Projectile and Circular Motion

CHAPTER
3
Projectile and circular motion
REmEmbER
Before beginning this chapter, you
should be able to:
analyseuniformmotionalonga
straightlinealgebraically
performvectoraddition
resolvevectorsintocomponents
applytheenergyconservation
modeltoenergytransfersand
transformations
usetheareaunderaforce-versus-
distance(ordisplacement)graphto
determineworkdonebyaforcewith
changingmagnitude.
KEy idEAs
After completing this chapter, you
should be able to:
analysethemotionofprojectilesnear
Earthssurface
analyseuniformcircularmotionina
horizontalplane
applyNewtonssecondlawtonon-
uniformcircularmotioninavertical
plane
analysethemotionofplanetsand
satellitesbymodellingtheirorbitsas
uniformcircularorbitalmotion
applyNewtonsLawofUniversal
Gravitationtothemotionofplanets
andsatellites
analyseenergytransformationsas
objectschangepositioninachanging
gravitationaleld
distinguishbetweenweightlessness
andapparentweightlessness.
Predicting the path of a projectile can be a matter of life and death.
47 CHAPTER 3 Projectile and circular motion
Projectilemotion
Any object that is launched into the air is a projectile. A basketball thrown
towardsagoal,atrapezeartistsoaringthroughtheair,andapackagedropped
fromahelicopterareallexamplesofprojectiles.
Except for those projectiles whose motion is initially straight up or down,
or those that have their own power source (like a guided missile), projectiles
generally follow a parabolic path. Deviations from this path can be caused
eitherbyairresistance,byspinningoftheobjectorbywind.Theseeffectsare
oftensmallandcanbeignoredinmanycases.Amajorexception,however,is
theuseofspininmanyballsports,butthiseffectwillnotbedealtwithinthis
book.
Fallingdown
Imagine a ball that has been released some
distance above the ground. Once the ball
is set in motion, the only forces acting on it
are gravity (straight down) and air resistance
(straightup).
After the ball is released, the projection
device (hand, gun, slingshot or whatever)
stopsexertingadownwardsforce.
The net force on the ball in the gure at
rightisdownwards.Asaresult,theballaccel-
eratesdownwards.Ifthesizeoftheforcesand
the mass of the ball are known, the accelera-
tioncanbecalculatedusingNewtonsSecond
LawofMotion.
Often the force exerted on the ball by air
resistance is very small in comparison to the
force of gravity, and so can be ignored. This
makes it possible to model projectile motion
byassumingthattheaccelerationoftheballis
dueonlytogravityandisaconstant9.8ms
-2
downwards.
sample problem 3.1
A helicopter delivering supplies to a ood-stricken farm hovers 100 m above
theground.Apackageofsuppliesisdroppedfromrest,justoutsidethedoor
ofthehelicopter.Airresistancecanbeignored.
(a) Calculatehowlongittakesthepackagetoreachtheground.
(b) Calculate how far from its original position the package has fallen after
0.5s,1.0s,1.5s,2.0setc.untilthepackagehashittheground.(Youmay
liketouseaspreadsheethere.)Drawascalediagramofthepackagespos-
itionathalf-secondintervals.
(a) u=0ms
-1
,x=100m,a=10ms
-2
,t=?
x=ut+
1
2
at
2
100m=0ms
-1
t+
1
2
(10ms
-2
)t
2
100
5 0 .
=t
2
t=4.5s
weight
air resistance
velocity
The forces acting on a ball
falling downwards
weight
air resistance
velocity
The forces acting on a ball
falling downwards
Air resistance istheforce
appliedtoanobjectoppositeto
itsdirectionofmotion,bythe
airthroughwhichitismoving.
Air resistance istheforce
appliedtoanobjectoppositeto
itsdirectionofmotion,bythe
airthroughwhichitismoving.
eLessons:
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Air resistance movie
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Air resistance movie
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Solution: Solution:
UNIT 3 AREA OF STUDY 1 Motion in one and two dimensions 48
(Note: the negative square root can be ignored here as we are interested
only in motion that has occurred after the package was released at t = 0,
i.e.positivetimes.)
(b) t=0.5s,u=0ms
-1
,a=10ms
-2
,x=?
x=ut+
1
2
at
2
=00.5s+
1
2
(10ms
-2
)(0.5s)
2
=1.23m
Repeat this for t = 1 s, 1.5 s, 2 s etc. to gain the results listed in the fol-
lowingtableandillustratedatleft.
Table 3.1 Verticaldistancetravelledovertime
TIME(s) 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4 4.5
VERTICAL
DISTANCE(m)
1.3 5 11 20 31 45 61 80 100
Revision question 3.1
A camera is dropped by a tourist from a lookout and falls vertically to the ground.
The thud of the camera hitting the hard ground below is heard by the tourist
3.0 seconds later. Air resistance and the time taken for the sound to reach the
tourist can be ignored.
(a) How far did the camera fall?
(b) What was the velocity of the camera when it hit the ground below?
Terminalvelocity
The air resistance on a falling object increases as its velocity increases. An
object falling from rest initially experiences no air resistance. As the object
accelerates due to gravity (see the diagram on page 47), the air resistance
increases. Eventually, if the object doesnt hit a surface rst, the air resist-
ancewillbecomeaslargeastheobjectsweight.Thenetforceonitbecomes
zeroandtheobjectcontinuestofallwithaconstantvelocity,referredtoasits
terminal velocity.
Movingandfalling
If a ball is thrown horizontally, the only force acting on the ball once it has
been released is gravity (ignoringair resistance). As the force of gravity is the
same regardless of the motion of the ball, the ball will still accelerate down-
wardsatthesamerateasifitweredropped.Therewillnotbeanyhorizontal
accelerationasthereisnonetforceactinghorizontally.Thismeansthatwhile
theballsverticalvelocitywillchange,itshorizontalvelocityremainsthesame
throughoutitsmotion.
Itistheconstanthorizontalvelocityandchangingverticalvelocitythatgive
projectilestheircharacteristicparabolicmotion.
Notice that the vertical distance travelled by the ball in each time period
increases,butthatthehorizontaldistanceisconstant.
1.3
5.0
11
20
31
45
61
80
0.0
100
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
ground
1.3
5.0
11
20
31
45
61
80
0.0
100
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
ground
Afallingobjectreachesits
terminal velocitywhenthe
upwardsairresistancebecomes
equaltothedownwardforceof
gravity.
Afallingobjectreachesits
terminal velocitywhenthe
upwardsairresistancebecomes
equaltothedownwardforceof
gravity.
The vertical
velocity
increases
(i.e. object
accelerates).
The horizontal velocity remains the
same (i.e. there is no acceleration).
Position of a ball at constant time intervals
Keepthemseparated
Inmodellingprojectilemotion,theverticalandhorizontalcomponentsofthe
motionaretreatedseparately.
1. The total time taken for the projectile motion is determined by the
verticalpartofthemotionastheprojectilecannotcontinuetomovehori-
zontally once it has hit the ground, the target or whatever else it might
collidewith.
2. This total time can then be used to calculate the horizontal distance, or
range,overwhichtheprojectiletravels.
sample problem 3.2
Imaginethehelicopterdescribedinsampleproblem3.1isnotstationary,but
isyingataslowandsteadyspeedof20ms
-1
andis100mabovetheground
whenthepackageisdropped.
(a) Calculatehowlongittakesthepackagetohittheground.
(b) Whatistherangeofthepackage?
(c) Calculatetheverticaldistancethepackagehasfallenafter0.5s,1.0s,1.5s,
2.0s,etc.untilthepackagehasreachedtheground.(Youmayliketousea
spreadsheethere.)Thencalculatethecorrespondinghorizontaldistance,
and hence draw a scale diagram of the packages position at half-second
intervals.
Remember,thehorizontalandverticalcomponentsofthepackagesmotion
mustbeconsideredseparately.
(a) In this part of the question the vertical component is important.Vertical
component:u=0ms
-1
,x=100m,a=10ms
-2
,t=?
x=ut+
1
2
at
2
100m=0ms
-1
t+
1
2
(10ms
-2
)t
2
100
5 0 .
=t
2
t=4.5s
Solution: Solution:
(Note: again, the positive square root is taken as we are concerned only
withwhathappensaftert=0.)
(b) Therangeofthepackageisthehorizontaldistanceoverwhichittravels.It
isthehorizontalcomponentofvelocitythatmustbeusedhere.
Horizontal component: u = 20 m s
-1
(The initial velocity of the package
is the same as the velocity of the helicopter in which it has been
travelling.)
a=0ms
-2
(No forces act horizontally so there is no horizontal
acceleration.)
t=4.5s(frompart(a)ofthisexample)
x=?
x=ut+
1
2
at
2
=20ms
-1
4.5s+0
=90m
(c)
Table 3.2 Verticalandhorizontalcomponentsofthe
packagesmotion
VERTICALCOMPONENT HORIZONTALCOMPONENT
u=0ms
-1
,t=0.5s,a=10ms
-2
,x=?
x=ut+
1
2
at
2
=0ms
-1
0.5s+
1
2
(10ms
-2
)(0.5s)
2
=1.3m
u=20ms
-1
,t=0.5s,a=0ms
-2
,x=?
x=ut+
1
2
at
2
=20ms
-1
0.5s+0
=10m
Repeat the calculations shown in table 3.2 for t = 1 s, 1.5 s, 2 s, etc. to gain
the results shown in table 3.3.The scale diagram of the packages position is
shownonpage51.
Table 3.3 Verticalandhorizontaldistancetravelledovertime
TIME(s)
VERTICALDISTANCE
(m)
HORIZONTAL
DISTANCE(m)
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
1.3
5.0
11
20
31
45
61
80
100
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
eModelling:
Falling from a helicopter
Spreadsheets model a package
falling from a helicopter.
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eModelling:
Falling from a helicopter
Spreadsheets model a package
falling from a helicopter.
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1.3
5.0
11
20
31
45
61
80
V
e
r
t
i
c
a
l

d
i
s
t
a
n
c
e

(
m
)
Horizontal distance (m)
0.0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90
100
A ball is thrown horizontally at a speed of 40 m s
1
from the top of a cliff into the
ocean below and takes 4.0 seconds to land in the water. Air resistance can be
ignored.
(a) What is the height of cliff above sea level of the throwers hand releases the
ball from a height of 2.0 metres above the ground?
(b) What horizontal distance did the ball cover?
(c) Calculate the vertical component of the velocity at which the ball hits the
water.
(d) At what angle to the horizontal does the ball strike the water?
Whatgoesupmustcomedown
Mostprojectilesaresetinmotionwithvelocity.Thesimplestcaseisthatofa
ballthrowndirectlyupwards.Theonlyforceactingontheballisthatofgravity
(ignoringairresistance).Theballacceleratesdownwards.Initially,thisresults
in the ball slowing down. Eventually, it comes to a halt, then begins to move
downwards,speedingupasitgoes.
Notice that, when air resistance is ignored, the motion of the ball is iden-
ticalwhetheritisgoinguporcomingdown.Theballwillreturnwiththesame
speed with which it was projected.Throughout the motion illustrated in the
Digital doc:
Investigation 3.1:
Predicting the range of
a projectile
The aim of this investigation is
to predict the range (that is, the
horizontal distance travelled) of
a projectile with a known initial
horizontal velocity, and then to
test the prediction.
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Digital doc:
Investigation 3.1:
Predicting the range of
a projectile
The aim of this investigation is
to predict the range (that is, the
horizontal distance travelled) of
a projectile with a known initial
horizontal velocity, and then to
test the prediction.
eBookplus eBookplus
gurebelow(andforwhichgraphsareshown),theaccelerationoftheballis
aconstant10ms
-2
downwards.Acommonerrormadebyphysicsstudentsis
tosuggestthattheaccelerationoftheballiszeroatthetopofitsight.Ifthis
weretrue,wouldtheballevercomedown?
The motion of a ball projected
vertically upwards
Graphs of motion for a ball thrown
straight upwards
(a) going up (b) going down
v v
x (m)
t(s)
(a)
v (m s
1
)
t(s)
(b)
a (m s
2
)
t(s)
(c)
10
Theaxiomwhatgoesupmustcomedownappliesequallysotobullets
asitdoestoballs.Unfortunately,thismeansthatpeoplesometimesget
killedwhentheyshootgunsstraightupintotheair.Ifthebulletleftthe
gun at a speed of 60 m s
-1
, it will return to Earth at roughly the same
speed.Thisspeediswellandtrulyfastenoughtokillapersonwhoishit
bythereturningbullet.
sample problem 3.3
Adancerjumpsverticallyupwardswithaninitialvelocityof4.0ms
-1
.Assume
the dancers centre of mass was initially 1.0 m above the ground, and ignore
airresistance.
(a) Howlongdidthedancertaketoreachhermaximumheight?
(b) Whatwasthemaximumdisplacementofthedancerscentreofmass?
(c) Whatistheaccelerationofthedanceratthetopofherjump?
(d) Calculatethevelocityofthedancerscentreofmasswhenitreturnstoits
originalheightabovetheground.
aS a maTTer of facT aS a maTTer of facT
Thereareseveralwaysofarrivingatthesameanswer.Ashasbeendoneinthis
example,itisalwaysgoodpracticetominimisetheuseofanswersfrompre-
vious parts of a question.This makes your answers more reliable, preventing
a mistake made earlier on from distorting the accuracy of your later calcula-
tions.Forthisproblem,assignupaspositiveanddownasnegative.
(a) u = 4.0 m s
-1
, a = -10 m s
-2
, v = 0 m s
-1
(as the dancer comes to a halt at
thehighestpointofthejump),t=?
v=u+at
0ms
-1
=4.0ms
-1
+ (-10ms
-2
)t
t=
4 0
10
1
2
. ms
ms
-
-
=0.40s
Thedancertakes0.40storeachherhighestpoint.
(b) u = 4.0 m s
-1
, a = -10 m s
-2
, v = 0 m s
-1
(as the dancer comes to a halt at
thehighestpointofthejump),x=?
v
2
=u
2
+2ax
(0ms
-1
)
2
=(4.0ms
-1
)
2
+2(-10ms
-2
)x
16m=20x
x=0.80m
Themaximumdisplacementofthedancerscentreofmassis0.80m.
(c) Atthetopofthejump,theonlyforceactingonthedanceristheforceof
gravity (the same as at all other points of the jump).Therefore the accel-
erationofthedancerisaccelerationduetogravity:10ms
-2
downwards.
(d) For this calculation, only the downwards motion needs to be
investigated.
u=0ms
-1
(asthedancercomestoahaltatthehighestpointofthejump),
a= -10ms
-2
,x= -0.80m(asthemotionisdownwards),v=?
v
2
=u
2
+2ax
v
2
=(0ms
1
)2+2(10ms
2
)(0.80m)
v= -4.0ms
-1
(Note: here, the negative square root is used, as the dancer is moving
downwards. Remember, the positive and negative signs show direction
only.)
The velocity of the dancers centre of mass when it returns to its original
heightis4.0ms
-1
downwards.
A basketball player jumps directly upwards so that his centre of mass reaches a
maximum displacement of 50 cm.
(a) What is the velocity of the basketballers centre of mass when it returns to its
original height above the ground?
(b) For how long was the basketballers centre of mass above its original
height?
Solution: Solution:
Hanging in mid air
Sometimesdancers,basketballersandhighjumpersseemtohanginmid
air.Itisasthoughtheforceofgravityhadtemporarilystoppedactingon
them.Ofcoursethisisnotso!Itisonlythepersonscentreofmassthat
moves in a parabolic path. The arrangement of the persons body can
changethepositionofthecentreofmass,causingthebodytoappearto
behanginginmidaireventhoughthecentreofmassisstillfollowingits
originalpath.
Highjumperscanusethiseffecttoincreasetheheightoftheirjumps.By
bending her body as she passes over the bar, Petrina Price can cause her
centre of mass to be outside her body!This allows her body to pass over
the bar, while her centre of mass passes under it.The amount of energy
available to raise Petrinas centre of mass is limited, so she can raise her
centre of mass only by a certain amount. This technique allows her to
clearahigherbarthanothertechniquesforthesameamountofenergy.
Australian high jumper Petrina Prices centre of mass passes
under the bar, while her body passes over the bar!
Shootingatanangle
Generally, projectiles are shot, thrown or driven at some angle to the hori-
zontal. In these cases the initial velocity may be resolved into its horizontal
andverticalcomponentstohelpsimplifytheanalysisofthemotion.
If the velocity and the angle to the horizontal are known, the size of the
componentscanbecalculatedusingtrigonometry.
The motion of projectiles with an initial velocity at an angle to the hori-
zontal can be dealt with in exactly the same manner as those with a velocity
straight up or straight across. However, the initial velocity must be separated
intoitsverticalandhorizontalcomponents.
sample problem 3.4
Astuntdriveristryingtodriveacaroverasmallriver.Thecarwilltravelupa
ramp(atanangleof40)andleavetheramptravellingat22ms
-1
.Theriveris
50mwide.Willthecarmakeit?
pHySicS in focuS pHySicS in focuS
The velocity can be resolved
into a vertical and a horizontal
component.
Q
v
horizontal
= v cos Q
v
vertical
= v sin Q
v
The velocity can be resolved
into a vertical and a horizontal
component.
Q
v
horizontal
= v cos Q
v
vertical
= v sin Q
v
40n 40n
50 m
river
v
e
l
o
c
i
t
y

=

2
2

m

s
1
Assignupaspositiveanddownasnegative.
Beforeeitherpartofthemotioncanbeexamined,itisimportanttocalculate
theverticalandhorizontalcomponentsoftheinitialvelocity.
40n
v
horizontal
= 22 cos 40n
= 17 m s
1
= 14 m s
1
v
vertical
= 22 sin 40n
v = 22 m s
1
Therefore the initial vertical velocity is 14ms
-1
and the initial horizontal
velocityis17ms
-1
.
In order to calculate the range of the car (how far it will travel horizontally),
itisclearthatthehorizontalpartofitsmotionmustbeconsidered.However,
theverticalpartisalsoimportant.Theverticalmotionisusedtocalculatethe
timeintheair.Then,thehorizontalmotionisusedtocalculatetherange.
Table 3.4 Calculatingthehorizontalandverticalcomponents
VERTICALCOMPONENT HORIZONTALCOMPONENT
(Usethersthalfofthemotionfrom
take-offuntilthecarhasreachedits
highestpoint.)
u=14ms
-1
,a=-10ms
-2
,
v=0ms
-1
(asthecarcomestoa
verticalhaltatitshighestpoint),
t=?
v=u+at
0=14ms
-1
+(-10ms
-2
)t
t=
14
10
1
2
ms
ms
-
-
=1.4s
Asthisisonlyhalfthemotion,thetotal
timeintheairis2.8s.(Itispossible
todoublethetimeinthissituation
becausewehaveignoredairresistance.
Thetwopartsofthemotionare
symmetrical.)
u=17ms
-1
,t=2.8s(beingtwicethe
timetakentoreachmaximumheightas
calculatedfortheverticalcomponent),
a=0ms
-2
,x=?
x=ut
=17ms
-1
2.8s
=48m
Therefore,theunluckystuntdriverwillfallshortofthesecondrampandwill
land in the river. Maybe the study of physics should be a prerequisite for all
stuntdrivers!
Solution: Solution:
eModelling:
Free throw shooter
A spreadsheet is used to predict
the conditions for a basketballer to
shoot a basketball into a hoop.
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eModelling:
Free throw shooter
A spreadsheet is used to predict
the conditions for a basketballer to
shoot a basketball into a hoop.
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eModelling:
Modelling a stunt driver
Worksheets build on the Falling
from a helicopter spreadsheets to
produce a powerful spreadsheet for
modelling any projectile motion.
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eModelling:
Modelling a stunt driver
Worksheets build on the Falling
from a helicopter spreadsheets to
produce a powerful spreadsheet for
modelling any projectile motion.
doc-0035
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A hockey ball is hit towards the goal at an angle of 25 to the ground with an
initial speed of 32 km h
1
.
(a) What are the horizontal and vertical components of the initial velocity of the
ball?
(b) How long does the ball spend in ight?
(c) What is the range of the hockey ball?
Projectilemotioncalculations
Herearesometipsforprojectilemotioncalculations.
Ithelpstodrawadiagram.
Alwaysseparatethemotionintoverticalandhorizontalcomponents.
Remembertoresolvetheinitialvelocityintoitscomponentsifnecessary.
The time in ight is the link between the separate vertical and horizontal
componentsofthemotion.
Attheendofanycalculation,checktoseeifthequantitiesyouhavecalcu-
latedarereasonable.
Therealworldincludingairresistance
Sofarinthischapter,theeffectsofairresistancehavebeenignoredsothatwe
caneasilymodelprojectilemotion.Thereasontheforceofairresistancecom-
plicates matters so much is that it is not constant throughout the motion. It
depends on the velocity of the projectile, the surface area that is being hit by
theair,thetypeofsurfaceandeventhespinoftheprojectile.Forobjectswith
the same surface and spin, air resistance increases as the speed of the object
increases.
Nomatterwhataffectstheamountofairresistance,onethingisalwaystrue
airresistanceopposesthemotionoftheprojectile.Logintowww.jacplus.
com.autolocatetheProjectilemotionappletweblinkforthischapter.
path of
projectile
without air
resistance
path of a projectile
with air resistance F
a.r.
F
a.r.
F
a.r.
w
w
w
While the magnitude of air resistance changes throughout the motion, it always
opposes the direction of the motion.
Weblink:
Projectile motion applet
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Projectile motion applet
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Uniformcircularmotion
Humansseemtospendalotoftimegoingaroundincircles.Trafcatround-
abouts, children on merry-go-rounds, cyclists in velodromes. If you stop to
think about it, you are always going around in circles as a result of Earths
rotation.
ThesatellitesorbitingEarth,includingtheMoon,travelinellipses.However,
theirorbitscanbemodelledascircularmotion.
The motion of satellites around Earth can be modelled as circular motion with a
constant speed.
Gettingnowherefast
Ralphhasbeenabaddogandhasbeenchainedup.To
amusehimself,herunsincircles.Ralphsowner,Julie,
is a physics teacher. She knows that no matter how
great Ralphs average speed is, he always ends up in
thesameplace,sohisaveragevelocityisalwayszero.
Instantaneousvelocity
Although Ralphs average velocity for a single lap
is zero, his instantaneous velocity is continually
changing.Velocityisavectorandhasamagnitudeand
direction.WhilethemagnitudeofRalphsvelocitymay
be constant, the direction is continually changing. At
onepoint,Ralphistravellingeast,sohisinstantaneous
velocity is in an easterly direction. A short time later, he will be travelling
south,sohisinstantaneousvelocityisinasoutherlydirection.
If Ralph could maintain a constant speed, the magnitude of his velocity
wouldnotchange,butthedirectionwouldbecontinuallychanging.
The speed is therefore constant and can be calculated using the formula
v=
x
t
,wherevistheaveragespeed,xisthedistancetravelledandtisthetime
interval. It is most convenient to use the period of the object travelling in a
circle.Thus:
v=
x
t
=
circumference
period
=
2pr
where
r=radiusofthecircle
T=period.
Instantaneous velocity isthe
velocityataparticularinstant
oftime.
Instantaneous velocity isthe
velocityataparticularinstant
oftime.
Theperiodofarepeated
circularmotionisthetime
takenforacompleterevolution.
Theperiodofarepeated
circularmotionisthetime
takenforacompleterevolution.
sample problem 3.5
Ralphs chain is 7.0 m long and attached to a small post in the middle of the
garden.Ittakesanaverageof9stocompleteonelap.
(a) WhatisRalphsaveragespeed?
(b) WhatisRalphsaveragevelocityafterthreelaps?
(c) WhatisRalphsinstantaneousvelocityatpointA?(Assumehetravelsata
constantratearoundthecircle.)
(a) To calculate Ralphs speed, we need to know how far he has travelled.
Usingtheformulaforthecircumferenceofacircle(distance=2pr):
distance=2p7.0m
=44m.
Now,theaveragespeedcanbecalculated.
v=
x
t
=
44
9
m
s
=5ms
-1
Ralphtravelswithanaveragespeedof5ms
-1
.
(b) After three laps, Ralph is in exactly the same place as he started, so his
displacement is zero. No matter how long he took to run these laps, his
averagevelocitywouldstillbezero,asv
av
=
D
D
x
t
.
(c) Ralphsvelocityisaconstant5ms
-1
ashetravelsaroundthecircle.Atthe
instant in question, the magnitude of his instantaneous velocity is also
5ms
-1
.ThismeansRalphsvelocityis5ms
-1
north.
A battery operated toy car completes a single lap of a circular track in 15 s with
an average speed of 1.3 m s
1
. Assume that the speed of the toy car is constant.
(a) What is the radius of the track?
(b) What is the magnitude of the toy cars instantaneous velocity halfway
through the lap?
(c) What is the average velocity of the toy car after half of the lap has been
completed?
(d) What is the average velocity of the toy car over the entire lap?
Changingvelocitiesandaccelerations
Anyobjectmovinginacirclehasacontinuallychangingvelocity.Remember
that although the magnitude of the velocity is constant, the direction is
changing. As all objects with changing velocities are experiencing an accel-
eration,thismeansallobjectsthataremovinginacircleareaccelerating.
An acceleration can be caused only by an unbalanced force, so non-zero
net force is needed to move an object in a circle. For example, a hammer
throwermustapplyaforcetothehammertokeepitmovinginacircle.When
the hammer is released, it moves off with the velocity it had at the instant of
release.Thenetforceonthehammeristhegravitationalforceonit(neglecting
the small amount of air resistance), and the hammer will experience projec-
tilemotion.
7.0 m
N
A
S
E W
7.0 m
N
A
S
E W
Solution: Solution:
The hammer is always accelerating while it moves in a circle.
Inwhichdirectionistheforce?
The gure at left shows diagrammatically the head of the hammer moving
in a circle at two different times. It takes t seconds to move from A to B. To
determine the acceleration, the change in velocity between these two points
mustbedetermined.Vectoradditionmustbeusedtodothis.
Dv=v
2
-v
1
Dv=v
2
+(-v
1
).
Notice that when the Dv vector is transferred back to the original circle
halfway between the two points in time, it is pointing towards the centre of
the circle. (See the gure below.) (Such calculations become more accurate
when very small time intervals are used; however, a large time interval has
beenusedheretomakethediagramclear.)
As a =
Dv
t
, the acceleration vector is in the same direction as Dv, but has a
differentmagnitudeanddifferentunits.
A B
v
2
v
2
v
1
v
1
$v
$v
(a) (b)
(a) Vector addition (b) The change in velocity is towards the centre of the circle.
No matter which time interval is chosen, the acceleration vector always
points towards the centre of the circle. So, in order for an object to have
uniform circular motion, the acceleration of the object must be towards the
centre of the circle. Such an acceleration is called centripetal acceleration.
The word centripetal literally means centre-seeking. As stated in Newtons
Second Law of Motion, the net force on an object is in the same direction as
theacceleration(F
net
=ma).Therefore,thenetforceonanobjectmovingwith
uniformcircularmotionistowardsthecentreofthecircle.Duetothecentre-
seekingnatureofthenetforce,itiscalledthecentripetal force.
Centripetal accelerationisthe
centre-directedaccelerationof
anobjectmovinginacircle.
Centripetal accelerationisthe
centre-directedaccelerationof
anobjectmovinginacircle.
Centripetal forceisthecentre-
directedforceactingonan
objectmovinginacircle.Inthe
caseofacircularmotionwith
constantspeed,thecentripetal
forceisequaltothenetforce.
Centripetal forceisthecentre-
directedforceactingonan
objectmovinginacircle.Inthe
caseofacircularmotionwith
constantspeed,thecentripetal
forceisequaltothenetforce.
As long as the thrower keeps
turning, the hammer moves in
a circle. When the hammer is
released, it moves in a straight line.
The direction in which the
hammer moves while being
spun around
The direction in which the
hammer moves if let go
Velocity vectors for a hammer
moving in an anticlockwise circle
A B
v
2
v
1
Bemember IhuI whIIe Ihe hummer Ihrower Is exerIIng u Iorce on Ihe hummer
heud Iowurds Ihe cenIre oI Ihe cIrcIe, Ihe hummer heud musI be exerIIng un
equuI und opposIIe Iorce on Ihe Ihrower uwuy Irom Ihe cenIre oI Ihe cIrcIe
(uccordIng Io NewIon`s ThIrd Luw oI MoIIon).
When reudIng ubouI cIrcuIur moIIon, you muy encounIer Ihe Ierm centri
fugal force. CenIrIIuguI meuns 'cenIre-eeIng`. As II hus Ihe opposIIe
meunIng Io cenIrIpeIuI, Ihe Iwo words mustnot be used InIerchungeubIy.
WhIch word you use Io descrIbe Ihe Iorces oI cIrcuIur moIIon depends
on your Irume oI reIerence. II you ure ouIsIde Ihe cIrcuIur moIIon In
u sIuIIonury Irume oI reIerence, you cun eusIIy IdenIIIy IhuI Ihe Iorce
on Ihe movIng ob|ecI Is Iowurds Ihe cenIre oI Ihe cIrcIe u cenIrIpeIuI
Iorce. However, II you ure Ihe ob|ecI IhuI Is movIng, IhIngs uppeur u IIIIIe
dIIIerenIIy.
ImugIne IhuI you ure sIIIIng on Ihe buck seuI oI u bus movIng quIckIy
uround u corner. You IeeI us Ihough you ure beIng pushed ouI Irom Ihe
corner, IhuI Is, you IhInk u Iorce Is pushIng you uwuy Irom Ihe cenIre
oI Ihe cIrcIe becuuse your body moves ouIwurds. In reuIIIy your body Is
conIInuIng Io move In u sIruIghI IIne you ure In u movIng Irume oI
reIerence. In IucI, your boIIom Is beIng pushed Iowurds Ihe cenIre oI Ihe
cIrcIe due Io Ihe Iorce oI IrIcIIon. ThIs resuIIs In your IeunIng ouIwurds.
So whuI you ure experIencIng Is Ihe eIIecI oI InerIIu, however, Irom your
Irume oI reIerence (InsIde Ihe bus), Ihe onIy expIunuIIon you cun IogI-
cuIIy oIIer Is Ihe exIsIence oI un unbuIunced Iorce pushIng you ouIwurds.
ThIs 'Iorce` Is cuIIed Ihe cenIrIIuguI Iorce. An observer In Ihe sIuIIonury
Irume oI reIerence ouIsIde Ihe bus cun see you ure movIng In u cIrcIe
(oIherwIse you wouId y ouI oI Ihe bus!). So Ihe neI Iorce on your body
musI be u cenIrIpeIuI Iorce.
Calculatingaccelerationsandforces
UsIng vecIor dIugrums und Ihe IormuIue a =
Dv
t
und F
neI
= ma, II Is possIbIe Io
cuIcuIuIe Ihe ucceIeruIIons und Iorces InvoIved In cIrcuIur moIIon. However,
doIng cuIcuIuIIons IhIs wuy Is IedIous, und resuIIs cun be InuccuruIe II Ihe
vecIor dIugrums ure noI druwn cureIuIIy. II Is much sImpIer Io huve u IormuIu
IhuI wIII uvoId Ihese dIIhcuIIIes. The derIvuIIon oI such u IormuIu Is u IIIIIe
chuIIengIng, buI II Is worIh Ihe eIIorI!
By re-exumInIng Ihe Iwo prevIous hgures (see p. b9), II Is possIbIe Io see IhuI
Ihey boIh 'conIuIn` IsosceIes IrIungIes. These ure shown uI IeII.
IIgure (u) Is u dIugrum showIng dIsIunces. II hus Ihe rudIus oI Ihe cIrcIe
murked In IwIce. These rudII Iorm Iwo sIdes oI un IsosceIes IrIungIe. The IhIrd
sIde Is Iormed by u IIne, or chord, |oInIng poInI A wIIh poInI B. II Is Ihe dIs-
Iunce beIween Ihe Iwo poInIs. When Ihe ungIe q Is very smuII, Ihe IengIh oI
Ihe chord Is vIrIuuIIy Ihe sume us Ihe IengIh oI Ihe urc whIch uIso |oIns Ihese
Iwo poInIs. As IhIs Is u dIsIunce, IIs IengIh cun be cuIcuIuIed usIng x = vt.
IIgure (b) Is u dIugrum showIng veIocIIIes. As Ihe ob|ecI wus movIng wIIh
uniform cIrcuIur moIIon, Ihe IengIh oI Ihe vecIors v
2
und -v
1
ure IdenIIcuI und
Iorm Iwo sIdes oI un IsosceIes IrIungIe. As boIh purIs oI Ihe hgure uI IeII ure
derIved Irom Ihe boIIom hgure on puge b9, boIh oI Ihe ungIes murked us q
ure Ihe sume sIze. ThereIore, Ihe IrIungIes ure boIh IsosceIes IrIungIes, con-
IuInIng Ihe sume ungIe, q. ThIs meuns Ihey ure sImIIur IrIungIes Ihey cun be
IhoughI oI us Ihe sume IrIungIe druwn on Iwo dIIIerenI scuIes. The hgure on
puge 61 shows Ihese IrIungIes redruwn Io muke IhIs more obvIous.
The triangles shown in parts (a)
and (b) are both isosceles triangles.
A
r r
Q
B
(a)
v
2
v
1
v
1
v
2
$v
(b)
Q
The triangles shown in parts (a)
and (b) are both isosceles triangles.
A
r r
Q
B
(a)
v
2
v
1
v
1
v
2
$v
(b)
Q
Asthetrianglesaresimilar,theratiooftheirsidesmustbeconstant,so:
Dv
vt
=
v
r
.
Multiplyingbothsidesbyv:
Dv
t
=
v
r
2
.
Asa=
Dv
t
:
a=
v
r
2
.
Thisformulaprovidesawayofcalculatingthecentripetalaccelerationofa
massmovingwithuniformcircularmotionhavingspeedvandradiusr.
Iftheaccelerationofaknownmassmovinginacirclewithconstantspeed
hasbeencalculated,thenetforcecanbedeterminedbyapplyingF
net
=ma.
Themagnitudeofthenetforcecanalsobecalculatedusing:
F
net
=ma=
mv
r
2
.
sample problem 3.6
Acarisdrivenaroundaroundaboutataconstantspeedof20kmh
-1
(5.6ms
-1
).
Theroundabouthasaradiusof3.5mandthecarhasamassof1200kg.
(a) Whatisthemagnitudeanddirectionoftheaccelerationofthecar?
(b) Whatisthemagnitudeanddirectionoftheforceonthecar?
(a) v=5.6ms
-1
,r=3.5m,a=?
a=
v
r
2
=
( . )
.
5 6
3 5
1 2
ms
m
-
=9.0ms
-2
Thecaracceleratesat9.0ms
-2
towardsthecentreoftheroundabout.
(b) There are two different formulae that can be used to calculate this
answer.
(i) Usetheanswerto(a)andsubstituteintoF
net
=ma.
a=9.0ms
-2
,m=1200kg,F
net
=?
F
net
=ma
=1200kg9.0ms
-2
=1.110
4
N
(ii) UsetheformulaF
net
=
mv
r
2
.
v=5.6ms
-1
,r=3.5m,m=1200kg,F
net
=?
F
net
=
mv
r
2
=
1200 5 6
3 5
1 2
kg ms
m
( . )
.
-
=1.110
4
N
Bothmethodsgivetheforceonthecaras1.110
4
Ntowardsthecentre
oftheroundabout.
The two triangles are similar
triangles.
A
r r
Q
B
(a)
v v
$v (b)
Q
vt
The two triangles are similar
triangles.
A
r r
Q
B
(a)
v v
$v (b)
Q
vt
Solution: Solution:
Sometimes it is not easy to measure the velocity of the object under-
goingcircularmotion.However,thiscanbecalculatedfromtheradiusof
the circle and the time taken to complete one circuit using the equation
v=
2pr
T
.
a=
v
r
2
a=
2
2
pr
T
r
a=
4
2
2
p r
T
SubstitutingthisintoF
net
=ma:
F
net
=
m r
T
4
2
2
p
.
Kwong (mass 60 kg) rides the Gravitron at the amusement park. This ride moves
Kwong in a circle of radius 3.5 m, at a rate of one rotation every 2.5 s.
(a) What is Kwongs acceleration?
(b) What is the net force acting on Kwong? (Include a magnitude and a direction
in your answer.)
(c) Draw a labelled diagram showing all the forces acting on Kwong.
Examplesofcentripetalforce
Wheneveranobjectisinuniformcircularmotion,thenetforceonthatobject
must be towards the centre of the circle (that is, a centripetal force). Some
examplesofcommonsituationsinvolvingcentripetalforcesfollow.
Tension
In physics, tension is used to describe the force applied by an object that is
beingpulledorstretched.
(b)
F
net
T
1
T
2
W
(a)
Centripetal force is the source of fun in many theme park rides. (a) Tension contributes
to the centripetal force in many amusement park rides. (b) The net force acting on a
compartment
tension (T)
normal
reaction (N)
weight (W)
F
net
Not to scale
A component of the tension is the net force (or centripetal force) acting on the female
skater when she is performing a death roll.
Friction
When a car rounds a corner, the sideways frictional forces contribute to the
centripetal force. The forwards frictional forces of the ground on the tyres
keepthecarmoving,butifthesidewaysfrictionalforcesarenotsufcient,the
net force on the car will not be towards the centre of the curve. In this situ-
ation, the net force is less than the centripetal force required to keep the car
movinginacircleanditwillnotmakeitaroundthecorner!
TheformulaF
net
=
mv
r
2
showsthatasthevelocityincreases,theforceneeded
tomoveinacirclegreatlyincreases(F
net
v
2
).Thisiswhyitisvitalthatcars
donotattempttocornerwhiletravellingtoofast.
weight (W)
F
friction
F
friction
F
friction
F
friction
F
net
normal
reaction (N)
(N)
(N)
(N)
The sideways frictional forces of the ground on the tyres enable a car to move around
a corner.
Track athletes, cyclists and motorcyclists also rely on sideways frictional
forcestoenablethemtomovearoundcorners.Toincreasethesizeoftheside-
waysfrictionalforce,whichwillthereforeallowthemtocornermorequickly,
they often lean into the corner. The lean also means that they are pushing
on the surface at an angle, so the reaction force is no longer normal to the
ground.Ithasacomponenttowardsthecentreoftheircircularmotion.
it
F
nt
ratin
Leaning into a corner increases the size of the centripetal force, allowing a higher
speed while cornering. The sideways friction is greater, and the reaction force of the
ground has a component towards the centre of the circular motion.
In velodromes, the track is banked so that a component of the normal
reaction acts towards the centre of the velodrome, thus increasing the net
forceinthisdirection.Asthecentripetalforceislarger,thecyclistscanmove
aroundthecornersfasterthaniftheyhadtorelyonfrictionalone.
Goingaroundthebend
Whenavehicletravelsaroundabend,orcurve,atconstantspeed,itsmotion
can be considered to be part of a circular motion. The curve makes up the
arcofacircle.Inorderforacartotravelaroundacornersafely,thenetforce
actingonitmustbetowardsthecentreofthecircle.
Part (a) of the next gure shows the forces acting on a vehicle of mass m
travelling around a curve with a radius, r, at a constant speed, v. The forces
actingonthecarareweight,W,frictionandthenormalreaction,N.
N
W
(a)
Sias
ritin (Fr)
F
nt
()
Fr
F
nt
N sin
Fr s
W
(a) For the vehicle to take the corner safely, the net force must be towards the centre of
the circle. (b) Banking the road allows a component of the normal reaction to contribute
to the centripetal force.
On a level road the only force with a component towards the centre of the
circle is thesideways friction.This sideways friction makes up the whole of
the magnitude of the net force (and therefore the centripetal force) on the
vehicle.Thatis:
F
net
=sidewaysfriction
=
mv
r
2
.
Ifyoudrivethevehiclearoundthecurvewithaspeedsothat
mv
r
2
isgreater
than the sideways friction, the motion is no longer circular and the vehicle
will skid off the road. If the road is wet, sideways friction is less and a lower
speedisnecessarytodrivesafelyaroundthecurve.
If the road is banked at an angle q towards the centre of the circle, a com-
ponent of the normal reaction N sin q can also contribute to the centripetal
force.Thisisshownindiagram(b)onpage64.
F
net
=F
r
cosq + Nsinq
Thelargercentripetalforcemeansthat,foragivencurve,bankingtheroad
makesahigherspeedpossible.
Loose gravel on bends in roads is dangerous because it reduces the side-
waysfrictionforce.Atlowspeedsthisisnotaproblem,butavehicletravelling
athighspeedislikelytolosecontrolandrunofftheroadinastraightline.
sample problem 3.7
Acarofmass1280kgtravelsaroundabendwitharadiusof12.0m.Thetotal
sidewaysfrictiononthewheelsis16400N.Theroadisnotbanked.Calculate
themaximumconstantspeedatwhichthecarcanbedrivenaroundthebend
withoutskiddingofftheroad.
Thecarwillmaintainthecircularmotionaroundthebendif:
F
net
=
mv
r
2
where
v=maximumspeed.
If v were to exceed this speed, F
net
<
mv
r
2
, the circular motion could not be
maintainedandthevehiclewouldskid.
F
net
=sidewaysfriction= 16400N= 1280kg
v
2
12 0 . m
v
2
= 16400N
12 0
1280
. m
kg
= 153.75m
2
s
-2
v= 12.4ms
1
Themaximumconstantspeedatwhichthevehiclecanbedrivenaroundthe
bendis12.4ms
1
.
Calculate the maximum constant speed of the car in sample problem 3.7 (without
skidding off the road) if the road is banked at an angle of 10 to the horizontal.
Solution: Solution:
Insidecircularmotion
Whathappenstopeopleandobjectsinsidelargerobjectswhicharetravelling
incircles?Theanswertothisquestiondependsonseveralfactors.
Lets think about passengers inside a bus.The sideways frictional forces of
theroadonthebustyresacttowardsthecentreofthecircle,whichincreases
thecentripetralforceonthebusandkeepsthebusmovingaroundthecircle.
Ifthepassengersarealsotomoveinacircle(thereforekeepingthesamepos-
ition in the bus) they need, too, to have a net force towards the centre of the
circle. Without such a force, they would continue to move in a straight line
andprobablyhitthesideofthebus!Usuallythefrictionbetweentheseatand
apassengerslegsissufcienttopreventthishappening.
However, if the bus is moving quickly, friction alone may not be adequate.
In such cases, passengers may grab hold of the seat in front, thus adding a
forceoftensionthroughtheirarms.Hopefully,thesumofthefrictionalforce
oftheseatonapassengerslegsandthehorizontalcomponentoftensileforce
throughthepassengersarmswillprovidealargeenoughcentripetalforceto
keepthatpersonmovinginthesamecircleasthebus!
sample problem 3.8
When travelling around a roundabout, John notices that the uffy dice sus-
pended from his rear-vision mirror swing out. If John is travelling at 8.0 m
s
-1
and the roundabout has a radius of 5.0 m, what angle will the string con-
nectedtotheuffydice(mass100g)makewiththevertical?
When John enters the roundabout, the
dice,whicharehangingstraightdown,will
begin to move outwards. As long as John
maintainsaconstantspeed,theywillreach
apointatwhichtheybecomestationaryat
some angle to the vertical. At this point,
the net force on the dice is the centripetal
force. Because the dice appear stationary
to John, they must be moving in the same
circle, with the same speed, as John and
hiscar.
v=8.0ms
1
,r=5.0m,m=0.100kg
Considertheverticalcomponentsofthe
forces.
Theaccelerationhasnovertical
component.
mg=Tcosq
T=
mg
cos q
(1)
Considerthehorizontalcomponentsoftheforces.
F
net
=
mv
r
2
=Tsinq
mv
r
2
=Tsinq (2)
Tosolvethesimultaneousequations,substituteforT(fromequation(1))into
equation(2).
T cos Q
T sin Q
T
mg
Q
T cos Q
T sin Q
T
mg
Q
Solution: Solution:
mv
r
mg
2
cos
=
q
sinq

mv
r
2
=mgtanq

v
rg
2
=tanq

( . )
.
8 0
5 0 10
1 2
1
m s
m N kg
-
-
=tanq
q=52
A 50 kg circus performer grips a vertical rope with her teeth and sets herself moving
in a circle with a radius of 5.0 m at a constant horizontal speed of 3.0 ms
1
.
(a) What angle does the rope make the vertical?
(b) What is the magnitude of the tension in the rope?
Rope
Circular path
Performers
centre of mass
Non-uniformcircularmotion
So far, we have considered only what happens when the circular motion is
carried out at a constant speed. However, in many situations this is not the
case.When the circle is vertical, the effects of gravity can cause the object to
go slower at the top of the circle than at the bottom. Such situations can be
examinedeitherbyanalysingtheenergytransformationsthattakeplaceorby
applyingNewtonslawsofmotion.
When a skateboarder enters a half-pipe from the top, that person has a
certainamountofpotentialenergy,butavelocityclosetozero.Atthebottom
ofthehalf-pipe,someofthegravitationalpotentialenergyoftheskateboarder
has been transformed into kinetic energy. As long as the persons change in
heightisknown,itispossibletocalculatethespeedatthatpoint.
sample problem 3.9
A skateboarder (mass 60 kg) enters the half-pipe at point A, as shown in the
gureatthetopofthenextpage.(Assumethefrictionalforcesarenegligible.)
(a) What is the skateboarders speed at
pointB?
(b) What is the centripetal force on the
skateboarderatB?
(c) Whatisthenormalreactionforceon
theskateboarderatB?
(a) At point A the skateboarder has
potential energy, but no kinetic
energy. At point B, all the potential
energyhasbeenconvertedtokinetic
energy. Once the kinetic energy is
known, it is easy to calculate the
velocityoftheskateboarder.
m=60kg,Dh=4.0m,g=10ms
-2
decreaseofpotentialenergyfromAtoB=increaseofkineticenergyfrom
AtoB
-(PE
B
-PE
A
)=KE
B
-KE
A
-(mgh
B
-mgh
A
)=
1
2
mv
B
2
-0
-mg(h
B
-h
A
)=
1
2
mv
2
Cancellingmfrombothsides:
-g(h
B
-h
A
)=
1
2
v
2
-10(0m-4.0m)=
1
2
v
2
v
2
=80m
2
s
-2
v=8.9ms
-1
.
TheskateboardersspeedatBis8.9ms
-1
.
(b) The formula F =
mv
r
2
can still be used for any point of the centripetal
motion. It must be remembered, however, that the force will be different
ateachpointasthevelocityisconstantlychanging.
m=60kg,r=4.0m,v=8.9ms
-1
F=
mv
r
2
=
60 8 9
4 0
1 2
kg ms
m
-
( . )
.
=1188N
The centripetal force acting on the skateboarder at point B is 1200 N
upwards.
(c) As the centripetal force is the net force on the skateboarder, it helps to
drawadiagram.(Seethegureatleft.)
F
net
= N(normalreactionforce)
+W(weight)(whenforcesarewrittenasvectors)
F
net
=N-W(whendirectionistakenintoaccountusingsign)
AsF
net
=F
centripetal
A
B
4.0 m
A
B
4.0 m
Solution: Solution:
weight = mg
normal reaction
force
Forces acting on the skateboarder
weight = mg
normal reaction
force
Forces acting on the skateboarder
N=F
centripetal
+mg
=1200N+60kg10ms
-2
=1800N
The normal reaction force acting on the skateboarder at point B is
1800Nupwards.Thisislargerthanthenormalreactionforceiftheskate-
boarder were stationary. This causes the skateboarder to experience a
sensationofheaviness.
(a) A car of mass 800 kg slows down to a speed of 4.0 m s
1
to travel over a speed
hump that forms the arc of a circle of radius 2.4 m. What normal reaction
force acts on the car at the top of the speed hump?
(b) At what minimum speed would a car of mass 1000 kg have to travel to momen-
tarily leave the road at the top of the speed hump described in part (a)? (To
leave the road the normal reaction would have to have decreased to zero.)
Modellingthemotion
ofsatellites
The force of gravity provides the centripetal
force that keeps the moons orbiting their
planets and the planets orbiting the Sun.
Althoughtheorbitsarenotperfectlycircular,
they can be modelled as uniform circular
motion. The net force on orbiting moons,
planetsandEarthsarticialsatellitescanbe
assumedtobecentripetalforce.
The force of gravity keeps the Moon orbiting
Earth.
The force of gravity, or weight, of an object near
the surface of the Earth can be calculated using the
formula:
W =mg
where
W=weightinnewtons
m=massoftheobjectinkilograms
g=gravitationaleldstrength,oraccelerationdueto
gravityinms
-2
orNkg
-1
.
On Earth, the gravitational eld strength is
usuallyapproximatedto9.8(or10)Nkg
-1
,although
it differs slightly depending on where you are. In
Melbourne,itis9.800Nkg
-1
,whileattheNorthPole
itis9.832Nkg
-1
.
Gravitationaleldstrengthisalsodifferentinother
partsoftheuniverse.OnthesurfaceoftheMoon,it
is1.6Nkg
-1
.
The gravitational eld strength on the Moon is one-sixth of
that on Earth.
Force of gravity
= F
net
Not to scale
The force of gravity applied to
Earth by the Moon is not shown.
It is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the force
shown here.
Force of gravity
= F
net
Not to scale
The force of gravity applied to
Earth by the Moon is not shown.
It is equal in magnitude and
opposite in direction to the force
shown here.
remember THiS remember THiS
Gravitationaleldstrength
Sir Isaac Newton knew that gravity was the force that held objects on Earths
surface and, of course, pulled them down if they were above the surface. He
also suggested that it was the force of gravity that held the planets in the
solar system in orbit around the Sun. Newton proposed that as the mass
(M)oftheobjectexertingtheforceofgravityincreased,themagnitudeofthe
gravitational eld strength(g)alsoincreased.Thatis:
gM.
In addition, there was an inverse squared relationship between g and the
distance(r)fromthecentreoftheobjectwithmassM.Thatis:
g
1
2
r
.
Newton put these two relationships together and introduced a constant of
proportionalityG,thegravitationalconstant.Thatis:
g=
GM
r
2
where
g=gravitationaleldstrength(Nkg
-1
)
G=gravitationalconstant(6.6710
-11
Nm
2
kg
-2
)
M=massoftheobjectexertingtheforceofgravity(kg)
r=distancefromthecentreofM(m).
(Note: the gravitational eld strength does not depend on the mass of the
objectinthegravitationaleld,sogisthesameforallobjects.)
Table 3.5 Thesolarsystem:someusefuldata
BODY MASS(kg)
RADIUSOFBODY
(m)
MEANRADIUSOF
ORBIT(m)
PERIODOF
REVOLUTION(s)
Sun 1.9810
30
6.9510
8
Notapplicable Notapplicable
Earth
Moon
5.9810
24
7.3510
22
6.3810
6
1.7410
6
1.5010
11
3.8410
8
3.1610
7
2.3610
6
Mercury 3.3010
23
2.4410
6
5.7910
10
7.6010
6
Venus 4.8710
24
6.0510
6
1.0810
11
1.9410
7
Mars 6.4210
23
3.4010
6
2.2810
11
5.9410
7
Jupiter 1.9010
26
7.1510
7
7.7810
11
3.7410
8
Saturn 5.6910
26
6.0010
7
1.4310
12
9.3010
8
Uranus 8.6610
25
2.6110
7
2.8710
12
2.6510
9
Neptune 1.0310
25
2.4310
7
4.5010
12
5.2010
9
Pluto* 110
22
110
6
5.9010
12
7.8210
9
* Plutoisnolongerclassiedasaplanet.
Gravitational eld strength(g)
istheforceofgravityonaunit
ofmass.
Gravitational eld strength(g)
istheforceofgravityonaunit
ofmass.
sample problem 3.10
Usetheinformationformassandbodyradiusprovidedintable3.5tocalcu-
late the gravitational eld strength on the surface of (a) Earth and (b) Mars.
(Notethattheinformationusedforallexamplesinthischaptercanbefound
intable3.5.)
(a) g=
GM
r
2
g
Earth
=
6 67 10 5 98 10
6 38 10
11 2 2 24
6
. .
( .

- -
Nm kg kg
mm)
2
=9.80Nkg
-1
(b) g=
GM
r
2
g
Mars
=
6 67 10 6 42 10
3 40 10
11 2 2 23
6
. .
( .

- -
Nm kg kg
mm)
2
=3.70Nkg
-1
(a) Use the data in table 3.5 to calculate the gravitational eld strength on the
surface of:
(i) the Moon
(ii) Jupiter.
(b) An astronaut in a spacesuit has a mass of 210 kg. What is the astronauts
weight on:
(i) Mars
(ii) the Moon?
NewtonsLawofUniversalGravitation
Once the gravitational eld in a particular region has been calculated, it is
possible to work out the magnitude of the force of gravity, or weight, acting
on any object in the region using W = mg. Usually, the formulae F = ma and
g=
GM
r
2
arecombinedtogiveF=
GMm
r
2
.(Remember,gisthegravitationaleld
strength, or acceleration due to gravity, so in this case the magnitude of the
accelerationisequaltog.)
So, the force due to gravity, or the weight of an object can be calculated
usingtheformula:
F=
GMm
r
2
where
F=magnitudeoftheforceofgravity(N)
G=gravitationalconstant(6.6710
-11
Nm
2
kg
-2
)
M=massoftherstobject(kg)
m=massofthesecondobject(kg)
r=distancefromthecentreofM(m).
Sometimes, this formula is written as F =
Gm m
r
1 2
2
, where m
1
and m
2
are the
massesofthetwoobjects.
Solution: Solution:
The gravitational eld strength
decreases as the distance from the
centre of Earth increases.
1
2
4
6
8
10
2 3 4
Distance above the
surface of the Earth (r10
7
m)
G
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
g

(
N

k
g
1
)
The gravitational eld strength
decreases as the distance from the
centre of Earth increases.
1
2
4
6
8
10
2 3 4
Distance above the
7
m)
G
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
g

(
N

k
g
1
)
We often hear about the chem-
istry between two people in love,
buthaveyoueverstoppedtocon-
sider that there really is a force of
attractionbetweenpeople?
Everyobjectthathasmassissur-
rounded by its own gravitational
eld,includingpeople.Thereason
we do not notice our own gravi-
tational eld is that it is so small
compared to that of Earths. The
forceofattractionbetweena50kg
person and a 70kg person in an
embrace (assume their centres
of mass are separated by a dis-
tance of 0.4 m) can be calculated
using Newtons Law of Universal
Gravitation. The force between
themisabout1.510
-6
Nsoits
no wonder you havent noticed it
beforenow!
Is it chemistry?
sample problem 3.11
Calculatetheforceduetogravityof:
(a) Earthona70kgpersonstandingontheequator
(b) a70kgpersonstandingontheequatoronEarth.
(a) m
Earth
=5.9810
24
kg,m
person
=70kg,radius
Earth
=6.3810
6
m,
G=6.6710
-11
Nm
2
kg
-2
F=
G
Earth person
m m
r
2
=
6 67 10 5 98 10 70
6 3
11 2 2 24
. .
( .

- -
Nm kg kg kg
88 10
6 2
m)
=686NtowardsthecentreofEarth
(b) Newtons Third Law of Motion states that for every action there is an
equalandoppositereaction.Inthissituation,ifEarthisexertingaforceof
686Ndownwardsontheperson,thenthepersonisexertinga686Nforce
upwards on Earth!The same result could be calculated with the formula
usedinpart(a).
Use the data in table 3.5 to calculate the force due to gravity of:
(a) Earth on the Moon
(b) the Moon on Earth.
Solution: Solution:
Motionoftheplanets
ThedevelopmentofNewtonsLawofUniversal
Gravitationwasoffundamentalimportanceto
the study of planetary motion. It became par-
ticularly useful when combined with the ideas
ofcircularmotion.
EarthandtheMoon
ItiscommonknowledgethattheMoontravels
aroundEarth.Whiledoingso,theMoontakesa
roughly circular path. Remembering the prin-
ciples of circular motion, this means that the
netforceontheMoonistowardsthecentreof
thecirclethatis,Earth.Infact,itistheforce
of gravity that Earth exerts on the Moon that
provides this centripetal force. This allows the
gravitational force and the centripetal force
formulaetobeequated:
F
g
=F
c
GMm
r
2
=
mv
r
2
v
2
=
GM
r
v=
GM
r
.
Bymanipulatingtheequations,themagnitudeoftheaverageinstantaneous
velocityoftheMooncanbecalculated:
v=
6 67 10 5 98 10
3 84 10
11 2 2 24
8
. .
.

- -
Nm kg kg
=1.0210
3
ms
-1
.
Ifthealternativeversionofthecentripetalforceformulaisused:
F
g
=F
c
GMm
r
2
=
m r
T
4
2
2
p
r
T
3
2
=
G
4
2
M
p
.
This relationship is particularly important, as the value of
GM
4
2
p
is constant
for every object revolving around a particular mass. For example,
r
T
3
2
is con-
stantforalltheplanetsinoursolarsystem,astheyrotateabouttheSun.Itis
adifferentconstantforallthemoonsrevolvingaroundJupiter.
SatellitesofEarth
The ratio
r
T
3
2
is also a constant for the various satellites orbiting Earth. The
Moon is Earths only natural satellite; however, ever since 4 October 1957,
whentherstarticialsatellite,SputnikI,waslaunched,thenumberofarti-
cialsatellitesorbitingEarthhasincreaseddramatically.
Artists impression of a binary star
system. A tiny blue-white star, seen
just above the rocky surface of
the planet orbits a giant red star.
Binary stars revolve around each
other because each star exerts a
gravitational force on the other.
Artists impression of a binary star
system. A tiny blue-white star, seen
just above the rocky surface of
the planet orbits a giant red star.
Binary stars revolve around each
other because each star exerts a
gravitational force on the other.
An artists impression of Jupiter and
some of its moons
An artists impression of Jupiter and
some of its moons
Articial satellites are used for communication and exploration. Some
transmittelephoneandtelevisionsignalsaroundtheworld,somephotograph
cloud patterns to help weather forecasters, some are tted with scientic
equipment that enables them to collect data about X-ray sources in outer
space,whereasothersspyonourneighbours!Themotionofanarticialsat-
ellite depends on what it is designed to do.Those satellites that are required
to rotate so that they stay constantly above one place on Earths surface are
calledgeostationarysatellitesandtheyaresaidtobeingeostationaryorbit.In
ordertostayinposition,ageostationarysatellitemusthavethesameperiod
astheplaceitisabove.Therefore,geostationarysatelliteshaveaperiodof24
hours.
Sputnik I was the rst articial satellite to orbit Earth.
sample problem 3.12
(a) WithoutusinginformationaboutanyoftheplanetsorPluto,calculatethe
valueof
r
T
3
2
foroursolarsystem.(MassoftheSun=1.9810
30
kg.)
(b) Use the answer to (a), and the periods of revolution, to calculate the dis-
tancesofEarthandPlutofromtheSun.
(a)
r
T
3
2
=
G
4
2
M
p
=
6 67 10 1 98 10
4
11 2 2 30
2
. .
- -
Nm kg kg
p
=3.3510
18
m
3
s
-2
(b) DistanceofEarthfromtheSun
T
Earth
=3.1610
7
s
r
T
3
2
=3.3510
18
m
3
s
-2
(from(a))
r
3
=3.3510
18
m
3
s
-2
T
2
=3.3510
18
m
3
s
-2
(3.16 10
7
s)
2
Asatelliteingeostationary
orbitisstationaryrelativetoa
pointdirectlybelowitonEarths
surface.Ageostationaryorbit
hasthesameperiodasthe
rotationofEarth.
Asatelliteingeostationary
orbitisstationaryrelativetoa
pointdirectlybelowitonEarths
surface.Ageostationaryorbit
hasthesameperiodasthe
rotationofEarth.
Solution: Solution:
r=1.5010
11
m
DistanceofPlutofromtheSun
T
Pluto
=7.8210
9
s
r
T
3
2
=3.3510
18
m
3
s
-2
(from(a))
r
3
=3.3510
18
m
3
s
-2
T
2
=3.3510
18
m
3
s
-2
(7.8210
9
s)
2
r=5.9010
12
m
(a) A Japanese geostationary satellite known as Himawari 6 takes satellite
images used in predicting Australias weather. Calculate:
(i) the radius of orbit of this satellite
(ii) the altitude of this satellite (the distance above Earths surface).
(b) The polar orbiting weather satellite TIROS-N and the International Space
Station (ISS) orbit Earth at altitudes of 850 km and 400 km respectively.
Calculate the ratio of the period of TIROS-Ns orbit to the period of the ISSs
orbit.
Launchingsatellites
Justasyouhavetodoworkagainstgravityeachtimeyouliftyourbooksfrom
the table, rockets must do work against gravity to place a satellite into orbit.
Rememberthatworkistheareaunderaforcedistancegraph,sotheamount
of work done against gravity when launching a satellite can be calculated in
thisway.
sample problem 3.13
The Sputnik I satellite had a mass of 83.6 kg. It orbited at a height of 690 km
withaperiodof98.6min.Thegraphbelowshowshowthegravitationaleld
strengthdependsondistancefromthecentreofEarth.
(a) How much work was done against gravity to launch the Sputnik I
satellite?
(b) What was the change in gravitational potential energy of the satellite
duringitslaunch?
6.38 r 10
6
7.98
9.81
7.07 r 10
6
Distance from centre
of the Earth (m)
G
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h
g
(
N

k
g
1
)
(a) Theworkdonebygravityistheareaunderthegravitationalforcedistance
graph for Earth.The gure above shows gravitational eld strength versus
distance for Earth. As F
gravity
= mg, this graph can be converted into the
requiredgraphbymultiplyingtheverticalaxisbythemassofSputnikI.
Atthesurface(6.3810
6
mfromthecentreofEarth):
F
gravity
=83.6kg9.81Nkg
-1
=820N.
Ataheightof690kmfromthesurface:
Distancefromcentre=6.38 10
6
m+6.9010
5
m
=7.0710
6
m
Atthisheight:
F
gravity
=83.6kg7.98Nkg
-1
=667N.
The resultant graph is below.The work done is the shaded area, which is
5.010
8
J.
6.38 s 10
6
667
820
7.07 s 10
6
Distance from centre
of the Earth (m)
F
o
r
c
e

o
f

g
r
a
v
i
t
y
o
n
S
p
u
t
n
i
k
(
N
)
)
(b) The work calculated in part (a) was used to increase the gravitational
potentialenergyofthesatellite,soDPE=5.010
8
J.
A 100 kg meteorite travels towards the surface of a planet in orbit around a distant
star. The graph below shows how the gravitational eld strength g changes with
the distance r from the centre of the moon.
r (m)
g

(
N

k
g
1
)
1.0 10
6
2.0 10
6
3.0 10
6
6.0
5.0
4.0
3.0
2.0
1.0
0
r (m)
(a) What is the weight of the meteorite when it is 1.0 10
6
m from the planets
centre?
(b) How much work is done by the planets gravity while the meteorite falls from
r = 3.0 10
6
m to r = 1.75 m?
(c) If the speed of the meteorite is 1800 m s
1
when r = 3.0 10
6
m, estimate its
speed at r = 1.75 m.
Solution: Solution:
Weightlessness
The ISS orbIIs LurIh uI un uIIIIude oI ubouI 400 km. WhIIe II seems IIke Ihe
crew IIves In u dIIIerenI worId, Ihey ure ucIuuIIy cIoser Io LurIh`s surIuce Ihun
Ihe dIsIunce beIween MeIbourne und MIIduru! AIIhough LurIh`s gruvIIuIIonuI
heId weukens us you move uwuy Irom Ihe cenIre, II Is noI much smuIIer uI
Ihe ISS Ihun uI Ihe surIuce. The IormuIu g =
GM
r
2
(see puge 70) gIves u gruvIIu-
IIonuI heId sIrengIh oI 8.7 N kg
1
uI un uIIIIude oI 400 km. So Ihe occupunIs oI
Ihe ISS do huve weIghI noI much Iess Ihun IheIr weIghI on LurIh`s surIuce.
The mugnIIude oI Ihe weIghI oI un occupunI oI muss m Is mg. So u 70 kg
crew member who hus u weIghI oI 700 N uI LurIh`s surIuce hus u weIghI oI
70 kg 8.7 N kg
1
, or 610 N, ubourd Ihe ISS. So why do Ihe occupunIs oI Ihe
ISS experIence weIghIIessness, even Ihough Ihey sIIII huve weIghI
BoIh Ihe crew und Ihe spuce sIuIIon IIseII ure movIng In u cIrcuIur orbII
uround LurIh. GruvIIy provIdes Ihe cenIrIpeIuI Iorce IhuI keeps Ihem In orbII.
WIIhouI IhIs Iorce Ihey wouId go ouIIng oII InIo spuce! Becuuse Ihe crew und
Ihe spuce sIuIIon ure orbIIIng wIIh Ihe sume veIocIIy und rudIus (us weII us In
Ihe sume gruvIIuIIonuI heId sIrengIh), Ihey experIence Ihe sume ucceIeruIIon.
They ure IuIIIng Iowurds LurIh uI Ihe sume ruIe. ThIs meuns IhuI Ihe oor oI
Ihe ISS exerIs no normuI reucIIon Iorce on Ihe crew. ConsequenIIy Ihey IeeI
weightless.
ThIs IeeIIng oI weIghIIessness IhuI occurs when Ihe normuI reucIIon Iorce Is
zero Is cuIIed apparent weightlessness. On LurIh you cun experIence IhIs very
brIey when you go over u bump In u cur und 'Iose your sIomuch` or on some
uIIrucIIons uI umusemenI purks such us Ihe Tower oI Terror uI DreumworId
on Ihe GoId CousI.
The Tower of Terror allows riders to experience apparent weightlessness for 6.5 s.
An ob|ecI Is descrIbed us
weightless II II Is In u regIon wIIh
u gruvIIuIIonuI heId sIrengIh oI
zero. Thus W = mg = 0.
An ob|ecI Is descrIbed us
weightless II II Is In u regIon wIIh
u gruvIIuIIonuI heId sIrengIh oI
zero. Thus W = mg = 0.
Apparent weightlessness
occurs when Ihere Is no normuI
reucIIon Iorce In u regIon where
Ihe gruvIIuIIonuI heId sIrengIh Is
noI zero.
Apparent weightlessness
occurs when Ihere Is no normuI
reucIIon Iorce In u regIon where
Ihe gruvIIuIIonuI heId sIrengIh Is
noI zero.
Chapter review
Summary
There are two forces acting on a projectile in ight:
gravity acting downwards and air resistance acting
in the opposite direction to that of the motion. In
modelling projectile motion, it is helpful to ignore
theairresistance.
To analyse the motion of a projectile, the equations
ofmotionwithconstantaccelerationcanbeapplied
to the horizontal and vertical components of the
motionseparately.
An object projected horizontally near Earths
surfacetravelsinaparabolicpathifairresistanceis
negligible.
The average speed and velocity of an object moving
in a circle is quite different from its instantaneous
speedandvelocity.Thespeedvofanobjectmoving
at constant speed in a circle of radius r is given by
theequationv=
2pr
whereTistheperiodofthecir-
cularmotion.
The acceleration of an object in uniform circular
motion is always directed towards the centre of the
circle.Itiscalledcentripetalacceleration.
The magnitude of the acceleration a of an object in
uniformcircularmotioncanbecalculatedusingthe
equations:
a=
v
r
2
or a=
4
2
2
p r
T
.
Thenetforceonanobjectinuniformcircularmotion
is always towards the centre of the circle. This net
forceiscalledthecentripetalforce.
Thegravitationaleldstrengthgatadistancerfrom
a body of mass M is given by the formula g =
GM
r
2

where G is the gravitational constant. The force of
gravityFonanobjectofmassmatadistancerfrom
the same body is therefore given by F =
GMm
r
2
. This
equationisreferred toasNewtons LawofUniversal
Gravitation.
For a given planetary or satellite system,
r
T
3
2
is con-
stant.Thevalueoftheconstantisequalto
GM
4
2
p
where
Misthemassofthecentralbody.
The kinetic energy transferred to or from a satellite
in orbit can be determined from the area under a
graphofthegravitationalforceonthesatelliteversus
theradiusoftheorbit.
An object experiences weightlessness in a region
in which the gravitational eld strength is zero.
Apparent weightlessness is experienced by an
object which experiences no normal reaction force
and occurs even though the objects weight is not
zero.
Questions
In answering the questions on the following pages,
assume,whererelevant,thatthemagnitudeofthegravi-
tational eld at Earths surface is 10 N kg
-1
. Additional
data required for questions relating to bodies in the
solarsystemcanbefoundintable3.5onpage70.
Projectilemotion
1. Aballhasbeenthrowndirectlyupwards.Drawthe
ballatthreepointsduringitsight(goingup,atthe
topandgoingdown)andmarkonthediagramsall
theforcesactingontheballateachtime.
2. Describetheeffectsofairresistanceonthemotion
ofabasketballfallingverticallyfromaheight.
3. Ignoring air resistance, the acceleration of a pro-
jectile in ight is always the same, whether it is
going up or down. Use graphs of motion to show
whythisisthecase.
4. In each of the cases shown below, calculate the
magnitude of the vertical and horizontal com-
ponentsofthevelocity.
50n
v = 20 m s
1
(a)
23n
v = 11 m s
1
(b)
v = 5 m s
1
(c)
(d)
v = 10 km h
1
v = 33 m s
1
(e)
60n
5. Explain why the horizontal component of velocity
remains the same when a projectiles motion is
modelled.
6. While many pieces of information relating to the
vertical and horizontal parts of a particular pro-
jectilesmotionaredifferent,thetimeisalwaysthe
same.Explainwhythisisso.
7. Acube-shapedparcelofourwithavolumeabout
the size of a refrigerator is dropped from a height
of 500 m from a helicopter travelling horizontally
ataspeedof20ms
1
.
(a) Describetheeffectsofairresistanceon:
(i) the horizontal component of the motion
oftheparcel
(ii) the vertical component of motion of the
parcel.
(b) Whichofthehorizontalorverticalcomponents
of the motion of the parcel is likely to experi-
encethegreaterairresistanceduring:
(i) therst2sofitsfall
(ii) thenal2sofitsfall?
Givereasonsforeachanswer.
8. A ball falls from the roof-top tennis court of an
inner city building. This tennis court is 150m
above the street below. (Assume the ball has no
initialvelocityandignoreairresistance.)
(a) Howlongwouldtheballtaketohitthestreet?
(b) What would the vertical velocity of the ball be
justpriortohittingtheground?
9. After taking a catch, Ricky Ponting throws the
cricketballupintotheairinjubilation.
(a) The vertical velocity of the ball as it leaves his
handsis18ms
-1
.Howlongwilltheballtaketo
returntoitsoriginalposition?
(b) What was the balls maximum vertical
displacement?
(c) Draw vectors to indicate the net force on the
ball(ignoringairresistance)
(i) theinstantitleftPontingshands
(ii) atthetopofitsight
(iii) asitreturnstoitsoriginalposition.
10. The metal shell of a wrecked car (mass 500 kg) is
dropped from a height of 10 m when the electro-
magnetholdingitisturnedoff.
(a) Whatwastheverticalcomponentofthevelocity
ofthecarjustbeforeithittheground?
(b) Howlongdidthecartaketofall?
(c) If the electromagnet was moving horizontally
ataconstantspeedof0.5ms
-1
asitwasturned
off,howfar(horizontally)didthecarlandfrom
thepointatwhichitwasdropped?
(d) What was the velocity of the car just before
it hit the ground? Include a direction in your
answer.
(e) What was the magnitude and direction of the
netforceactingonthecar:
(i) while it was attached to the moving
electromagnet
(ii) whileitwasfalling?
11. A car is travelling along the freeway at a speed of
100 km h
-1
. Seeing an accident ahead, the driver
slamsonthebrakes.Atissueboxiesforwardfrom
thebackshelf.
(a) Explain, in terms of Newtons laws, why the
tissue box continued to move when the car
stopped.
(b) Whatwasthevelocityofthetissueboxasitleft
theshelf?
(c) The tissue box ew through the interior of the
car and hit the windscreen, a horizontal dis-
tance of 2.5 m from the back shelf.What ver-
tical distance had the tissue box fallen in this
time? State any assumptions that you have
madeinmodellingthemotionofthebox.
(d) Why is it important to secure all items when
travellinginacar?
12. A friend wants to get into the Guinness Book of
Records by jumping over 11 people on his push
bike. He has set up two ramps, as shown below
and has allowed a space of 0.5 m for each person
to lay down in. In practice attempts, he has aver-
aged a speed of 7.0 m s
-1
at the end of the ramp.
Willyoulaydownastheeleventhpersonbetween
theramps?
45n
v
you
13. You have entered the javelin event in your school
athletics competition. Not being a naturally tal-
ented thrower, you decide to use your brain to
maximise your performance. Using your under-
standing of the principles of projectile motion,
decide on the best angle to release your javelin.
Backupyouranswerwithcalculations.
14. Askateboarderjumpsahorizontaldistanceof2m,
taking off at a speed of 5 m s
-1
. The jump takes
0.42stocomplete.
(a) What was the skateboarders initial horizontal
velocity?
(b) Whatwastheangleoftake-off?
(c) What was the maximum height above the
groundreachedduringthejump?
15. During practice, a young soccer player shoots for
goal. The short goalkeeper is able to stop the ball
onlyifitismorethan30cmbeneaththecross-bar.
Theballiskickedatanangleof45andaspeedof
9.8ms
-1
.Thearrangementoftheplayersisshown
below.
v
=

9
.
8

m

s
1
45n
0.30 m
2.0 m
7.0 m
(a) Howlongdoesittaketheballtoreachthetop
ofitsight?
(b) Howfarverticallyandhorizontallyhastheball
travelledatthistime?
(c) How long does it take the ball to reach the
soccernetfromthetopofitsight?
(d) Will the ball go into the soccer net, over it, or
willthegoalkeeperstopit?
16. Amotocrossriderridesoverthejumpshownbelow
ataspeedof50kmh
-1
.
(a) Howlongdoesittakethebiketoreachthetop
ofitsight?
(b) Howfarverticallyandhorizontallyhasthebike
travelledatthistime?
(c) How long does it take the bike to reach the
groundfromthetopofitsight?
(d) Whatisthetotalrangeofthejump?
v = 50 km h
1
35n
0.8 m
17. A waterskier at the Moomba Masters competi-
tion in Melbourne leaves a ramp at a speed of
50kmh
-1
and at an angle of 30. The edge of the
rampis1.7mabovethewater.Calculate:
(a) therangeofthejump
(b) the velocity at which the jumper hits the
water.
(Hint: split the waterskiers motion into two sec-
tions,beforethehighestpointandafterthehighest
point,toavoidsolvingaquadraticequation.)
18. A gymnast wants to jump a distance of 2.5m,
leaving the ground at an angle of 28. With what
speedmustthegymnasttakeoff?
19. A horse rider wants to jump a 3.0 m wide stream.
The horse can approach the stream with a speed
of 7 m s
-1
. At what angle must the horse take off?
(Hint:youwillneedtousetrigonometricidentities
from mathematics, or model the situation using a
spreadsheettosolvethisproblem.)
Uniformcircularmotion
20. A jogger, of mass 65kg, runs around a circular
track of radius 120m with an average speed of
6.0kmh
-1
.
(a) What is the centripetal acceleration of the
jogger?
(b) What is the centripetal force acting on the
jogger?
21. At the school fete, Lucy and Natasha have a ride
onthemerry-go-round.Themerry-go-roundcom-
pletesoneturnevery35s.Natashashorseis2.5m
from the centre of the ride, while Lucys horse is
a further 70cm out. Which girl would experience
thegreatestcentripetalacceleration?Supportyour
answerwithcalculations.
22. At a childrens amusement park, the miniature
train ride completes a circuit of radius 350m,
maintainingaconstantspeedof15kmh
-1
.
train?
(b) What is the centripetal force acting on a 35 kg
childridingonthetrain?
(c) What is the centripetal force acting on the
1500kgtrain?
(d) Explain why the centripetal forces acting on
thechildandthetrainaredifferentandyetthe
trainandthechildaremovingalongthesame
path.
23. Thetoycarinaslotcarsetrunsonacirculartrack.
Thetrackhasaradiusof65cm,andthe0.12kgcar
completesonecircuitin5.2s.
(a) Whatisthecentripetalaccelerationofthecar?
(b) Whatisthecentripetalforceactingonthecar?
(c) Drawalabelleddiagramshowingalltheforces
actingonthecar.Alsoincludethedirectionand
magnitudeofthenetforceonyourdiagram.
24. When a mass moves in a circle, it is subject to a
centripetal force. This force acts at right angles to
thedirectionofmotionofthemassatanypointin
time. Use Newtons laws to explain why the mass
doesnotneedapropellingforcetoactinthedirec-
tionofitsmotion.
25. Explainwhymotorcyclistsleanintobends.
26. A rubber stopper of mass 50.0g is whirled in a
horizontal circle on the end of a 1.50m length of
string.Thetimetakenfortencompleterevolutions
of the stopper is 8.00 s.The string makes an angle
of6.03withthehorizontal.Calculate:
(a) thespeedofthestopper
(b) thecentripetalaccelerationofthestopper
(c) thecentripetalforceactingonthestopper
(d) thenetforceactingonthestopper
(e) themagnitudeofthetensioninthestring.
27. Aballistiedtotheendofastringandwhirledina
horizontal circle of radius 2.0 m.The string makes
anangleof10withthehorizontal.Thetensionin
thestringis12N.
(a) Calculate the magnitude of the centripetal
forceactingontheball.
(b) If the mass of the ball is 200g, what is its
speed?
(c) Whatistheperiodofrevolutionoftheball?
28. Carlisridingaroundacorneronhisbikeatacon-
stantspeedof15kmh
-1
.Thecornerapproximates
partofacircleofradius4.5m.Thecombinedmass
ofCarlandhisbikeis90kg.Carlkeepsthebikein
averticalplane.
(a) WhatisthecentripetalforceactingonCarland
hisbike?
(b) What is the sideways frictional force acting on
thetyresofthebike?
(c) Carl rides onto a patch of oil on the road;
the sideways frictional forces are now 90% of
theiroriginalsize.IfCarlmaintainsaconstant
speed, what will happen to the radius of the
circular path he is taking?
29. A cyclist rounds a bend. The surface of the road is
horizontal. The cyclist is forced to lean at an angle
of 20 to the vertical to only just take the bend
successfully. The total sideways frictional force on
the tyres is 360 N. The cycle has a mass of 20 kg.
What is the mass of the cyclist?
30. A road is to be banked so that any vehicle can take
the bend at a speed of 30 m s
-1
without having to
rely on sideways friction. The radius of curvature
of the road is 12 m. At what angle should it be
banked?
31. A car of mass 800 kg travels over the crest of a hill
that forms the arc of a circle, as shown in the gure
below.
(a) Draw a labelled diagram showing all the forces
acting on the car.
(b) The car travels just fast enough for the car to
leave the ground momentarily at the crest of
the hill. This means the normal reaction force
is zero at this point.
(i) What is the centripetal force acting on the
car at this point?
(ii) What is the speed of the car at this point?
v
r = 4.0 m
32. A gymnast, of mass 65 kg, who is swinging on the
rings follows the path shown in gure 12.21.
(a) What is the speed of the gymnast at point B, if
he is at rest at point A?
(b) What is the centripetal force acting on the
gymnast at point B?
(c) Draw a labelled diagram of the forces acting on
the gymnast at point B. Include the magnitude
of all forces.
B
A
4.0 m
$h = 1.0 m
Modelling the motion of satellites
33. A gravitational eld strength detector is released
into the atmosphere and reports back a reading of
9.70 N kg
-1
.
(a) If the detector has a mass of 10 kg, what is the
force of gravity acting on it?
(b) If the detector is to remain stationary at this
height, what upwards force must be exerted on
the detector?
(c) How far is the detector from the centre of
Earth?
34. Use the information provided in table 3.5 on
page 70 to calculate (i) the gravitational eld
strength and (ii) the weight of a 70 kg person at the
surface of the following bodies of the solar system:
(a) Earth
(b) Mars
(c) Venus
(d) Pluto.
35. A space probe orbits a distance of 5.0 10
5
m from
the centre of an undiscovered planet. It experi-
ences a gravitational eld strength of 4.3 N kg
-1
.
What is the mass of the planet?
36. Calculate the force of attraction between Earth and
the Sun.
37. A space station orbits at a height of 355 km above
Earth and completes one orbit every 92 min.
space station?
(b) What gravitational eld strength does the
space station experience?
(c) Your answers to (a) and (b) above should be
the same. (i) Explain why. (ii) Explain any dis-
crepancy in your answers.
(d) If the mass of the space station is 1200 tonnes,
what is its weight?
(e) The mass of an astronaut and the special space-
suit he wears when outside the space station
is 270 kg. If he is a distance of 10 m from the
centre of mass of the space station, what is the
force of attraction between the astronaut and
the space station?
38. What is the centripetal acceleration of a person
standing on Earths equator due to Earths rotation
about its axis? (Radius of Earth is 6.38 10
6
m.)
Would the centripetal acceleration be greater or
less for a person standing in Victoria? Justify your
answer.
39. In the future, it is predicted that space stations
may rotate to simulate the gravitational eld of
Earth and therefore make life more normal for the
occupants. Draw a diagram of such a space station.
Include on your diagram:
the axis of rotation
the distance of the occupants from the axis

arrowsindicatingwhichdirectiontheoccupants
wouldconsiderasdown.
(Remember to consider the frame of reference of
the occupants!) Make an estimate of the period of
rotationyourspacestationwouldneedtosimulate
Earthsgravitationaleld.
Motionoftheplanets
40. Whatforceholdsthesolarsystemtogether?Explain
how this results in the planets moving in roughly
circularorbits.
41. Venus and Saturn both orbit the Sun. Using only
information about the Sun and the periods of the
twoplanets,calculatethevalueoftheratio:
distanceofSaturnfromtheSun
distanceofVenusfromtheSun
.
42. A spacecraft leaves Earth to travel to the Moon.
How far from the centre of the Earth is the space-
craftwhenitexperiencesanetforceofzero?
SatellitesofEarth
43. A geostationary satellite remains above the same
position on Earths surface. Once in orbit, the
only force acting on the satellite is that of gravity
towardsthecentreofEarth.Whydoesntthesatel-
litefallstraightbackdowntoEarth?
44. A new geostationary satellite is to be launched. At
what height above the centre of Earth must the
satelliteorbit?
45. Can a geostationary satellite remain above Mel-
bourne.Whyorwhynot?
46. Explain why the area under a gravitational force
distance graph gives the energy needed to launch
a satellite, but the area under a gravitational eld
strengthdistance graph gives the energy per kilo
gramneededtolaunchasatellite.
47. Aspaceshuttle,orbitingEarthonceevery93mins
at a height of 400 km above the surface, deploys a
new800kgsatellitethatistoorbitafurther200km
awayfromEarth.
(a) Use the following graph to estimate the
work needed to deploy the satellite from the
shuttle.
(b) Use the mass and radius of Earth to assist
you in determining the period of the new
satellite.
(c) Show how the period of the new satellite can
bedeterminedwithoutknowledgeofthemass
ofEarth.
(d) If the new satellite was redesigned so that its
mass was halved, how would your answers to
(a)and(b)change?
2
2
4
6
8
10
4 6 8 10
Distance above the
5
m)
G
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

g
(
N

k
g
1
)
48. A disabled satellite of mass 2400kg is in orbit
around Earth at a height of 2000km above sea
level. It falls to a height of 800 km before its built-
in rocket system can be activated to stop the fall
continuing.
Distance from the Earths centre (r 10
6
m)
G
r
a
v
i
t
a
t
i
o
n
a
l

f
i
e
l
d

s
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

g

(
N

k
g

1
)
7.0 6.0
0
5
10
8.0 9.0
(a) Calculate the gravitational force on the satel-
litewhileitisinitsinitialorbit.
(b) Calculate the loss of gravitational potential
energyofthesatelliteduringitsfall.
(c) If the speed of the satellite during its initial
orbit is 6900 m s
-1
, what is its speed when the
rocketsystemisactivated?
49. Whatisthedifferencebetweenweightlessnessand
apparentweightlessness?
50. In a space shuttle that is in orbit around Earth at
analtitudeof360km,whatisthemagnitudeof:
(a) thegravitationaleldstrength
(b) theweightofa70kgastronaut
(c) theapparentweightofa70kgastronaut?

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CHAPTER

UNIT 3 AREA OF STUDY 1 Motion in one and two dimensions 82

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