D for the sine functions in Exercises 65-<i8 aod
sketch their graphs.
65. Y = 2 sin (x + 1f) - 1
67. y=-%Sin(ft) +,\0
COMPUTER EXPLORATIONS
66. y = kSin(1fX - 1f) + k
68. y = ~ s i n 2L1ft, L > 0
2"
In Exercises 6'J-72, you will explore graphically the general sine
functioo
f(x) = A Sine: (x - C)) + D
as you change the values of the constants A, B, C, andD. Use a CAS
or coruputer grapher to perform the steps in the exercises.
69. TheperiodB Set the constants A = 3, C = D = O.
a. Plot f(x) for the values B = I, 3, 21f, 5" over the interval
-41f :5 x :5 41f. Describe what happens to the graph of the
general sine function as the period increases.
b. What happens to the graph for negative values of B? Try it
withB = -3 andB = -21f.
70. The horizontal shift C Set the constants A = 3, B = 6, D = O.
a. Plot f(x) for the values C = 0, I, and 2 over the interval
-41f :5 x :5 41f. Describe what happens to the graph of the
general sine function as C increases through positive values.
b. What happens to the graph for negative values of C?
c. What smallest positive value should be assigned to C so the
graph exhibits no horizontal shift? Confum your answer with
a plot.
71. The vertical shift D Set the constants A = 3, B = 6, C = O.
a. Plot f(x) for the values D = 0, I, and 3 over the interval
-41f :5 x :5 41f. Describe what happens to the graph of the
general sine function as D increases through positive values.
b. What happens to the graph for negative values of D?
72. The amplitude A Set the constants B = 6, C = D = O.
a. Describe what happens to the graph of the general sine func-
tion as A increases through positive values. Confirm your an-
swer by plotting f(x) for the values A = I, 5, and 9.
h. What happens to the graph for negative values of A?
1.4
Graphing with Calculators and Computers
A graphing calculator or a computer with graphing software enables us to graph very com-
plicated functions with high precision. Many of these functions could not otherwise be
easily graphed. However, care must be taken when using such devices for graphing pur-
poses, and in this section we address some of the issues involved. In Chapter 4 we will see
how calculus helps us determine that we are accurately viewing all the important features
of a function's graph.
Graphing Windows
When using a graphing calculator or computer as a graphing tool, a portion of the graph is
displayed in a rectangular display or viewing window. Often the default window gives an in-
complete or misleading picture of the graph. We use the tenD square window when the units
or scales on both axes are the same. Ibis tenD does not mean that the display window itself is
square (usually it is rectangular), but ioslead it means that the x-unit is the same as the y-unit.
When a graph is displayed io the default window, the x-unit may differ from the y-unit of
scaling in order to fit the graph in the window. The viewing window is set by specifying an
ioterval [a, b] for the x-values and an ioterval [c, d] for the y-values. The machine selects
equally spaced x-values in [a, b] and then plots the points (x, f(x. A poiot is plotted if and