3.

Scanning Electron Microscopy

Dr Acha Hessler-Wyser
Bat. MXC 134, Station 12, EPFL+41.21.693.48.30.

Centre Interdisciplinaire de Microscopie Electronique CIME

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

Acha Hessler-Wyser

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Outline
a. b. c. d. e. f. g. h. i. j. SEM principle Detectors Electron probe and resolution Depth of field Stereoscopy Electron-matter interaction volume Secondary and back-scattered electrons Contrasts Examples Charging effects
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Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

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Outline
This chapter will describe the principle of a scanning electron microscope (SEM). We will start with a description of the detectors allowing signal detection, the formation of an electron probe and its influence on the spatial resolution. Then we will will define the depth of field and see how to control it, how to do stereoscopy. In order to understand the image formation and the contrasts observed on a picture, there will be considerations about the electron-matter interaction volume, and then an explanation of the origin of the secondary and back-scattered electrons (SE and BSE). This will allow us to analyse the different possible contrasts of a SEM picture, including artefacts. We will end with application examples.

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

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a. SEM principle
Image formed step by step by the sequential scanning of the sample with the electron probe Image acquisition as numerical data Bulk sample Imaging the sample !surface! (from 1 nm to "1 #m depth depending on the analysed signal Contrast is due to secondary electrons (SE) emission or back scattered elctrons (or sometimes to photons, RX, absorbed current) Resolution: 1 nm to 10 nm

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

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a. SEM principle
Response to incident electrons:
! Secondary electrons SE topography, low energy "0-30 eV ! Backscattered electrons BSE atomic number Z, energy " eV0 ! Auger Electrons : not detected in conventional SEM, surface analysis ! Cathodoluminescence: photons UV, IR, vis ! Absorbed current, electron-holes pairs creation, EBIC ! plasmons ! Sample heating (phonons) ! Radiation damages: chemical bounding break, atomic displacement out of site (knock-on)

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

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a. SEM principle
Energy spectrum of electrons leaving the sample
Secondary electrons SE Back scatered electrons BSE

Auger (secondary)electrons

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b. Detectors
a detector (eye, photographic plate, video camera... a magnification section (lenses, apertures...)

A "light" source

a sample (+ a "goniometer")

an illumination section (lenses, apertures...)

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b. Detectors
Everhardt-Thornley detector: for SE and BSE

SE: BSE:

the positive collector voltage (" +200 +400V) attracts the SE toward the detector, the 10kV post acceleration give them enough energy to create a bunch of photons for each SE. a negative collector polarisation ("-100V) repels the SE and the only BSE emitted in the narrow cone to the scintillator are detected (low collection efficiency = poor S/ N ratio).

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b. Detectors
BSE detectors

BSE Robinson detector: a large scintillator collects the BSE and guides more or less efficiently the light to a photomultiplicator !large collection angle !works at TV frequency

BSE semiconductor detector: a silicon diode with a p-n junction close to its surface collects the BSE (3.8eV/e--hole pair) !large collection angle !slow (poor at TV frequency) !some diodes are split in 2 or 4 quadrants to bring spatial BSE distribution info

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

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c. Electron probe and resolution

a detector (eye, photographic plate, video camera... a magnification section (lenses, apertures...)

A "light" source

a sample (+ a "goniometer")

an illumination section (lenses, apertures...)

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c. Electron probe and resolution

Incoherent source

Resolution in probe mode (SEM,SEM classique LaB STEM)

!

courte focale

Spherical aberration

microscope photonique

d sph = Cs " ! 3

100

100pA 10pA

" !E !I % dch = Cch $ + 2 '( # E I&

!

diamtre (nm) diamtre (nm)

Chromatic aberration Diffraction (Airy, Rayleigh) Brilliance ! conservation

1pA 10 dd

! d d = 0.61 n"sin #
!

dg =
!

Combinaison 2 2 2 2 dech = dg + dsph + dch + dd

1 # ! 2" $

4I

dc h dsph 0.01

0.001

Ouverture (mrad)

Probe with coherent source: see Mory C, Cowley J M, Ultramicroscopy 21 1987 171
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Vacc=20 kV, !E=1.5 eV, "=1.105 eV A/cm2sr Csph=17 mm, Cc h=9 mm

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c. Electron probe and resolution

Resolving power ("resolution"): Rayleigh criterium

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c. Electron probe and resolution

SEM: Limiting parameters on resolving power " with SE
1. High magnification The probe size (generation of SE1) r#dprobe 2. The volume of interaction (generation of SE2+SE3 from BSE): energy and atomic number influence

3. Low magnification The screen (or recording media) pixel size dscreen r#dscreen/magnification

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c. Electron probe and resolution

How to increase resolving power?
Reduce the probe current at constant dose Reduce probe size Reduce volume interaction Reduce Csph Increase brillance Increase exposure time t Decrease spot size Increase accelerating voltage Reduce accelerating voltage Short focus lenses: in-lens, semi in-lens, Snorkel Field emission gun: Cold emission, thermal assisted, Schottky effect Dedicated columns: Gemini, XL30,
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Reduce Csph and increase brillance

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c. Electron probe and resolution

SEM: Effet of current, probe diameter and image acquisition time

500nm

10 pA/10 s
good resolution, but statistical noise

10 pA/160 s
Good resolution, less statistical noise

100 pA/160 s
smal loss of resolution, still less statistical noise

1 nA/160 s
very few statistical noise, but high resolution loss!

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c. Electron probe and resolution

probe size and resolution (no noise)

particles 25 nm diam., probe dia 2 nm model 100 nm diam. particles particles 100 nm diam., probe dia 2 nm
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particles 50 nm diam., probe dia 2 nm

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c. Electron probe and resolution

Probe size and resolution (with noise) (with noise)

model 100 nm diam. particles Particles100 nm diam., probe diam 2 nm

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particles 25 nm diam., probe diam 2 nm particles 50 nm diam., probe diam 2 nm

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c. Electron probe and resolution

Current/probe diameter
Thermionique source: spherical aberration is the most important
I max = 3! 2 #2 3 "C sph d 8 3 16

Field emission source: gun aberrations and chromatic aberration are more important
I max = cd 2 3
Tir de L.Reimer, SEM Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM 18
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c. Electron probe and resolution

How to increase resolving power?
Reduce the probe current at constant dose Reduce probe size Increase exposure time t Decrease spot size Increase accelerating voltage Reduce accelerating voltage Short focus lenses: in-lens, semi in-lens, Snorkel Field emission gun: Cold emission, thermal assisted, Schottky effect Dedicated columns: Gemini, XL30,
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Reduce volume interaction Reduce Csph Increase brillance

Reduce Csph and increase brillance

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c. Electron probe and resolution

Thermionic SEM : low voltage?
microscope photonique 100pA 10pA 1pA 10 dd dc h

microscope photonique 10pA 1pA 100pA

100
diamtre (nm)

microscope photonique 10pA 1pA dc h 10 dd 100pA

100
diamtre (nm)

100
diamtre (nm)

10

dd dch dsph 5 kV

dsph

20 KV

1 0.001

1 0.001

dsph

1 kV

0.001

0.01 Ouverture (mrad)

0.01 Ouverture (mrad)

0.01 Ouverture (mrad)

Modern SEM short focus length: Csph=17 mm, Cch=9 mm, $E=1.5 eV, !=1.105 A/cm2sr
Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM 20
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c. Electron probe and resolution

How to increase resolving power?
Reduce the probe current at constant dose Reduce probe size Increase exposure time t Decrease spot size Increase accelerating voltage Reduce accelerating voltage Short focus lenses: in-lens, semi in-lens, Snorkel Field emission gun: Cold emission, thermal assisted, Schottky effect Dedicated columns: Gemini, XL30,
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Reduce volume interaction Reduce Csph Increase brillance

Reduce Csph and increase brillance

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SEM: rsolution
Interaction volume versus E0
1 Penetration depth in Cu as a function of incident energy E0 and proportion of BSE (Monte-Carlo simulation)
Cu 5keV

Cu 20keV

Z = cte

1
Cu 1keV

Cu 1keV

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c. Electron probe and resolution

How to increase resolving power?
Reduce the probe current at constant dose Reduce probe size Increase exposure time t Decrease spot size Increase accelerating voltage Reduce accelerating voltage Short focus lenses: in-lens, semi in-lens, Snorkel Field emission gun: Cold emission, thermal assisted, Schottky effect Dedicated columns: Gemini, XL30,
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Acha Hessler-Wyser

Reduce volume interaction Reduce Csph Increase brillance

Reduce Csph and increase brillance

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

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c. Electron probe and resolution

Short focus length
microscope photonique 100pA 10pA 1pA 20 kV
diamtre (nm)

or
100pA

FEG?
microscope photonique 100
diamtre (nm)

microscope photonique

100
diamtre (nm)

100

10pA 1pA 10 dd dc h

20 kV 100pA 10 10pA dc h 1pA dd dsph 1 0.001 0.01 Ouverture (mrad)

10 dd

1 0.001

dch

dsph

dsph

20 KV

0.01 Ouverture (mrad)

0.001

0.01 Ouverture (mrad)

Snorkel Csph=1.7 mm, Cch=1.9 mm

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

Regular focus length Csph=17 mm, Cch=9 mm !=1.105A/cm2sr, $E=1.5 eV

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FEG Csph=17 mm, Cch=9 mm !=1.107A/cm2sr, $E=0.4 eV

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!=1.105A/cm2sr, $E=1.5 eV

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c. Electron probe and resolution

Resolution loss at low voltage
100
Rsolution (nm)
Basse tension/haute rsolution: - observation de la surface relle - chantillons non-mtalliss - faible endommagement d au faisceau

50

FE 10 5
1985

W LaB 6

Haute tension/haute rsolution: - effets de bord - dtails fins non-rsolus - fort endommagement d au faisceau

Shorter objective lens focal length and Cs

2000

0.5

10

20 30

Tension d'acclration (kV)

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Short questions
1. What is a condensor lens for?
a) b) a) b) c) d) e) f) a) b) c) d) a) b) To create the image of the sample To reduce the size of the electron source The size of the probe The electron current The electron energy The aquisition device The wave length The lens aberration By reducing the electron energy By reducing the apperture size By increasing the Working Distance By removing the spherical aberration By reducing the electron current By reducing the electron energy
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2. Which parameters influence the resolution in SEM?

3. How to reduce the probe size?

4. How to reduce the interaction volume?

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d. Depth of field
Depth of field as a function of dprobe
The depth of field is the depth for which the image is focussed The depth of field increases when % decreases. Increase the working distance Reduce objective aperture size

2%& 2dA h dA

h prof .champ

" 2d 1 $ sonde = max # pixel ! "image " 1 $2 % G !

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d. Depth of field
Effect of working distance (WD) and aperture on depth of field

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d. Depth of field
Light bulb filament
Rsolution "
10m 10mm 1m
1m 0. d ra

100nm

10nm

1nm

1mm
1m

Profondeur de champ h

d ra

100m
10 m d ra

10m LM !=500 nm

SEM

1m

0.1m 10

102

103

104

105

Grandissement (grossissement) G
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d. Depth of field
Other examples

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d. Depth of field
Effect of the objective aperture diameter
100 !m 50 !m 30 !m

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d. Depth of field
Measuring depth of field: stereoscopy

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e. Stereoscopy
The 3rd dimension: stereoscopic vision, anaglyphs

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Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

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e. Stereoscopy
3-D reconstruction (anaglyph)

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e. Stereoscopy
3-D reconstruction
(pseudo-perspective)

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e. Stereoscopy
3-D reconstruction (grey levels)

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e. Stereoscopy
3-D reconstruction (false colors)

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e. Stereoscopy

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e. Stereoscopy

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f. Electron-matter interaction volume

Elastic interaction
Total kinetic energy and momentum are constant Eel + Eat = cte The light electron interacts with the electrical field in the heavy atom: Rutherford scattering. Only little energy is transferred, the electron speed does not change significantly in amplitude but only in direction (elastic scattering).
100 kV 1000 kV

Elastic interaction: Energy transfer from the electron to the target

angle de diffusion 0.5 10 90 180

C 0.5 meV 0.15 eV 10 eV 20 eV

Au 0.03 meV 9 meV 0.6 eV 1.2 eV

C 9 meV 2.7 eV 179 eV 359 eV

Au 0.5 meV 0.17 eV 11 eV 22 eV

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f. Electron-matter interaction volume

Inelastic interaction
part of the total kinetic energy is dissipated (energy loss) !vibration in molecules or crystals (phonons "meV-100meV) ! collective oscillations of electrons (plasmons "10 eV) ! intra- et interband transitions ("mev-"1 eV) ! inner shell atom ionisation ("50 to150 keV < eV0) ! bond breaking " eV, atom displacement " 10-30 eV (requires Vacc 100kV...1MV, no longer SEM!)

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f. Electron-matter interaction volume

Mean free path
Elastic cross-sections 'el and mean free path (el, total (elastic+inelastic) mean free path (t and electron range R The mean free path is the average path that an electron does before having interaction with an atom

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f. Electron-matter interaction volume

Monte-Carlo simulations
Electron Flight Simulator ($$$ Small World / D. Joy) old DOS !!!! http://www.small-world.net Single Scattering Monte Carlo Simulation (Freeware) "Monte Carlo Simulation" Mc_w95.zip by Kimio KANDA http://www.nsknet.or.jp/~kana/soft/sfmenu.html CASINO (Freeware) " monte CArlo SImulation of electroN trajectory in sOlids " by P. Hovongton and D. Drouin http://www.gel.usherbrooke.ca/casino/What.html
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f. Electron-matter interaction volume

Number/Energy of backscattered electrons by Monte-Carlo simulations
W
BSE 41% BSE 43% BSE 52%

1 kV C
BSE 10%

3 kV

30 kV

BSE 8%

BSE 5%

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f. Electron-matter interaction volume

Penetration and backscattering vs elements (Z)
Vacc = 20kV = cte Depth of electron penetration vs Z and yield of electron backscattering BSE (MonteCarlo simulation):
1&
BSE=6%

C 20 keV

BSE=50%

BSE=33%

1&

U 20 keV

1&

Cu 20 keV

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f. Electron-matter interaction volume

Penetration and backscattering vs elements (Z)
Vacc = 1 kV = cte Depth of electron penetration vs Z and yield of electron backscattering BSE (MonteCarlo simulation): C 1keV

10 nm

BSE=14%

BSE=34%

10 nm

10 nm U 1keV

BSE=44%

Cu 1keV

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f. Electron-matter interaction volume

Penetration and backscattering vs elements (Z)
Vacc = 5 kV = cte Depth of electron penetration vs Z and yield of electron backscattering BSE (MonteCarlo simulation): C 5 keV
200 nm

BSE=8%

BSE=33%

200nm

200 nm

BSE=47%

Cu 5 keV

U 5 keV

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f. Electron-matter interaction volume

Penetration and backscattering vs energy(E)
Z = cte Depth of electron penetration in Cu vs energy E0 and yield of electron backscattering BSE (Monte-Carlo simulation):
1#m

Cu 20 keV

1#m

1#m

Cu 5 keV

Cu 1 keV

Cu 1keV

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g. SE and BSE
"true" secondary electrons SE1 and "converted BSE" secondaries SE2+SE3
Various SE types from SE1: incident probe SE2: BSE leaving the sample SE3: BSE hitting the surroundings
although this signal is gathered around the probe, its intensity is only attributed to the pixel corresponding to the actual probe position

x0,y0

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g. SE and BSE
"true" secondary electrons SE1 and "converted BSE" secondaries SE2+SE3
The SE signal always contain a high resolution part (SE1 from the probe) and an average (low resolution) part from SE2+SE3!

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g. SE and BSE
Relative contribution of SE1 and SE2 (+SE3) vs primary energy
total total total
SE2 SE1

The total intensity (green and brown) is attributed to the (x,y) pixel, here at 0 nm on this 1-D model
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(adapted from D.C. Joy Hitachi News 16 1989)

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g. SE and BSE
Yield for SE and BSE emission per incident electron vs atomic number Z
sample surface polished (no topography) and perpendicular to the incident beam direction (intermediate energy E0 # 15 keV)

):

BSE: chemical contrast for all the elements (sensitivity #DZ=0.5) A fast way to phase mapping

IBSE=Ipe$)
yield

with Ipe the intensity of the primary beam, ) the BSE

*:&
0.28

SE: low or no chemical contrast but for light elements the topographical contrast will dominate on rough surfaces

ISE
0.11

(SE1)

=Ipe$* +ISE3 =Ipe(*pe+*pe$)+*sur$))

SE1 SE2 SE3

Al

Ni

with * the total SE yield, *pe the yield for SE1 and *sur the SE3 yield for materials surrounding the sample (pole-pieces...)
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g. SE and BSE
Dust on WC (different Z materials)
flat material rough material low Z material low Z material

thin

low Z material

SE 25 kVBSE
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g. SE and BSE
Contaminated area around a soldering spot

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g. SE and BSE
Toner particle (penetration in light material)

SE 28 kVBSE
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g. SE and BSE
Topographical contrast in SE mode
Effet de l'inclinaison de la surface
penetration depth ("range") >>SE escape length

I0 +

I(+)

I (" ) = I0# (" ) $

I (0) cos"

#1-10nm

Relative yield of SE vs angle of incidence on the sample ! surface

(adapted from D.C. Joy Hitachi News 16 1989)

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h. Contrast
SE and BSE topography contrast
For one position (x,y) of the electron probe: BSE escape from a "pear" volume around the probe position SE1 escape from a thin layer under the entrance surface of the probe SE2 escape from a thin layer under the escape surface of BSE

IBSE 31% Ni incidence normale +=0 Ni

IBSE 37% incidence +=40

contrast = 2(I1-I2)/(I1+I2)

ISE(0)=IPE!*=IPE!10% IBSE(0)=IPE!)=IPE!31%

ISE(40) = IPE!*!1/cos40=IPE!13% IBSE(40)=IPE!37%

SE1 contrast = 26% BSE contrast = 18%

ISE2+3 = IBSE!*= IPE!)!* & ISE2+3(0) = IPE!37%!10%= IPE!3.1% out of 10% ISE2+3(40) = IPE!37%!10%=IPE!3.7% out of 13%
Acha Hessler-Wyser Intensive SEM/TEM contrast is not 58 BSE topographical training: SEM negligible! Chemical contrast is well observed only on polished samples

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h. Contrast
Topographical contrast at low energy
Effect of the incidence angle

(adapted from D.C. Joy Hitachi News 16 1989) Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM 59
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h. Contrast
Size and edge effects
Do not forget, in SEM: The signal is displayed at the probe position, not at the actual SE production position!!!

intensity profile on image

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h. Contrast
Size and edge effects

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h. Contrast
Size and edge effects

(From L. Reimer, Image Formation in Low-Voltage Scanning Electron Microscopy, (1993))

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h. Contrast
Comparison of SE and BSE contrast modes
SE BSE

ET detector +200V

(0V)
backscattered and transmitted e- create SE, some of them are driven to the ET detector by the electric field BSE are absorbed The trajectories of BSE are not The observator looks down to the column and the strongly affected by the "light" seems to come from the Everhardt-Thornley electrical field, most BSE miss the detector. detector
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h. Contrast

What does it suggest? Which objective information?

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h. Contrast

What does it suggest? Which objective information?

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h. Contrast

What does it suggest? Which objective information?

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h. Contrast
Detector ? Detector ?

pyramid?
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etch-pit?
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h. Contrast
Change in SE contrast with the voltage

(from L.Reimer, Image formation in the low-voltage SEM)

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h. Contrast
Contraste enhancement at low voltage: less delocalization by SE2. An example: a fracture in Ni-Cr alloy

SE, 5 kV

SE, 30 kV

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h. Contrast
SEM: Effect of the accelerating voltage on (from D.C. Joy penetration and SE signal Hitachi News 16 1989)

20 kV: strong penetration, SE3 is a much larger signal than SE1/SE2. It reveals the copper grid under the C film via the electron backscattering, but the structure of the film itself is hidden
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2 kV: low penetration, only a few electrons reach the copper grid and most of the SE3 are produced in the C film together with SE1/SE2. The C film and its defects become visible

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i. Examples
Physical limit to the imaging in secondary electron mode
Tin grains on a thin carbon film (TEM supporting grid) HRSEM 25 kV 1 nm nominal resolution left: SE right: scanning transmitted electrons (STEM)

SE: e-/e- coulombian

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STEM: Rutherford (e-/electric field in atom)

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(from B. Ocker, Scanning Microscopy 9 (1995) 63)

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i. Examples
Physical limit to the imaging in secondary electron mode
(from B. Ocker, Scanning Microscopy 9 (1995) 63)

The average grain size looks larger in SE (12.3 nm) than in STEM (9.1 nm) "Delocalisation": the elastic scattering in STEM (Rutherford) occurs at a much closer distance from the atom nucleus than the inelastic coulombian e-/e-interaction required to eject a SE
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i. Examples
AlxGa1-xAs/GaAs "quantum wire" quantum well)
GaAs
x=0.55

(2-D

x=0.20

SE mode image on a cleaved surface. The SE2 (BSE chemical) contrast dominates this image in absence of topographical contrast (SE1=cte)
(by courtesy of Dr. K. Leifer, IPEQ/EPFL)

QW
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i. Examples
Contrast reversal in BSE mode at low accelerating voltage

Si

Cu

Ag

Au

from L.Reimer, Image formation in low-voltage SEM

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j. Charging effects
Fiberglass on epoxy
1 kV

5 kV, high current

5 kV, low current

(by courtesy of B. Senior CIME/EPFL)

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j. Charging effects
Improving SE contrast at low voltage
fiberglass on epoxy
Which polarity ??????

by courtesy B. Senior/CIME
Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM 76
Acha Hessler-Wyser

CiMe

j. Charging effects
Total yield for electron emission (SE + BSE) on insulators
E1 and E2 are critical energies where 1 electron leaves the surface for each incident electron: neutrality
1 taux !>>0 !>0 !0

when eVacc= E2 charging-up disappears! eVacc= E1 is unstable, eVacc= E2 is stable Caution: E1 and E2 are specific to the material, but also change with the incidence angle +!
Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

E1

1000

E2

2000

3000

nergie keV

Caution: this simple (simplist!) model is not quantitative for insulators because charge implantation and removal depends of the scanning speed and precise sample geometry

77

Acha Hessler-Wyser

CiMe

j. Charging effects
Charging-up on a mask for microelectronic
(SiO2 substrate, photoresist, SE mode)

Vacc >> E2
Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM 78

Vacc"E2
Acha Hessler-Wyser

CiMe

j. Charging effects
Charging-up on spherical silica particles
TV scan slow scan

charges at the particle surface lead to anomalous contrast as a flying saucer

5 kV

at 1.5 kV, close to 1.5 kV the neutrality point, particles recover their sphere contrast

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

79

Acha Hessler-Wyser

CiMe

j. Charging effects
Observation of insulating samples
Charging-up is reduced or even cancelled when working at E2 Charging-up may be cancelled under partial atmosphere in a "low vacuum" or "low pressure" SEM, ESEM
Caution the "skirt" (incident electrons from the probe are scattered out of it by the atmosphere reduced resolution and contrast delocalized microanalysis (may attain mm!)

Clich Kontron (Kuschek)pour CIME

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

80

Acha Hessler-Wyser

CiMe

j. Charging effects
Contrast reversal in SE mode close to the neutrality point
SiO2-Cr mask for TEG-FET transistors production
SiO2

(E2~3.0keV)

Cr (E2~1.8keV)

3.0 kV
Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM 81

1.8 kV

Clich Kontron (Kuschek)pour CIME

Acha Hessler-Wyser

CiMe

j. Charging effects
Some values of the neutrality E2 energy

E2: upper neutrality energy Em: maximum emission energy *m: maximum yield at Em
adapted from: E. Plies, Advances in Optical and Electron Microscopy,13 (1994) p 226

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

82

Acha Hessler-Wyser

CiMe

j. Charging effects
obj pole-piece
(adapted from L. Reimer Scanning Electron Microscopy)
Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM 83
Acha Hessler-Wyser

Charging-up of an insulating particle of dust

0V

Negative charges left on the particle create an electric field that repells the SE toward the substrate around the dust

CiMe

j. Charging effects
Extreme charging-up: electrons are reflected by the sample and hit the microscope sample chamber!!!

- + -

ET

(adapted from Philips Bulletin)

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM 84
Acha Hessler-Wyser

CiMe

j. Charging effects
Surface potential (voltage) contrast

(from Golstein et al, Practical SEM (1975))

Intensive SEM/TEM training: SEM

85

Acha Hessler-Wyser

CiMe