HANDBOOK

No. 95-5 MAY 95

Winning in the Jungle*

for Squad through Battalion Operations

*Includes Addendum: B-720 TIPS (DEC 95), 1/7 SFG
Published by the Center for Army Lessons Learned, Fort Leavenworth, KS 66027-1327, for the Jungle Operations Training Battalion, Fort Sherman, APO AA 34005

INTRODUCTION
Today the U. S. Army faces the possibility of being deployed to many areas of the world, on very short notice. Since many potential trouble spots contain jungles, it is important that you understand how to fight and win in the jungle. Fighting in the jungle is tough, both physically and mentally. To win you must have organizations that are sound from the bottom up. Above all, jungle operations test squads and platoons to their limit. Limited visibility and rugged terrain combine to render communications difficult. Although a trip to the Jungle Operations Training Battalion (JOTB) would be an excellent way to prepare units for the jungle, this handbook should be a great help also. A historical precedent exists. In 1941 the Japanese decided to invade Malaya and capture Singapore. For that purpose, they drew units from Northern Manchuria. The only preparation they had was a booklet titled Read This Alone, and You Can Win the War. It was a simple form of what we would now call a Tactics, Techniques, and Procedures (TTP) manual. It consisted mostly of Battle Drills and common-sense tips on how to stay healthy and survive in the jungle. Every soldier read it. History shows that it worked. Any handbook on jungle combat should begin by considering the general characteristics of jungle terrain. They are: Dense Vegetation with Limited Visibility Heavy Cross Compartmentation Many Streams and Rivers Hot and Humid Few Roads Numerous Footpaths and Tracks There are certain keys to success to extract from a perusal of history and of numerous after-action reviews (AARs) at JOTB. They are: Focused Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB) Decentralized Execution Aggressive, Continuous Reconnaissance Flexible Plans, both Operations and Logistics Reliance on Small Unit Leaders Physically Fit, Well-Trained , and Disciplined Soldiers Redundant Communications Foot Mobility The first section of this handbook deals with battalion and company operations. It is primarily an expansion of the keys to success in a lessons format, organized by Battlefield Operating System (BOS). The second section covers platoon and squad operations. A final section consists of Tips of the Trade, primarily for the individual soldier. A final introductory note: The Jungle is Neutral. It is not an original idea. It is the title of a famous work on jungle warfare by F. Spencer Chapman. If you get past the handbook stage, hunt down a copy. It is worth reading.

Winning in the Jungle

TABLE OF CONTENTS
PART I, BATTALION & COMPANY OPERATIONS Intelligence Maneuver Fire Support Air Defense Mobility and Survivability Combat Service Support Battle Command PART II, PLATOON & SQUAD OPERATIONS PART III, TIPS OF THE TRADE Addendum: B-720 TIPS (DEC 95), 1/7 SFG PART IV, BIBLIOGRAPHIES, REFERENCES, & MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE
COMBINED ARMS CENTER Assistant Deputy Chief of Staff for Training, TRADOC Brigadier General Joe N. Frazar, III CENTER FOR ARMY LESSONS LEARNED Director Colonel Orin A. Nagel Managing Editor Dr. Lon R. Seglie Editor plus Layout and Design Mary Sue Winneke Managing Author MAJ Howard Simkin Authors SFC James Popp SFC Paul Roberts SFC Amond Williams SFC Kalapu Fasavalu SSG William Varga SSG William Craft SSG Faaaliga Matagi SSG Saul Velez Distribution Sergeant First Class

The Secretary of the Army has determined that the publication of this periodical is necessary in the transaction of the public business as required by law of the Department. Use of funds for printing this publication has been approved by Commander, U. S. Army Training and Doctrine Command, 1985, IAW AR 25-30. Unless otherwise stated, whenever the masculine or feminine gender is used, both are intended.

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Part I Battalion and Company Operations

Battlefield Operating System (BOS): Intelligence

TOPIC: Intelligence Preparation of the Battlefield (IPB). DISCUSSION: For a jungle battlefield, many collection methods relied upon by U.S. forces, such as various forms of overhead imagery, are severely restricted. In double and triple canopy jungles, visibility is severely restricted, and most light intensification devices only function in open areas. Thermal imagers work quite well. As a result, S2s must rely on other resources, such as HUMINT and SIGINT, to conduct their IPB. In addition, the heavily cross-compartmented nature of the terrain makes it difficult to move intelligence collection assets once they are in place. The highest ground may not be the key or decisive terrain, depending upon the nature of the enemy and vegetation density. When fighting guerrilla forces, waterways, road and trail junctions, and potential LZs may be the key and decisive terrain. Also, a heavily vegetated hilltop may have near zero line of sight, while a less prominent hill may have excellent line of sight. LESSON(S): Since it is difficult to shift groundbased intelligence collection assets, focus your IPB effort on a few NAIs. Make sure you develop clear indicators for each NAI. Remember that populated areas are not obstacles but sources of HUMINT both for you and the enemy. As such, they should be on your list of High Value Targets (HVTs). Consider the nature of your enemy before choosing key and decisive terrain. Double-check your line of sight computations against vegetation density, on the ground if possible. Doctrinal rates of movement are diminished in the jungle Restricted terrain for dismounted troops is virtually nonexistent. Doctrinal templates usually do not apply. Situational templates are heavily dependent on experience.

TOPIC: Intelligence Collection Plans. DISCUSSION: Due to lack of understanding of the limitations imposed on movement by rugged jungle terrain and restricted visibility, collection plans are often ambitious. They frequently overtask the units involved, especially scouts.

The average rate of movement for an infantry unit conducting a movement to contact in the jungle is 500m per hour. A scout element should move even more slowly. Additionally, the OPTEMPO in the jungle is generally slow and requires patience to wait for the enemy. Taking this into account, the S2 should rigorously evaluate each NAI to establish specific collection criteria. He should then prioritize the NAIs. Only then can the S2 establish a realistic collection plan. Unfortunately, many commanders and S2s do not consider this and literally walk their scouts to exhaustion when they fail to contact the enemy quickly. Also, S2s used to relying on overhead imagery often forget to integrate other assets into their collection plan. LESSON(S): Include the scout platoon leader, the FSO, and the S3 in developing the collection plan. Use a collection plan matrix to visually track the C/M plan. Plan for scouts to move no more than 300m per hour if they are patrolling. Position your scouts where they can reach several NAIs quickly. Integrate Low-Level Voice Intercept, Remotely Emplaced Sensors, Unit Patrols, and Counter-Mortar Radar in your collection plan. Debrief aviators after missions, even "routine" ones. Constantly update your collection plan.

TOPIC: Scout Platoon Operations. DISCUSSION: Due to the rugged terrain and limited visibility of the jungle, scout platoons should not perform security operations without a great deal of thought. Otherwise, they will be overtasked. When they are, they inevitably fail. Surveillance of NAIs and carefully selected reconnaissance missions suit the scouts well. Zone reconnaissance tends to compromise the scouts, as they must move in terrain that favors ambush. Neglecting a backup communications plan, emergency exfiltration plan, fire support plan, or casualty evacuation plan in the jungle exponentially increases your chances of losing the entire element. Since Vietnam, most scout elements infiltrate the jungle by helicopter into an LZ. Unfortunately, the enemy often watches LZs. In Vietnam, most scout/LRRP units were compromised on infiltration. In the jungle, a scout unit leader must have all the skills of a good hunter. A lack of patience that causes you to move too fast or get too close to an objective will get you killed, wounded, compromised, or captured. In the jungle, Global Positioning Systems (GPSs) without external antennas often do not work. At the JOTB, squads that rely on them have an average 75-percent failure rate on the land navigation course. Units, both scout and infantry, become misoriented with remarkable ease.

As a result, scouts are at extremely high risk of becoming victims of fratricide. LESSON(S): Ensure the S3 and FSO are kept updated about the scouts operations and location. Use scouts for surveillance of NAIs and TAIs. Keep ground movement to a minimum. Remember that you don't have to use an LZ to get into the jungle. You should consider overland, boat, and fast rope infiltration as well.

Always have a backup communications plan, an emergency exfiltration plan, a resupply plan, a fire support plan, and a casualty evacuation plan for your scouts before they infiltrate. Plan to get information back to the battalion in a timely manner. Be patient; don't crash around the jungle like a wounded water buffalo. Don't rely on a GPS in the jungle. If you are going to use a GPS in the jungle, rig an external antenna. Have a very simple near and far identification signal to prevent fratricide.

BOS: Maneuver
TOPIC: Overall Effects of the Jungle on Maneuver.

TOPIC: Use of Helicopters.

DISCUSSION: The jungle battlefield greatly limits tactical mobility due to thick vegetation and rugged hills. Most of the jungle is restricted for vehicular movements. Road bound units are tactically useless in the jungle. To attain maximum tactical mobility, units must strip down to the most basic combat-essential items. The effects of overloading soldiers noted by S.L.A. Marshall in Men Under Fire, and The Soldier's Load and the Mobility of the Nation are especially true in the jungle. Heat, humidity, torrential rains and the psychological effects of continual limited visibility tend to sap morale rapidly. They also undermine discipline during extended operations unless checked by effective small unit leadership. When discipline erodes, casualties will mount quickly. LESSON(S): Small unit leadership is the key to jungle operations. Take time to care for your soldier's physical and mental needs, especially when you are tired. Carry only the minimum essential combat load. Ensure everyone understands the resupply plan so that they have the confidence to carry only what is directed.

DISCUSSION: The quickest means of deploying troops in the jungle is via helicopter. There are two major constraints to airmobile and air assault operations, other than the number of helicopters. One is the availability of LZs and the other is weather. Weather is something that you can do nothing about, except consider it in the planning process. LZs are a different matter. Many jungles offer relatively few suitable LZs. Those that are suitable for massing troops quickly are also probably covered by enemy direct and indirect fire. Of course, there is always the option of creating your own, but that takes time and makes noise. Although helicopters can deliver troops to LZs very quickly, from then on the troops have to move at a jungle pace. That means 500 meters per hour, on the average. A technique to solve the problem is creating an LZ close to the objective by catastrophic means (i.e., a large explosive device), pinning the enemy on the objective with fire support, and bringing the helicopters in right on the heels of the explosion. LESSON(S): Pick your LZs carefully, the largest is not necessarily the most convenient. It may also be the deadliest.

Consider using multiple small LZs close to the objective to mass forces. Remember that movement off the LZ will be at jungle speed. Consider making your own LZs.

probable that troops will fire at sound and movement. All of this combines to make it difficult to destroy enemy forces unless they are in fixed defense of terrain, such as the Japanese in the Pacific during World War II. When the enemy is a guerrilla, it is often necessary to grind him down by attrition. LESSON(S): Your finishing force should travel much closer to your finding force than normal; that will compensate to some degree for the restrictive nature of jungle terrain. Units should develop a simple SOP for both visual and audible identification of friendly troops. Simple react to contact/hasty attack drills are vital at the company, platoon, and squad levels. Check your communications frequently, especially your fire control nets. As you move, constantly update the data on the guns supporting you. There are many ways to fix the enemy. One method is to look at the high speed avenues of approach or lines of communication that compartmentalize the enemy. If you can control these (rivers, streams, roads, etc.), you can place NAIs at points where the S2 and S3 think the enemy may cross and possibly target these locations to fix the enemy in an AO or destroy him as he attempts to cross.

TOPIC: Movement to Contact/Search and Attack. DISCUSSION: Due to the difficulty of finding the enemy in the jungle, the most frequently employed offensive tactics are the movement to contact and the search and attack. Contacts will be sudden and frequently, unexpected. Once contact is made, it is difficult to fix the enemy as the jungle generally offers multiple covered and concealed withdrawal routes. This puts a premium on simple, well-rehearsed hasty attack/react to contact drills. These drills must be practiced at the squad, platoon, and company levels. Should the terrain somehow prevent quickly fixing the enemy by fire and maneuver, an alternative way to fix him is by massing fire support. Due to communications problems caused by rugged terrain and dense vegetation, maneuver and fire support are often unsynchronized. This frequently allows the enemy to slip away. Also, the slow-go nature of jungle terrain frequently causes the finish force to arrive too late. Fratricide is a very real danger due to limited visibility once the finish force begins to close with the enemy. The fleeting nature of most contacts makes it

TOPIC: Hasty Attack. DISCUSSION: The hasty attack is the most likely form of engagement in the jungle. Due to the rugged terrain and dense vegetation, engagement distances are extremely short. Sometimes the distances are as short as 10 meters. The commander's ability to see the battlefield and to give orders is severely handicapped. The battalion and company must rely on its squad and platoon leaders ability to immediately execute the appropriate battle drill. In addition, the company and battalion must execute the hasty attack quickly as well. Fire support assets must be alert and the data on the guns kept up to date because of the fleeting nature of jungle contacts. The battalion must be able to depend upon its junior leaders to develop the situation and report it. Most frequently, things go to pieces when the junior leaders in contact fail to report their situation. Reconnaissance assets should be used to determine if there is a practical route to outflank the enemy. If there is, the battalion should maneuver to take the enemy from the rear. Psychologically, even the best troops are very vulnerable to flanking movements in the jungle unless they are prepared for it, such as the Chindits of World War II. The British, U. S., and Japanese forces that fought in World War II and the U. S., NVA, and Viet Cong Forces in Vietnam were all sensitive to flanking movements.

LESSON(S): Hasty attack drills must be well rehearsed and understood at all levels. Hasty attack drills must be rehearsed in the jungle. Part of all hasty attack drills should be an immediate reconnaissance for a weak spot. Your FIST Teams and FSO should be well forward during movement. Always attempt to outflank your enemy. An ounce of sweat will save a gallon of blood. Junior leaders must have the responsibility to report contacts.

TOPIC: Deliberate Attack. DISCUSSION: In the jungle, the deliberate attack most often runs into problems during the leader's reconnaissance. Either the reconnaissance party is too large or it attempts to get too close to the objective. The result is a compromise and an alerted enemy. In addition, the jungle creates problems with deploying troops. During a hasty attack in the jungle, troops can at least march to the sound of the guns. In a deliberate attack, they must make their way stealthily to as close as possible to the objective. This puts a premium on land navigation to avoid either prematurely alerting the enemy or incidents of fratricide will frequently have to be adjusted by sound.

If an artillery preparation is planned, the fire. This generally takes more time than adjusting fire visually. Depending on enemy tactical doctrine, some concealed positions and snipers may hold their fire until your troops have bypassed them. It is always disconcerting for troops to take fire from their rear or flank. It is doubly devastating when they cannot see where the fire is coming from. The attack could rapidly lose momentum as troops go to ground, unless you anticipate stay-behind enemy forces. As a result of these factors, the number of things that could go wrong multiply more rapidly in the jungle than elsewhere. The effects of the jungle environment on consolidation and reorganization will be dealt with as a separate topic. LESSON(S): Always anticipate stay-behind enemy forces. Do not become overly ambitious on your reconnaissance of the objective. Make sure your breaching and assault forces have proven land navigators with them. When planning an artillery preparation, remember that it will most likely have to be adjusted by sound. Rehearse the attack in similar terrain if at all possible. Make sure your FISTs have the opportunity to practice adjusting fire by sound.

TOPIC: Attack of Fortified Positions and Strongpoints. DISCUSSION: Fortified positions in the jungle can normally be outflanked. In addition, the enemy will rarely have the time or resources to construct and man 360-degree defenses. A careful, stealthy reconnaissance is a key to breaching fortified positions. With the knowledge to Hit 'em where they ain't, well-trained infantry can infiltrate any gaps. Then they can take the positions from the rear. However, the tactic that worked best in Burma during World War II (for both the British and the Japanese) and in Vietnam was to bypass fortified positions whenever possible. If a fortified position must be tackled head on, the jungle poses its own set of unique problems. First, it is easier to get within small arms range of the enemy without being detected. This sometimes results in overconfidence on the part of the reconnaissance element. As a result, it may be compromised. However, your reconnaissance must be thorough, to pinpoint as many enemy positions as possible. Thermal imagers, such as the AN-PAS 7, work well in finding occupied bunkers, even those that are well camouflaged. Without such aids, it may be difficult to pinpoint the enemy even after he has opened fire. When attacking fortified positions, smoke and other obscurants are difficult to use.

The reasons are the combination of dense vegetation, lack of ambient light, and unpredictable wind currents. The surest way to emplace smoke as an obscurant is with grenades. The M203 is an excellent means for delivering marker smoke. Then a potent bunker buster, such as the AT-4, can do the rest. Unfortunately, the use of wire-guided missiles, such as the TOW, is severely limited. LESSON(S): Plan to use thermal imagers to spot bunkers. They stick out like a sore thumb, even when well camouflaged. Both the assault and breaching forces should consider using their 60-mm mortars in a handheld direct-fire mode. Task-organize your assault and breaching forces with the greatest number of engineer assets possible. Try to infiltrate first. Hit 'em where they ain't. Your breaching force should carry as many AT-4s as it can handle. Don't forget marker smoke for your M203s. Make sure your breaching force assembles its demolition charges to the maximum extent possible prior to the assault. TOPIC: The Culminating Point. DISCUSSION: In the jungle, the culminating point of an attack is most frequently reached when the morale of the attacker cracks. The primary cause is

physical exhaustion. The debilitating nature of fighting in the jungle, both physical and psychological, is rapid and pronounced. It was the major cause of the refusal by the majority of Merrill's Marauders to attack the town of Myitkina in Burma after they had successfully seized the airfield. It was also a major cause of the failure of the Japanese Imphal Offensive. Simply put, the jungle causes most soldiers to reach their breaking point far faster than almost any other environment. There are two vital factors in postponing the inevitable. The first is a high level of physical fitness on the part of every soldier. The second is a realistic appreciation by commanders and their staffs of the slow, but steady, pace dictated by the jungle. A secondary cause is primarily psychological. It is the feeling of isolation induced by the dense jungle vegetation that causes troops to go to ground under fire. Once stopped, it is difficult to get them moving again. This is particularly true if they fear they may be cut off. LESSON(S): Physical fitness and personal hygiene must be rigorously enforced. Remember that 500 meters per hour is the maximum speed for a movement to contact through the jungle. All leaders must constantly monitor their soldiers physical and psychological states. Educate your soldiers that the jungle is neutral; it is not a hostile enemy.

TOPIC: Consolidation and Reorganization. DISCUSSION: The consolidation and reorganization of an objective in the jungle are made difficult by the very nature of most jungle terrain. The jungle generally offers multiple covered and concealed avenues of approach into almost any position. Therefore, the probability of an enemy counterattack getting within 100 meters of the objective before being discovered is a real possibility. Also, what appear to be ideal avenues of approach when viewed on a map or from the objective quite often are not ideal at all. This means that you must plan and execute a rapid and thorough reconnaissance before you set out your OPs, mines, or obstacles. Otherwise, you may neglect the most likely avenues of approach onto the objective. When attempting to eliminate the enemy from the objective, do not become overly ambitious. Remember that the jungle is ideal terrain for ambushes. Set your limit of advance (LOA) accordingly. Small unit leaders must take care to check every individual position to ensure fields of fire interlock, as troops tend to become misoriented in the jungle. When registering indirect fires, try to do so on an open spot near the objective. Otherwise you will have to register your guns by sound. Unless the objective can be used as an LZ, the most difficult part of reorganization is normally evacuation of casualties.

LESSON(S): Do a quick reconnaissance before emplacing OPs; do not just emplace them along the enemy's withdrawal route. Remember, the enemy knows the area. He may counterattack from any direction. There is no rear in the jungle. Give careful attention to where you place your LOA. Check and recheck every soldier's field of fire.

TOPIC: Follow-and-Support Operations. DISCUSSION: The relatively longer time it takes to mass forces is the primary consideration for follow-and-support operations in the jungle. As a result, follow-and-support forces should travel in a relatively compact formation. They will most likely be far closer than in normal terrain to the force they are supporting as well. The nature of jungle terrain dictates that engineer assets should be well forward. They can then create roadblocks, clear obstacles, or breach enemy defenses with a minimum of delay. A follow-andsupport force must be prepared to conduct hasty attacks anywhere along its axis of advance because the undetected infiltration of sizeable enemy units is possible in the jungle.

The follow-and-support force must also be ready to assume the role of a fixing force while the supported force swings around the enemy's flank. LESSON(S): Remember that time to mass is significantly slower in the jungle. Keep your engineers well forward during movement. Maintain 360-degree security during movement.

by air along the flanks of his axis of advance. The commander must decide what level of risk he is willing to accept, then proceed vigorously. LESSON(S): Strip down to a fighting load for pursuit operations. Use aerial resupply to the maximum extent possible. Keep unremitting pressure on the enemy.

TOPIC: Exploitation and Pursuit. DISCUSSION: There are two primary considerations that carry a different weight in the jungle for both exploitation and pursuit. They are speed of movement and security. Unless you are able to use helicopters or roads to move troops, you generally can only travel as fast as the enemy. This means that to maintain momentum, you must strip down to a minimum fighting load. It also means that you will have to depend on aerial resupply or captured enemy supplies. Only troops that are in better physical shape than the enemy can stand the rigors of a pursuit in the jungle. Security is difficult to maintain in the jungle, particularly flank security. However, rapid movement and aggressively pressing the enemy tend to generate security. If at all possible, the commander should have REMS emplaced

TOPIC: Defensive Tactics. DISCUSSION: Infiltration between defending units is relatively easy in the jungle. Due to limited visibility and rugged terrain, it is difficult to establish a continuous line. The gaps between units must be covered with obstacles, mines, sensors, and patrols. Be careful when emplacing obstacles and mines. Mark them in a manner that friendly troops can recognize easily. Otherwise, fratricides will be the inevitable result. Units must prepare 360-degree defenses, paying particular attention to covered and concealed routes of approach. A thorough reconnaissance of the area around the defensive position is vital to identify such approaches. This will allow for well-rehearsed counterattack plans to deal with the most likely avenues of approach.

Also, care must be taken to prepare troops psychologically for fighting from a perimeter. In Malaya and Burma, during World War II, Japanese forces often defeated larger British forces just by surrounding them. Unless troops understand that such fighting is normal for the jungle and is not a last-ditch effort, they will tend to become demoralized.
LESSON(S): Nothing in the jungle is impassible to a determined enemy. Therefore, always construct 360-degree defenses. Have a simple SOP for marking mines and boobytraps, and use it. Maximize the use of sensors, mines, and obstacles to cover gaps between defending units. Use patrols to check out sensor reports or, if the jungle is uninhabited, use fire support. Always have a rehearsed counterattack plan to deal with infiltration. Leaders should emphasize to the troops that there is no rear in the conventional sense. The jungle is rarely a linear battlefield. Arrange your defenses in depth; the jungle in particular demands it.

TOPIC: Retrograde Operations. DISCUSSION: Retrograde Operations are very difficult in the jungle for forces that are heavily dependent on roads for resupply. Continuous lines are nearly impossible to establish. Infiltration by large-scale enemy units is relatively easy. The greatest danger to road-bound units is that the enemy will travel light to gain cross-country mobility. While maintaining contact with a small portion of his forces, he can then outflank the unit conducting a retrograde, establish a roadblock in its rear, and force a decisive engagement. This tactic was used with great success by all forces that fought in the Pacific during World War II. As long as aerial resupply is available, this tactic loses much of its effectiveness. Due to the nature of jungle terrain, the most favorable means of conducting a delay is using narrow sectors. Withdrawals are aided by the limited visibility of the jungle. Prior to the actual withdrawal, simple handrails made of 550 cord can be laid down from the forward positions to assembly areas in the rear. Crosscountry movement at night is normally very difficult in the jungle. However, the battalion can withdraw relatively rapidly during the hours of darkness. By the time the enemy is able to pursue, the battalion can gain enough distance to be secure.

LESSON(S): Maximize the use of aerial resupply. Travel light to maximize crosscountry mobility. When planning a delay, consider using narrow sectors as its basis. Withdraw during periods of limited visibility whenever possible. TOPIC: Battle Drills. DISCUSSION: Due to the limitations imposed by jungle terrain, units frequently do not fire and maneuver effectively once contact is made with the enemy. When battle drills and actions on contact are not well-rehearsed, leaders lose effective control. This results in a loss of fire discipline. The volume of fire as well as the accuracy of fire drops off drastically. In addition, the dense vegetation causes a feeling of isolation. Soldiers tend to either freeze in place or they become misoriented. In short, you have all of the ingredients for fratricide. LESSON(S): Battle drills must be tailored to the jungle to take into account the rugged terrain and dense vegetation. Practice your battle drills in the jungle until you are proficient. Units tend to bunch up and also to envelope forces with very narrow envelopements. Realize that it will take time to envelope the enemy in a meeting engagement and to have enough patience to conduct it.

TOPIC: Massing of Forces. DISCUSSION: The time required to mass forces in the jungle is often underestimated. There are few roads, trails, and LZs. Combined with the rugged terrain and dense vegetation of the jungle, commanders are unable to mass combat power at the decisive point to finish the enemy. LESSON(S): Units should operate close enough to one another for mutual support. Consider positioning the TF reserve as a finishing force.

TOPIC: Task Organization. DISCUSSION: Jungle combat operations dictate that the battalion commander task-organize his forces to find, fix, and finish the enemy in a somewhat different manner than normal. Aggressive reconnaissance is critical to defeating any enemy force in the jungle, particularly guerrilla forces. Usually the TAIs and NAIs will far outnumber the scout elements that can maintain surveillance on them. Due to the compartmented nature of jungle terrain and dense vegetation, company commanders must often be given the means to conduct independent operations within their sector.

LESSON(S): Rifle squads may be used for reconnaissance as well as scout teams. Consider placing the battalion reserve near an PZ/LZ or have it follow the main effort closely. Consider task-organizing your engineers and other CS and CSS assets down to company level.

BOS: Fire Support

TOPIC: Deployment of Field Artillery and Mortars. DISCUSSION: Due to the dense jungle vegetation, naturally occurring firing positions for field artillery and mortars are relatively few. The commander must decide whether he wants to use only naturally occurring firing positions or if he wants to create his own. Normally, the slower the OPTEMPO, the easier it is to rely on naturally occurring firing positions. During an exploitation or pursuit, naturally occurring firing positions would most likely be insufficient. Due to the ease of infiltration through the jungle, all artillery and mortar positions must be organized for perimeter defense. Your indirect fire assets are a high value target to the enemy. Therefore, the gunners must be ready at any time to defend the battery area. LESSON(S): Organize all firing positions for perimeter defense. Everyone must have a role in defending the perimeter. If it is critical to your success, then it is probably a high payoff target for the enemy. Use detection devices and commanddetonated mines. TOPIC: Employment of Field Artillery and Mortars. DISCUSSION: Shoot and Scoot tactics are difficult to employ for artillery in the jungle. There are simply too few firing positions. Most often, artillery will fire from relatively few positions. This makes them vulnerable to counter battery fire. Mortars are vulnerable as well, but they can use the Shoot and Hide method. Once mortars receive end of mission, they should displace 50 - 75 meters away, leaving the baseplate and aiming stakes in place. However, a lack of firing positions makes the job of locating concentrations of enemy indirect fire assets relatively easy. Due to space limitations, mortar platoons will often fire as a section. For the same reason, mortar tubes may be much closer than the doctrinal distance. Single guns sited to fire at a single target are much more difficult to locate without the aid of some form of counterbattery radar. Unobserved fires are frequently used, particularly against an enemy vulnerable to harassment and interdiction (H&I) fires. LESSON(S): Dig in whenever you can; your location is a prime counterbattery target for the enemy. Target all known open areas as potential counterbattery targets. Be prepared to deliver unobserved fires.

TOPIC: Adjusting Fire. DISCUSSION: The most frequent manner of adjusting fire in the jungle by groundbased observers is by sound. It is a skill that requires a good deal of practice. Attempting to adjust fire from the smoke of an impacting round can be deceiving. Due to the density of the foliage, the smoke may drift as much as 100 to 200 meters before emerging from the jungle canopy. However, using a white phosphorous (WP) round in the first round of adjustment will give the observer a general direction to focus his attention. In almost all cases, an aerial observer is superior to a groundbased observer for quickly adjusting fire. The most obvious exception is when combat is within danger close range. Then fire will be adjusted in small increments (the creeping method). LESSON(S): Use aerial observers whenever you can. Use WP as the initial round for adjustment. Use the creeping method to adjust fire by sound.

TOPIC: Coordination of Fires. DISCUSSION: The fire support officer (FSO) must work closely with the S3 in tracking friendly locations. The S2 should keep both the S3 and FSO updated on known or suspected enemy locations. All location reports should be plotted as soon as they are available. However, the clearing of fires should be decentralized to the commanders responsible for the sector/AO into which the fires will be delivered. Those commanders have a better appreciation of the situation in their sectors. However, the FSO must track the battle and involve himself in the fireclearing process. This is particularly critical when reconnaissance or counterreconnaissance operations are taking place in the battalion's AO. LESSON(S): The S3, S2, and FSO must maintain continuous communication on friendly and enemy locations. The commander on the ground should clear fires in his sector, but the FSO must stay involved in the process. Fires across unit boundaries must be cleared through the FSO.

TOPIC: Fire Control Measures. DISCUSSION: The effects of jungle terrain on communications and visibility normally dictates the employment of restrictive fire control measures. Graphic, linear fire control measures must be located on or follow easily identifiable terrain to prevent confusion. No fire areas are an excellent means of avoiding fratricide or accidentally engaging civilian targets during defensive operations. During search-and-attack operations, it is critical that the commander designate sector boundaries as restricted fire lines (RFLs) to avoid fratricide. The FSO must continuously monitor operations and advise the commander on updating fire control measures. LESSON(S): Locate graphic, linear fire control measures along easily identifiable terrain features. Designate unit boundaries as RFLs. Keep all fire control measures updated.

(VT) fuzes against anything but unprotected troops. Their detonation in the jungle canopy will cause splintering of branches which will enhance fragmentation effects. Proximity fuses will normally detonate over the canopy, with no effect. High explosive delay (HED) will normally be the preferred shellfuse combination for troops in prepared positions. It can penetrate the jungle canopy and overhead cover. When it explodes, it will also cause splintering of trees for enhanced fragmentation. Dual Purpose-Improved Conventional Munitions (DPICMs), Improved Conventional Munitions (ICMs), and the Family of Artillery Scatterable Mines (FASCAM) have limited uses in the jungle. The jungle canopy canopy tends either to detonate them early or cause unpredictable dispersion patterns. Illumination rounds produce bizzare effects in the jungle. As the round descends (if it penetrates the canopy), it causes shadows to shift so rapidly as to create the illusion of movement without illuminating any one spot long enough to be useful. Smoke tends to be unpredictable as well, due to cross currents beneath the canopy. LESSON(S): For unprotected troops, use HEQ or VT. Use HED for troops in prepared positions.

TOPIC: Effects of Indirect Fire. DISCUSSION: The thick jungle canopy severely limits shell-fuse combinations. It degrades the effectiveness of high explosive quick (HEQ) and variable time

TOPIC: Synchronization with Maneuver Forces. DISCUSSION: In the jungle, communications are often difficult to maintain. Due to the inherent difficulty of jungle navigation, units may become misoriented as to their location or the location of the nearest friendly unit. As a result, fire support and maneuver forces become unsynchronized. The S3, FSO, and S2 must work closely together with the commanders of subordinate units to keep all forces synchronized. LESSON(S): Test your fire support net constantly. The S3, S2, and FSO must maintain continuous communications. Develop a communications plan that includes CP locations/terrain elevation and the use of ground-based and airborne retransmission.

TOPIC: Close Air Support (CAS). DISCUSSION: The nature of the jungle canopy makes target acquisition and identification by CAS aircraft difficult. Most USAF aircraft travel at such speeds as to give them only fleeting glimpses of the target. As a result, precision strikes in the jungle are difficult without guidance from a Forward Air Controller. Certain prominent terrain features, such as hills,

open areas, tree lines, and stream beds, are somewhat easier for CAS aircraft to acquire and identify. If you are using preplanned CAS, it is often best to target such features. The use of smoke to identify friendly positions is a useful technique, if the canopy is not too thick. M203 smoke rounds can be used to mark enemy positions. However, you may have to fire several to produce a signature that the CAS aircraft can acquire. If available, a beacon is an excellent way of providing a reference point for fastmoving CAS aircraft. Unfortunately, the dense jungle foliage greatly restricts the use of laser designators. When CAS is being used, suppression of enemy air defenses (SEAD) must be afforded high priority. Most CAS pilots don't believe in the big sky - little bullet theory. Be prepared for a short lull in fire support where the artillery stops firing and the CAS aircraft helicopters begin their attack runs. Ideally, it should be no more than a few seconds. However, few things are ideal in war. During the Vietnam War, some Viet Cong and NVA units would use the lull and attempt to get within danger close distances to U. S. units. They would risk small arms fire, rather than be exposed to a CAS strike. LESSON(S): Request a Forward Air Controller to control CAS employment.

Consider using prominent terrain features as preplanned CAS targets. Use M203 smoke rounds to mark enemy positions. Use a beacon to provide a reference point. Focus on SEAD as a priority during CAS employment. Be prepared for an enemy assault during the lull in fire support just prior to CAS employment.

theory. Be prepared for a short lull in fire support where the artillery stops firing and the attack helicopters begin their attack runs. LESSON(S): A FAARP is an HPT; protect it. Switch to SEAD as a top priority when attack helicopters are supporting your unit. Be prepared for an enemy assault during the lull in fire support just prior to CAS employment.

TOPIC: Attack Helicopters. DISCUSSION: Attack helicopters are a most useful fire support asset in the jungle. Their mobility, loiter time, and armament make them a formidable opponent to any enemy. Helicopters can keep station at a hide site near a target for much longer than most USAF aircraft can loiter in an area. Since they move at slower speeds, visual acquisition and identification of targets is far easier. Although they are slower than USAF aircraft, they can achieve a much higher sortie rate through the use of a FAARP. Vulnerability of the helicopter to ground fire is their chief employment limitation. This can be reduced by Pop up-and-Fire tactics. If attack helicopters are being used, SEAD must be afforded high priority. Most helicopters have a very limited number of active countermeasures available to them. Also, like USAF CAS pilots, most attack helicopter pilots don't believe in the big sky - little bullet TOPIC: The Q36 Counter Mortar Radar. DISCUSSION: The Q36 is an excellent system. However, it does have some limitations on its use in the jungle. The rugged jungle terrain limits the effectiveness of the Q36 considerably, often masking the radar. A limitation in its software does not allow it to identify rounds that are travelling away from the radar. Normally, that makes sense. On linear battlefields, the Q36 is employed from behind the front lines. Incoming fire is hostile, while outgoing fire is friendly. The jungle is often nonlinear. The enemy can infiltrate and fire on friendly troops from any direction. In addition, the mean time between equipment failures shortens considerably in the jungle environment due to constant heat and high humidity. Finally, because of a lack of roads and cleared spaces, there are few places where

the Q36 can be set up and function effectively. As a result, it narrows the number of places that the enemy has to look for the radar. The radar site cannot be administrative. It must be organized for defense. LESSONS(S): Remember that the jungle is often a nonlinear battlefield. Bring your PLL and keep it with the radar. Remember that the Q36 is an HPT for the enemy. The Q36 also has difficulty detecting single volleys with good confirmation. It was designed to detect batteries firing multiple rounds. Expect many false alarms when it detects small arms, birds, helicopters, etc. In the first 18 hours of Q36 operations in Somalia, there were more than 100 false alarms.

TOPIC: Environmental Effects on Mortar Ammunition. DISCUSSION: Mortar ammunition requires careful handling and storage in the jungle. Prolonged exposure to heat and humidity occasionally saturates the desiccant. This allows the increments to get wet, degrading the accuracy of the ammunition. LESSON(S): When stacking mortar ammunition, make sure you place some sort of dunnage under it. Inspect all ammunition for signs of water damage before firing. Only unpack the ammunition that you need.

BOS: Air Defense

TOPIC: Employment of Air Defense Assets. DISCUSSION: Since World War II, the U. S. has not fought an enemy with a significant offensive air capability. However, certain lessons can be gleaned from the experience of our opponents in the Vietnam War. The most lucrative targets in the jungle are command and control nodes, logistical bases, and fire support sites. Individual units are relatively more difficult to acquire and identify than fixed sites. Air defense assets, such as missiles and guns, should be used to protect fixed sites. At any rate, the rugged jungle terrain makes it nearly impossible to transport missiles and guns through the jungle. MANPADS and small arms fire should be used to protect maneuver units when passive air defense measures fail. The success of the NVA and Viet Cong in bringing down U. S. CAS aircraft and helicopters is instructive. During movement, MANPADS should be positioned where they can best cover the unit. Due to the dense jungle vegetation, that may entail moving along a ridge line on the flank of the axis of advance, travelling down a waterway, or hopping from LZ to LZ. LESSON(S): Protect critical assets with missiles and guns; use MANPADS for maneuver units. Maneuver your MANPADS where they provide maximum coverage. Don't neglect passive air defense measures, such as camouflage and going to ground, when aircraft are in the vicinity. MANPADS and small arms fire can bring down enemy aircraft.

TOPIC: Jungle Air Defense Techniques. DISCUSSION: Each unit should have a react-to-air-attack drill that is tailored to the jungle. The Vietnam War proved that Small Arms for Air Defense (SAFAD) works in the jungle. It also proved that passive air defense methods work as well. Reviews of historical data show that many times NVA and Viet Cong units of up to regimental size were able to maneuver freely through the jungle without being detected. Superb route selection, march discipline, and effective camouflage were the keys. Most NVA and Viet Cong units that were badly mauled by CAS were either in contact with U. S. ground forces, were crossing a danger area, or were using a road or trail. However, they almost invariably extracted a toll of downed CAS aircraft and helicopters using a combination of passive air defense and SAFAD techniques.

LESSON(S): Your first line of air defense is passive measures. Select routes that maximize concealment from aerial observation.

Avoid trails and open areas to the maximum extent possible. When all else fails, use SAFAD to make the enemy account for the cost of attacking.

BOS: Mobility and Survivability

TOPIC: Employment of Engineers. DISCUSSION: Due to the restrictive nature of jungle terrain, engineers should be well forward during a movement to contact or search-and-attack operation. When possible, an engineer squad should travel with the lead platoon. Then if an obstacle or a minefield is encountered, it can be cleared quickly. Otherwise, the unit could face a lengthy delay as the engineers work their way forward. During a deliberate attack or an attack on a fortified position, engineers should be employed in much the same manner as in any other environment. Keep in mind that combat engineers can only bring man-portable equipment. They are not mules. Concertina, chain saws, bangalore torpedoes, cratering charges, and other heavy items must be air lifted to and from a work site. Your engineers should concentrate on carrying demolitions (C-4 blocks are best) and mine detectors, remembering that they have to live out of their rucksack. On occasion, combat engineers are employed as infantry. However, keep in mind that combat engineers do not possess the firepower of infantry, nor are they nearly as well trained in infantry skills. If they must be employed as infantry, it should be in a defensive role. LESSON(S): Remember the load limitations of your engineers. Demolitions and mine detectors are the minimum essential tools that the engineers must carry. During movement to contact/search and attack, have your engineers well forward. Make sure your engineers are included in your hasty attack battle drills. Avoid employing engineers as infantry.

TOPIC: Mobility Tasks. DISCUSSION: During offensive operations, mobility is the focus of engineering efforts. Although combat engineer units possess engineering expertise, they lack significant amounts of construction equipment. In the jungle, most of their equipment is limited to what they can carry in their rucksacks. For jungle operations, the LZ/PZ clearing is the most important activity. An engineer platoon can create a rough one-ship LZ/PZ using demolitions and organic equipment. Then, chain saws and other equipment could be lifted in to allow further expansion of the LZ/PZ. Mines and boobytraps are easy to conceal in the thick jungle foliage. As a result, clearing minefields and boobytraps is probably the most common combat engineer task in the jungle.

The expertise provided by engineers is a real life saver, provided they are far enough forward to reach the mines and/or boobytraps quickly. The jungle abounds in natural barrier material. Also depending upon the enemy, breaching obstacles can be a common activity. Although combat engineer units possess basic engineer skills, they lack the skills and equipment for extensive road construction projects. However, combat engineers do have the skills to construct foot bridges across the numerous streams and small rivers encountered in the jungle. In addition, they are capable of simple roadway repair and maintenance. Anything greater will require the employment of specialized engineer units. LESSON(S): Engineers can enhance your mobility in the jungle by creating or improving LZ/PZs. Combat engineers lack the equipment and expertise to undertake major bridging or road repair projects.

movement of personnel at checkpoints or roadblocks during population and resource control operations. During the defense, the engineers can emplace obstacles and minefields to protect battle positions and key installations. Although concertina is a very effective type of wire for obstacles, barbed wire in rolls can be man-packed through the jungle, while concertina cannot. If you rely on concertina, the engineers will have to wait for it to be delivered. When time is critical, barbed wire in rolls is the solution. In any countermobility task, the best way to speed work is to use the engineers as supervisors.

LESSON(S): Use subsurface wire entanglements to block small waterways. Use barbed wire in rolls for hasty countermobility tasks. You can't hump concertina through the jungle. It is both too bulky and too heavy. Use your engineers as supervisors during countermobility tasks; it speeds up the work.

TOPIC: Countermobility Tasks. DISCUSSION: Engineers perform countermobility tasks both during offensive and defensive operations. Engineers can emplace obstacles to deny the enemy the use of small waterways. Subsurface wire entanglements are particularly effective. They can also construct obstacles to channel the

TOPIC: Mines and Boobytraps. DISCUSSION: Due to the dense vegetation of the jungle, it is very easy for troops to become misoriented and blunder into their own minefield.

This is a problem that surfaces during offensive as well as defensive operations. It is imperative that the engineers record, report, and recover mines and boobytraps. In essence, the engineer element leader can be the clearing house for such information. Also, the engineers should employ a simple method of marking mines and boobytraps. The marking system should be by the supported unit's SOP. If the supported unit does not have one, the engineers should devise one. It should then be disseminated through the supported unit's chain of command. A single strand or barbed wire around the minefield is very effective as a marker. It also allows the engineers to lay out dummy minefields as part of the obstacle plan. Additionally, it speeds recovery of the mines by delineating the minefield. LESSON(S): Engineers should record, report, and recover mines and boobytraps. The engineer element leader can serve as the point of contact for information about minefields in the unit AO. Minefields must be marked by a simple method to prevent fratricide.

A single strand of barbed wire around the minefield aids in recovering the mines.

TOPIC: Survivability Tasks. DISCUSSION: Survivability tasks are most commonly performed during defensive operations. Through the use of cratering charges, demolitions, chain saws, and locally available materials, engineers can quickly construct formidable bunkers. Additionally, they can supervise the clearing of fields of fire and the construction of trenches, fighting positions, gun emplacements, and wire obstacles. However, the design and construction of complex structures are generally beyond their capabilities. LESSON(S): Use engineers to supervise the execution of survivability tasks. Plan to supplement the engineers with pioneer tools and cratering charges to speed construction efforts.

BOS: Combat Service Support

TOPIC: Casualty Evacuation. DISCUSSION: The jungle generally renders overland casualty evacuation extremely difficult. The only quick way out of the jungle is via helicopter. Using a jungle penetrator or rigid litter, casualties can be lifted out of areas where there is no PZ/LZ. Ground evacuation routes and casualty collection points (CCPs) should be planned only after a thorough study of the trail networks. Busting brush with a casualty is generally not a good idea. The rugged nature of most jungle terrain calls for the establishment of a larger-thannormal number of CCPs. As a rule of thumb, CCPs should be no more than 200 meters away from the objective/unit position. Whenever possible, CCPs should be as close to a PZ/LZ as possible. Should weather or enemy activity prohibit casualty evacuation by helicopter, then troops must be trained in the construction of field expedient litters. A four-man litter party can normally cover no more than 300 meters in an hour without exhausting themselves very quickly. If enough troops are available, a litter party should consist of eight men. Switching off every 20 minutes will allow them to proceed at 500 meters per hour. It also provides security for the litter party. A final means of casualty evacuation is by water, depending on the availability of boats. Riverine craft or locally commandeered boats can serve as a rapid way to evacuate casualties. LESSON(S): Use aerial evacuation whenever possible. Study and make use of trail networks for ground evacuation. Train troops in the use of the jungle penetrator, rigid litter, and field expedient litter. Ensure CCPs are as close as possible to the objective/unit position. Use eight-man litter parties when possible. Consider evacuation by water. Remember CCPs often become the place where the casualties are delivered. Consider echeloning Advanced Trauma Life Support (ATLS) teams. Infantry battalions have a capability of fielding two teams, each headed by either the PA or Surgeon. Support the main effort by attaching an ATLS team. Provide the treatment to the CCP to save lives until they can be evacuated. Distribute the Class VIII load among soldiers other than medical personnel.

TOPIC: Other Medical Considerations. DISCUSSION: Jungle warfare has a significantly higher rate of disease and nonbattle injury (DNBI) than other operational environments. It has been said that everything in the jungle either has a venomous sting, a nasty bite, or will make you sick. Fortunately, that is an exaggeration. Planning for jungle operations does require that the battalion medical platoon leader and Physician's Assistant (PA) study endemic diseases and other hazards. They must ensure that battalion medics and combat life savers receive training to cope with diseases and other hazards prior to deployment. The PA should take a personal interest in tailoring the medical supplies and even the aid bags for the jungle environment. Many jungles in the world still have Malaria, Dengue Fever, and other tropical illnesses. An efficient system to distribute the right prophylaxis is vital. Anti-venom and bee sting kits should be available to all medical personnel. Due to the slowness of movement through the jungle, prophylaxis, anti-venom, and bee sting kits should be pushed forward. LESSON(S): Study endemic diseases and hazards. Train to treat those diseases and hazards. Tailor medical supplies to those diseases and hazards.

Push supplies, such as prophylaxis, anti-venom, and bee sting kits, to the lowest possible level.

TOPIC: The Soldier's Load. DISCUSSION: During World War II and Vietnam, the U. S. soldier was frequently overburdened when he fought in the jungle. Although he had superior strategic mobility, his tactical mobility was poor. In both conflicts, units learned to strip down to a combat-essential load to outmaneuver the enemy. A good rule of thumb is that a total of 50 pounds is all that a soldier should carry. This 50 pounds should include his LBE, water, helmet and rucksack. In most cases, less is better. Otherwise, the heat, humidity, and rugged terrain will quickly wear the soldier out. The three top priorities should be water, ammunition, and batteries. Every soldier should have a butt pack to carry his minimum survival requirements. Leaders at all levels must inspect soldiers loads and rigorously dispose of any nonmissionessential items. LESSON(S): Don't overload your troops. Leaders must inspect soldiers loads to weed out nonessential items.

TOPIC: Resupply Operations. DISCUSSION: The jungle environment puts a premium on proactive planning for resupply operations during the offense and the defense. Battalions have difficulty resupplying companies and platoons using the supply point distribution system. Normally, platoons are too far away from the supply point to obtain supplies without significantly weakening their front line strength. The S4 must be proactive in tracking the battle. He should push prepacked supplies forward to units in contact. A technique to accomplish the movement of the supplies is the creation of log squads. The purpose of the log squad is to carry supplies forward and casualties rearward. The log squad carries only enough firepower to protect itself in a chance contact. Another possibility is the

hiring of native porters and animals to transport supplies. During World War II, U. S. forces in the Pacific were extremely successful with this technique. If sufficient air assets are available, supplies can be pre-packed in duffel bags and lowered by rappel ropes. Make sure that the duffel bags are man-portable. A 300-pound duffel bag is useless. Consider using poncho parachutes if light aircraft are available, but helicopters are not. LESSON(S): The S4 must be a proactive planner. Push pre-packaged supplies forward. Create log squads with battalion assets or local labor. Consider duffel bag drops. Ship all supplies in man-portable containers or packages.

TOPIC: Water Supply. DISCUSSION: Water consumption rates are very high in the jungle. However, treating local sources will yield potable water. Procuring water locally will prevent having water humped through the jungle. This will ease the logistical system's water distribution problem. Most jungles have abundant water during their rainy season. There is a potential for water shortages during the dry season, particularly in any highlands. Therefore, always be prepared to push water forward. In case of a shortage, it must be a priority item. LESSON(S): Procure water locally, when possible. Treat all drinking water. Be prepared to push water forward as a priority item. Make sure iodine bottles remain sealed until needed. They are susceptible to the humidity once they are opened. A technique is to have squad bottles instead of open bottles for each soldier.

DISCUSSION: Due to the effects of the jungle's heat and humidity on human remains, it is imperative that deceased personnel be either evacuated or interred. Failure to do so may have a catastrophic effect on morale. Log squads or any other form of transportation should be used to backhaul the deceased personnel to preestablished collection points. The battalion S4 should aggressively track the movement. He must ensure that the remains are backhauled to brigade as rapidly as possible. If field interment is called for, then the unit responsible must mark the location and report it to the S4. Particular care must be taken in both establishing the location and in marking the site. The jungle often makes precise navigation difficult, while the rapid growth of vegetation can cover a freshly dug interment site in as little as a month. LESSON(S): Evacuate the remains of deceased personnel as soon as possible. If unable to evacuate, inter the remains. Mark the interment site clearly. If possible, locate it on a prominent terrain feature to make it easy to locate. Report locations to the S4 by SOP.

TOPIC: Handling of Deceased Personnel.

BOS: Battle Command

TOPIC: Communications. DISCUSSION: Radio communications in the jungle are difficult. The thick jungle canopy and rugged terrain combine to play havoc with VHF/FM radio communications. The S2 analysis of the terrain is vital to the CESO to identify optimum communications sites. Signals are masked by the terrain and absorbed by the dense vegetation. Use of high ground and retransmission sites help to maintain communications. Field-expedient jungle antennas can also help. Lower frequencies (30 - 60 MHZ) tend to have a better ground wave/line of sight. Due to the high water tables, grounding is not usually a problem. Ground all radios and antennas whenever possible. Backup and even tertiary plans should be developed in case communications is lost. Contact points should be included on graphic overlays. Plans should be developed for elements to meet face to face at these contact points if no contact is made within a specified amount of time. Particular attention should be paid to units that habitually operate independently such as scouts, engineers, REMBASS, and GSR. LESSON(S): The S2 should ensure he provides the CESO a copy of the terrain analysis. Always plan retransmission sites. Locate antennas on high ground. Use remote antennas whenever possible. Use lower frequencies (30-60 MHz) when possible. Ground all radios and antennas. Develop contingency plans for lost communications, especially for units operating independently.

TOPIC: Visualizing the Battlefield. DISCUSSION: Due to the problems of radio communication in the jungle, it is often difficult for the commander to visualize the battlefield. In most other environments, a battalion commander can see a significant portion of the battlefield and acquire a feel for the battle. Not so in the jungle, where his field of vision may be 150 meters. As a result, the commander must be constantly in touch with the forward units to understand the battle. This will entail a lot of brush popping on the part of the battalion commander. He should have at least one soldier detailed as a bodyguard. Otherwise his ability to make the observations and decisions necessary will be hampered by the needs of self preservation. In addition, he will have to travel light with a small jump TOC. Most likely it would consist of the S3 and an S2 representative.

In Operation JUST CAUSE, most battalions kept their FSO at the main CP to allow the commander to travel rapidly. It also allowed the FSO to keep the fire support net functional nearly all of the time. LESSON(S): Keep in touch with your forward units, particularly the main effort. Consider using bodyguard(s) to provide security. Keep your jump TOC small. Allow the FSO to work out of the main CP. This will keep your fire support nets up and available to the companies at all times.

sound can be heard. Also, increased dispersion causes the number of troops securing the CP to multiply geometrically. Each separate node must have 360-degree protection. A closely arrayed CP is generally the best configuration. LESSON(S): Locate command posts near good terrain for communications, but not on it. Remote your antennas. CPs should be closely arrayed. Provide continual 360-degree security. Keep your radios tuned to the lowest possible volume, with the squelch off. Do not locate CPs along natural lines of drift.

TOPIC: Command Posts. DISCUSSION: Selecting a CP location in the jungle is far more difficult than in most environments. Good communications sites are few. The enemy will know most good communication sites. As a result, he is likely to focus patrolling efforts in those vicinities. The dense jungle foliage allows the enemy to infiltrate close to most sites without being detected. To counter this, dispersed CP sites seem attractive because of the concealment afforded by the jungle. While it is easier to conceal a CP in the jungle, the sound of radios breaking squelch carries a remarkable distance. Dispersing a CP into separate nodes greatly increases the area in which the TOPIC: Plans and Orders. DISCUSSION: Due to the communications problems inherent to the jungle, the commander's intent must be absolutely clear. All plans and orders should recognize several salient facts about the jungle. The first is that jungle warfare is a squad and platoon leaders war. Decentralized execution of all plans and orders is an absolute must. The second is the need for simplicity. Simple plans work in the jungle; complex plans invariably fail. The third is the need for contingency plans that rely on unit SOP for the majority of their content.

The contingency plans should be identified while wargaming. The final point is that simple, well-rehearsed unit SOPs are vital. During the 1941-42 Malaya and Burma Campaigns, the Japanese Army used a single well-rehearsed battle drill to hustle the British out of Malaya and Burma. All orders should provide adequate time for rehearsals in the jungle. As in all environments, rehearsals are one of the keys to success. However, the jungle penalizes all units who fail to conduct rehearsals. The dense vegetation and rugged terrain will confound even seasoned troops if they have not rehearsed their actions in jungle terrain. The primary reason is that the jungle is entirely alien to most U. S. troops. The difficulties of

maintaining visual contact beyond the boundaries of a fire team must be experienced to sink in. This effect holds true through battalion level. LESSON(S): A clear, concise commander's intent is half the battle. Decentralized execution is the norm in the jungle. Use the K.I.S.S (keep it simple, stupid) principle. Unit SOPs should be simple and well rehearsed. Conduct rehearsals in the jungle, not in an open field.

Part II

Platoon and Squad Operations

This section is organized differently from the first. The topics are focused at the platoon and squad levels. The discussion is usually short, followed by a series of lesson bullets that are offered for consideration.

TOPIC: Raids. DISCUSSION: The jungle terrain provides excellent concealment and good cover. It also reduces visibility and makes movement slow and noisy. LESSON(S): Be patient on the leader's reconnaissance. It will take longer due to the dense jungle foliage and the need for precise navigation. Support and assault elements will normally be combined due to a lack of suitable areas for support positions. Consider using flechette (buckshot) rounds for the M203. Consider employing your 60-mm mortars in the hand-held, direct fire mode. The leader's reconnaissance should be small, no more than five men. A suggested composition is: platoon leader, assault team leader, weapons squad leader, and the two M60 assistant gunners. They can remain on site as a reconnaissance and surveillance element. When the M60s move forward, the AGs can point out sectors of fire.

Be prepared to conduct a hasty attack in case of compromise. Limit your reconnaissance movement to a minimum to avoid compromise. Most leaders reconnaissances are compromised when they attempt to get too close to the objective or move too quickly. The ORP should be a maximum of 200 meters away. Night raids are generally not practical. M60s are great for initiating raids. The security teams should leap-frog off the objective with the special teams to avoid losing contact. The reconnaissance and surveillance elements should carry pre-rigged claymores to cover their withdrawal. Consider taping a baggie filled with powdered CS to the claymore. This technique discourages pursuit. Because of the difficulty of adjusting fire quickly, use indirect fire to cover your withdrawal and high speed avenues of approach.

TOPIC: Ambush. DISCUSSION: Ambushes are a favored tactic in the jungle. The dense vegetation and relatively few roads and trails make them very effective.
LESSON(S): Local security must be alert because the enemy can come from any direction, forcing you to re-orient your ambush. Always take your camouflage from the area in which you have set up the ambush. Remember that the trees and foliage reduce the effective range of your weapons. Most of the time, your assault element will be closer to the kill zone than normal. Check each individual soldier's field of fire closely. Consider using flechette (buckshot) rounds for your M203s. Consider emplacing claymores in the trees above the trail. However, make sure they are secured to sturdy branches that do not sway in the wind. Do not use insect repellant, scented soap, Avon Skin So Soft, and other nonorganic smelling substances when on ambush. The enemy can smell you before he hits the kill zone. To repel insects, take garlic pills or eat garlic for a week prior to going on an ambush in the jungle. To provide further security, try to eat indigenous rations for one week prior to going on ambush. This will keep from alerting the enemy by your smell. Minimize movement in the ambush area, especially at night. The dense

vegetation and lack of ambient light can cause you to make a lot of noise. - Have each soldier make field expedient aiming stakes for the ambush site. This will keep the distribution of fire even throughout the kill zone. Lay a handrail of 550 cord from the assault line to the ORP. Use it to speed movement away from the ambush site. The platoon sergeant can police it up as the platoon withdraws. Reconnoiter your ambush site and, if time allows, set your troops in during daylight hours. Use the maximum number of NODs possible. Ambushes normally take place along trails where there is enough ambient light to use them. Use thermal imagers, such as the ANPAS 7, whenever possible. They work well anywhere in the jungle. Allocate NODs in the following priority: M60s, SAWs, platoon leader, left and right security. When clearing the kill zone at night, drop chemlites by KIAs/WIAs. Use different colored chemlites for different halves of the kill zone. An example would be left side green, right side blue. Use TA1s for control of security elements. To avoid carrying bulky items through the jungle, have the special teams work the kill zone with empty rucksacks. Pyrotechnics, such as star clusters and parachute flares, generally do not work well in the jungle. Ground flares are better.

TOPIC: Reconnaissance. DISCUSSION: These techniques, unless otherwise noted, apply to both the scout platoon and regular combat patrols. LESSON(S): Reconnaissance teams should be small, three -four men maximum. Travel light. Reconnaissance patrols should carry a butt pack only. Scout platoon teams will require a rucksack. However, resist the temptation to pack it with 100 pounds of lightweight gear. Do not wear helmets; they degrade your hearing and reduce your peripheral vision. Travel in a series of short, deliberate movements. Your maximum crosscountry speed should be 200 - 300 meters per hour. Take listening halts for at least 15 minutes every hour. Patrolling more than 500 meters in front of the unit should be handled by the scouts. Pattern reconnaissance techniques are difficult to execute in the jungle. Use them sparingly because they require a lot of time. Each four-man team should have two radios. One should be pre-set to the fire control net's frequency. Always have a pre-cut jungle antenna.

Always have a contingency plan in the event of the loss of communications. Do not use insect repellant, scented soap, Avon Skin So Soft, and other nonorganic smelling substances when on reconnaissance. The enemy can smell you before you reach the objective. To repel insects, take garlic pills or eat garlic for a week prior to going on a reconnaissance in the jungle. To provide further security, try to eat indigenous rations for one week prior to going on reconnaissance. This will keep from alerting the enemy by your smell. Pre-rig your claymores with an M-60 fuze igniter and time fuze to provide a means of breaking contact. Carry an HC white smoke grenade and a CS grenade. When thrown together, the HC disguises the CS until the enemy is in the cloud. It also tends to suspend the CS in the air for a longer period. This action will slow up enemy pursuit. Also, he will tend to avoid white smoke clouds from then on. Carry pursuit denial munitions (PDMs) whenever you can. Put them in a claymore bag sewn to the top of your rucksack. You can never carry enough grenades. You can use them without giving your position away. Carry 1:25,000 maps whenever you can. Update them as you go.

Avoid trails and natural lines of drift whenever possible. If you must move on a trail, travel slowly. Do not carry maps marked with graphics and complete SOIs. Employ minimal graphics and use SOI extracts. Carry at least four quarts of water and two bottles of iodine tablets. Check the iodine tablets before you move out.

Carry your basic load of ammunition. Expend it liberally to break contact. Use a mix of tracers and ball to alert you when your magazine is almost empty. Use a simple near and far identification system. Always remember that you are the Indians, not the cavalry.

TOPIC: Hasty Attack/React to Contact. DISCUSSION: Due to the limited visibility of the jungle, the hasty attack is the most likely scenario. LESSON(S): React quickly with every weapon that you can bring to bear as soon as you contact the enemy. Gain immediate fire superiority and keep it. Do not wait for a clear visual target to open fire. Fire at smoke, muzzle flashes, or by sound. Otherwise, the enemy will gain fire superiority. Use grenades immediately, both smoke and fragmentation. Develop a battle drill for the hasty

attack. It should be simple, well rehearsed, and tailored to the jungle. If you can only rehearse one battle drill, this is it. The key element for a hasty attack in the jungle is the fire team. The key leader for a hasty attack in the jungle is the squad leader. Use your initiative. The platoon leader and platoon sergeant will be busy with reporting, calling for fire support, and controlling CASEVAC. Assault with shallow fire team wedges. They are easiest to control in the jungle while providing firepower to the front. Drop rucksacks by fire team on line of deployment or when decisively engaged.

TOPIC: Deliberate Attack. DISCUSSION: Deliberate attacks have the same considerations as the raid, minus the withdrawal. Instead, you substitute consolidation and reorganization. Keep in mind that most successful counterattacks take place within 15-20 minutes of the enemy leaving the objective. LESSON(S): Deliberate attacks are difficult to synchronize. Pay special attention to land navigation. Establish your limit of advance (LOA) after careful consideration of the terrain. If at all possible, establish it along a easily discernible terrain feature. Task-organize to provide 360-degree security on the objective as you sweep to the LOA. Reconnoiter the near side of the objective first. Do a far side reconnaissance of the objective after you have cleared between the LOA and the objective. This will dramatically reduce your chances of compromise during the leader's reconnaissance. Consider using an indirect fire preparation of the objective. When you arrive at the LOA, set out your LPs/OPs immediately. Make sure they have claymores to cover their withdrawal if necessary. Register your indirect fire assets as soon as you arrive at the LOA. Use the engineers to emplace a hasty

protective minefield as soon as you have cleared the objective. If you use a reserve, consider tasking the reserve for your special teams. Accomplish all of the above in under 15 minutes. Be aware of stay-behind snipers as you approach the objective.

TOPIC: Jungle Bounding Technique. DISCUSSION: The jungle bounding technique was developed at the Jungle Operations Training Battalion. It is a technique that maintains a steady pace without tiring the soldiers. At any given time, two thirds of the troops are stationary while the other one third is moving. Using 550 cord will allow units to move at night without losing control. LESSON(S): The lead squad in the order of march moves forward 100-200 meters and halts. It will become the new trail squad for the next bound. While moving, it laid out a line of 550 cord to the middle squad in the order of march. Once signalled that the lead squad has halted, the middle squad hands the 550 cord handrail to the trail squad. The middle squad then moves forward to become the new lead squad.

Once the trail squad is signalled that the middle squad has halted, the trail squad moves forward, rolling up the 550 cord. It now assumes the position of middle squad for the next bound, handing the 550 cord to the lead squad. Each squad should rest in a cigarshaped perimeter. Place M60s and SAWs at the 12 and 6 o'clock position.

TOPIC: Individual Soldier Skills. DISCUSSION: The jungle makes extraordinary demands of every soldier. In particular, it tests the fire team, squad, and platoon leaders. Certain skills must be acquired or honed prior to operating in the jungle. LESSON(S): Exercising initiative is a must in the jungle. The limited visibility and difficulties in communication require that the fire team and squad leaders act quickly without waiting for orders. Quick fire techniques must be second nature to every soldier. Engagement distances are usually so short that known distance firing techniques are not effective. In short, he who shoots first wins. Every soldier must be proficient in the treatment of heat injuries, use of bee sting kits, and in giving IVs.

The easiest method is what the British call the bum stick. Although it is not the most efficient method of getting intravenous fluids into a casualty, it is extremely successful when nearly all other veins have collapsed. Limited visibility firing techniques must be practiced to proficiency. The use of aiming stakes and firing at sound must be impressed on the soldier. One of the worst things that can happen in a firefight is for a soldier to hit the dirt and cease firing because he cannot see a target clearly. The number of water obstacles requires that you drown-proof your soldiers. Every weak swimmer should be identified. Practice waterproofing equipment, especially radios. Practice land navigation without using the GPS. Learn to rely on azimuth and pace count. Most maps of the jungle haven't been field checked in 20 years. In addition, visibility is generally poor. As a result, terrain association can be tricky. Every soldier must practice using water purification tablets. This sounds ridiculous, but experience shows that soldiers will botch this task unless they have done it correctly at least once. Reinforce lessons about camouflage. In particular, remind the soldier to change his personal camouflage to match the surrounding vegetation. Nothing sticks out like swamp vegetation on a hillside.

Follow simple rules of personal hygiene. Do not wear underdrawers, wash daily if you can with nonscented soap, and take care of your feet. Cross-train your soldiers in all squad and platoon weapons systems. The slowness of the replacement system in the jungle requires it. Brush up on tracking skills. Find out who the experienced hunters are in your unit, and use them to train others. SKILL LEVEL 2 and 3 Know your nine-line MEDEVAC format from memory. Know the capabilities and how to use a jungle penetrator and a rigid litter. Understand the technique of adjusting indirect fire by sound. Inspect your soldiers physical condition and particularly their feet at least once a day. Roadbound forces have gotten away from this habit. However, the jungle requires you to depend on leather personnel carriers. As a fire team and squad leader, you must be mentally prepared to seize the initiative. Know the commander's intent, and carry it out. Don't sit like a bump on a log awaiting orders. Enforce the use of field-expedient antennas. They work!

TOPIC: Logistics. DISCUSSION: The key word in jungle logistics is improvise. LESSON(S): Use available water resources whenever possible. If there are no reliable water sources, priority should go to: Water Ammunition Batteries Food Personal Hygiene Items Load planning must take into account the jungle environment. Soldiers are not mules. They should carry a maximum of 50 pounds in their rucksacks. Do not weigh them down with Dragon missiles and extra food. Consider hiring indigenous porters or animals to transport heavy items. Consider eating indigenous rations, depending upon the time of year and state of the economy. Caches sound like a great idea, but in practice they are difficult to recover. Use aerial and water resupply techniques to the maximum extent possible. Learn how to rig poncho parachutes. Also use duffel bags attached to rappelling ropes by a snap link to land supplies where there is no LZ.

Deliver MREs without the cardboard cases. It eliminates a lot of trash that would otherwise have to be buried or burned. Plan on resupplying units frequently with radio handsets, batteries (in small quantities), and antennas.

Know how to handle friendly remains. Develop a quick evacuation SOP as well as an accurate tagging and locating SOP.

TOPIC: Medical. DISCUSSION: The jungle is full of things that bite, sting, and stick you. Heat casualties are also an ever-present danger to units that fail to follow simple precautions. LESSON(S): All leaders must make sure their troops drink plenty of water. Each soldier should be forced to hydrate. Leaders should make their troops drink at least a canteen of water per hour. Do not allow soldiers to drink alcoholic beverages. It will dehydrate them rapidly. Combat Life Savers (CLSs) should practice the techniques necessary for dealing with jungle hazards such as snake bite, heat casualties, bee stings, and other allergic reactions. The platoon medic should ensure that each soldier has an IV kit. Each soldier should also have a set of tweezers for removing thorns. Tailor your aid bags for the jungle environment. Do not carry cold weather medicines and equipment through the jungle. All medical personnel (the platoon medic and all CLS) should practice the use of the jungle penetrator and the rigid litter. They should be expert in constructing field expedient litters as well.

All medical personnel should aid the platoon leader and squad leaders in foot inspections. The platoon medic should know the endemic diseases of the area. He should know what medical supplies are necessary for their treatment. He should also know when treatment is beyond his capability. The platoon leader, platoon sergeant, and squad leaders must know the medical history of their troops. They should know of any prior snake bites, prior heat injuries, and allergic reactions.

TOPIC: Command and Control. DISCUSSION: The jungle makes command and control extremely difficult. The dense vegetation and rugged terrain cause communications to break down frequently. They also severely limit the leader's ability to see the battlefield. As a result, the fire team and squad leaders are the keys to success in the jungle. LESSON(S): Make sure the commander's intent portion of your OPORD is completely clear. State it to your most junior private before issuing the OPORD. If he can restate it to you with reasonable accuracy, then it is ready to issue. If not, repeat the process.

Every OPORD must contain contingencies for the following situations: Loss of radio communications Break in contact Emergency resupply Actions on enemy contact Rehearse your internal platoon communications and those with higher headquarters whenever possible. Bench-test your radios. They may work fine in the open, but not be pushing sufficient wattage to talk in the jungle.

As a minimum, rehearse the hasty attack/react to contact battle drill in jungle terrain. Then rehearse as many of your SOPs as possible. It will reduce your communications requirements. Remember, a briefback does not equal a rehearsal. Remember, the maximum speed that you can normally sustain in the jungle is 500 meters per hour. The platoon leader should travel behind the lead element. When contact occurs, he should get forward quickly. Once he assesses the situation, he should report the situation. In nine out of ten situations, he should attack.

Part III

Tips of the Trade

TIPS OF THE TRADE

This section is organized into three parts. The first is a packing list. The second is a listing of tracking tips and techniques; the third is a listing of general combat tips that works well in the jungle.

TOPIC: Packing List. DISCUSSION: Packing lists are a subject of endless debate. About the only item that has total consensus is the maximum weight of the soldiers load, 50 pounds. What follows is a suggested packing list based on the experience of soldiers at the Jungle Operations Training Battalion and units in Vietnam. LESSON(S): The LBE should have the following items: Butt pack Insect repellant (Garlic pills) Signal Mirror (one per squad) VS 17 panel Compass (on person) Map (on person) Water purification tablets (two bottles) Survival knife Flashlight Heat tab (Emergency sterilization) Tweezers Compress Bandage (two ea) Cravat (one ea) The rucksack should contain the following items:

T-Shirt (two ea) Socks (three pair) BDU Trousers (one pair) Poncho Mosquito Bar (Bug Net) Gloves Waterproof bags (two ea) Two-quart Canteen Entrenching tool Machete (one/fire team) Weapons cleaning kit with extra CLP IV Kit, compress bandage (one ea), cravat (one ea) Radio battery Personal hygiene items Unscented soap Foot powder Razor blades Three days rations (stripped if MREs) 550 cord, 30-50' (can substitute for sling ropes) Snap Link Sewing kit Zip Loc Bags Trash bags (two ea) Electrical tape (one roll per fire team)

TOPIC: Tracking and The Use of the Human Senses during Jungle Operations. USE OF THE HUMAN SENSES In the jungle, the three most useful senses of the five senses are smell, touch, and hearing. SMELL. Your sense of smell can give you advanced warning of the enemy, often well before you see him. British troops in Malaya and Borneo as well as U.S. troops in Vietnam found this to be true. Cigarette smoke can be detected up to one-quarter of a mile away if the wind conditions are right. You can smell fish, garlic, and other foods being cooked for several hundred meters. You may be able to detect a person who has been using scented soap or eating specific foods from up to 100 meters away, thus discovering an ambush before walking into it. There are many types of wood used for fuel in the jungle. Some are good for making cooking fires, while others are only burned to repel insects or ward off the night chill in highland jungles. Being able to identify the smell of some of these woods may allow you to determine the purpose and general location of the fire. For the person who seldom uses scented soap, after-shave lotion, or other such toiletries, it is easy to detect a person using these items at a considerable distance. In some areas of the world, the

best way to prevent detection is not to use them. The British discovered this in Malaya. Often they would set an ambush on a known guerrilla trail. The guerrillas would get close to the ambush, then suddenly back-track and disappear into the jungle. Later, during the interrogations of captured guerrillas, they discovered why. Either the point man had smelled soap, nonindigenous food, or insect repellant used by the ambush party. A good rule to follow is that if the local indigenous population does not use it, you should not use it either. A final item that has a distinctive odor is explosives. Use surgical gloves to handle explosives when you can. Then put the used gloves in a Zip Loc bag. Always have one squad member who stays upwind of the explosives. He can then check to see if you are detectable at a distance. Also, make sure you package and seal all charges to where the scent of explosives is not detectable at a distance. TOUCH. You may find yourself having to search buildings, tunnels, or enemy dead at night with no means of illumination or when illumination is unwise due to the tactical situation. To use the sense of touch to identify an object, you must consider four factors: shape, moisture, temperature, and texture. Shape refers to the general outline of the object. Moisture refers to the moisture content of the object. Is it wetter or drier than the immediate surroundings?

Temperature is the object's heat in relation to the surrounding environment. Texture is the smoothness or roughness of the object. By taking the four factors into consideration, you should be able to identify most basic objects. An example might be the searching of a dead enemy. You may feel his trousers and realize that they are moister than his shirt, indicating he crossed water recently. Upon touching his boots, you realize they are moist, covered with mud, and that the tread is well worn. This would confirm the crossing of water and indicate that he was an experienced soldier. The warmth of his body indicates that he was moving rapidly. The shape of the insignia on his collar indicates that he was an officer. All combine to give you a good idea of who he is and what he was doing in the last few hours of his life. Touch is also useful in detecting trip wires. There are several methods. One is to use your exposed skin to feel for them. Another is to search by holding a very fine branch in front of you. If it strikes anything, you will feel it without triggering the trip wire. Still another is to use a piece of wire with a small weight on one end, hanging down from a stick. Held before you as you walk, it will detect trip wires without triggering them. HEARING. The sound of a safety catch being released or a bolt slamming home could warn you of an ambush or a sniper. The sudden sound of animals

moving or dogs barking may indicate enemy movement. It may also warn the enemy of your movements. However, do not automatically assume that humans caused the disturbance. Many jungles of the world are home to large predators who can spook game or cause dogs to bark. Similarly, sudden cessation of normal wildlife sounds may indicate passage of the enemy, or an animals or a bird's detection of you. Thus, it is important to become familiar with the distress and warning cries of birds and wild animals in the area of operation. Also the sound of a man talking, running, or crawling is important to recognize. When performing reconnaissance, always move cautiously enough to hear sounds made by the enemy before they see you. Other important sounds that you must be able to recognize are the sound of the striker of a hand grenade and the sound of its handle flying off. Sound can also assist you in determining the range to an explosion or blast. If you can see the flash of the explosion and can determine the number of seconds from the flash to the time you hear the sound, you can determine the approximate range. Sound travels at approximately 1,100 feet per second, which rounds off to about 400 meters per second. With a little practice, you can learn to determine the range to enemy weapons systems. Whenever you hear a noise, rotate your body with your hand cupped over your ears. In addition, open your mouth

slightly. When the noise is the loudest, you are pointing in its general direction. When there is no wind, air currents generally carry sound downhill at night and uphill during daylight due to changes in ambient air temperature. TRACKING Tracking involves using the five senses plus common sense to follow a trail through the jungle. It is a learned skill. However, soldiers with especially keen senses of smell, hearing, and sight are at a distinct advantage. A good source of personnel with basic tracking skills is soldiers who were raised in rural areas. Hunters and farmers are generally good basic trackers. Whenever possible, employ

native trackers. A general rule is the more primitive, the better. The following example from the tracking experiences of the LRRP Company (Company L, 75th Rangers) of the 101st Airborne Division in Vietnam is instructive.

A reconnaissance team was moving through the jungle. It came to the crest of a hill. It was pocketed with fighting positions. The holes were deep, but not as wide as Americans dig them. In the spoil around the positions were blurred footprints, similar to those left by Ho Chi Minh Sandals (strips of tires with thongs attached). The team concluded (correctly) that the area had been occupied by the Viet Cong. Counting the firing positions gave it an accurate estimate of enemy strength. During a sweep of the immediate area, the team found numerous piles of what it recognized as elephant dung. The quantity found suggested that 20 plus animals had been picketed in the vicinity. The dung was still fairly fresh, estimated it to be no more than two days old. Elephants were frequently used by the Viet Cong to transport supplies and heavy equipment, particularly 122-mm rockets and mortars. In an adjacent area there was a small frame house, carefully camouflaged and well fortified that appeared to be the command post. There were a dozen or so split gourds strewn about the room. Bits of cooked rice, perhaps 15 - 20 grains, still clung to the sides of the gourds. They were still soft to the touch. Using all of this information, the team reasoned that a enemy force of approximately battalion strength had been there not more than 48 hours prior.

There are four major factors to consider in tracking: displacement, staining, littering, and weathering. DISPLACEMENT. Displacement is the disturbance of soil, vegetation, or wildlife from its natural state. This means that a tracker needs to study the soil, vegetation, and wildlife of his area of operations. Footprints are the form of displacement that most clearly indicate human traffic. They can indicate the number of personnel in the party, their direction of movement, sex, and, in some cases, the type of load they are carrying. Studying a set of prints for worn or unworn heels, cuts in the heels, and tread pattern of the soles can allow the tracker to recognize certain individual prints. Also noting the angle of impression relative to the direction of movement. Prints that are normally spaced, but with exceptionally deep prints indicate persons carrying heavy loads. By following them to an area where they took a rest break, you may be able to see where they set their loads down. By studying that imprint and the surrounding area, you may be able to determine what the loads consisted of. Vegetation often provides valuable clues. When most vegetation is stepped on, dragged out of place, or cut, the lighter colored underside of the leaves show up. Vines tend to be dragged parallel to the direction of movement. When tread upon,

grass generally bends in the direction of movement. Displaced bark from a log or tree generally falls in the direction of movement, exposing the lighter, inner bark. Due to the large number of thorny plants in the jungle, it is not uncommon to find shreds of clothing. This is particularly true if the enemy was in a hurry. Birds and animals, when they are suddenly flushed from cover, are another clue to a tracker. Birds in particular usually emit cries of warning. They are also the most likely creature of the jungle to follow a group of humans moving through the jungle. Most animals will run away from man. STAINING. Staining is the depositing of liquids or soil not natural to a specific location. Bloodstains are a good tracking clue. By examining the volume, type, height, and color, you should be able to get a fairly good picture of the nature of the wound of the person you are tracking. For example, pink frothy blood found on leaves at chest height could indicate a chest wound. Spurts of dark blood found at regular intervals could indicate uncontrolled arterial bleeding. Observe logs, grass, and stones for signs of soil displacement from footgear. The color and composition of the soil may indicate a previous location or route. The muddying of clear water is normally a sign of very recent movement. If the water in the footprints is clear, the prints are most likely an hour or more old.

LITTERING. Littering is the result of carelessness or poor discipline. Anything, such as cigarette butts, scraps of paper, matches, or any other man-made items, may serve as an indicator. However, litter can be used as a tell tale, for example, leaving a pack of indigenous cigarettes on a trail as you pass. On your return, if the cigarettes are gone, someone has been there. Do not leave U. S. cigarettes; it will point out your presence to the enemy! Uncovered human feces is another type of littering that can tell you a good deal about the person who left it. WEATHERING. Weathering is the effect of rain, wind, and sun on the appearance of trail signs. Rain has a significant effect on footprints and litter. A light rain will tend to round out footprints, blurring their edges. A heavy rain will obliterate footprints very quickly. Rain tends to flatten paper scraps and other litter. Remembering the date and time of the last rainfall is very important. Sunlight erodes footprints more slowly than rain. At first, footprints have a ridge of moist earth pushed up around the sides. Sunlight and air will dry the ridge of dirt, causing a slow crumbling effect. If you find a print that is actually crumbling, be cautious for you are closing in on the enemy. Litter is bleached by sunlight. Most paper will become slightly yellowed within three days in the sun. Dark-colored paper and cloth take longer. The only guide for determining how long they have been in the sun is experience. Wind may blow grass, leaves and other

light litter into footprints. It is important to know when the wind was last blowing. Also, check the litter to see if it has been crushed. Litter may be carried some distance by the wind. You may have to search the surrounding vegetation to spot it. Wind can also carry sounds and odors. All of the factors listed above combine to cause metal to rust or oxidize. Check recently exposed portions of metal. For example, check the rim of ration cans where the opener stripped the paint. Rust normally forms on such surfaces in 12 hours or less.

TOPIC: General Tips. DISCUSSION: The following is a listing of general combat tips that were proven in Vietnam and at the JOTB. LESSON(S): Wrap radio hand sets in a sock, then in plastic. The sock will absorb any moisture that gets through the plastic. A 550 cord handrail run from the ORP to a site near the objective will assist the leader's reconnaissance in returning rapidly to the ORP. It will also facilitate linkup if the leader's reconnaissance doesn't have time to return to the ORP for any reason. Line M249 ammunition cases with mole skin to reduce noise.

Field-strip MREs to reduce trash backhaul. Use an opened compass slung on your rucksack to aid in night movements. Use pre-rigged claymores during the offense to aid in counterreconnaissance operations, during the defense to cover withdrawals. Don't tie wet socks to LBE, they won't dry. They will become snagged and shred. Put them on the back of your rucksack, as close to the middle as possible. Ground all unnecessary equipment in the ORP prior to the leaders reconnaissance to reduce noise. When clearing jungle huts, remember they are generally made of grass, which has little effect on grenade fragments, 5.56 rounds, and 7.62 rounds. Just fire through the structure in the direction of your advance. Otherwise you will almost certainly fire on your own troops. Keep in mind that any grenades thrown into the hut will most likely throw fragments out. M60 tripods have extremely limited value in the jungle. METT-T must be applied. The average life of the AN/PRC 126 in the jungle during the rainy season is roughly two weeks. Keep your compass and map on your person at all times. They are your basic tools for a return to friendly lines.

Have tracers as the last four or five rounds in each magazine. It will give you a visual clue as to when you are running low on ammunition. Carry at least five bungee cords to construct field expedient shelters quickly. To make a pad for taking notes at night, laminate a sheet of cat's eye material. Then you can write on it with an alcohol pen or other marker. Keep your packing list missionoriented. Don't wear restrictive clothing in the jungle. Wear a regular watch with a luminous dial. Fancy watches that beep or chime are guaranteed to go off at the worst possible moment. A regular watch can be used to navigate, while a digital watch cannot. Do not smoke when in the field. Put batteries in a waterproof bag along with some sort of material to absorb moisture, such as a sock. Do not wear regular BDUs in the jungle. Cover your boots with socks to cross trails and open areas as a countertracking measure. Carry magazines upside down in your pouches to prevent moisture accumulating in them. When you have empties, place them right-side up so you can feel them at night. Use a shotgun or M203 with flechette (buckshot) round as the point man's weapon.

Put extra smoke grenades on the outside of your rucksack, not on your LBE. Use your hand grenade holders on your ammunition pouches for fragmentation grenades, not for your flashlight or other items. Use silent hand signals to the maximum extent possible. Practice them frequently. Rig a headset to use with your radio. Use it while in a patrol base, ORP or position to constantly monitor the radio. Before it gets dark, put up your field-expedient shelter and your field-expedient antenna. Change your compass man and point man occasionally during long movements. Always ensure your weapon is pointing where you are looking.

Ensure your weapon is taped to prevent noise. Do not forget to scan the trees as you move through the jungle. Unless required by your mission, avoid human habitations. Unoccupied houses may be boobytrapped. Always sterilize your trail when on patrol. Sleep close enough to touch each other. If you snore, put a handkerchief over your mouth. Try sleeping on your stomach. To be more comfortable while you sleep, do not remove equipment. If you are on guard at night and have trouble staying awake, kneel instead of sitting. Dead foliage may be old camouflage, while tied-down or cut brush may indicate a field of fire.

Addendum to Part III TIPS OF THE TRADE (DEC 95) B-720 TIPS
1. CALL received many favorable comments concerning the original publication of Winning in the Jungle. We also received the attached B-720 TIPS. 2. The B-720 Tips are an update of the Vietnam era B-52 TIPS. The B-52 Tips were published in 1970 and captured valuable combat experience in jungle operations. In 1988 the 1st Battalion, 7th Special Forces Group (with several joint attachments), conducted an extensive series of jungle operations. They ended the exercises by updating the B-52 Tips to cover changes in equipment, weapons, and doctrine. These include many new techniques, such as Night Vision Goggles and MH-60 (Blackhawk) tips, and a section on Hatchet Team (QRF) operations. The lengthy and detailed PW Snatch, Breakout, and Movement Techniques portions from B-52 Tips were excluded because, while important, they are step-by-step how-to formats, not tips, and can be found in TC 31-29. 3. The B-720 Tips were not written to be the replacement for B-52 Tips but to provide the Special Operations community with a report of lessons learned (and relearned) in combat patrolling. The reader may note redundancy in certain information; this was done for emphasis. There may also appear to be some inconsistencies; these were allowed to account for variations in technique between teams. These are tips, not regulations. 4. The B-720 Tips are organized into 10 major areas: a) Leader Tips b) Uniform & Equipment Tips c) LCE/Rucksack Tips d) NVG Tips e) Weapons Tips f) Commo Tips g) Infil/Exfil Tips h) Recon Tips i) RON Tips j) Hatchet Team Tips

5. Readers who want to do a more in-depth study of jungle operations are reminded that there is a considerable amount of Vietnam experience and techniques available. Proponent school libraries, old Army and Marine manuals, and the professional journals of the day are all good places to start.

LEADER TIPS
1. No individual or team can practice or train too much or too often. 2. Teamwork is the key to success and will only come through constant training and rehearsal. 3. While on a mission, minimize fatigue, because tired men become careless. 4. If you show confidence, your team will have confidence. 5. Always have an alternate plan. Think ahead. 6. If you lose your temper, it will affect your judgment. Keep cool! 7. Don't be afraid to take advice from your team members. 8. Realism must be injected into all phases of training, such as zeroing weapons at targets in the jungle, using live training aids for PW snatch or ambush practice, etc. 9. Conduct at least half of your training at night. 10. Teams that have a good physical training program have fewer health problems. 11. Have a pre-mission and post-mission checklist to ensure that nothing is left behind. 12. Correct all personal, individual, and team errors on the spot. 13. Use tact when reprimanding your personnel, especially indigenous team members. If possible, take the man aside to criticize him. This enables him to react positively to the criticism, since he will not lose face, feel ridiculed or lose self-confidence. 14. Conduct English classes for your indigenous personnel, especially interpreters. Conduct classes for your U. S. personnel in your indigenous team members' language. 15. Don't set patterns in your operations. 16. Never do the obvious. 17. On patrol, stay alert at all times. You are never 100-percent safe until you are back home. 18. Have team members write down tips and lessons learned, and collect and consolidate them at the end of each mission. 19. Don't arbitrarily make all tips of the trade your team SOP. Always consider METT-T.

UNIFORM AND EQUIPMENT COMMON TO ALL

20. Wear camouflage BDUs on operations. Even when soaking wet at night, BDUs are remarkably invisible to NVGs. Plain OG-107 jungle fatigues, however, appear completely black when wet, and wet LCE appears like white stripes on them -- a man's silhouette can be clearly and easily seen by an enemy using NVGs. 21. Don't use luminous tape. It's easily spotted at long distance with NVGs. 22. Wear loose-fitting and untailored clothing on field operations. Tight-fitting clothing often tears or rips, allowing mosquitoes and leeches easy access to exposed parts of the body. 23. Tuck your jacket into your pants. You can't use the lower pockets because of your LCE anyway, and, in contact, you can temporarily stuff expended magazines inside your shirt. 24. Wear gloves to protect hands from thorns, poisonous plants, and insect bites, provide camouflage, and aid in holding a weapon when it heats up from firing. Aviator's nomex gloves work well. 25. Sew in a section of VS-17 panel to cover the inside top of your field hat, for use as an emergency daylight position marking signal to friendly aircraft. In the center of that, sew a 2" x 2" piece of USAF burn tape for use as a night-time position marking signal to AC-130 gunships (2" x 2" is the size recommended by the AC-130 low-light/night television operators). 26. Sew the same signal pattern inside your fatigue shirt, since hats are easily lost in firefights or pursuits. 27. Do not hang clothing or bandannas on green bamboo if you plan on wearing it afterwards. The fuzz on the bamboo is just like itching powder. Of course, clothing should not be removed or hung out on patrol. 28. If your mission requires long ropes, consider the use of 1" nylon tubing instead. It is lighter, more compact, and just as strong.

LCE/RUCK TIPS
29. Be sure that all snaps and buckles are taped. Do not use paper tape. 30. Always carry a sharp knife or bayonet on patrol. 31. Always wear your LCE buckled when not sleeping. If you're wounded, your teammates can drag you by your LCE shoulder straps. 32. For survival, each individual should carry a cut-down MRE in his pants cargo pocket, and one tube of bouillon cubes in the first aid pouch on his LCE. One bouillon cube dissolved in one canteen of water will provide energy for one or two days. 33. Don't use 2-quart canteen covers to carry 30-round magazines. You can fit eight mags in one, but once you take the first mag out, the others rattle loudly and spill out easily. Use regular ammo pouches. 34. Sew a long slim pocket on the side of your ruck to accommodate the long antenna, or use an accessory kit bag clipped and tied to the side of the ruck. 35. Snap the snap link on your rucksack through the loop in the upper portion of your rucksack carrying straps or the frame, so you won't lose it during exfil when you snap it on a ladder or extraction fastrope. 36. Insect repellent leaks and spills easily, so put it in a ziplock bag and isolate it from your other equipment in the rucksack. Also, squeeze air from the repellent container and screw the cap on firmly. 37. Always use the water from canteens in or on your rucksack before using water in the canteens on your belt. This will ensure a supply of water should you ditch or lose your rucksack. 38. Test the shoulder straps on the rucksack before packing it for patrol. Always carry some parachute cord to repair straps on patrol. 39. Use a waterproof bag in the rucksack to protect equipment while on patrol. This is extremely important during the rainy season. 40. Camouflage your rucksack with black spray paint.

Night Vision Goggles (NVG) TIPS

41. At night, carry NVGs in a claymore bag around your neck on your chest. This allows easy access and protects the NVGs from the elements. 42. Always carry a spare battery for your NVGs. 43. When in an OP at night, scan with NVGs only for a few moments every five minutes or so. If you scan continuously, you increase the chance of the enemy spotting your position (when two persons using NVGs in the passive mode look directly at each other, they will see glowing cat-eyes, caused by retro-reflectivity). 44. When moving at night, only every other man should wear his NVGs. Point and trail always wear NVGs. 45. Starlight NVGs and Thermal Imaging Sights (TISs) complement each other, and are best used in combination. The point wears a PVS-5/7 NVG, and the slack (the man behind the point) uses a TIS.

WEAPONS TIPS
46. Never assume that your weapon is clean enough on an operation. CLEAN YOUR WEAPON DAILY. 47. Always carry rifle-cleaning equipment on operations - bore and chamber brushes, cleaning rag and patches, cleaning rod with handle and tip, and a small vial of weapons oil. A shaving brush is very useful. 48. When you fire your weapon, shoot low, particularly at night. Ricochets will kill just as well, and most people hit the ground when shooting starts. 49. Use one magazine full of tracer during infiltration and exfiltration. If taken under fire during infiltration or exfiltration, the tracers can be used to identify enemy positions to friendly air support. 50. The last three rounds in each magazine should be tracer to remind the firer that he needs a fresh magazine. Alternative: The last eight rounds are three tracers followed by five balls. 51. Quietly replace the cartridge in the chamber of your weapon each morning. Condensation may cause a malfunction. 52. Oil the selector switch on your weapon daily and work the switch back and forth, especially during rainy season. This will prevent the common occurrence of a stuck switch.

53. Always carry your weapon with the selector switch on safe. 54. Use a plastic muzzle cap or tape to keep water and dirt out of the barrel. 55. To improve noise discipline, tape all sling swivels. 56. Rig the jungle sling so it is easily adjustable (for easy transition from rappel/fastrope to carry/fire). Tape a spare field dressing to the sling at the stock, using a single strip of wide cloth tape with a quick-release tab. 57. Check all magazines before going on an operation to ensure they are clean, properly loaded and that the springs are oiled and functioning. Magazine problems cause the majority of weapons malfunctions. 58. Place magazines upside down in your pouches to keep out dirt and water. 59. Do not retrieve your first expended magazine during contact because it will consume valuable time. 60. If you use a PAQ-4 Aiming Light on an M16A2 rifle, you must modify the handguard to allow the thumb switch to travel far enough to activate the light. Using the serrated edge of your bayonet, file down the area under the thumb switch (between the eighth and tenth ribs from the slip ring) about 1/4." This is not a problem on the M16A2 Carbine, because the handguard is smaller.

M203 GUNNER TIPS

61. In dense jungle, carry a 1:1 ratio of buckshot to HE, with 2-star clusters and 2-star parachutes for signalling aircraft. 62. In the jungle, point and trail men should be M203 gunners with buckshot in the chamber. 63. If you fire HE in the jungle at night, be ready to have it bounce off a tree limb right back at you and go off in your face. 64. Oil your M203 with 30W or 40W motor oil, especially the trigger, safety housing, and slide, due to rain and humidity in the jungle.

SAW GUNNER TIPS

65. Silence ammo in plastic drums by making inserts from tablet-back cardboard covered with acetate. Cut to fit two per drum. 66. When moving, use a 30-round magazine in the SAW. Attach a drum in the ORP or once in position in a hasty ambush. 67. SAW drum pouches are tightly-fitted and tend to pop open when you drop into the prone. Use cloth tape with quick-release tabs to prevent this. The 2-quart canteen covers are acceptable substitutes.

CLAYMORE TIPS
68. Claymores are factory-packed backwards; i.e., to be emplaced from the firing position to the mine position, with the excess wire left at the mine. This is corrected by removing all the firing wire from the plastic spool, discarding the spool, re-rolling the wire S- or Figure-8"-fashion, and replacing it in the bag so as to enable the mine to be emplaced first and the wire laid back to the firing position. The clacker with circuit tester attached is preconnected to the firing wire and stowed in the mine pouch. The unit commander must make the decision to either prime the mine before departing on the mission, or to only put the shipping plugs on the electric and nonelectric blasting caps to speed priming during emplacement. 69. Dual-prime each claymore for both electric and nonelectric firing. The time fuses should be pre-cut for 30-, 60-, or 120-second delay, for pursuit/break-contact situations. However, the burn time on the fuse becomes undependable the longer the fuse is exposed to wet/humid conditions. 70. Waterproof your nonelectric firing systems.

71. Carry the claymore in the rucksack so it's immediately accessible, so after breaking contact it can be quickly armed and emplaced on the back trail (even while it's still in the ruck) to delay pursuers. 72. When placing claymores around your position (OP, ambush, RON, etc.), they should be emplaced one at a time by two men - one man emplacing the mine, and the other standing guard. 73. Never emplace a claymore in a position that prevents you from having visual contact with it. 74. Because you only emplace a claymore where you can observe it, if you are operating in dense jungle, you may consider cutting your firing wire in half since you won't use more than 50 feet/5 meters of wire, easing emplacement and recovery and cutting weight. 75. Emplace each claymore so the blast parallels the team, and the firing wire does not lead straight back to the team position from the mine. If the claymores are turned around by the enemy, they will not point at the team. 76. Determine in advance who will fire each claymore and who will give the command or signal to fire.

GRENADE TIPS
77. Make continuous daily checks on all grenades when on patrol to ensure that the primers are not coming unscrewed. 78. Do not bend the pins on the grenades flat. The rings are too hard to pull when needed. 79. Fold paper tape through the rings of grenades and tape the ring to the body of the grenade. The paper tape will tear for fast use, while plastic or cloth tape will not. It also keeps the ring open for your finger, stops noise and prevents snagging. 80. All team members should carry a mixture of fragmentation, CS and WP grenades on their belts for the following reasons: a) Fragmentation grenades are good for inflicting casualties. b) CS grenades are ideal for stopping or slowing down enemy troops and dogs pursuing your team, and are effective in damp and wet weather, whereas CS powder will dissipate. c) WP grenades have a great psychological effect against enemy troops and can be used for the same purpose as CS grenades. The use of CS and WP at the same time will more than double their effectiveness. 81. Thoroughly train and test your indigenous troops in grenade-throwing, particularly WP. Not all of them might be adept at baseball-style throwing, or be able to get much distance. 82. Violet and red are the smoke colors most visible from the air. However, in dense jungle or wet weather, use WP to signal aircraft. 83. Notify aircraft before signalling with WP. Gunships or fighter-bombers may mistake it for a marking rocket indicating an enemy position and attack you. 84. Camouflage smoke, CS, and WP grenades, using black or OD spray paint. 85. Smoke grenades should be carried in or on the pack and not on the LCE. You don't fight with smoke grenades, and if you need one, 99 times out of 100, you will have time to get it from your pack. 86. Each team should carry one thermite grenade for destruction of either friendly or enemy equipment. 87. DO NOT carry rubber baseball-style CS grenades. They were designed for riot control on city streets and are inadequate in the jungle.

COMMUNICATION TIPS
88. Communication is everyone's responsibility, not just the communication sergeant's. 89. Always inventory and inspect your radios, kitbags, secures and sensors before and after all missions. 90. Place a plastic cover over your PRC-77/KY-57, and wrap them in an additional waterproof bag. 91. Pre-set frequencies on the PRC-77 so that a quick turn of the dials will put you on the desired frequency. This is especially helpful at night when you want to avoid a light. 92. Carefully inspect your X-mode cable for bent pins and dirt in the female connectors. 93. Take along secure hand-held radios with earphones and whisper mikes for internal in-position team communications during ambush and PW snatch missions. 94. Perform pre-mission radio checks: a) with your radio and secure packed in your ruck exactly the way you will carry them in the field; b) after your crypto has been loaded; c) with and without the secure hooked up; d) with your FOB, helicopters, fire support, the hatchet team, other teams operating adjacent to your AO, and your internal radios; e) bending the X-mode cable while receiving/transmitting to check for excessive static and/or loss of communication. 95. Before a mission, always place fresh batteries into your communication gear and sensors, especially the BA-1372 memory battery for the KY-57. 96. Always carry spare PRC-77 and KY-57 batteries, but do not remove the spares from their plastic wrapping prior to use, or they may lose power. 97. Carry the lithium BA-5598 batteries for the PRC-77. This cuts weight, and since the spare is in the battery cover, it speeds emergency replacement. 98. Ensure the PRC-77 battery cover vent is operational, because of the gases produced by the lithium batteries. 99. Ensure the cover vent is on the same side as the battery connector. 100. After you put the battery in your TEMIG beacon, cycle the TEMIG to make sure it is off, and not silently transmitting.

101. Don't try to weatherproof your handmike with a plastic wrapper. Water condenses on the inside anyway, it rustles loudly, and at night, it shines like a signal light when viewed through NVGs. 102. Always carry a spare handmike in a waterproof bag. 103. Don't carry your spare handmike where it might get crushed when you drop your ruck. 104. Clean all contacts daily with the eraser end of a standard No. 2 pencil. 105. Waterproof your CEOI and authentication tables by laminating them with acetate or putting them in a plastic zip-lock bag. 106. Constantly check to make sure your CEOI authentication tables are folded open to the page showing the most current set. This will prevent dangerous delays when your AC-130 requests authentication, especially at night. 107. Carry a single strand of claymore firing wire or WD-1 cut to your operating frequency for use as a field-expedient antenna. Secure one end (stripped of insulation) to the radio with an antenna base, then string the wire straight up to a branch (omni-directional), or lay it on the ground in the direction of the receiving station (directional). 108. Minimize radio traffic. 109. Do not send same or no change when reporting team location. Always send your coordinates. 110. Say back grid coordinates sent to you to ensure accurate copy. 111. The FOB must avoid making unnecessary, unscheduled radio checks just because they haven't heard from a team for a while. Be patient. 112. Whisper into the handmike while in the field. Exhale first, then speak, or your transmission will sound like a tire leaking air. Cup your hand over the handmike mouthpiece and your mouth to mask your voice. 113. Always remain calm and professional, no matter what happens. Screaming or speaking in emotional, angry, or desperate tones will cause the FOB to doubt your judgment and the accuracy of whatever you're saying.

INFILTRATION/EXFILTRATION TIPS
114. When loading the aircraft for infiltration, ensure the team is seated so that they can exit the proper door. 115. Load the team in reverse order. 116. Sudden shifts of weight in flight will cause temporary loss of aircraft control. Don't cause any. 117. The team leader and pilot will determine direction of approach to the infiltration LZ. 118. The team leader will wear a headset to talk with the pilot until just before touchdown/insertion. 119. The team leader will follow the flight with his 1:50,000 map from the FOB to his infiltration LZ. The team leader, not the pilot, is the man ultimately responsible for where the team is inserted. 120. When unloading a UH-1 at the hover, team members will unload one at a time to enable the pilot to stabilize his aircraft. 121. If the aircraft has to hover more than 6-8 feet off the ground, use a fastrope/ladder to avoid injury to team members. 122. If the first man exits the aircraft under fire, the entire team will exit the aircraft. 123. If the aircraft crashes, the team leader is in command on the ground. He will do the following: a) Secure an area 50 meters in front of the aircraft. b) Account for his team and aircrew. c) Call for a rescue aircraft. d) Treat casualties. e) With the pilot return to the aircraft to zero the radios and secures, turn off the gas, destroy the battery, and remove maps, CEOIs, pilot's notebooks, weapons (door guns) and ammunition. f) Evacuate aircrew and casualties (including KIA) on the first aircraft. g) Evacuate remainder of team on the last aircraft. 124. Inform your personnel in what order they will be extracted prior to the arrival of the extraction aircraft. The LZ should be secured prior to the arrival of the aircraft. 125. Give the pilot an LZ description and approach heading. 126. Notify aircraft before firing pen-flares, because they look like tracers.

127. Never turn your back without covering fire. If none is available, return fire while backing off. 128. The assistant team leader is the first to enter the exfiltration aircraft and counts the team aboard. The team leader or senior remaining detachment member is the last to enter aircraft, and the only man who can give the pilot the O.K. to lift off. Make sure you have everyone. 129. During extraction, do not fire weapons from helicopters after leaving the LZ, because a helicopter may be passing under you without your knowledge. 130. In selection of LZs, avoid likely or large LZs.

RECONNAISSANCE PATROL TIPS

131. When making an aerial visual reconnaissance (VRs), always mark every LZ within and adjacent to your AO on your map. Plan the route of march so that you will always know the distance and azimuth to the nearest LZ. 132. Always plan a primary exfiltration LZ and two or more alternates. 133. Your alternate LZs should be in the direction of your E. & E. corridor. 134. Don't cut off too much of the map showing your AO. Always keep at least 5-10 km surrounding your AO as running room. 135. Base the number of canteens per man on the weather and availability of water in the AO. Select water points when planning your route of march. 136. Inspect each team member's uniform and equipment, especially radios, sensors, NVGs, cameras and strobe lights, prior to departure on a mission. 137. Check all team members prior to departing homebase for passes, ID cards, notebooks with writing in them, cigarettes, lighters and rings with insignia, etc. Personnel should only carry dog tags while on patrol. 138. Always carry maps and notebooks in waterproof containers. 139. Use a pencil to make notes during an operation. Ink smears when it becomes wet; lead does not. 140. Use Storm-Safe or Wet-Notes waterproof notebooks (commercially available) so you can take notes, make sketches, etc., while it's raining. 141. During the rainy season, take extra cough medicine and codeine on patrol. 142. During the dry season, do not urinate on rocks or leaves, because the wet spot may be seen, and the odor will carry. Use a hole or small crevice.

143. The location and proper use of morphine should be known by all team members. 144. Each team member should carry maps, notebooks, and CEOIs in the same pockets of each uniform, for hasty removal by other team members if someone becomes a casualty. 145. All survival equipment should be tied or secured to the uniform or harness to prevent loss if pockets become torn, etc. 146. Do not take Zippo-style cigarette lighters to the field, as they make too much noise when opening and closing. Of course: you never smoke on patrol, because the odor travels long distances in the jungle. 147. Have designated primary and alternate rally points and LZs at all times. The team leader is responsible for ensuring that each team member knows the azimuth and distance to each rally point/LZ. 148. Never take pictures of team members while on patrol. If the enemy captures the camera, he will have gained valuable intelligence. 149. At least two pen lights with infrared filters should be carried by the team. 150. While on patrol, move 20 minutes and halt and listen for 10 minutes. Listen half the amount of time you move. Move and halt at irregular intervals. 151. Deviate from your route of march often. Never move in a straight line. 152. Never move along bottoms, ridgelines, or other easy and obvious routes. Always use the military crest of hills for your movement. 153. Stay alert at all times. You are never 100-percent safe until you are back home. 154. Avoid overconfidence, it leads to carelessness. Just because you haven't seen any sign of the enemy for 3 or 4 days doesn't mean that he isn't there or hasn't seen you. 155. A large percentage of patrols have been compromised due to poor noise discipline. Speak and talk quietly. 156. Never break limbs or branches on trees or bushes, or you will leave a clear trail for the enemy to follow. 157. Put insect/leech repellent around tops of boots, on pants fly, belt, and cuffs to stop leeches and insects. 158. Do most of your moving during the morning hours to conserve water. However, never be afraid to move at night, especially if you think your RON has been compromised. 159. Continually check to ensure your point man is on the correct azimuth. Change direction often. 160. If followed by trackers, change direction of movement often and attempt to evade or ambush them. They make good PWs.

161. Force yourself to cough whenever a high performance aircraft passes over. It will clear your throat, ease tension, and cannot be heard. If you must cough, cough into your hat or neckerchief to smother the noise. 162. Never take your web gear off, day or night. In an area where it is necessary to put on jungle sweaters/gore-tex jackets at night, no more than two patrol members should do so at a time. Take the sweaters/jackets off the next morning to prevent colds and overheating. 163. If you change socks, especially in the rainy season, try to wait until RON and have no more than two patrol members change socks at one time. Never take off both boots at the same time. 164. When a team member starts to come down with immersion foot, stop in a secure position, remove the injured person's boots, dry off his feet, put foot powder on them and place a poncho over them so they can dry out. Continued walking will only aggravate the injury, ensuring that the man will become a casualty, and halting any further progress of the team. 165. Desenex Ointment or Vaseline rubbed on the feet during the rainy season or in wet conditions will aid in the prevention of immersion foot. Put on the hands, it will also help avoid chapping. 166. All personnel should camouflage faces and backs of hands in the morning, at noon and in RON or ORP positions. 167. Never cook or build heating fires on patrol. 168. No more than 25-percent of personnel should eat chow at any one time. The rest of the team should be on security. 169. Whenever the team makes an extended halt, always check 50 meters out from the perimeter. 170. All team members should take notes while on an operation and compare them nightly. 171. Each man on a team must continually observe the men in front of and behind him (as well as the other team members) for hand and arm signals. 172. A reconnaissance team with a mine emplacement mission should never place more than one mine (AP or AT) in one small section of the road or trail at a time. If more than one is set out, the team is just resupplying the enemy, because when a mine goes off, a search will be made of the immediate area for others, and they will surely be found. 173. If your mission calls for emplacing a mine in a road, take an extra fuse along, in case one is lost. 174. When crossing streams observe first for activity, then send security across to check the far side. Then cross the rest of the patrol one at a time, with each man taking water as he crosses. If necessary, have all personnel cross prior to getting water. 175. Treat all trails (old and new), streams, hilltops, ridgelines, and open areas as danger areas.

176. Carry one extra pair of socks, plus foot powder, while on patrol, especially during the rainy season. Each team member should also carry an oversized pair of thick socks to pull over his boots when walking or crossing a trail or stream to disguise his tracks. 177. During rest halts, don't take off your pack or leave your weapon. During long breaks, such as for noon chow, don't take off your pack until your perimeter has been checked at least 50 meters out for 360 degrees. 178. During breaks, throw nothing on the ground. Stow trash in your ruck immediately. Don't bury trash, because trackers or animals will dig it up. 179. If you hear people speaking, move close enough to hear what they are saying, and take notes. 180. A dead enemy's shirt and the contents of his pockets and pack are normally more valuable than his weapon. 181. If the enemy is pursuing you, deploy delay grenades and/or delay claymores of 60-120 seconds. In addition, throw CS grenades to your rear and flanks. Give the enemy a reason or excuse to quit. 182. If you're being pursued at night, HC (white smoke) and CS grenades in combination will help you break contact, blind NVGs, and screen your escape.

RON (Remain Over Night) TIPS

183. Practice proper RON procedures when your team is training, even if you are on a rifle range. Take advantage of all training opportunities. 184. Select a tentative RON site from your map at least two hours in advance. 185. After passing a suitable RON site, fish-hook back and move into your selected position so that you can observe your own trail. 186. Don't form the common habit of constantly turning to the same direction (always to the left, or always to the right) when fish-hooking. 187. When in position, personnel should keep their equipment on and remain alert until the perimeter has been checked for 360 degrees at a distance of no less than 50 meters. 188. Packs should not be taken off until it is dark. 189. When deploying the team for RON, place the point man in a position opposite the most likely avenue of approach, to lead the team out in case of emergency. 190. Use aiming stakes to help orient weapons toward avenues of approach.

191. Azimuths (OT lines) and distances to preplanned targets should be recorded prior to nightfall. Nearby large trees or pre-positioned stakes can aid as hasty reference points for calling in artillery at night. 192. Prior to dark, the team leader should tell each man the primary and alternate rally points. 193. One half of the team should have their compasses set for the primary rally point and the other half for the alternate. If the enemy comes from the direction of the primary rally point, any man with the azimuth of the alternate rally point set on his compass can lead the team out. 194. A buddy system should be established in case casualties are taken at night. Each man will take care of his buddy and his buddys equipment if the buddy is wounded, injured, or killed. 195. The pack or rucksack can be used as a pillow. However, ensure that the carrying straps are in the up position for easy insertion of the arms in case of rapid withdrawal. 196. It is permissible to unhook your LCE in the RON, but it should never be taken completely off at any time during the entire stay in the field. 197. A poncho, jungle sweater and rain jacket are sufficient for sleeping. 198. If a person coughs in his sleep, give him as much cough syrup as he can tolerate without going punchy. 199. Team members should not bunch up or sleep next to each other. One grenade or burst of fire could get them all. In small reconnaissance patrols, all team members should be able to touch each other without moving from position. When this is not possible due to the terrain, breakable cord can be tied from patrol member to patrol member for alerting each other at night. 200. Know what your next day's plans are before settling down for the night. 201. At dark, each team member should take out two or three grenades and place them near at hand for use if hit at night. Set them so they won't roll away if they're accidentally bumped. 202. Wait until last light to emplace your claymores around your RON site so you won't lose them if you're run out of your RON before dark. 203. When the enemy discovers your RON at night, use frags first, then claymores (explosions are disorienting and don't necessarily give your position away), then M16/M203 (the muzzle flashes will pinpoint your location), and lastly SAW/M60 (automatic weapons always draw maximum return fire).

204. In some instances, it is better not to put claymores around RON positions but to rely on the use of CS grenades instead, for the following reasons: a) When claymores have been put out and the enemy is discovered to be moving in on the team, the team might stay in place too long, waiting for the enemy to enter the killing zone. b) If the team discovers the enemy moving in on them, the enemy will normally be on line, not knowing the exact position of the team. If no claymores are out, predesignated team members will throw CS grenades in the direction of the enemy force. After the gas begins to disperse, the team can withdraw. When the enemy is hit with the CS, he will normally panic. If he has gas masks with him and puts them on, he will not see clearly. If he does not have them, he will run away and may even fire his weapons indiscriminately, causing overall confusion and panic. In either case, the team has a good chance to escape, unharmed and unseen. c) If a claymore is triggered, a grenade thrown or a rifle fired, the enemy might be able to orient on the team, flank it, and box it in. 205. If claymores are used around an RON site, consider taping plastic packets of CS to the front of the mines. 206. Do not send radio transmissions from your RON site unless they are absolutely necessary. Be prepared to move if you do transmit. 207. Never smoke or chew tobacco or eat chow in your RON position. The odor of the food or tobacco will give your position away. 208. All team members should be awake, alert, and ready to move prior to first light. 209. Another 360-degree check of the perimeter at a distance of at least 50 meters should be made prior to recovering claymores and sensors and moving out. 210. A thorough check should be made of the RON site just before departure to ensure that nothing is left behind and that the entire site is sterile. 211. Be alert when leaving your RON. If you have been seen, you will probably be attacked or ambushed within 300 meters. 212. Habits are easily formed around certain times of the day. For example, some teams always move into a RON site at 1830 or into a noon break position at exactly 1100 every day. If the enemy has been observing you, he will notice this and plan an ambush for you.

HATCHET TEAM TIPS

213. Hatchet Teams are fighting elements of team, platoon, or company size with the mission of rescuing compromised reconnaissance teams by combat action. The fighting elements and the helicopters and/or vehicles that move them must be on five-minute alert the entire time the reconnaissance teams are operational. The emphasis in their organization, equipment, and tactics is on SPEED and FIREPOWER.

TACTICS TIPS
214. Experience has shown that the Hatchet Teams face one of four basic tactical scenarios when committed (These scenarios are completed by Link-Up and Extraction of both Teams): a) Reconnaissance Team stationary and in contact with the enemy; Hatchet Team inserts an offset LZ and moves to attack enemy flank. b) Reconnaissance Team Stationary with enemy near but not in contact; Hatchet Team inserts on top of Reconnaissance Team to reinforce the position. c) Reconnaissance Team moving with enemy in pursuit; Hatchet Team inserts on offset LZ and moves to block or ambush enemy. d) Reconnaissance Team moving with enemy near but pursuit uncertain; Hatchet Team inserts/secures an LZ/extraction site and receives the Reconnaissance Team.

ORGANIZATIONAL TIPS
215. If the Hatchet Team is an ODA, a Ranger-style patrol organization works well: Team Leader is Patrol Leader (PL), XO is Assistant Patrol Leader (APL), Team Sergeant is A Fire Team Leader (A-TL), and Intel Sergeant is 5B Fire Team Leader (B-TL). Divide the other team members. split-team style, into fire teams. 216. Get 1xSAW and 2xM203s for each fire team. 217. Designate an additional medic as the Chase Medic/STABO-Master. His duties are to serve as an AST while the Hatchet Team is on Standby in its ready room or strip alert area. Once the team is committed, he rides the chase helicopter carrying the resupply bundle and rigged for STABO extraction. If another helicopter is not available, upon the return of the insertion aircraft to base, he loads the resupply bundle and rigs the aircraft appropriately. a) In the MEDEVAC role, the Chase Medic receives patients onto the aircraft, allowing the other medics to remain on the ground with their team. b) In the resupply role, be lowers or kicks the resupply rucks as requested by the ground element. c) In the STABO extraction role, he throws the kit bag with the STABO harnesses (if required) and, with the assistance of the crew chiefs, throws the fastropes (FRIES) or STABO ropes. The Chase Medic carries a pistol, M5 bag modified for trauma only, a backboard, and should pre-rig IV sets on the fuel bladder harnesses, if possible. 218. Ideally, the Hatchet Team and its helicopter(s) are collocated with the FOB/SFOB: a) The team can remain current on the tactical situation and anticipate possible events and courses of action. b) When alerted, the Team Leader/PL and pilot can receive their orders and guidance directly from the commander in the FOB while the XO/APL oversees the last-minute preparation and inspection of the team and the helicopter is cranked.

EQUIPMENT TIPS
219. The point should carry a magazine of tracer in his weapon. In a contact, his fire will help orient the team to the enemy location. 220. Recommended basic load: a) for each M16: 13x30-round magazines (one in the weapon); 4xHE-frag, 1xCS, 1xWP or red/violet smoke hand grenades and 1xClaymore b) for each M203: 13x30-round magazines (one in the weapon); 2xStar clusters, 2xStar parachutes, 4xCS, 8xHE, 8xBuckshot 40mm grenades (worn on vest): c) for each SAW gunner: 4x30-round magazines (one in the weapon) and 3x200-round drums (two on the belt, one in the buttpack). 221. If an M16/M203 bearer also carries a pistol, delete 3x30-round magazines and add 2x15-round 9mm magazines (one in the weapon, one on the scabbard). 222. Common to all: Rappel seat and 2xSnap links (worn); NVGs (carried in slung claymore bag): buttpack with 1xRation, 1xIV set, 1xIR and 1xColored chemlites, 2xFlex-cuffs, 1xSandbag, 1xBlindfold, 1xGag, 2x1Quart canteens; plus LCE as per team SOP (maps, compasses, strobes, bayonet and scabbard, etc.). 223. Special: PAQ-4s for M16 bearers; pen flare sets for PL and APL; modified M5 bags carried in medium ALICE rucks and white-light penlight for medics; PRC-77s with KY-57s, CEOIs, TEMIG beacons, and VS-17s in rucks with frames for RTOs (recommend APL carry his own radio); camera for designated photographer; PRC-90s for fire team leaders (emergency use only). 224. Resupply Bundle (Label each ruck to indicate contents and unit): a) for each team member (separately bagged and tagged by team member): Another complete basic load of ammunition pre-loaded into magazines. b) for each team: 1) 1xRation per man. 2) 1x2-quart canteen per man. 3) 2xPRC-90s.

MEDIC TIPS
225. Modify the M5 aid bag for trauma only, especially for gunshot wounds and snake/insect bites. 226. Pack the aid bag so you can get to anything you need without rummaging. This is very important at night. The medium ALICE rucksack works well. 227. Carry a white-light penlight to inspect patients at night. 228. Recommended trauma aid bag contents: Poncho (for litter); IV fluid set; 2x2s; tape; bandages; dressings; cravats; ace wraps; telfa pads; motrin/aspirin; bee sting kit; BP cuff; stethescope; tourniquet: providine/betadine ointment; narcotics (in tupperware container for protection). 229. Have each man on the team carry: IV fluid set; insect repellent; foot powder; two field dressings (GSWs usually cause two holes: entry and exit). 230. Train all team members in the use of field dressings, IV fluid sets, medical narcotics use, and snake/insect ID and bite treatment. 231. If you have a dedicated MEDEVAC helicopter, install a jungle penetrator on board and practice using it. 232. Recommended IAD for chance contact with African (killer) bees: Run as fast as you possibly can for 300 meters back the way you just came, and don't look over your shoulder.

MH-60 (Blackhawk) TIPS

233. Helicopters must be dual-rigged for both rappel and fastrope insertion, because the forest canopy may be higher than the length of the fastrope. 234. Rappel ropes must be dual-rigged for both rappel and STABO. This is no problem if Figure-Eight descenders are used for rappelling. 235. Hatchet team members must board the helicopter with their rappel seats on because the insertion point may change from a landing zone (LZ) or fast-rope zone (FZ) to a rappel zone (RZ) while enroute. The seats may also be necessary for a STABO-style extraction.

236. Have the Figure-Eight descenders already mounted on the rappel ropes in the helicopter. As team members sit in the door, they pull down the next Figure-Eight on their rope, clip it into the snap links on their rappel seat, pull up one arm's-length of slack, and exit the helicopter by vigorously twisting away from the aircraft from the sitting position, brake hand away from the aircraft and guide hand momentarily off the rope. DO NOT attempt to attain the L-shaped body position used with UH-1 rappelling. 237. Recommended helicopter configuration: no seats, doors open, door safety straps in place, rappel rope deployment bags stowed on top of the fuel bladders (aft ropes) and on floor inside forward of troop doors (forward ropes), fastrope arms extended, fastropes coiled and centered on the doors directly behind the men sitting in the doors, to be used as seats (one man per coil), with two headsets so the Team Leader/PL and XO/APL can talk with the aircrew. 238. Recommended seating: Team Leader /PL (first man out) sits by the leading edge of the left door, legs out, headset on, clear lens goggles on (giving him the best view possible); Team Sergeant same place in the right door; XO/APL between the crew chief seats, headset on, facing aft (giving him the best view of the cabin; he's the last man out); SAW and/or M203 gunners sit by the trailing edge of the doors (because of the bulk of their weapons, making it easier and faster for them to exit, and putting major firepower on the ground quickly); everyone else sits toboggan-style, oriented toward their exit door. 239. Even at night, the Team Leader/PL should wear clear-lens goggles during flight instead of night-vision goggles because the aircrew is already wearing NVGs and it is far easier to remain oriented, read a map (using a filtered penlight), and check the terrain with the naked eye. 240. Recommended actions on insertion: At the one-minute warning, undo safety straps and stow to the rear, move fastrope coils or rappel rope D-bags between the men sitting in the doors; at the Short-Final warning, Team Leader/PL confirms and O.K's insertion point to pilot, then removes and passes his headset to the crew chief; XO/APL performs duties as Ropemaster. 241. WARNING: Team Leader/PL, remember it is YOUR responsibility to deliver your team safely to the correct location, NOT the aircrew's. DO NOT blindly take orders from the pilots or crew chiefs to throw ropes and go. Experience has shown the computer navigation system to be accurate to only 500 meters. 242. Don't rely completely on the pilot's MH-60 Doppler radar altimeter to tell you how far above the ground you are. He may be getting a false return from the jungle canopy. 243. When rappelling, throw the left forward and right aft D-bags first, then the left aft and right forward D-bags, to avoid entanglement. 244. When fastroping, have only one man on a fastrope at a time. This prevents pile-ups and injuries, particularly at night. 245. When fastroping or rappelling, wear work gloves over aviator's gloves and ditch or pocket the work gloves once on the ground.

246. With the pilots, decide on an SOP for the crew chiefs to either cut away or retrieve the rappel/fastropes after the team is inserted. 247. After the team is inserted, the aircraft should remain on station for ten minutes to provide doorgun fire support and emergency extraction if something goes wrong. This is NOT a viable technique for reconnaissance teams. 248. When required to STABO-extract persons lacking appropriate harnesses or seats (PWs, detainees, rescued aircrews, etc.), the aircraft will hover over the extraction point long enough to allow the on-board STABO-Master to throw a weighted kit bag with the necessary number of harnesses to the ground. While the aircraft orbits to provide doorgun fire support, the ground element rigs the designated personnel, and when ready, calls the aircraft back. The STABO-Master then ensures accurate rope delivery and confirms the Lift Away signal from the ground (infrared chem-lite or flashlight twirled or swung in a circle). 249. When signaling to aircraft at night, turn off infrared strobes and use infrared chem-lites once the aircraft is sure of your position and is in line-of-sight. The strobe is so bright it whitesout the pilots' NVGs at close range. An infrared chem-lite twirled on a string is an excellent signal. 250. The maximum allowable cargo load (ACL) for a fully-fueled MH-60 is 12 Americans carrying fighting loads. Even with less fuel, more than twelve men in the cabin is very awkward and uncomfortable and unsafe during fastroping and rappelling.

BIBLIOGRAPHIES
Barber, Noel. The War of the Running Dogs. New York: Bantam Books, 1987. Chambers, Larry. RECONDO: LRRPs in the 101st Airborne. New York: Ballentine Books, 1994. Chapman, F. Spencer. The Jungle is Neutral. New York: W. W. Norton & Co., 1949. Davis, Burke. MARINE! The Life of Chesty Puller. New York: Bantam Books, 1964. Donovan, David. Once a Warrior King. New York: Ballentine Books, 1986. English, John A. A Perspective on Infantry. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1981. Geraghty, Tony. Inside the S.A.S. New York: Ballentine Books, 1982. Leppellman, John. BLOOD ON THE RISERS: An Airborne Soldier's Thirty-five Months in Vietnam. New York: Ballentine Books, 1991. Marshall, S.L.A. MEN AGAINST FIRE: The Problem of Battle Command in Future War. Massachusetts: Peter Smith, 1978. McDonough, James R. Platoon Leader. New York: Bantam Books, 1986. Slim, Viscount. DEFEAT-INTO-VICTORY. China: Papermac, 1986

REFERENCES
Field Manuals (FM) 6-20 Fire Support in Combined Arms Operations, 31 December 1984. 7-20 The Infantry Battalion, 6 April 1992. 34-8 Combat Commander's Handbook on Intelligence, 28 September 1992. 100-5 Operations, 14 June 1993. 101-5-1 Operational Terms and Symbols, 21 October 1985.

MISCELLANEOUS LITERATURE
CSI Research Survey No. 6, A Historical Perspective on Light Infantry. TRADOC Pam 525-100-1, Leadership and Command on the Battlefield: Operations JUST CAUSE and DESERT STORM. TRADOC Pam 525-100-2, Leadership and Command on the Battlefield: Battalion and Company.