Electricity sector in India

The electricity sector in India is predominantly controlled by the Government of India's public sector undertakings (PSUs). Major PSUs involved in the generation of electricity include National Thermal Power Corporation (NTPC), National Hydroelectric Power Corporation (NHPC) and Nuclear Power Corporation of India (NPCI). Besides PSUs, several state-level corporations, such as Maharashtra State Electricity Board (MSEB), are also involved in the generation and intra-state distribution of electricity. The PowerGrid Corporation of India is responsible for the inter-state transmission of electricity and the development of national grid. The Ministry of Power is the apex body responsible for the development of electrical energy in India. This ministry started functioning independently from 2 July, 1992; earlier, it was known as the Ministry of Energy. The Union Minister of Power at present is Sushilkumar Shinde of the Congress Party who took charge of the ministry on the 28th of May, 2009. India is world's 6th largest energy consumer, accounting for 3.4% of global energy consumption. Due to India's economic rise, the demand for energy has grown at an average of 3.6% per annum over the past 30 years. In March 2009, the installed power generation capacity of India stood at 147,000 MW while the per capita power consumption stood at 612 kWH. The country's annual power production increased from about 190 billion kWH in 1986 to more than 680 billion kWH in 2006. The Indian government has set an ambitious target to add approximately 78,000 MW of installed generation capacity by 2012. The total demand for electricity in India is expected to cross 950,000 MW by 2030. About 75% of the electricity consumed in India is generated by thermal power plants, 21% by hydroelectric power plants and 4% by nuclear power plants. More than 50% of India's commercial energy demand is met through the country's vast coal reserves. The country has also invested heavily in recent years on renewable sources of energy such as wind energy. As of 2008, India's installed wind power generation capacity stood at 9,655 MW. Additionally, India has committed massive amount of funds for the construction of various nuclear reactors which would generate at least 30,000 MW. In July 2009, India unveiled a $19 billion plan to produce 20,000 MW of solar power by 2020. Electricity losses in India during transmission and distribution are extremely high and vary between 30 to 45%. In 2004-05, electricity demand outstripped supply by 7-11%. Due to shortage of electricity, power cuts are common throughout India and this has adversely effected the country's economic growth.[14][15] Theft of electricity, common in most parts of urban India, amounts to 1.5% of India's GDP.[16][17] Despite an ambitious rural electrification program, some 400 million Indians lose electricity access during blackouts. While 80 percent of Indian villages have at least an electricity line, just 44 percent of rural households have access to electricity. According to a sample of 97,882 households in 2002, electricity was the main source of lighting for 53% of rural households compared to 36% in 1993. Multi Commodity Exchange has sought permission to offer electricity future markets.

Generation
Grand Total Installed Capacity is 149,391.91 MW

1. Thermal Power
Current installed capacity of Thermal Power (as of 12/2008) is 93,398.64 MW which is 64.7% of total installed capacity.

Current installed base of Coal Based Thermal Power is 77,458.88 MW which comes to 53.3% of total installed base. Current installed base of Gas Based Thermal Power is 14,734.01 MW which is 10.5% of total installed base. Current installed base of Oil Based Thermal Power is 1,199.75 MW which is 0.9% of total installed base.

The state of Maharashtra is the largest producer of thermal power in the country.

2. Hydro Power
India was one of the pioneering states in establishing hydro-electric power plants. The power plant at Darjeeling and Shimsha (Shivanasamudra) was established in 1898 and 1902 respectively and is one of the first in Asia. The installed capacity as of 2008 was approximately 36877.76. The public sector has a predominant share of 97% in this sector.

3. Nuclear Power
Currently, seventeen nuclear power reactors produce 4,120.00 MW (2.9% of total installed base).

4. Renewable Power
Current installed base of Renewable energy is 13,242.41 MW which is 7.7% of total installed base with the southern state of Tamil Nadu contributing nearly a third of it (4379.64 MW) largely through wind power.

Transmission

Fig: A power transmission cable operated by BEST in Mumbai, India. Transmission of electricity is defined as bulk transfer of power over a long distance at high voltage, generally of 132kV and above. In India bulk transmission has increased from 3,708ckm in 1950 to more than 165,000ckm today(as stated by Power Grid Corporation of India). The entire country has been divided into five regions for transmission systems, namely, Northern Region, North Eastern Region, Eastern Region, Southern Region and Western Region. The Interconnected transmission system within each region is also called the regional grid. The transmission system planning in the country, in the past, had traditionally been linked to generation projects as part of the evacuation system. Ability of the power system to safely withstand a contingency without generation rescheduling or load-shedding was the main criteria for planning the transmission system. However, due to various reasons such as spatial development of load in the network, non-commissioning of load center generating units originally planned and deficit in reactive compensation, certain pockets in the power system could not safely operate even under normal conditions. This had necessitated backing down of generation and operating at a lower load generation balance in the past. Transmission planning has therefore moved away from the earlier generation evacuation system planning to integrate system planning. While the predominant technology for electricity transmission and distribution has been Alternating Current (AC) technology, High Voltage Direct Current (HVDC) technology has also been used for interconnection of all regional grids across the country and for bulk transmission of power over long distances. Certain provisions in the Electricity Act 2003 such as open access to the transmission and distribution network, recognition of power trading as a distinct activity, the liberal definition of a

captive generating plant and provision for supply in rural areas are expected to introduce and encourage competition in the electricity sector. It is expected that all the above measures on the generation, transmission and distribution front would result in formation of a robust electricity grid in the country.

Distribution
The total installed generating capacity in the country is over 147,000MW and the total number of consumers is over 144 million. Apart from an extensive transmission system network at 500kV HVDC, 400kV, 220kV, 132kV and 66kV which has developed to transmit the power from generating station to the grid substations, a vast network of sub transmission in distribution system has also come up for utilisation of the power by the ultimate consumers. However, due to lack of adequate investment on transmission and distribution (T&D) works, the T&D losses have been consistently on higher side, and reached to the level of 32.86% in the year 2000-01.The reduction of these losses was essential to bring economic viability to the State Utilities. As the T&D loss was not able to capture all the losses in the net work, concept of Aggregate Technical and Commercial (AT&C) loss was introduced. AT&C loss captures technical as well as commercial losses in the network and is a true indicator of total losses in the system. High technical losses in the system are primarily due to inadequate investments over the years for system improvement works, which has resulted in unplanned extensions of the distribution lines, overloading of the system elements like transformers and conductors, and lack of adequate reactive power support. The commercial losses are mainly due to low metering efficiency, theft & pilferages. This may be eliminated by improving metering efficiency, proper energy accounting & auditing and improved billing & collection efficiency. Fixing of accountability of the personnel / feeder managers may help considerably in reduction of AT&C loss. With the initiative of the Government of India and of the States, the Accelerated Power Development & Reform Programme (APDRP) was launched in 2001, for the strengthening of Sub Transmission and Distribution network and reduction in AT&C losses. The main objective of the programme was to bring Aggregate Technical & Commercial (AT&C) losses below 15% in five years in urban and in high-density areas. The programme, along with other initiatives of the Government of India and of the States, has led to reduction in the overall AT&C loss from 38.86% in 2001-02 to 34.54% in 2005-06. The commercial loss of the State Power Utilities reduced significantly during this period from Rs. 29331 Crore to Rs. 19546 Crore. The loss as percentage of turnover was reduced from 33% in 2000-01 to 16.60% in 200506. The APDRP programme is being restructured by the Government of India, so that the desired level of 15% AT&C loss could be achieved by the end of 11th plan.

Power for ALL by 2012

The Government of India has an ambitious mission of POWER FOR ALL BY 2012. This mission would require that the installed generation capacity should be at least 200,000 MW by 2012 from the present level of 144,564.97 MW. Power requirement will double by 2020 to 400,000MW.

Objectives

Sufficient power to achieve GDP growth rate of 8% Reliable power Quality power Optimum power cost Commercial viability of power industry Power for all

Strategies

Power Generation Strategy with focus on low cost generation, optimization of capacity utilization, controlling the input cost, optimisation of fuel mix, Technology upgradation and utilization of Non Conventional energy sources Transmission Strategy with focus on development of National Grid including Interstate connections, Technology upgradation & optimization of transmission cost. Distribution strategy to achieve Distribution Reforms with focus on System upgradation, loss reduction, theft control, consumer service orientation, quality power supply commercialization, Decentralized distributed generation and supply for rural areas. Regulation Strategy aimed at protecting Consumer interests and making the sector commercially viable. Financing Strategy to generate resources for required growth of the power sector. Conservation Strategy to optimise the utilization of electricity with focus on Demand Side management, Load management and Technology upgradation to provide energy efficient equipment / gadgets. Communication Strategy for political consensus with media support to enhance the general public awareness.

Subsidies
Several state governments in India provide electricity at subsidised rates or even free to some sections. This includes for use in agriculture and for consumption by backward classes. The

subsidies are mainly as cross-subsidisation, with the other users such as industries and private consumers paying the deficit caused by the subsidised charges collected. Such measures have resulted in many of the state electricity boards becoming financially weak. At present (2009), the price per unit of electricity in India is about Rs. 4 (8 US cents) for domestic consumers, and Rs. 9 for the commercial supply.

Energy policy of India

Fig: A view of a wind power plant. India has the world's fifth largest wind power industry, with an annual power production of 8,896 MW. Shown here is a wind farm in Kayathar, Tamil Nadu.

Fig: Coal Quarry India has the world's 3rd largest coal reserves. Shown here is a coal mine in Jharkhand. In recent years, Indias energy consumption has been increasing at one of the fastest rates in the world due to population growth and economic development. During the 5-year period ended March 31, 2007, the CAGR of consumption of petroleum products was approximately 3.6%, compared to a CAGR for GDP of 7.6% for the same period. Despite the overall increase in energy demand, per capita energy consumption in India is still very low compared to other developing countries. Today, India has one of the highest potentials for the effective use of renewable energy. India is the worlds fifth largest producer of wind power after Denmark, Germany, Spain, and the USA. There is a significant potential in India for generation of power from renewable energy sources-, small hydro, biomass, and solar energy. The country has an estimated SHP (small-hydro power)

potential of about 15000 MW. The energy policy of India is characterized by tradeoffs between four major drivers:

Rapidly growing economy, with a need for dependable and reliable supply of electricity, gas, and petroleum products; Increasing household incomes, with a need for affordable and adequate supply of electricity, and clean cooking fuels; Limited domestic reserves of fossil fuels, and the need to import a vast fraction of the gas, crude oil, and petroleum product requirements, and recently the need to import coal as well; and Indoor, urban and regional environmental impacts, necessitating the need for the adoption of cleaner fuels and cleaner technologies.

These trade-offs are often difficult to achieve. For example, the supply of adequate, yet affordable electricity generated and used cleanly is a continuing challenge because expansion of supply, and adoption of cleaner technologies, especially renewable energy, often means that this electricity is too expensive for many Indians, particularly in rural areas. In recent years, these challenges have led to a major set of continuing reforms and restructuring.

Energy conservation
Energy conservation has emerged as a major policy objective, and the Energy Conservation Act 2001, was passed by the Indian Parliament in September 2001. This Act requires large energy consumers to adhere to energy consumption norms; new buildings to follow the Energy Conservation Building Code; and appliances to meet energy performance standards and to display energy consumption labels. The Act also created the Bureau of Energy Efficiency to implement the provisions of the Act.

Rural electrification

Jharkhand, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Orissa, Uttranchal, Madhya Pradesh etc are some of the states where significant number (more than 10%) of villages are yet to be electrified.

Number of Villages (1991 Census) - 593,732 Villages Electrified (30 May 2006) - 488,173 Village level Electrification % - 82.2%

Some rural areas in India remain to be connected to the electricity grid. Shown here villagers heating tea with the help of firewood.

The key development objectives of the power sector is supply of electricity to all areas including rural areas as mandated in section 6 of the Electricity Act. Both the central government and state governments would jointly endeavour to achieve this objective at the earliest. Consumers, particularly those who are ready to pay a tariff which reflects efficient costs have the right to get uninterrupted twenty four hours supply of quality power. About 56% of rural households have not yet been electrified even though many of these households are willing to pay for electricity. Determined efforts should be made to ensure that the task of rural electrification for securing electricity access to all households and also ensuring that electricity reaches poor and marginal sections of the society at reasonable rates is completed within the next five years. India is using Renewable Sources of Energy like Hydel Energy, Wind Energy, and Solar Energy to electrify villages. Reliable rural electrification system will aim at creating the following:

(a) Rural Electrification Distribution Backbone (REDB) with at least one 33/11 kv (or 66/11 kv) substation in every Block and more if required as per load, networked and connected appropriately to the state transmission system (b) Emanating from REDB would be supply feeders and one distribution transformer at least in every village settlement. (c) Household Electrification from distribution transformer to connect every household on demand. (d) Wherever above is not feasible (it is neither cost effective nor the optimal solution to provide grid connectivity) decentralized distributed generation facilities together with local distribution network would be provided so that every household gets access to electricity. This would be done either through conventional or non-conventional methods of electricity generation whichever is more suitable and economical. Non-conventional sources of energy could be utilized even where grid connectivity exists provided it is found to be cost effective.

(e) Development of infrastructure would also cater for requirement of agriculture & other economic activities including irrigation pump sets, small and medium industries, khadi and village industries, cold chain and social services like health and education.

Particular attention would be given in household electrification to dalit bastis, tribal areas and other weaker sections. Rural Electrification Corporation of India, a Government of India enterprise will be the nodal agency at Central Government level to implement the programme for achieving the goal set by National Common Minimum Programme of giving access to electricity to all the households in next five years. Its role is being suitably enlarged to ensure timely implementation of rural electrification projects. Targeted expansion in access to electricity for rural households in the desired timeframe can be achieved if the distribution licensees recover at least the cost of electricity and related O&M expenses from consumers, except for lifeline support to households below the poverty line who would need to be adequately subsidized. Subsidies should be properly targeted at the intended beneficiaries in the most efficient manner. Government recognizes the need for providing necessary capital subsidy and soft long-term debt finances for investment in rural electrification as this would reduce the cost of supply in rural areas. Adequate funds would need to be made available for the same through the Plan process. Also commensurate organizational support would need to be created for timely implementation. The Central Government would assist the State Governments in achieving this. Necessary institutional framework would need to be put in place not only to ensure creation of rural electrification infrastructure but also to operate and maintain supply system for securing reliable power supply to consumers. Responsibility of operation & maintenance and cost recovery could be discharged by utilities through appropriate arrangements with Panchayats, local authorities, NGOs and other franchisees etc. The gigantic task of rural electrification requires appropriate cooperation among various agencies of the State Governments, Central Government and participation of the community. Education and awareness programmes would be essential for creating demand for electricity and for achieving the objective of effective community participation.

Policy framework
In general, India's strategy is the encouragement of the development of renewable sources of energy by the use of incentives by the federal and state governments. Other examples of encouragement by incentive include the use of nuclear energy (India Nuclear Cooperation Promotion Act), promoting windfarms such as Muppandal, and solar energy (Ralegaon

Siddhi).A long-term energy policy perspective is provided by the Integrated Energy Policy Report 2006 which provides policy guidance on energy-sector growth.

Electricity Industry
The electricity industry has been restructured by the Electricity Act 2003, which unbundles the vertically integrated electricity supply utilities in each state of India into a transmission utility, and a number of generating and distribution utilities. Electricity Regulatory Commissions in each state set tariffs for electricity sales. The Act also enables open access on the transmission system, allowing any consumer (with a load of greater than 1 MW) to buy electricity from any generator. Significantly, it also requires each Regulatory Commission to specify the minimum percentage of electricity that each distribution utility must source from renewable energy sources. The introduction of Availability based tariff has brought about stability to a great extent in the Indian transmission grids.

A General & Brief Introduction on Indias Power sector Bio-Fuels

The former President of India, Dr. Abdul Kalam, is one of the strong advocaters of Jatropha cultivation for production of bio-diesel. In his recent speech, the Former President said that out of the 6,00,000 km of waste land that is available in India over 3,00,000 km is suitable for Jatropha cultivation. Once this plant is grown the plant has a useful lifespan of several decades. During it life Jatropha requires very little water when compared to other cash crops. For plan for supplying incentives to encourage the use of Jatropha has been implemented.

Wind power showcase

The once-impoverished village of Muppandal benefited from the building of the nearby Muppandal wind farm, a renewable energy source, which supplies the villagers with electricity for work. The village had been selected as the showcase for India's $2 billion clean energy program which provides foreign companies with tax breaks for establishing fields of wind turbines in the area. Now huge power-producing windmills tower over the palm trees. The village has attracted wind energy producing companies creating thousands of new jobs, dramatically raising the incomes of villagers. The suitability of Muppandal as a site for wind farms stems from its geographical location as it has access to the seasonal monsoon winds.

Oil
The state-owned Oil and Natural Gas Corporation (ONGC) acquired shares in oil fields in countries like Sudan, Syria, Iran, and Nigeria investments that have led to diplomatic tensions

with the United States. Because of political instability in the Middle East and increasing domestic demand for energy, India is keen on decreasing its dependency on OPEC to meet its oil demand, and increasing its energy security. Several Indian oil companies, primarily lead by ONGC and Reliance Industries, have started a massive hunt for oil in several regions in India including Rajasthan, Krishna-Godavari and north-eastern Himalayas. The proposed IranPakistan-India pipeline is a part of India's plan to meet its increasing energy demand.

Nuclear power
India boasts a quickly advancing and active nuclear power program. It is expected to have 20 GW of nuclear capacity by 2020, though they currently stand as the 9th in the world in terms of nuclear capacity. An achilles heel of the Indian nuclear power program, however, is the fact that they are not signatories of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty. This has many times in their history prevented them from obtaining nuclear technology vital to expanding their use of nuclear industry. Another consequence of this is that much of their program has been domestically developed, much like their nuclear weapons program. United States-India Peaceful Atomic Energy Cooperation Act seems to be a way to get access to advanced nuclear technologies for India. India has been using imported enriched uranium and are under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, but it has developed various aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors. Development of select technologies has been strongly affected by limited imports. Use of heavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities. India has also done a great amount of work in the development of a Thorium centered fuel cycle. While Uranium deposits in the nation are extremely limited, there are much greater reserves of Thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel. The fact that Thorium can theoretically be utilized in heavy water reactors has tied the development of the two. A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating a Thorium blanket is under construction at the Madras/Kalpakkam Atomic Power Station. Uranium used for the weapons program has been separate from the power program, using Uranium from scant indigenous reserves.

Solar Energy
India's theoretical solar potential is about 5000 T kWh per year (i.e. ~ 600 TW), far more than its current total consumption. Currently solar power is prohibitive due to high initial costs of deployment. However India's long-term solar potential could be unparalleled in the world because it has the ideal combination of both high solar insolation and a big potential consumer base density. With a major section of its citizens still surviving off-grid, India's grid system is considerably under-developed. Availability of cheap solar can bring electricity to people, and bypass the need of installation of expensive grid lines. Also a major factor influencing a regions

energy intensity is the cost of energy consumed for temperature control. Since cooling load requirements are roughly in phase with the sun's intensity, cooling from intense solar radiation could make perfect energy-economic sense in the subcontinent, whenever the required technology becomes competitively cheaper.

Nuclear power in India

Since early 1990s, Russia has been a major source of nuclear fuel to India. Due to dwindling domestic uranium reserves, electricity generation from nuclear power in India declined by 12.83% from 2006 to 2008. Following a waiver from the Nuclear Suppliers Group in September 2008 which allowed it to commence international nuclear trade, India has signed nuclear deals with several other countries including France, United States, United Kingdom,Canada, Namibia. Mongolia, Argentina, Kazakhstan In February 2009, India also signed a $700 million deal with Russia for the supply of 2000 tons nuclear fuel. India now envisages to increase the contribution of nuclear power to overall electricity generation capacity from 4.2% to 9% within 25 years. In 2010, India's installed nuclear power generation capacity will increase to 6,000 MW. As of 2009, India stands 9th in the world in terms of number of operational nuclear power reactors and is constructing 9 more, including two EPRs being constructed by France's Areva. Indigenous atomic reactors include TAPS-3, and -4, both of which are 540 MW reactors. India's $717 million fast breeder reactor project is expected to be operational by 2010.

Nuclear Power Growth in India

Growth
India, being a non-signatory of the Nuclear Non-Proliferation Treaty, has been subjected to a defacto nuclear embargo from members of the Nuclear Suppliers Group (NSG) cartel. This has prevented India from obtaining commercial nuclear fuel, nuclear power plant components and services from the international market, thereby forcing India to develop its own fuel, components and services for nuclear power generation. The NSG embargo has had both negative and positive consequences for India's Nuclear Industry. On one hand, the NSG regime has constrained India from freely importing nuclear fuel at the volume and cost levels it would like to support the country's goals of expanding its nuclear power generation capacity to at least 20,000 MW by

2020. Also, by precluding India from taking advantage of the economies of scale and safety innovations of the global nuclear industry, the NSG regime has driven up the capital and operating costs and damaged the achievable safety potential of Indian nuclear power plants. On the other hand, the NSG embargo has forced the Indian government and bureaucracy to support and actively fund the development of Indian nuclear technologies and industrial capacities in all key areas required to create and maintain a domestic nuclear industry. This has resulted in the creation of a large pool of nuclear scientists, engineers and technicians that have developed new and unique innovations in the areas of Fast Breeder Reactors, Thermal Breeder Reactors, the Thorium fuel cycle, nuclear fuel reprocessing and Tritium extraction & production. Ironically, had the NSG sanctions not been in place, it would have been far more cost effective for India to import foreign nuclear power plants and nuclear fuels than to fund the development of Indian nuclear power generation technology, building of India's own nuclear reactors, and the development of domestic uranium mining, milling and refining capacity. The Indian nuclear power industry is expected to undergo a significant expansion in the coming years thanks in part to the passing of The Indo-US nuclear deal. This agreement will allow India to carry out trade of nuclear fuel and technologies with other countries and significantly enhance its power generation capacity.] when the agreement goes through, India is expected to generate an additional 25,000 MW of nuclear power by 2020, bringing total estimated nuclear power generation to 45,000 MW. India has already been using imported enriched uranium and are currently under International Atomic Energy Agency (IAEA) safeguards, but it has developed various aspects of the nuclear fuel cycle to support its reactors. Development of select technologies has been strongly affected by limited imports. Use of heavy water reactors has been particularly attractive for the nation because it allows Uranium to be burnt with little to no enrichment capabilities. India has also done a great amount of work in the development of a Thorium centered fuel cycle. While Uranium deposits in the nation are limited (see next paragraph) there are much greater reserves of Thorium and it could provide hundreds of times the energy with the same mass of fuel. The fact that Thorium can theoretically be utilized in heavy water reactors has tied the development of the two. A prototype reactor that would burn Uranium-Plutonium fuel while irradiating a Thorium blanket is under construction at the Madras/Kalpakkam Atomic Power Station. Uranium used for the weapons program has been separate from the power program, using Uranium from indigenous reserves. This domestic reserve of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium (approx 1% of global uranium reserves) is large enough to supply all of India's commercial and military reactors as well as supply all the needs of India's nuclear weapons arsenal. Currently, India's nuclear power reactors consume, at most, 478 metric tonnes of uranium per year. Even if India were quadruple its nuclear power output (and reactor base) to 20GW by 2020, nuclear power generation would only consume 2000 metric tonnes of uranium per annum. Based on India's known commercially viable reserves of 80,000 to 112,000 tons of uranium, this represents a 40 to 50 years uranium supply for India's nuclear power reactors (note with reprocessing and breeder reactor technology, this supply could be stretched out many times over). Furthermore, the uranium requirements of India's Nuclear Arsenal are only a fifteenth (1/15) of that required for power generation (approx. 32 tonnes), meaning that India's domestic fissile material supply is more than enough to meet all needs for it strategic nuclear arsenal.

Therefore, India has sufficient uranium resources to meet its strategic and power requirements for the foreseeable future.

Nuclear power & power plants

Operational plants: Kaiga, Kakrapar, Koodankulam, Kalpakkam, Kota, Tarapur, Narora Research and testing: CIRUS reactor, Dhruva reactor, Indira Gandhi Center for Atomic Research (IGCAR), Institute for Plasma Research (IPR), Heavy Water Board, Pokhran, Variable Energy Cyclotron Centre (VECC), Smiling Buddha, Pokhran-II Organizations: Atomic Energy Commission, Atomic Energy Regulatory Board (AERB), Department of Atomic Energy, Nuclear Power Corporation of India Ltd. (NPCIL) Projects and Nuclear Testing: Smiling Buddha, Pokhran-II Other topics: Energy policy of India, Indo-US civilian nuclear agreement

CIRUS reactor
CIRUS (Canada India Research U.S.) is a research reactor at the Bhabha Atomic Research Center (BARC) in Trombay near Mumbai, India. CIRUS was supplied by Canada in 1954, but uses heavy water supplied by the U.S. (hence its name). It is the second oldest reactor in India. It is modeled on the Canadian Chalk River National Research X-perimental NRX reactor. The 40 MW reactor burns natural uranium fuel, while using heavy water (deuterium) as a moderator. It is a tank reactor type with a core size of 3.14 m (H)x2.67 m (D). It first went critical July 10, 1960. The reactor is not under IAEA safeguards (which did not exist when the reactor was sold), although Canada stipulated, and the U.S. supply contract for the heavy water explicitly specified, that it only be used for peaceful purposes. Nonetheless CIRUS has produced some of India's initial weapon plutonium stockpile, as well as the plutonium for India's 1974 Pokhran-I (Codename Smiling Buddha) nuclear test, the country's first nuclear test. At a capacity factor of 50-80%, CIRUS can produce 6.6-10.5 kg of plutonium a year. CIRUS was shut down in September 1997 for refurbishment and was scheduled to resume operation in 2003. The reactor was brought back into operation two years late in 2005. During refurbishing, a low temperature vacuum evaporation-based desalination unit was also coupled to the reactor to serve as demonstration of using waste heat from a research reactor for sea desalination. Even if the reactor has a life of twenty more years, India has recently declared that

this reactor will be shut down by 2010 in accordance with the Indo-US nuclear accord reached between Indian Prime Minister Manmohan Singh and US President George W. Bush.

Madras Atomic Power Station

Madras Atomic Power Station

Data

Country

India

Operator

Nuclear Power Corporation of India LTD.

Built

1970

Start of commercial operation January 24, 1984

Reactors

Reactors active

2 (440 MW)

Reactors under construction

1 (500 MW)

Power

Total power generation in 2006

2,311 GWh

Average annual generation (last 5 yrs)

1,476 GWh

Net generation

37,546 GWh

Other details

Website Nuclear Power Corporation of India

As of July 24, 2007

Madras Atomic Power Station located at Kalpakkam about 80 km south of Chennai, India, is a comprehensive nuclear power production, fuel reprocessing, and waste treatment facility that includes plutonium fuel fabrication for fast breeder reactors [FBRs]. It is also India's first fully indegenously constructed nuclear power station. It has two units of 170 MWe capacity each. The first and second units of the station went critical in 1983 and 1985 respectively. The station has reactors housed in a reactor building with double shell containment ensuring total protection even in the remotest possibility of loss of coolant accident. An Interim Storage Facility [ISF] is also located in Kalpakkam.

Reactors
The facility houses two indigenously built CANDU type PHWRs called MAPS-1 and MAPS2.MAPS-1 was completed in 1981, but start-up was delayed due to a shortage of heavy water. After procuring the necessary heavy water, the MAPS-1 went critical in 1983 and began operating at full power in January 1984. MAPS-2 obtained criticality in 1985 and began full power operations in March 1986. The two Pressurized Heavy Water Reactors (PHWR) are capable of generating 170MWe each which is lower than the designed power of 235MWe since some zircaloy pieces from the cracked cooling system was found in a moderator pump.

Tarapur Atomic Power Station

Tarapur Atomic Power Station

Data

Country

India

Operator

Nuclear Power Corporation of India LTD.

Built

1962

Start of commercial operation October 28, 1969

Reactors

Reactors active

4 (1,400 MW)

Power

Total power generation in 2006

4,829 GWh

Average annual generation (last 5 yrs)

2,925 GWh

Net generation

71,188 GWh

Other details

As of July 24, 2007

Tarapur Atomic Power Station (T.A.P.S.) is located in Tarapur, Maharashtra (India). It was initially constructed with two boiling water reactor (BWR) units of 160 MW each by Bechtel and GE under the 1963 123 Agreement between India, the United States, and the International Atomic Energy Agency. These were the first of their kind in Asia. More recently, an additional two pressurised heavy water reactor (PHWR) units of 540 MW each were constructed by L & T and Gammon India, seven months ahead of schedule and well within the original cost estimates. With a total capacity of 1400 MW, Tarapur is the largest nuclear power station in India. The facility is operated by the Nuclear Power Corporation of India Limited. The personnel operating the power plant live in a residential complex called T. A. P. S. colony. This residential complex is a fifteen minute drive from Boisar, the nearest railway station. The residential complex was also constructed by Bechtel to house both Indian and American employees. Due to this, the residential complex had a very American small-town look, with neat sidewalks, spacious houses, a club with tennis courts and swimming pool, a commissary etc. While the original American residents have long gone, the colony continues to thrive. The sprawling resedential now boasts of 3 Schools with moderately spacious classrooms.The Recreational facilities in colony is well maintained.The local beach is flocked by fisherman villagers and the regular picnikers.

Currently, nineteen nuclear power reactors produce 4,560.00 MW (2.9% of total installed base).
Power station Operator Kaiga Kakrapar Kalpakkam Narora NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL State Karnataka Gujarat Tamil Nadu Type PHWR PHWR PHWR Units 220 x 3 220 x 2 220 x 2 220 x 2 Total capacity (MW) 660 440 440 440

Uttar Pradesh PHWR

Rawatbhata

NPCIL

Rajasthan

PHWR

100 x 1 200 x 1 220 x 4 160 x 2 540 x 2 19

1180

Tarapur

NPCIL

Maharashtra BWR (PHWR) Total

1400 4560

The projects under construction are:

Power station Operator Kaiga Kudankulam Kalpakkam NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL State Type Units 220 x 1 Total capacity (MW) 220

Karnataka PHWR

Tamil Nadu VVER-1000 1000 x 2 2000 Tamil Nadu PFBR Total 500 x 1 4 500 2720

The planned projects are:

Power station Operator Kakrapar Rawatbhata Kudankulam Jaitapur Kaiga NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL NPCIL Bhavini NPCIL State Gujarat Rajasthan Type PHWR PHWR Units 640 x 2 640 x 2 Total capacity (MW) 1280 1280 2400 6400

Tamil Nadu VVER-1200 1200 x 2 Maharashtra EPR Karnataka PWR PFBR AHWR 1600 x 4

1000 x 1, 1500 x 1 2500 470 x 4 300 1880 300

NTPC NPCIL

PWR PHWR Total

1000 x 2 640 x 4 10

2000 2560 20600

The following projects are firmly proposed.

Power station Kudankulam Jaitapur Pati Sonapur Kumaharia Saurashtra Pulivendula Kovvada Haripur Operator NPCIL NPCIL State Tamil Nadu Maharastra Orissa Haryana Gujarat Type Units Total capacity (MW)

VVER-1200 1200 x 2 2400 EPR PWR PWR PWR 2000 x 1 2000 1600 x 2 3200 6000 2800

NPCIL 51%, AP Genco 49% Andhra Pradesh PWR Andhra Pradesh PWR West Bengal PWR Total

15

The following projects are proposed and to be confirmed soon.

Power station Operator Kudankulam NPCIL State Type Units Total capacity (MW)

Tamil Nadu VVER-1200 1200 x 2 2400 Total 2 2400

Thermal power station

A thermal power station

Geothermal power station

A thermal power station is a power plant in which the prime mover is steam driven. Water is heated, turns into steam and spins a steam turbine which either drives an electrical generator or does some other work, like ship propulsion. After it passes through the turbine, the steam is condensed in a condenser and recycled to where it was heated; this is known as a Rankine cycle. The greatest variation in the design of thermal power stations is due to the different fuel sources. Some prefer to use the term energy center because such facilities convert forms of heat energy into electrical energy.

Introductory overview
Almost all coal, nuclear, geothermal, solar thermal electric, and waste incineration plants, as well as many natural gas power plants are thermal. Natural gas is frequently combusted in gas turbines as well as boilers. The waste heat from a gas turbine can be used to raise steam, in a combined cycle plant that improves overall efficiency. Power plants burning coal, oil, or natural gas are often referred to collectively as fossil-fuel power plants. Some biomass-fueled thermal power plants have appeared also. Non-nuclear thermal power plants, particularly fossil-fueled plants, which do not use cogeneration are sometimes referred to as conventional power plants. Commercial electric utility power stations are most usually constructed on a very large scale and designed for continuous operation. Electric power plants typically use three-phase or individualphase electrical generators to produce alternating current (AC) electric power at a frequency of 50 Hz or 60 Hz (hertz, which is an AC sine wave per second) depending on its location in the world. Other large companies or institutions may have their own usually smaller power plants to supply heating or electricity to their facilities, especially if heat or steam is created anyway for other purposes. Shipboard steam-driven power plants have been used in various large ships in the past, but these days are used most often in large naval ships. Such shipboard power plants are general lower power capacity than full-size electric company plants, but otherwise have many similarities except that typically the main steam turbines mechanically turn the propulsion propellers, either through reduction gears or directly by the same shaft. The steam power plants in such ships also provide steam to separate smaller turbines driving electric generators to supply electricity in the ship. Shipboard steam power plants can be either conventional or nuclear; the shipboard nuclear plants are mostly in the navy. There have been perhaps about a dozen turboelectric ships in which a steam-driven turbine drives an electric generator which powers an electric motor for propulsion. In some industrial, large institutional facilities, or other populated areas, there are combined heat and power (CHP) plants, often called cogeneration plants, which produce both power and heat for facility or district heating or industrial applications. AC electrical power can be stepped up to very high voltages for long distance transmission with minimal loss of power. Steam and hot water lose energy when piped over substantial distance, so carrying heat energy by steam or hot water is often only worthwhile within a local area or facility, such as steam distribution for a ship or industrial facility or hot water distribution in a local municipality.

History
Reciprocating steam engines have been used for mechanical power sources since the 18th Century, with notable improvements being made by James Watt. The very first commercial central electrical generating stations in New York and London, in 1882, also used reciprocating steam engines. As generator sizes increased, eventually turbines took over they encres the hose power.

Efficiency

Power is energy per unit time. The power output or capacity of an electric plant can be expressed in units of megawatts electric (MWe). The electric efficiency of a conventional thermal power station, considered as saleable energy (in MWe) produced at the plant busbars as a percent of the heating value of the fuel consumed, is typically 33% to 48% efficient. This efficiency is limited as all heat engines are governed by the laws of thermodynamics (See: Carnot cycle). The rest of the energy must leave the plant in the form of heat. This waste heat can go through a condenser and be disposed of with cooling water or in cooling towers. If the waste heat is instead utilized for district heating, it is called cogeneration. An important class of thermal power station are associated with desalination facilities; these are typically found in desert countries with large supplies of natural gas and in these plants, freshwater production and electricity are equally important co-products. Since the efficiency of the plant is fundamentally limited by the ratio of the absolute temperatures of the steam at turbine input and output, efficiency improvements require use of higher temperature, and therefore higher pressure, steam. Historically, other working fluids such as mercury have been experimentally used in a mercury vapour turbine power plant, since these can attain higher temperatures than water at lower working pressures. However, the obvious hazards of toxicity, and poor heat transfer properties, have ruled out mercury as a working fluid.

Diagram of a typical coal-fired thermal power station

1. Cooling tower 2. Cooling water pump 3. transmission line (3-phase) 4. Step-up transformer (3-phase) 5. Electrical generator (3-phase) 6. Low pressure steam turbine 7. Condensate pump 8. Surface condenser 9. Intermediate pressure steamturbine

10. Steam Control valve 11. High pressure steam turbine 12. Deaerator 13. Feedwater heater 14. Coal conveyor 15. Coal hopper 16. Coal pulverizer 17. Boiler steam drum 18. Bottom ash hopper

19. Superheater 20. Forced draught (draft) fan 21. Reheater 22. Combustion air intake 23. Economiser 24. Air preheater 25. Precipitator 26. Induced draught (draft) fan 27. Flue gas stack

Steam generator
In fossil-fueled power plants, steam generator refers to a furnace that burns the fossil fuel to boil water to generate steam. In the nuclear plant field, steam generator refers to a specific type of large heat exchanger used in a pressurized water reactor (PWR) to thermally connect the primary (reactor plant) and secondary (steam plant) systems, which of course is used to generate steam. In a nuclear reactor called a boiling water reactor (BWR), water is boiled to generate steam directly in the reactor itself and there are no units called steam generators. In some industrial settings, there can also be steam-producing heat exchangers called heat recovery steam generators (HRSG) which utilize heat from some industrial process. The steam generating boiler has to produce steam at the high purity, pressure and temperature required for the steam turbine that drives the electrical generator. A fossil fuel steam generator includes an economizer, a steam drum, and the furnace with its steam generating tubes and superheater coils. Necessary safety valves are located at suitable points to avoid excessive boiler pressure. The air and flue gas path equipment include: forced draft (FD) fan, air preheater (APH), boiler furnace, induced draft (ID) fan, fly ash collectors (electrostatic precipitator or baghouse) and the flue gas stack.[1][2][3] Geothermal plants need no boiler since they use naturally occurring steam sources. Heat exchangers may be used where the geothermal steam is very corrosive or contains excessive suspended solids. Nuclear plants also boil water to raise steam, either directly generating steam from the reactor (BWR) or else using an intermediate heat exchanger (PWR). For units over about 200 MW capacity, redundancy of key components is provided by installing duplicates of the FD fan, APH, fly ash collectors and ID fan with isolating dampers. On some units of about 60 MW, two boilers per unit may instead be provided.

Boiler furnace and steam drum

Once water inside the boiler or steam generator, the process of adding the latent heat of vaporization or enthalpy is underway. The boiler transfers energy to the water by the chemical reaction of burning some type of fuel. The water enters the boiler through a section in the convection pass called the economizer. From the economizer it passes to the steam drum. Once the water enters the steam drum it goes down the downcomers to the lower inlet waterwall headers. From the inlet headers the water rises through the waterwalls and is eventually turned into steam due to the heat being generated by the burners located on the front and rear waterwalls (typically). As the water is turned into steam/vapor in the waterwalls, the steam/vapor once again enters the steam drum. The steam/vapor is passed through a series of steam and water separators and then dryers inside the steam drum. The steam separators and dryers remove water droplets from the steam and the cycle through the waterwalls is repeated. This process is known as natural circulation. The boiler furnace auxiliary equipment includes coal feed nozzles and igniter guns, soot blowers, water lancing and observation ports (in the furnace walls) for observation of the furnace interior. Furnace explosions due to any accumulation of combustible gases after a trip-out are avoided by flushing out such gases from the combustion zone before igniting the coal. The steam drum (as well as the superheater coils and headers) have air vents and drains needed for initial startup. The steam drum has internal devices that removes moisture from the wet steam entering the drum from the steam generating tubes. The dry steam then flows into the superheater coils.

Superheater
Fossil fuel power plants can have a superheater and/or reheater section in the steam generating furnace. Nuclear-powered steam plants do not have such sections but produce steam at essentially saturated conditions. In a fossil fuel plant, after the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the steam drum, it is piped from the upper drum area into tubes inside an area of the furnace known as the superheater, which has an elaborate set up of tubing where the steam vapor picks up more energy from hot flue gases outside the tubing and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves before the high pressure turbine.

Reheater
Power plant furnaces may have a reheater section containing tubes heated by hot flue gases outside the tubes. Exhaust steam from the high pressure turbine is rerouted to go inside the reheater tubes to pickup more energy to go drive intermediate or lower pressure turbines. This is what is called as thermal power.

Fuel preparation system

In coal-fired power stations, the raw feed coal from the coal storage area is first crushed into small pieces and then conveyed to the coal feed hoppers at the boilers. The coal is next pulverized into a very fine powder. The pulverizers may be ball mills, rotating drum grinders, or other types of grinders. Some power stations burn fuel oil rather than coal. The oil must kept warm (above its pour point) in the fuel oil storage tanks to prevent the oil from congealing and becoming unpumpable. The oil is usually heated to about 100 C before being pumped through the furnace fuel oil spray nozzles. Boilers in some power stations use processed natural gas as their main fuel. Other power stations may use processed natural gas as auxiliary fuel in the event that their main fuel supply (coal or oil) is interrupted. In such cases, separate gas burners are provided on the boiler furnaces.

Air path
External fans are provided to give sufficient air for combustion. The forced draft fan takes air from the atmosphere and, first warming it in the air preheater for better combustion, injects it via the air nozzles on the furnace wall. The induced draft fan assists the FD fan by drawing out combustible gases from the furnace, maintaining a slightly negative pressure in the furnace to avoid backfiring through any opening

Auxiliary systems
Fly ash collection

Fly ash is captured and removed from the flue gas by electrostatic precipitators or fabric bag filters (or sometimes both) located at the outlet of the furnace and before the induced draft fan. The fly ash is periodically removed from the collection hoppers below the precipitators or bag filters. Generally, the fly ash is pneumatically transported to storage silos for subsequent transport by trucks or railroad cars.
Bottom ash collection and disposal

At the bottom of the furnace, there is a hopper for collection of bottom ash. This hopper is always filled with water to quench the ash and clinkers falling down from the furnace. Some arrangement is included to crush the clinkers and for conveying the crushed clinkers and bottom ash to a storage site.asa

Boiler make-up water treatment plant and storage

Since there is continuous withdrawal of steam and continuous return of condensate to the boiler, losses due to blowdown and leakages have to be made up to maintain a desired water level in the boiler steam drum. For this, continuous make-up water is added to the boiler water system. Impurities in the raw water input to the plant generally consist of calcium and magnesium salts which impart hardness to the water. Hardness in the make-up water to the boiler will form deposits on the tube water surfaces which will lead to overheating and failure of the tubes. Thus, the salts have to be removed from the water, and that is done by a water demineralising treatment plant (DM). A DM plant generally consists of cation, anion, and mixed bed exchangers. Any ions in the final water from this process consist essentially of hydrogen ions and hydroxide ions, which recombine to form pure water. Very pure DM water becomes highly corrosive once it absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere because of its very high affinity for oxygen. The capacity of the DM plant is dictated by the type and quantity of salts in the raw water input. However, some storage is essential as the DM plant may be down for maintenance. For this purpose, a storage tank is installed from which DM water is continuously withdrawn for boiler make-up. The storage tank for DM water is made from materials not affected by corrosive water, such as PVC. The piping and valves are generally of stainless steel. Sometimes, a steam blanketing arrangement or stainless steel doughnut float is provided on top of the water in the tank to avoid contact with air. DM water make-up is generally added at the steam space of the surface condenser (i.e., the vacuum side). This arrangement not only sprays the water but also DM water gets deaerated, with the dissolved gases being removed by an air ejector attached to the condenser.

Steam turbine-driven electric generator

Rotor of a modern steam turbine, used in a power station

The steam turbine-driven generators have auxiliary systems enabling them to work satisfactorily and safely. The steam turbine generator being rotating equipment generally has a heavy, large

diameter shaft. The shaft therefore requires not only supports but also has to be kept in position while running. To minimise the frictional resistance to the rotation, the shaft has a number of bearings. The bearing shells, in which the shaft rotates, are lined with a low friction material like Babbitt metal. Oil lubrication is provided to further reduce the friction between shaft and bearing surface and to limit the heat generated.

Barring gear
Barring gear (or "turning gear") is the mechanism provided to rotate the turbine generator shaft at a very low speed after unit stoppages. Once the unit is "tripped" (i.e., the steam inlet valve is closed), the turbine coasts down towards standstill. When it stops completely, there is a tendency for the turbine shaft to deflect or bend if allowed to remain in one position too long. This is because the heat inside the turbine casing tends to concentrate in the top half of the casing, making the top half portion of the shaft hotter than the bottom half. The shaft therefore could warp or bend by millionths of inches. This small shaft deflection, only detectable by eccentricity meters, would be enough to cause damaging vibrations to the entire steam turbine generator unit when it is restarted. The shaft is therefore automatically turned at low speed (about one percent rated speed) by the barring gear until it has cooled sufficiently to permit a complete stop.

Condenser

Diagram of a typical water-cooled surface condenser.

The surface condenser is a shell and tube heat exchanger in which cooling water is circulated through the tubes. The exhaust steam from the low pressure turbine enters the shell where it is cooled and converted to condensate (water) by flowing over the tubes as shown in the adjacent diagram. Such condensers use steam ejectors or rotary motor-driven exhausters for continuous removal of air and gases from the steam side to maintain vacuum.

For best efficiency, the temperature in the condenser must be kept as low as practical in order to achieve the lowest possible pressure in the condensing steam. Since the condenser temperature can almost always be kept significantly below 100 C where the vapor pressure of water is much less than atmospheric pressure, the condenser generally works under vacuum. Thus leaks of noncondensible air into the closed loop must be prevented. Plants operating in hot climates may have to reduce output if their source of condenser cooling water becomes warmer; unfortunately this usually coincides with periods of high electrical demand for air conditioning. The condenser generally uses either circulating cooling water from a cooling tower to reject waste heat to the atmosphere, or once-through water from a river, lake or ocean.

Feedwater heater
In the case of a conventional steam-electric power plant utilizing a drum boiler, the surface condenser removes the latent heat of vaporization from the steam as it changes states from vapour to liquid. The heat content (joules or Btu) in the steam is referred to as enthalpy. The condensate pump then pumps the condensate water through a feedwater heater. The feedwater heating equipment then raises the temperature of the water by utilizing extraction steam from various stages of the turbine. Preheating the feedwater reduces the irreversibilities involved in steam generation and therefore improves the thermodynamic efficiency of the system. This reduces plant operating costs and also helps to avoid thermal shock to the boiler metal when the feedwater is introduced back into the steam cycle.

Fig: A Rankine cycle with a two-stage steam turbine and a single feedwater heater.

Superheater
As the steam is conditioned by the drying equipment inside the drum, it is piped from the upper drum area into an elaborate set up of tubing in different areas of the boiler. The areas known as superheater and reheater. The steam vapor picks up energy and its temperature is now superheated above the saturation temperature. The superheated steam is then piped through the main steam lines to the valves of the high pressure turbine.

Deaerator

Diagram of boiler feed water deaerator (with vertical, domed aeration section and horizontal water storage section

A steam generating boiler requires that the boiler feed water should be devoid of air and other dissolved gases, particularly corrosive ones, in order to avoid corrosion of the metal. Generally, power stations use a deaerator to provide for the removal of air and other dissolved gases from the boiler feedwater. A deaerator typically includes a vertical, domed deaeration section mounted on top of a horizontal cylindrical vessel which serves as the deaerated boiler feedwater storage tank.[2][3][10] There are many different designs for a deaerator and the designs will vary from one manufacturer to another. The adjacent diagram depicts a typical conventional trayed deaerator. If operated properly, most deaerator manufacturers will guarantee that oxygen in the deaerated water will not exceed 7 ppb by weight (0.005 cm/L).

Auxiliary systems
Oil system

An auxiliary oil system pump is used to supply oil at the start-up of the steam turbine generator. It supplies the hydraulic oil system required for steam turbine's main inlet steam stop valve, the

governing control valves, the bearing and seal oil systems, the relevant hydraulic relays and other mechanisms. At a preset speed of the turbine during start-ups, a pump driven by the turbine main shaft takes over the functions of the auxiliary system.
Generator heat dissipation

The electricity generator requires cooling to dissipate the heat that it generates. While small units may be cooled by air drawn through filters at the inlet, larger units generally require special cooling arrangements. Hydrogen gas cooling, in an oil-sealed casing, is used because it has the highest known heat transfer coefficient of any gas and for its low viscosity which reduces windage losses. This system requires special handling during start-up, with air in the chamber first displaced by carbon dioxide before filling with hydrogen. This ensures that the highly flammable hydrogen does not mix with oxygen in the air. The hydrogen pressure inside the casing is maintained slightly higher than atmospheric pressure to avoid outside air ingress. The hydrogen must be sealed against outward leakage where the shaft emerges from the casing. Mechanical seals around the shaft are installed with a very small annular gap to avoid rubbing between the shaft and the seals. Seal oil is used to prevent the hydrogen gas leakage to atmosphere. The generator also uses water cooling. Since the generator coils are at a potential of about 22 kV and water is conductive, an insulating barrier such as Teflon is used to interconnect the water line and the generator high voltage windings. Demineralized water of low conductivity is used.
Generator high voltage system

The generator voltage ranges from 11 kV in smaller units to 22 kV in larger units. The generator high voltage leads are normally large aluminum channels because of their high current as compared to the cables used in smaller machines. They are enclosed in well-grounded aluminum bus ducts and are supported on suitable insulators. The generator high voltage channels are connected to step-up transformers for connecting to a high voltage electrical substation (of the order of 115 kV to 520 kV) for further transmission by the local power grid. The necessary protection and metering devices are included for the high voltage leads. Thus, the steam turbine generator and the transformer form one unit. In smaller units, generating at 11 kV, a breaker is provided to connect it to a common 11 kV bus system.

Other systems
Monitoring and alarm system
Most of the power plant operational controls are automatic. However, at times, manual intervention may be required. Thus, the plant is provided with monitors and alarm systems that

alert the plant operators when certain operating parameters are seriously deviating from their normal range.

Battery supplied emergency lighting and communication

A central battery system consisting of lead acid cell units is provided to supply emergency electric power, when needed, to essential items such as the power plant's control systems, communication systems, turbine lube oil pumps, and emergency lighting. This is essential for a safe, damage-free shutdown of the units in an emergency situation.

Transport of coal fuel to site and to storage

Most thermal stations use coal as the main fuel. Raw coal is transported from coal mines to a power station site by trucks, barges, bulk cargo ships or railway cars. Generally, when shipped by railways, the coal cars are sent as a full train of cars. The coal received at site may be of different sizes. The railway cars are unloaded at site by rotary dumpers or side tilt dumpers to tip over onto conveyor belts below. The coal is generally conveyed to crushers which crush the coal to about inch (6 mm) size. The crushed coal is then sent by belt conveyors to a storage pile. Normally, the crushed coal is compacted by bulldozers, as compacting of highly volatile coal avoids spontaneous ignition. The crushed coal is conveyed from the storage pile to silos or hoppers at the boilers by another belt conveyor system.

Renewable energy in India

Renewable Energy in India is a sector that is still undeveloped. India was probably the first country in the world to set up a separate ministry of non conventional energy resources in early 1980s. However the results have been very mixed and in recent years it has lagged far behind other developed nations in using renewable energy (RE). RE contribution to energy sector is less than 1% of India's total energy needs. Renewable energy in India comes under the Ministry of New and Renewable Energy.

Solar power in India

India is both densely populated and has high solar insolation, providing an ideal combination for solar power in India. Much of the country does not have an electrical grid, so one of the first applications of solar power has been for water pumping, to begin replacing India's four to five

million diesel powered water pumps, each consuming about 3.5 kilowatts, and off-grid lighting. Some large projects have been proposed, and a 35,000 km area of the Thar Desert has been set aside for solar power projects, sufficient to generate 700 to 2,100 gigawatts. In July 2009, India unveiled a $19 billion plan to produce 20 GW of solar power by 2020. Under the plan, solar-powered equipment and applications would be mandatory in all government buildings including hospitals and hotels. 18 November 2009, it was reported that India is ready to launch its Solar Mission under the National Action Plan on Climate Change, with plans to generate 1,000 MW of power by 2013.

Annual insolation
With about 300 clear sunny days in a year, India's theoretical solar power reception, just on its land area, is about 5 PWh/year (i.e. = 5000 trillion kWh/yr ~ 600 TW). The daily average solar energy incident over India varies from 4 to 7 kWh/m2 with about 2,3003,200 sunshine hours per year, depending upon location. This is far more than current total energy consumption. For example, even assuming 10% conversion efficiency for PV modules, it will still be thousand times greater than the likely electricity demand in India by the year 2015.

Present status
Installed capacity
The amount of solar energy produced in India is merely 0.4% compared to other energy resources. The Grid-interactive solar power as of June 2007 was merely 2.12 MW. Governmentfunded solar energy in India only accounted for approximately 6.4 megawatt-years of power as of 2005. However, as of October 2009, India is currently ranked number one along with the United States in terms of installed Solar Power generation capacity.

Number of solar street lighting systems: 55,795 Number of home lighting systems: 342,607 Solar lanterns: 560,295 Solar photovoltaic power plants: 1566 kW Solar water heating systems: 140 km2 of collector area Box-type solar cookers: 575,000 Solar photovoltaic pumps: 6,818

Still unaffordable
Solar power is currently prohibitive due to high initial costs of deployment. To spawn a thriving solar market, the technology needs to be competitively cheaper i.e. attaining cost parity with fossil or nuclear energy. India is heavily dependent on coal and foreign oil a phenomenon likely to continue until non-fossil / renewable energy technology become economically viable in the country. The cost of production ranges from Rs 15 to Rs 30 per unit compared to around Rs 2 to Rs 6 per unit for conventional thermal energy.

Photo Voltaics (PV) manufacture in India

Current PV manufacturing in India includes:

Bharat Heavy Electricals Ltd., Banglore plant Waaree Energies Ltd. Surat, Gujarat, India Titan Energy Systems Ltd, Hyderabad SHARP (JAPAN). BP-Tata joint venture. Moser-Baer signed up for a thin film Si plant provided by Applied Materials. Solar Semiconductor Pvt in Hyderabad, AP. GreenBrilliance Pvt. Ltd. ICOMM TELE Limited KCK Energy Systems Jain Irrigation Systems Ltd., Jalgaon, Maharashtra NanoPV Solar India Private Limited, Chennai (mail to info@nano-pv.com) PLG Power limited, Sinnar, Nashik Synergy Renewable Energy Pvt. Ltd. Kolkata, India

Solar engineering training

The Australian government has awarded UNSW A$5.2 million to train next-generation solar energy engineers from Asia-Pacific nations, specifically India and China, as part of the AsiaPacific Partnership on Clean Development and Climate (APP). Certain programmes are designed to target for rural solar usage development. Certification Program in Renewable Energy at Rukshi Career Academy Private Limited, Chennai, India, in Collaboration with NanoPV Technologies,USA

Applications
Rural electrification
Lack of electricity infrastructure is one of the main hurdles in the development of rural India. India's grid system is considerably under-developed, with major sections of its populace still surviving off-grid. As of 2004 there are about 80,000 unelectrified villages in the country. Of these villages, 18,000 could not be electrified through extension of the conventional grid. A target for electrifying 5,000 such villages was fixed for the Tenth National Five Year Plan

(20022007). As on 2004, more than 2,700 villages and hamlets had been electrified mainly using SPV systems. Developments on cheap solar technology is considered as a potential alternative that allows an electricity infrastructure comprising of a network of local-grid clusters with distributed electricity generation. That could allow bypassing, or at least relieving the need of installing expensive, and lossy, long-distance centralised power delivery systems and yet bring cheap electricity to the masses.

Agricultural support
Water pumping

Solar PV water pumping systems are used for irrigation and drinking water. The majority of the pumps are fitted with a 2003,000 watt motor that are powered with 1,800 Wp PV array which can deliver about 140,000 liters of water/day from a total head of 10 meters. By 30 September, 2006, a total of 7,068 solar PV water pumping systems have been installed.
Harvest processing

Solar driers are used to dry harvests before storage.

Cooling
Another e.g. is the cost of energy expended on temperature control a factor squarely influencing regional energy intensity. With cooling load demands being roughly in phase with the sun's intensity, cooling from intense solar radiation could be an attractive energy-economic option in the subcontinent.

Solar Water Heaters

Bangalore has the largest deployment of rooftop solar water heaters in India that will generate energy equivalent to 200 MW everyday and will be the country's first grid connected utility scale project soon. Bangalore is also the first city in the country to put in place an incentive mechanism by providing a rebate, which has just been increased to Rs 50, on monthly electricity bills for residents using roof-top thermal systems which are now mandatory for all new structures. Pune, another city in the western part of India, has also recently made installation of solar water heaters in new buildings mandatory.

Challenges and constraints

Land scarcity
Per capita land availability is a scarce resource in India. Dedication of land area for exclusive installation of solar cells might have to compete with other necessities that require land. The amount of land required for utility-scale solar power plants, currently approximately 1 km for every 2060 megawatts (MW) generated, could pose a strain on India's available land resource. The architecture more suitable for most of India would be a highly distributed, individual rooftop power generation systems, all connected via a local grid. However, erecting such an infrastructure which doesn't enjoy the economies of scale possible in mass utility-scale solar panel deployment, needs the market price of solar technology deployment to substantially decline so that it attracts the individual and average family size household consumer. That might be possible in the future, since PV is projected to continue its current cost reductions for the next decades and be able to compete with fossil fuel.

Slow progress
While the world has progressed substantially in production of basic silicon mono-crystalline photovoltaic cells, India has fallen short to achieve the worldwide momentum. India is now in 7th place worldwide in Solar Photovoltaic (PV) Cell production and 9th place in Solar Thermal Systems with nations like Japan,China, and the US currently ranked far ahead. Globally, solar is the fastest growing source of energy (though from a very small base) with an annual average growth of 35%, as seen during the past few years.

Latent potential
Some noted think-tanks recommend that India should adopt a policy of developing solar power as a dominant component of the renewable energy mix, since being a densely populated region in the sunny tropical belt, the subcontinent has the ideal combination of both high solar insolation and a big potential consumer base density. In one of the analyzed scenarios , while reining on its long-term carbon emissions without compromising its economic growth potential, India can make renewable resources like solar the backbone of its economy by 2050.

Government Support
The government of India is promoting the use of solar energy through various strategies. In the latest budget for 2010-11, the government has announced an allocation of INR 10 billion towards the Jawaharlal Nehru National Solar Mission and the establishment of a Clean Energy Fund. It's an increase of INR 3.8 billion from the previous budget. Also budget has also encouraged private solar companies by reducing customs duty on solar panels by 5 percent and exempting excise duty on solar photovoltaic panels. This is expected to reduce the roof-top solar panel installation by 15- 20 percent. The budget also proposed a coal tax of USD 1 per metric ton on domestic and imported coal used for power generation.

Hydroelectric Power
Hydroelectricity is electricity generated by hydropower, i.e., the production of electrical power through the use of the gravitational force of falling or flowing water. It is the most widely used form of renewable energy. Once a hydroelectric complex is constructed, the project produces no direct waste, and has a considerably lower output level of the greenhouse gas carbon dioxide (CO2) than fossil fuel powered energy plants. Worldwide, an installed capacity of 777 GWe supplied 2998 TWh of hydroelectricity in 2006. This was approximately 20% of the world's electricity, and accounted for about 88% of electricity from renewable sources

History
The first hydroelectric power plant (the Vulcan Street Plant) began operating September 30, 1882 in Appleton, Wisconsin with an output of about 12.5 kilowatts.

Electricity generation

Fig: Hydraulic turbine and electrical generator.

Fig: Hydroelectric dam in cross section

A hydroelectric power plant consists of a high dam that is built across a large river to create a reservoir, and a station where the process of energy conversion to electricity takes place. The first step in the generation of energy in a hydropower plant is the collection of run-off of seasonal rain and snow in lakes, streams and rivers, during the hydrological cycle. The run-off flows to dams downstream. The water falls through a dam, into the hydropower plant and turns a large wheel called a turbine. The turbine converts the energy of falling water into mechanical energy to drive the generator After this process has taken place electricity is transferred to the communities through transmission lines and the water is released back into the lakes, streams or rivers. This is entirely not harmful, because no pollutants are added to the water while it flows through the hydropower plant. Most hydroelectric power comes from the potential energy of dammed water driving a water turbine and generator. In this case the energy extracted from the water depends on the volume and on the difference in height between the source and the water's outflow. This height difference is called the head. The amount of potential energy in water is proportional to the head. To deliver water to a turbine while maintaining pressure arising from the head, a large pipe called a penstock may be used. Pumped storage hydroelectricity produces electricity to supply high peak demands by moving water between reservoirs at different elevations. At times of low electrical demand, excess generation capacity is used to pump water into the higher reservoir. When there is higher demand, water is released back into the lower reservoir through a turbine. Pumped storage schemes currently provide the only commercially important means of large-scale grid energy storage and improve the daily capacity factor of the generation system. Hydroelectric plants with no reservoir capacity are called run-of-the-river plants, since it is not then possible to store water. A tidal power plant makes use of the daily rise and fall of water due to tides; such sources are highly predictable, and if conditions permit construction of reservoirs, can also be dispatchable to generate power during high demand periods. Less common types of hydro schemes use water's kinetic energy or undammed sources such as undershot waterwheels.

Calculating the amount of available power

A simple formula for approximating electric power production at a hydroelectric plant is: P = hrgk, where P is Power in watts, is the density of water (~1000 kg/m3), h is height in meters, r is flow rate in cubic meters per second, g is acceleration due to gravity of 9.8 m/s2, and k is a coefficient of efficiency ranging from 0 to 1. Efficiency is often higher (that is, closer to 1) with larger and more modern turbines. Annual electric energy production depends on the available water supply. In some installations the water flow rate can vary by a factor of 10:1 over the course of a year.

Hydro Potential
INDIA is endowed with economically exploitable and viable hydro potential assessed to be about 84,000 MW at 60% load factor (1,48,701 MW installed capacity). In addition, 6780 MW in terms of installed capacity from Small, Mini, and Micro Hydel schemes have been assessed. Also, 56 sites for pumped storage schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 94,000 MW have been identified. However, only 19.9% of the potential has been harnessed so far.

Advantages of Hydro Power

A renewable source of energy - saves scarce fuel reserves. Non-polluting and hence environment friendly. Long life - The first hydro project completed in 1897 is still in operation at Darjeeling is still in operation. Cost of generation, operation and maintenance is lower than the other sources of energy. Ability to start and stop quickly and instantaneous load acceptance/rejection makes it suitable to meet peak demand and for enhancing system reliability and stability. Has higher efficiency (over 90%) compared to thermal (35%) and gas (around 50%). Cost of generation is free from inflationary effects after the initial installation. Storage based hydro schemes often provide attendant benefits of irrigation, flood control, drinking water supply, navigation, recreation, tourism, pisciculture etc. Being located in remote regions leads to development of interior backward areas (education, medical, road communication, telecommunication etc.)

Hydro Scenario
India is blessed with immense amount of hydro-electric potential and ranks 5th in terms of exploitable hydro-potential on global scenario. As per assessment made by CEA, India is endowed with economically exploitable hydro-power potential to the tune of 1 48 700 MW of installed capacity. The basin wise assessed potential is as under :-

Basin/Rivers Indus Basin Ganga Basin Central Indian River system Western Flowing Rivers of southern India Eastern Flowing Rivers of southern India

Probable Installed Capacity (MW) 33,832 20,711 4,152 9,430 14,511

Brahmaputra Basin Total

66,065 1,48,701

In addition, 56 number of pumped storage projects have also been identified with probable installed capacity of 94 000 MW. In addition to this, hydro-potential from small, mini & micro schemes has been estimated as 6 782 MW from 1 512 sites. Thus, in totality India is endowed with hydro-potential of about 2 50 000 MW. However, exploitation of hydro-potential has not been up to the desired level due to various constraints confronting the sector. In 1998, Government of India announced "Policy on Hydro Power Development" under which impetus is given to development of hydropower in the country. This was a welcome step towards effective utilization of our water resources in the direction of hydropower development. During October 2001, Central Electricity Authority (CEA) came out with a ranking study which prioritized and ranked the future executable projects. As per the study, 399 hydro schemes with an aggregate installed capacity of 1 06 910 MW were ranked in A,B & C categories depending upon their inter-se attractiveness. During May 2003, Govt. of India launched 50 000 MW hydro initiative in which preparation of Pre Feasibility Reports of 162 Projects totalling to 50 000 MW was taken up by CEA through various agencies. The PFRs for all these projects have already been prepared and projects with low tariff (first year tariff less than Rs.2.50/kWh) have been identified for preparation of DPR.

Hydro Initiative
On 24 May, 2003, Honble Prime Minister of India launched a scheme, formulated by Central Electricity Authority (CEA), for preparation of Preliminary Feasibility Report (PFRs) of 162 New Hydro Electric Schemes totaling to over 50,000 MW. All the PFRs were targeted to be completed by September, 2004. CEA was entrusted with the overall responsibility for the scheme. Preparation of PFRs involves conceptual planning, preparation of project and equipment layouts, infrastructure requirement, environmental and geological studies, power evacuation arrangement, cost estimates and economic evaluation. PFRs of all the 162 schemes have been prepared ahead of schedule. The schemes are located in 16 states as under : State Andhra Pradesh Arunachal Pradesh Chhattisgarh Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Number of Schemes 1 42 5 15 13 5 2 3 9 Installed Capacity (MW) 81 27293 848 3328 2675 1900 126 205 411
th

Sl. No. 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 11 12 13 14 15 16 Total

Manipur Meghalaya Mizoram Nagaland Orissa Sikkim Uttaranchal

3 11 3 3 4 10 33 162

362 931 1500 330 1189 1469 5282 47930

Benefits of hydropower
Hydropower is a renewable, economic, non polluting and environmentally benign source of energy. It saves scarce fossil fuel resources of the country, which are non renewable. Hydropower projects have certain distinctive advantages over other sources of electricity generation, as discussed below: a) Technical Benefits Hydropower projects are known to have much longer life and provide cheaper electricity as there is no fuel cost and the recurring cost involved in generation, operation and maintenance is lower than that in case of other sources of energy. b) Environmental Benefits Uses renewable and pollution free source i.e water Increase in Agriculture Productivity through development of irrigation and multipurpose schemes, having generation of electricity as one of the objectives, wherever possible and feasible. Avoided Green House Gas (GHG) emissions from equivalent thermal and other fuel based power projects.

Involve large scale afforestation activities under various schemes like Compensatory Afforestation, Catchment Area Treatment, Green Belt Development, Voluntary Afforestation etc. which ultimately improve the environmental quality of the project area. Flood Mitigation through large storage dams. Source of Drinking Water

c)

Social Benefits Hydro projects are a boon to the society and the population in and around the projects. With enhanced employment opportunities, increased earnings, enriched life style and improved standard of living, the people in these localities experience an economic and social upliftment. Reservoir area is an ideal place for recreation and source of ecotourism promotion in the area. The reservoirs are also used for promoting pisciculture. There are other direct benefits accruing from hydro projects and dams such as increased water for improved irrigation, and drinking water to villages and people living in and around the project area.

Industrial hydroelectric plants

While many hydroelectric projects supply public electricity networks, some are created to serve specific industrial enterprises. Dedicated hydroelectric projects are often built to provide the substantial amounts of electricity needed for aluminium electrolytic plants, for example. In the Scottish Highlands of United Kingdom, there are examples at Kinlochleven and Lochaber, constructed during the early years of the 20th century. The Grand Coulee Dam, long the world's largest, switched to support Alcoa aluminum in Bellingham, Washington, United States for American World War II airplanes before it was allowed to provide irrigation and power to citizens (in addition to aluminum power) after the war. In Suriname, the Brokopondo Reservoir was constructed to provide electricity for the Alcoa aluminium industry. New Zealand's Manapouri Power Station was constructed to supply electricity to the aluminium smelter at Tiwai Point. As of 2007 the Krahnjkar Hydropower Project in Iceland remains controversial.[3]

Largest hydro-electric plants

The Yangtze River at Hubei, China showing the Three Gorges Dam (left), Gezhouba Dam (right). The Three Gorges Dam complex on the Yangtze River in Hubei, China, has the world's largest generating capacity and generates the most electricity in the world. It includes 2 generating stations. They are the Three Gorges Dam (22,500 MW when completed) and Gezhouba Dam (3,115 MW). As of 2009, the total generating capacity of this complex is 21,515 MW. The whole project is planned to be completed in 2011, when the total generating capacity will be 25,615 MW. In 2008, this complex generated 97.9 TWh of electricity. The Itaipu power plant on the Paran River on the Brazil-Paraguay border currently produces second most hydroelectricity in the world. With 20 generator units and 14,000 MW of installed capacity, in 2008 the Itaipu power plant reached a new historic record for electricity production by generating 94.68 terawatt-hours (340,800 TJ).

This is a list of major hydroelectric power plants in India.

Station Srisailam Dam Nagarjunasagar Sardar Sarovar Baspa-II Nathpa Jhakri Location Operator Generator units 6 150, 7 110 1 X 110, 7 X 100.8, 5 X 30 6X200, 5X140 3 X 100 6 X 250 Capacity (MW) 1,670 965 1,450 300 1,500

Andhra Pradesh APGenco Andhra Pradesh APGenco Gujarat Himachal Pradesh Himachal SSNNL JHPL SJVNL

Bhakra Dam Dehar Baira Suil Chamera-I Chamera-II Pong Uri Hydroelectric Dam Dulhasti Salal Sardar Sarovar[5] Sharavathi Kalinadi Idukki Omkareshwar Indira Sagar Loktak Koyna Rangeet Teesta-V Tanakpur Dhauliganga-I Loharinag

Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Himachal Pradesh Jammu & Kashmir Jammu & Kashmir Jammu & Kashmir Karnataka Karnataka Kerala Madhya Pradesh Maharashtra Manipur Maharashtra Sikkim Sikkim Uttarakhand Uttarakhand Uttaranchal s

BBMB BBMB NHPC NHPC NHPC BBMB NHPC NHPC NHPC KPCL KPCL KSEB NHPC NHPC NHPC MahaGenco NHPC NHPC NHPC NHPC NTPC

5 X 108, 5 X 157 6 X 165 3 X 60 3 X 180 3 X 100 6 x 66 4 X 120 3 X 130 6 X 115

1,325 990 180 540 300 396 480 390 690 400 1,469 1,225 780 520 1,000 105 1,920 60 510 120 280 600

6 X 130 8 X 65 8 X 125 3 X 35 18 X 106.67 3 X 20 3 X 170 3 X 40 4 X 70 4 X 150

Wind power in India

The development of wind power in India began in the 1990s, and has significantly increased in the last few years. The "Indian Wind Turbine Manufacturers Association (IWTMA)" has played a leading role in promoting wind energy in India. Although a relative newcomer to the wind industry compared with Denmark or the US, a combination of domestic policy support for wind power and the rise of Suzlon (a leading global wind turbine manufacturer) have led India to become the country with the fifth largest installed wind power capacity in the world. As of 31, October 2009 the installed capacity of wind power in India was 10,925 MW, mainly spread across Tamil Nadu (4301.63 MW), Maharashtra (1942.25 MW), Gujarat (1565.61 MW), Karnataka (1340.23 MW), Rajasthan (738.5 MW), Madhya Pradesh (212.8 MW), Andhra Pradesh (122.45 MW), Kerala (26.5 MW), West Bengal (1.1 MW) and other states (3.20 MW) It is estimated that 6,000 MW of additional wind power capacity will be installed in India by 2012. Wind power accounts for 6% of India's total installed power capacity, and it generates 1.6% of the country's power.

Overview
India is the world's fifth largest wind power producer, with an annual power production of 8,896 MW. Shown here is a wind farm in Kayathar, Tamil Nadu. The worldwide installed capacity of wind power reached 157,899 MW by the end of 2009. USA (35,159 MW), Germany (25,777 MW), Spain (19,149 MW) and China (25,104 MW) are ahead of India in fifth position. The short gestation periods for installing wind turbines, and the increasing reliability and performance of wind energy machines has made wind power a favored choice for capacity addition in India. Suzlon, an Indian-owned company, emerged on the global scene in the past decade, and by 2006 had captured almost 8 percent of market share in global wind turbine sales. Suzlon is currently the leading manufacturer of wind turbines for the Indian market, holding some 52.4 percent of market share in India. Suzlons success has made India the developing country leader in advanced wind turbine technology.

State-level wind power

There are growing wind energy installations in a number of states across India.

Tamil Nadu (4301.63 MW)

India is keen to decrease its reliance on fossil fuels to meet its energy demand. Shown here is a wind farm in Muppandal, Tamil Nadu. Tamil Nadu is the state with most wind generating capacity: 4301.63 MW at the end of March 2009. Not far from Aralvaimozhi, the Muppandal wind farm which the largest in Asia is located near the once impoverished village of Muppandal, supplying the villagers with electricity for work. The village had been selected as the showcase for India's $2 billion clean energy program which provides foreign companies with tax breaks for establishing fields of wind turbines in the area. In february 2009, Shriram EPC bagged INR 700 million contract for setting up of 60 units of 250 KW (totaling 15 MW) wind turbines in Tirunelveli district by Cape Energy. Enercon is also playing a major role in development of wind energy in India.

Maharashtra (1942.25 MW)

Maharashtra is second only to Tamil Nadu in terms of generating capacity. Suzlon has been heavily involved. Suzlon operates what was once Asia's largest wind farm, the Vankusawade Wind Park (201 MW), near the Koyna reservoir in Satara district of Maharashtra.

Gujarat (1565.61 MW)

Samana in Rajkot district is set to host energy companies like China Light Power (CLP) and Tata Power have pledged to invest up to Rs.8.15 billion ($189.5 million) in different projects in the area. CLP, through its India subsidiary CLP India, is investing close to Rs.5 billion for installing 126 wind turbines in Samana that will generate 100.8 MW power. Tata Power has installed wind turbines in the same area for generating 50 MW power at a cost of Rs.3.15 billion. Both projects are expected to become operational by early next year, according to government sources. The Gujarat government, which is banking heavily on wind power, has identified Samana as an ideal location for installation of 450 turbines that can generate a total of 360 MW. To encourage investment in wind energy development in the state, the government has introduced a raft of incentives including a higher wind energy tariff. Samana has a high tension transmission grid and electricity generated by wind turbines can be fed into it. For this purpose, a substation at Sadodar has been installed. Both projects are being executed by Enercon Ltd, a joint venture between Enercon of Germany and Mumbai-based Mehra group.

ONGC Ltd has commissioned its first wind power project. The 51 MW project is located at Motisindholi in Kutch district of Gujarat. ONGC had placed the EPC order on Suzlon Energy in January 2008, for setting up the wind farm comprising 34 turbines of 1.5-mw each. Work on the project had begun in February 2008, and it is learnt that the first three turbines had begun production within 43 days of starting construction work. Power from this Rs 308 crore captive wind farm will be wheeled to the Gujarat state grid for onward use by ONGC at its Ankleshwar, Ahmedabad, Mehsana and Vadodara centres. ONGC has targeted to develop a captive wind power capacity of around 200 MW in the next two years.

Karnataka (1340.23 MW)

There are many small wind farms in Karnataka, making it one of the states in India which has a high number of wind mill farms. Chitradurga, Gadag are some of the districts where there are a large number of Windmills. Chitradurga alone has over 200 wind turbines.

Rajasthan: produces electric power of 738.5 MW Madhya (212.8 MW)

Present Rs.3.97p/kwh coming down to Rs 3.30 from the 5th year to 20th year. In consideration of unique concept, Govt. of Madhya Pradesh has sanctioned another 15 MW project to MPWL at Nagda Hills near Dewas. All the 25 WEGs have been commissioned on 31.03.2008 and under successful operation. (http://www.windpowerindia.com/generation.htm).

Kerala (26.5 MW)

The first wind farm of the state was set up at Kanjikode in Palakkad district. It has a generating capacity of 23.00 MW. A new wind farm project was launched with private participation at Ramakkalmedu in Idukki district. The project, which was inaugurated by chief minister V. S. Achuthanandan in April 2008, aims at generating 10.5 MW of electricity.

West Bengal (1.10 MW)

The total installation in West Bengal is just 1.10 MW as there was only 0.5 MW addition in 2006-2007 and none between 2007-2008 and 2008-2009 (till Nov 2008)

Others (3.20 MW)

3.20 MW is installed in other states.

Barriers
Initial cost for wind turbines is greater than that of conventional fossil fuel generators. Noise produced by the rotor blades. There is interference on television signals.It causes significant bird

and other avian deaths. Wind resources might not be available near cities and, even so, the space might be used for other purposes that can generate larger profits. Wind cannot be stored (unless batteries are used) Not all winds can be harnessed to meet the timing of electricity demands.

Utilization
Despite the high installed capacity, the actual utilization of wind power in India is low because policy incentives are geared towards installation rather than operation of the plants. This is why only 1.6% of actual power production in India comes from wind although the installed capacity is 6%. The government is considering the addition of incentives for ongoing operation of installed wind power plants.

Future
The Ministry of New and Renewable Energy (MNRE) has fixed a target of 10,500 MW between 2007-12, but an additional generation capacity of only about 6,000 MW might be available for commercial use by 2012

Biofuel in India
Biofuel development in India centers mainly around the cultivation and processing of Jatropha plant seeds which are very rich in oil (40%). The drivers for this are historic, functional, economic, environmental, moral and political. Jatropha oil has been used in India for several decades as biodiesel to cater to the diesel fuel requirements of remote rural and forest communities; jatropha oil can be used directly after extraction (i.e. without refining) in diesel generators and engines. Jatropha has the potential to provide economic benefits at the local level since under suitable management it has the potential to grow in dry marginal non-agricultural lands, thereby allowing villagers and farmers to leverage non-farm land for income generation. As well, increased Jatropha oil production delivers economic benefits to India on the macroeconomic or national level as it reduces the nation's fossil fuel import bill for diesel production (the main transportation fuel used in the country); minimizing the expenditure of India's foreign-currency reserves for fuel allowing India to increase its growing foreign currency reserves (which can be better spent on capital expenditures for industrial inputs and production). And since Jatropha oil is carbon-neutral, large-scale production will improve the country's carbon emissions profile. Finally, since no food producing farmland is required for producing this biofuel (unlike corn or sugar cane ethanol, or palm oil diesel), it is considered the most politically and morally acceptable choice among India's current biofuel options; it has no known negative impact on the production of the massive amounts grains and other vital agriculture goods India produces to meet the food requirements of its massive population (circa 1.1 Billion

people as of 2008). Other biofuels which displace food crops from viable agricultural land such as corn ethanol or palm biodiesel have caused serious price increases for basic food grains and edible oils in other countries.

Seeds from the Jatropha curcas plant are used for the production of bio-fuel, a crucial part of India's plan to attain energy sustainability.

India's total biodiesel requirement is projected to grow to 3.6 Million Metric Tons in 2011-12, with the positive performance of the domestic automobile industry.Analysis from Frost & Sullivan, Strategic Analysis of the Indian Biofuels Industry, reveals that the market is an emerging one and has a long way to go before it catches up with global competitors. The Government is currently implementing an ethanol-blending program and considering initiatives in the form of mandates for biodiesel. Due to these strategies, the rising population, and the growing energy demand from the transport sector, biofuels can be assured of a significant market in India. On 12 September 2008, the Indian Government announced its 'National Biofuel Policy'. It aims to meet 20% of India's diesel demand with fuel derived from plants. That will mean setting aside 140,000 square kilometres of land. Presently fuel yielding plants cover less than 5,000 square kilometres.

Jatropha incentives in India

Jatropha incentives in India is a part of India's goal to achieve energy independence by the year 2012. Jatropha oil is produced from the seeds of the Jatropha curcas, a plant that can grow in wastelands across India, and the oil is considered to be an excellent source of bio-diesel. India is keen on reducing its dependence on coal and petroleum to meet its increasing energy demand and encouraging Jatropha cultivation is a crucial component of its energy policy. Large plots of waste land have been selected for Jatropha cultivation and will provide much needed employment to the rural poor of India. Businesses are also seeing the planting of Jatropha as a good business opportunity. The Government of India has identified 400,000 square

kilometres (98 million acres) of land where Jatropha can be grown, hoping it will replace 20% of India's diesel consumption by 2011.

Implementation
The former President of India, Dr. Abdul Kalam, is one of the strong advocaters of jatropha cultivation for production of bio-diesel. In his recent speech, the Former President said that out of the 600,000 km of wasteland that is available in India over 300,000 km are suitable for Jatropha cultivation. Once this plant is grown the plant has a useful lifespan of several decades. During its life, Jatropha requires very little water when compared to other cash crops. Recently, the State Bank of India provided a boost to the cultivation of Jatropha in India by signing a Memorandum of Understanding with D1 Mohan, a joint venture of D1 Oils plc, to give loans to the tune of 1.3 billion rupees to local farmers in India. Farmers will also be able to pay back the loan with the money that D1 Mohan pays for the Jatropha seeds.

Fueling India
Indian Railways

The Indian Railways has started to use the oil (blended with diesel fuel in various ratios) from the Jatropha plant to power its diesel engines with great success. Currently the diesel locomotives that run from Thanjavur to Nagore section and Tiruchirapalli to Lalgudi, Dindigul and Karur sections run on a blend of Jatropha and diesel oil.
Andhra Pradesh

Andhra Pradesh has entered into a formal agreement with Reliance Industries for Jatropha planting. The company has selected 200 acres (0.81 km2) of land at Kakinada to grow jatropha for high quality bio-diesel fuel. Kerala is planning a massive Jatropha planting campaign.
Chhattisgarh

Chhattisgarh has decided to plant 160 million saplings of jatropha in all its 16 districts during 2006 with the aim of becoming a bio-fuel self-reliant state by 2015. Chhattisgarh plans to earn Rs.40 billion annually by selling seeds after 2010. The central government has provided Rs.135 million to Chhattisgarh this year for developing jatropha nursery facilities. In May 2005, Chief Minister Raman Singh became the first head of a state government to use jatropha diesel for his official vehicle. Chhattisgarh plans to replace with jatropha fuel all stateowned vehicles using diesel and petrol by 2007. Chattisgarh Biofuel Development Authority now oversees the production of the Jatropha curcas seed as a rich source of bio-diesel.

Karnataka

Farmers in semi-arid regions of Karnataka are planting Jatropha as it is well suited to those conditions. Labland Biodiesel is a Mysore based Private Limited Company. Since the year 2002, the Company is active in Biodiesel and Jatropha curcas-based Research and Development activities headed by its Chairman and Managing Director, Dr. Sudheer Shetty.
Tamil Nadu

Tamil Nadu is aggressively promoting the plantation of Jatropha to help farmers over come the loss due to irregular rains during the past few years. The government has contracted the development of Jatropha in Tamil Nadu in a large scale to four entrepreneurs. Namely M/s Mohan Breweries and Distilleries Limited. M/s Shiva Distilleries Limited, M/s Dharani Sugars and Chemicals Limited and M/s Riverway Agro Products Private Ltd. Currently the firms have cultivated the plant in about 3 square kilometres as against the goal of 50 km. The government of Tamil Nadu has also abolished purchase tax on Jatropha, but presently government has announced to reduce the 7.5% tolgate charges to 2.5%
Rajasthan

Jatropha is ideally suited for cultivation in Rajasthan as it needs very little water which is scarce in Rajasthan. Jatropa plantations have been undertaken in Udaipur, Kota, Sikar, Banswara, Chittor and Churu districts. In the Udaipur district, Jatropha curcas is planted in agroforestry formats with food or cash crops on marginal lands (in India often called waste lands). As its leaves are toxic and therefore non-palatable to livestock, they remain intact in their sapling stage, unlike most other tree saplings.
Maharashtra

In September 2007, the Hindustan Petroleum Corporation Limited (HPCL) joined hands with the Maharashtra State Farming Corporation Ltd (MSFCL) for a jatropha seed-based bio-diesel venture. As part of the project, a jatropha plant would be grown on 500 acres (2 km) in Nashik and Aurangabad. In November 2005, the Maharashtra Government aimed to cultivate jatropha on 600 km in the state, with half the land going to the public sector and the other half to the private sector. On July 1 2006, Pune Municipal Corporation took the lead among Indian cities in using bio-diesel from jatropha in over 100 public buses.
Ahmednagar

Gulabrao Kale studied the prospects of plantation in the Ahmednagar district in Maharashtra and under his guidance, Govind Gramin Vikas Pratishthan (GOGVIP), decided to plan under DPAP program of government. Initially, it was a very difficult task to make farmers ready for the Jatropha plantation. When 20-25 farmers were offered the plan, only 2-3 farmers were convinced to plant jatropha. Lack of literacy was a big hindrance in convincing the farmers. It was hard to convince them about the future benefits of the plant and its potential to produce bio-diesel, an

equivalent of diesel. But after untiring and continuous efforts more than 1000 farmers are working with the GOGVIP for the Jatropha planting program now. For this task, under the watershed development program, GOGVIP took an area of 10.92 square kilometres for making CCTS. To date, more than 2 million Jatropha plants have been planted in the target area of the five villages of Vankute, Dhoki, Dhotre, Dhavalpuri and Gajdipoor in the project. The villages are in the remote locations and that made connecting them with GOGVIP a difficult task
Eastern India

D1 Williamson Magor Bio Fuel Limited is a joint venture company between D1 Oils plc, UK and Williamson Magor group. This biodiesel initiative was incorporated in July 2006. Advocating the creation of energy from renewable resources, the company promotes Jatropha Plantations on the wasteland possessed by the farmers in the North Eastern States, Orissa and Jharkhand. The Company has a comprehensive network to manufacture bio-diesel from the oilseeds harvested by the farmers. Biodiesel initiative hopes to benefit local communities through commercial plantation of Jatropha. NGOs and self help groups are also involved.

Practices
The Project on Development of Agronomic practices for Jatropha curcas is being implemented, with the financial assistance of DBT, New Delhi. Dr. Panjabrao Deshmukh Krishi Vidyapeeth, Akola (MS) India has Planted Jatropha on 3 square kilometres, with the financial assistance of National Oilseeds and Vegetable oils development Board.

Power Sector at a Glance "ALL INDIA"

As on 28-02-2010 Source:CEA

1.Total Installed Capacity:

Power for All by 2012

Sector State Sector Central Sector Private Sector Total

MW 78,378.14 50,522.63 28,328.71 1,57,229.48

%age 52.5 34.0 13.5

Fuel Total Thermal Coal Gas Oil Hydro (Renewable) Nuclear RES** (MNRE) Total

MW 100598.98 82,343.38 17,055.85 1,199.75 36,863.40 4,340.00 15,427.10 1,57,229.48

%age 64.6 53.3 10.5 0.9 24.7 2.9 7.7

Renewable Energy Sources(RES) include SHP, BG, BP, U&I and Wind Energy. Abbreviation:--

SHP= Small Hydro Project BG= Biomas Gasfier BP= Biomass Power U & I=Urban & Industrial Water Power RES=Renewable Sources.

Note:

The installed of certain generating stations have been reconciled and latest upration/ deration capacity is indicated.

The generation ststions with installed capacity less than or equal to 25 MW are indicated under RES.

The proportionate distribution of shares in respect of Bhilai TPP (J V of Bhilai Steel and NTPC) has been done as per tentative allocation communicated by IRP Div viz 220 MW for NTPC out of 500 MW of Unit I & II the remaining 280 MW to SAIL-Chattisgarh (State Sector)

The Shares of Sipat TPS(NTPC) are proposed shares still to be approved.

The installed capacity figures in respect of RES is based on statement dated 30.12.09 received from Ministry of Renewable Energy(MNRE) where cumulative Grid interactive power installed capacity has been indicated as 15692.06 MW Reconciliation of installed capacity of Hydro capacity resulted in transfer of 135 MW from conventional to SHPRESand retrieval of installed capacity of 67.20 from SHP-RES to conventional Hydro has resulted in net addition of 67.8 MW to SHP under RES. Also 30 MW of capacity in the nature of Waste Heat Recovery Power Plant at Goa Energy Private Limited under U&I category of RES Out of this installed capacity due to wind - (302.25 MW) and small hydro (60.51 MW) appearing in captive capacity has been deducted to arrive at installed capacity of utilities in respect of RES.(15692.06-362.76+67.8+30=15427.1).

The following thermal stations retired (a)Faridabad TPS(Haryana) 55.00 MW (b) Delhi IP TPS (Delhi) 247.50 MW) The Figures of Hydro (Hirakund) Orissa reconcilled with the approval of Member (Plg.) finally reduced by 22 MW.

Figures at second place of decimal may not tally due to rounding off.