Educaciow porn todoy Cducacién poratodor no es un proyecto lucrativo, sino un esfuerzo colectivo de estudiantes y profesores de la UNAM para facilitar el acceso a los materiales necesarios para la educaci6n de la mayor cantidad de gente posible. Pensamos editar en formato digital libros que por su alto costo, o bien porque ya no se consiguen en bibliotecas y librerias, no son accesibles para todos. Invitamos a todos los interesados en participar en este proyecto a sugerir titulos, a prestarnos los textos para su digitalizacién y a ayudarnos en toda la labor técnica que implica su reproducci6n. EI nuestro, es un proyecto colectivo abierto a la participacién de cualquier persona y todas las colaboraciones son bienvenidas. Nos encuentras en los Talleres Estudiantiles de la Facultad de Ciencias y puedes ponerte en contacto con nosotros a la siguiente direccién de correo electrénico: eduktodos@gmail.com ttp://e 1d diTOPOLOGYOther books in this series are The Theory of Groups: An Introduction Joseph J. Rotman A Survey of Matrix Theory and Matrix Inequalities Marvin Marcus and Henryk Mine‘Tus Boox Is Part OF THE ALLYN AND BACON SERIES IN ADVANCED MATHEMATICS ConsuLTING Eprror: IrvING KaPLANSKY UNIVERSITY OF CHICAGO Other books in this series are The Theory of Groups: An Introduction Joseph J. Rotman A Survey of Matrix Theory and Matrix Inequalities Marvin Marcus and Henryk MinceTOPOLOGY James Dugundji Professor of Mathematics University of Southern California Los Angeles ALLYN AND BACON, INC. BOSTON - LONDON - SYDNEY - TORONTOTo Merope© Copyright 1966 by Allyn and Bacon, Inc. 470 Atlantic Avenue, Boston, All rights reserved. No part of the material protected by this copyright notice may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or by any informational storage and retrieval system, without written permission from the copyright owner. Library of Congress Catalog Card Number: 66-10940 Printed in the United States of America ISBN : 0-205-00271-4 Twelfth printing... June, 1978viii Preface concepts discussed in the book. ‘Two appendices, one on linear topo- logical spaces and the other on limit spaces, are included. Nearly every definition is followed by examples illustrating the use of the abstract concept in some fairly concrete situations. This device makes the book suitable for self-study. It also enables the instructor who uses the book as a text to proceed rapidly to those parts of the subject that he deems of greater importance. Remarks, in small type, call attention either to further developments, or to direct applications in other branches of mathematics. The problems, which are given at the end of each chapter, can all be solved by the methods developed in the book. Moreover, no proof in the text relies on the solution of any problem. Some of the problems are routine. Others are important theorems that complement the material in the text; these are accompanied by hints for their solution. The notation of symbolic logic used throughout the book is given immediately after the table of contents. I wish to thank E, A. Michael and Ky Fan, who read the original manuscript, for their valuable suggestions; and H.-J. Groh and P. A. White, for their help with the proofreading. I am particularly indebted to H. Salzmann for his constant willingness to discuss points of detail and content: his imaginative and penetrating criticisms and suggestions have led to many improvements. Talso wish to thank Mrs. L. Syfritt, for her tidy and meticulous typing work; and the members of Allyn and Bacon who were involved with this book, for their patience and codperation. Finally, I gratefully acknowl- edge the support given me by the National Science Foundation during the period that this book was being written. James Dugundji The University of Southern CaliforniaContents 1, Elementary Set Theory Corauneune Sets Boolean Algebra Cartesian Product Families of Sets Power Set Functions, or Maps Binary Relations; Equivalence Relations Axiomatics General Cartesian Products Problems Il. Ordinals and Cardinals CoIdrneone Orderings Zorn’s Lemma; Zermelo’s Theorem Ordinals Comparability of Ordinals ‘Transfinite Induction and Construction Ordinal Numbers Cardinals Cardinal Arithmetic The Ordinal Number Q Problems Sowers 10 14 17 21 25 29 29 31 36 38 40 41 45, 49 54 571 upon Soaus 1 12 I. Topological Spaces Topological Spaces Basis for a Given Topology Topologizing of Sets Elementary Concepts Topologizing with Preassigned Elementary Opera- tions G,, F,, and Borel Sets Relativization Continuous Maps Piecewise Definition of Maps Continuous Maps into E* Open Maps and Closed Maps Homeomorphism Problems IV. Cartesian Products PONY Cartesian Product Topology Continuity of Maps Slices in Cartesian Products Peano Curves Problems Y. Connectedness wrRone Connectedness Applications Components Local Connectedness Path-Connectedness Problems VI. Identification Topology; Weak Topology Aarons Identification Topology Subspaces General Theorems Spaces with Equivalence Relations Cones and Suspensions Contents 62 62 64 65 68 72 74 77 78 81 83 86 87 90 98 98 101 103 104 105 107 107 110 11 113 114 116 120 120 122 123 125 126Contents wo Attaching of Spaces The Relation K(f) for Continuous Maps Weak Topologies Problems Vil, Separation Axioms Maur ONE Hausdorff Spaces Regular Spaces Normal Spaces Urysohn’s Characterization of Normality ‘Tietze’s Characterization of Normality Covering Characterization of Normality Completely Regular Spaces Problems VIII. Covering Axioms NoaupoNne Coverings of Spaces Paracompact Spaces ‘Types of Refinements Partitions of Unity Complexes; Nerves of Coverings Second-countable Spaces; Lindeléf Spaces Separability Problems IX. Metric Spaces wary danpone Metrics on Sets Topology Induced by a Metric Equivalent Metrics Continuity of the Distance Properties of Metric Topologies Maps of Metric Spaces into Affine Spaces Cartesian Products of Metric Spaces ‘The Space /?(.); Hilbert Cube Metrization of Topological Spaces 127 129 131 133 137 137 141 144 146 149 152 153 156 160 160 162 167 169 171 173 175 177 181 182 184 184 185 187 189 191 19310 it Gauge Spaces Uniform Spaces Problems X. Convergence NoauRoNne Sequences and Nets Filterbases in Spaces Convergence Properties of Filterbases Closure in Terms of Filterbases Continuity; Convergence in Cartesian Products Adequacy of Sequences Maximal Filterbases Problems XI. Compactness Scwoud sHnsone Compact Spaces Special Properties of Compact Spaces Countable Compactness Compactness in Metric Spaces Perfect Maps Local Compactness o-Compact Spaces Compactification k-Spaces Baire Spaces; Category Problems XII. Function Spaces 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 0 The Compact-open Topology Continuity of Composition; the Evaluation Map Cartesian Products Application to Identification Topologies Basis for ZY Compact Subsets of Z¥ Sequential Convergence in the c~Topology Metric Topologies; Relation to the c-Topology Pointwise Convergence Comparison of Topologies in Z¥ Problems Contents 198 200 204 209 209 211 213 215 215 217 218 220 222 222 226 228 233 235 237 240 242 247 249 251 257 257 259 260 262 263 265 267 269 272 274 275Contents XIII. The Spaces C(Y) AuroOne Continuity of the Algebraic Operations Algebras in C(Y; ) Stone-Weierstrass Theorem The Metric Space C(Y) Embedding of Y in C(Y) The Ring C(Y) Problems XIV. Complete Spaces Camu dsHrene Cauchy Sequences Complete Metrics and Complete Spaces Cauchy Filterbases; Total Boundedness Baire’s Theorem for Complete Metric Spaces Extension of Uniformly Continuous Maps Completion of a Metric Space Fixed-Point Theorem for Complete Spaces Complete Subspaces of Complete Spaces Complete Gauge Structures Problems XV. Homotopy wa RONe Homotopy Homotopy Classes Homotopy and Function Spaces Relative Homotopy Retracts and Extendability Deformation Retraction and Homotopy Homotopy and Extendability Applications Problems XVI. Maps into Spheres REDE Degree of a Map S*-> S* Brouwer’s Theorem Further Applications of the Degree of a Map Maps of Spheres into S" xiii 278 278 279 281 284 285 287 290 292 292 293 296 299 302 304 305 307 309 312 315 315 317 319 321 322 323 326 330 332 335 335 340 341 343xiv XVIL. XVI. Maps of Spaces into S* Borsuk’s Antipodal Theorem Degree and Homotopy Problems SAW Topology of E" 1 Components of Compact Sets in E*+1 2 Borsuk’s Separation Theorem 3 Domain Invariance 4 Deformations of Subsets of E**? 5 The Jordan Curve Theorem Problems Homotopy Type Homotopy Type Homotopy-Type Invariants Homotopy of Pairs Mapping Cylinder Properties of X in C(f) Change of Bases in C(f) Problems Aurene XIX. Path Spaces; H-Spaces XX. Path Spaces H-Structures H-Homomorphisms H-Spaces Units Inversion Associativity Path Spaces on H-Spaces Problems eau ENe Fiber Spaces 1 Fiber Spaces 2 Fiber Spaces for the Class of All Spaces Contents 346 347 350 353 355 356 357 358 359 361 363 365 365 367 368 368 371 372 374 376 376 379 381 383 384 386 387 388 390 392 392 395Contents 3 The Uniformization Theorem of Hurewicz 4 Locally Trivial Fiber Structures Problems Appendix One : Vector Spaces; Polytopes Appendix Two: Direct and Inverse Limits Index xv 399 404 408 410 420 437Bastc Notation Throughout this book, the notation of symbolic logic will be used to shorten statements. If p and g are propositions, then: pV q (read: p or g) denotes the disjunction of p and q. ‘The assertion “pV q” is true whenever at least one of p, q is true. p Aq (read: p and q) denotes the conjunction of p and g. The assertion “p Aq’ is true only in case both p and g are true. 1 (read: not q) denotes the negation of g. The assertion “— q” is true only if g is false. p= is read: p implies 9. By definition, “p > q” denotes “(— p) vq". In particular, the statement “p > q” is true if and only if the statement “(4 @) = (4 9)’ is true. pq is read: p is logically equivalent to g. By definition, “p <> q” denotes “(p= A>)". An expression p(x) that becomes a proposition whenever values from a specified domain of discourse are substituted for x is called a prop- ositional function or, equivalently, a condition on x; and p is called a property, or predicate. The assertion “y has property p” means that “p(y)” is true. Thus, if p(x) is the propositional function “x is an integer,” then p denotes the property “is an integer,” and “p(2)” is true whereas “p(1/2)” is false. The quantifier “there exists” is denoted by 3, and the quantifier “for each” is denoted by V. The assertion “W x Jy V2: p(x, y, 2)" reads “For each x there exists a y such that for each z, p(x, y, 2) is true”; its negation is obtained mechanically by changing the sense of each quanti- fier (preserving the given order of the variables!) and negating the proposition: thus, “x Vy 32: + p(x, y, 2)”. xviElementary Set Theory I In this chapter, we shall first discuss a part of set theory informally and then give an axiomatization adequate to support both this and the subsequent development. I. Sets Intuitively, we think of a set as something made up by all the objects that satisfy some given condition, such as the set of prime numbers, the set of points on a line, or the set of objects named in a given list. The objects making up the set are called the elements, or members, of the set and may themselves be sets, as in the set of all lines in the plane. Rigorously, the word set is an undefined term in mathematics, so that definite axioms are required to govern the use of this term; one such system is given in 8 Although we shall deal with sets on an intuitive basis until then, whenever we apply the label set to something, we shall later prove this usage to have been formally justified. The membership relation is denoted by € and sets are generally indicated by capital letters: “a € A” is read “a belongs to (is a member, element, point of) the set A”; —(a€ A) is written a @ A. The notation a = bwill mean that the objects a and b are the same, and a # b denotes (a = 8). If A, B are sets, then “A = B” will indicate that A and B 12 Chap. I Elementary Set Theory have the same elements; that is, V x: (x€ A) (xe B); 4(A = B) is written A # B. AC B(orB > A), read “A is a subset of (is contained in) B,” signifies that each clement of A is an element of B, that is, V x: (x € A) = (x € B); equality is not excluded—we call A a proper subset of B whenever (4 C B) A (A # B). The following statements are evident : 1.1 A C A for each set A. 12 If A C Band BC C, then A C C (that is, “C” is transitive). 1.3. A = Bifand only if both A C Band BC A, Of these, 1.3 is very important: the equality of two sets is usually proved by showing each of the two inclusions valid. ‘The axioms of set theory allow only two methods for forming subsets of a given set. One of these is by appeal to the axiom of choice, and will be discussed later. The other is by use of the following principle: If A is a set and p is a property that each element of A either has or does not have, then all the x¢ A having the property p form a set. This sub- set of A is denoted by {xeA | p(x)}; it is uniquely determined by the property p. Clearly, {ve A | p(x)} C {xe A | q(x)} if and only if V xe A: p(x) = g(x); thus two properties determine the same subset of A whenever each object in A having one of them also has the other. Ex. 1 If A is the real line, the closed unit interval is {x A | 0 < x < 1}. Ex. 2 If A is the real line, {ve 4 | x* = 1} = {ve A| a4 = 1} even though the defining properties are different. Note that if A were the set of complex numbers, these two properties would not determine the same subset. Ex.3 For each set A, {x¢ d|x = x} = {ve A|xeA}= A. For each set A, the null subset o 4 C Ais {ve A| x # x}; it has no members, since each « € A satisfies x = x. 1.4 All null subsets are equal. Thus there is one and only one null set, @, and it is contained in every set: @ C A for every set A. Proof: Let A,B be any two sets. If 34 C op» were false, there would be at least one element ain @, not in &p; in particular, we would then have an a € A such that a ¥ a, and this is impossible. In the same way, G5 C 4; therefore, by 1.3, © 4 = @, and all null sets are equal. If A has only the finitely many members ay, «++, dy, We say that Aisa finite set and write A = {a,,---,4a,}. Observe that for any set A (4 may even be the null set), {4} is a set containing exactly one element, and Ae {4}.Sec.2 Boolean Algebra 3 Because of their frequent occurrence, the following special symbols willbe used for certain sets: Z = set of all positive and negative integers, and zero. Zt={neZ|n> 0}. {neZ|n> 0}. set of all rational numbers, and Q* = {ge Q|q > 0}. = Euclidean line. The closed interval {xe E!|a (A) 0 (6B) and this establishes (1). The proof of (2) is similar; it can, however, be deduced from (1) by “complements” : G[CA UGB] = CCAN CEB = ANB, and apply 2.9(2). 2.11 Remark ‘The formulas in 2.2-2.5 and 2.8-2.10 comprise a short list of results useful for formal calculations with sets; the role of 2.8 is to change differences to complements. As examples, we prove: a. (A — B)U(B— A) = (AUB) ~ (AB). For taking complements with respect to E = A U B, and using 2.4, 2.5, 2.9, 2.10, gives (4- B)UB- A) (4 0 6B) U(BO€A) = (4 UB) 9 (A UA) N (6B B) 9 (6B UGA) = AUBNE(B OA) = (AUB) - (ANB). b. If AUX = Band AN X = @, then X = @A. For, X SEN X =(AU6A) NX =XOGA = (ANG,A) U(X NGA) = (AUX) OG A = EN€sA = 6A. 2.12 Remark A Boolean algebra B is a set together with two binary operations +, +, and a unary operation ’, satisfying the following axioms: 1, Each operation +, « is commutative. 2. ‘There exist elements 0, 1 with a + 0 = a, a-1 = a for every ae B. 3. The distributive laws ab+d=ab+ ac, a+b) =(at bate hold. 4. aa’ = Oanda +a’ = 1 for each ae B. (It is not necessary to postulate associativity of the + and - operations; this is a consequence of the axioms.) The collection of all subsets of a fixed set E, with +, -,’, 0, 1 interpreted as U, 9, Gz, 2, E, respectively, evidently forms a Boolean algebra. By observing that the systematic inter- change of + with - and 0 with 1 in the axioms simply gives the same set of axioms, we obtain the duality principle: For each formula true in a Boolean algebra, there is a true “dual” formula obtained by replacing each occurrence of +, +, 0,1 with -, +, 1, 0, respectively. This is the “method of complements”; observe that each one of De Morgan’s rules follows from the other by duality. ‘The theory of Boolean algebras is equivalent to that of commutative rings with unit, in which each element is idempotent, a-a = a, (that is,Sec. 3 Cartesian Product 7 Boolean rings). Indeed, given a Boolean algebra B, define operations ®, © by a@b = (@b) + @'-d), a Ob = a-b (of. 21M(a)]; with ©, O, Bisa Boolean ring, 7(B). Conversely, from a Boolean ring R, one obtains a Boolean algebra 6(R) by using the operations a + 6 = a®b6 — (a0 b), a-b = a@Q bin R. These transformations are inverses in that b[r(B)] = B and r[0(R)] = R. 3. Cartesian Product The cartesian product is one of the most important constructions of set theory: it enables us to express many concepts in terms of sets. With each two objects a, , there corresponds a new object (a, 5), called their ordered pair. Ordered pairs are subject to the one condition: (a,b) = (¢, @) if and only if a = c and 6 = d; in particular, (a, 5) = (b, a) if and only if a = 6. The first (second) clement of an ordered pair is called its first (second) coordinate. 3.1, Remark ‘The concept of an ordered pair can be expressed in terms of sets by defining (a, 6) = {a}, {a, b}}; the reader can easily show that {{a}, {a, b}} = {{0}, {c, d}} if and only if a = ¢ and 6 = d. For the sequel, we need only know that ordered pairs are uniquely determined by their first and second coordinates; the means for accomplishing this are immaterial, 3.2 Definition Let A, B be two sets, distinct or not. Their cartesian product, 4 x B, is the set of all ordered couples {(a, 6) |ac A, b € B}. Ex. 1 Let A = B = Z; then A x B can be represented as the set of lattice points in E, Ex.2 Let A = B = E'; then A x B, being the set of all ordered couples of reals, can be represented as the points in E?. Ex. 3 Let A = S*, B = [0,1]. A x B can be regarded as those points of E? lying on a cylinder of altitude 1. Similarly, S* x S* is represented as the points on a torus, We have the basic 33 Ax B=o [A= 9] v [B= 9}. Proof: If A x B # @, we can display some (a, 6) ¢ A x B; then ac A, be B shows A # @ and B # g. Conversely, if A # @ and B # , we can display some a € A, b € B; by displaying (a, b), we show AxB#o. In similar fashion, the reader can show 34 IfC x D# a, thenC x DC A x Bif and only if [CC A) AIDC Bh.8 Chap. I Elementary Set Theory It follows at once from this and 1.3 that for nonempty sets A, B, A x B= B x A if and only if A = B; the operation A x B is there- fore not commutative. The relation of x to U and / is summarized in the following trivial 3.5 Theorem x distributes over U, N, and —: Ax(BUC)=Ax BUAXxG, Ax (BANC) =AxBOAXC, Ax(B-C)=AxB-AxC. ‘The cartesian product of three sets A, B, Cis defined by A x B x C = (4 x B) x C, and that of n sets by induction: A, x --- x 4, = (Ay x +++ x Aya) x Ay3 an element of Ay x -+- x Ay is written (a1, +++ 4,), and a; is called its ith coordinate. One should note that the operation “x” is not associative: (4 x B) x C ¢ A x (Bx C) in general. 4. Families of Sets If to each element « of some set f # @ there corresponds a set A,, then the collection of sets {4, | « €.0/} is called a family of sets, and of is called an indexing set for the family. It is not required that sets with distinct indices be different. Observe that any set F of sets can be con- verted to a family of sets by “self-indexing”: one uses the set F itself as indexing set and assigns to each member of the set ¥ the set it represents. In this section we extend the notions of union and intersection to families of sets; it should be noted that this is not done by any limiting process, but rather by independent definitions that reduce to the previous ones whenever the family is finite. 4.1 Definition Let I be a given set, and {4, | @€./} a family of sub- sets of I’. The union U) A, of this family is the set {xeT |3aeW:xeA}, and the intersection () A, is the set {eeT |Vacw: xe Ay. We frequently denote L) A, by U Ay and by U{A, | « €./}; similarly 7 ave for () Aw