1 Chapter 1 Introduction to Perception The Perceptual Process The STIMULUS 1.

1. Environmental Stimulus all things in our environment that we can potentially perceive o Ex. Ellen walks in the woods, with trees, flowers, birds, paths etc around her 2. Attended Stimulus the focus of ones attention shifts from moment to moment o Ex. Ellen notices the butterfly on the tree in front of her 3. Stimulus of the receptors retina creates a REPRESENTATIONAL image of the butterfly Electricity 4. Transduction the transformation of one form of energy into another o All bodily signals are based on receptors taking stimuli and converting/TRANSDUCING them into electrical signals 5. Transmission electrical signal representing butterflys image activate neurons which activate more neurons along a pathway between the eye and the brain 6. Processing o Neural Processing involves electrical signal representing butterfly being processed by brain into chemical signals representing a butterfly Experience and Action 7. Perception conscious sensory experience o Ex. Ellen PERCEIVES the butterfly, but has yet to recognize it as such (ex. could be a moth, strange bird) 8. Recognition ability to place an object into a category, such as butterfly o SEPARATE PROCESS TO PERCEPTION o Ex. Form Agnosia inability to recognize objects (ex. glove sack with 5 smaller sacks of different sizes) 9. Action motor activities (limbs, eyes etc) locomotion us through the environment Knowledge (10.) any information that the perceiver brings to the situation (ex. butterfly vs. moth) Bottom-up Approach (data-based processing) processing based on INCOMING DATA. Essential to perception. Top-down approach (knowledge-based processing) processing based on KNOWLEDGE. Often (usually) works in tandem with bottom-up. How to Approach the Study of Perception 2 Approaches 1. Psychophysical approach to perception Psychophysics refer to the use of quantitative methods to measure relationships between stimuli (physics) and perception (psycho) (PP) Ex. asking a participant to decide whether 2 very similar patches of color are indeed the same 2. Physiological Approach to perception 1. Examining the stimulus-physiology relationship (PH1) o Ex. examining how 2 different colors stimulate neurons in a cats cortex 2. Examining the physiology-perception relationship (PH2) o Measuring the persons brain activity when seeing the 2 different colors

2 Cognitive Influences of Perception o Knowledge, memories, expectation that may affect perceptions

Measuring Perception 5 steps: 1. Describing, 2. Recognizing, 3. Detecting, 4. Perceiving magnitude, 5. Searching Describing Phenomenological method ex. perceiving/noticing some objects as bigger than others, different colors, sweet vs. sour Recognition Recognizing a difference and indicating what you are seeing o Might be useful to measure the amount of energy required to recognize certain things vs. others Detection Classical Psychophysical Methods Quantitative methods (limits, adjustment, constant stimuli) for measuring perception The Absolute Threshold smallest amount of stimulus energy necessary to detect stimulus (ex. barely detectable flash of light is the AT of seeing that light) Determining Absolute Threshold o METHOD OF LIMITS (slowly increasing or decreasing stimulants to determining the minimum required to perceive it) Slowly decrease to the threshold, then slowly increase from below that number Threshold is mean of all crossover values (SEE PAGE 14) o METHOD OF ADJUSTMENT same thing, but dial is adjusted constantly o METHOD OF CONSTANT STIMULI 5-9 stimuli in random order, and percentage of times stimuli is detected or not detected (ex. 150 never detected, 200 always detected. 50% of trials could detect light at 180, making 180 the threshold. The Difference Threshold smallest detectable difference between two stimuli o Ex. difference between 100g and 102g is detectable. Difference between 200g and 204g is detectable o Webers Law: K=DL/S where DL = difference threshold, S = value of standard stimulus, K = Webers fraction So: K = 2g/100g = 4g/200g, therefore K = 0.02 (constant) Magnitude Estimation o Ex. subject shown light, marked as 10. Double intensity is 20, half is 5 Often not constant. What should be 20 is perceived as 28, what should be 40 is perceived as 36. Called RESPONSE COMPRESSION o Ex. same as above, but with electric shock. 20 to 40 perceived as 6 to 49. Called RESPONSE EXPANSION o STEVENS POWER LAW: P = KSn P = perceived magnitude. K = constant (ex. 1.0), S = stimulus intensity K = slope of line in perception (constant) So: Intensity 10: P = (1.0) x 102 = 100 Intensity 20: P = (1.0) x 202 = 400. THEREFORE doubling of intensity results in 4-fold increase in perceived magnitude Can be plotted in straight lines using Logs

3 Search Test: visual search Reaction time time between presentation of stimulus and reaction Some people respond differently. Called RESPONSE CRITERION. Some may perceive brighter lights as less bright then others.

Chapter 2 Introduction to the Physiology of Perception The Brain: the Minds Computer History of Physiological Approach Aristotle (4th Century BCE) HEART is the seat of the mind Galen (2nd Century AD) 4 SPIRITS come from brain VENTRICLES o Generally accepted even until Renaissance and early 1600s Rene Descartes (1630s) Pineal Gland in brain is seat of the soul Thomas Willis (1664) dissected the brain, determined it is seat of mental function 1800s RETICULAR THEORY nervous system is collection of fused nerve cells NEURON THEORY nervous system consisted of distinct elements or cells Camillo Golgi STAINING used silver nitrate to stain thin slice of brain tissue o First time it was possible to see entire nerve cell. Won Nobel Prize for it Mueller (1842) DOCTRINE OF SPECIFIC NERVE ENERGIES different nerve energies from different nerve centres stimulate different parts of the brain Edgar Adrian (1920s) able to record specific electrical signals from a single sensory neuron (also won the Nobel Prize) Basic Brain Structures Cerebral Cortex 2mm thick later that covers surface of brain seat of perception o Modular function specific functions are served by specific areas of the cortex Primary receiving areas areas that receive specific signals from each senses receptors o Occipital lobe vision o Temporal lobe hearing o Parietal lobe touch, temperature, pain (skin senses) o Frontal lobe signals from ALL senses, coordinates info from 2 or more senses Neurons: Cells That Create and Transmit Electrical Signals Structure of Neurons Cell body contains mechanisms to keep the cell alive Dendrites branch out from cell body to receive electrical signals from other neurons Axon/Nerve fibbers filled with fluid that conducts electricity o Some cells have long axons, some short axons, some no axons. Receptors neurons specifically designed to respond to specific stimuli o Vision (light), hearing (air pressure waves), touch (skin pressure), smell (chemicals in the air), taste (chemicals in liquids form) Recording Electrical Signals in Neurons NERVE = many axons of many neurons

4 AT REST difference in potential: -70 millivolts RESTING POTENTIAL o I.e. inside neuron is 70mV negative compared to outside WHEN FIRED charge in axon rises to +40mV compared to outside o This signal is called the ACTION POTENTIAL (lasts about 1/1000 of a second)

Chemical Basis of Action Potential Ions dissolved in neuron liquid o 1. Na+ (sodium) flows into axon, raising potential to +40 o 2. This causes K+ (potassium) to flow out, lowering potential back to -70 Neurons are SELECTIVELY PERMEABLE to Na+, K+ Basic Principals of Action Potentials PROPAGATED RESPONSE signal travels all the way down the axon without decreasing in size Remains the same size no matter how intense the stimulus is o Different size stimuli can affect RATE of firing, but not size and intensity of signal REFRACTORY PERIOD nerve can only fire as fast as it can return back to normal o +-1ms for more neurons. Neurons can fire about 500-800 impulses per second SPONTANEOUS ACTIVITY neurons fire by themselves occasionally serves as baseline Problem: gap between neurons the SYNAPSE. How does that shit work? Events at the Synapse As action potential reaches the end of a neuron, it triggers the release of NEUROTRANSMITTERS stored in synaptic vesicles in the sending neuron Received in RECEPTOR SITES specifically shaped to receive specific neurotransmitter o Activated receptor sites and triggers voltage change in the receiving neuron o Depends on nature of neurotransmitter EXCITATORY TRANSMITTERS cause inside of neuron to become more positive o Much smaller change than in action potential o This small change can trigger an action potential called an EXCITATORY RESPONSE INHIBITORY TRANSMITTERS cause inside of neuron to become more negative (HYPERPOLARISATION) called an INHIBITORY RESPONSE o Prevents axon from reaching level of depolarization necessary for firing Neural Processing: Excitation, Inhibition, and Interactions Between Neurons NEURAL CIRCUITS groups of interconnected neurons (can be a few to thousands) CONVERGENCE synapsing more than one neuron to a single neuron o Synapsing a single neuron doesnt give any information on intensity of stimulus. Stimulating convergent neurons provides more information o SEE PAGE 33 FOR EXAMPLE, including excitatory and inhibitory Introduction of Receptive Fields The RECEPTIVE FIELD of a neuron is the area on the receptors that influences the firing rate of the neuron. o Made of up EXCITATORY and INHIBITORY AREA (like a circle with a bullseye) Called the CENTER-SURROUND RECEPTIVE FIELD Can be EXCITATORY-CENTRE-INHIBITITORY SURROUND RF Or INHIBITORY-CENTRE-EXCITATORY-SURROUND RF o Influence can be excitatory or inhibitory both indicate receptive field o This causes and effect called CENTER-SURROUND ANTAGONISM

5 The Sensory Code: How the Environment Is Represented by the Firing of Neurons SPECIFICITY CODING the representation of particular objects in the environment by the firing of neurons that are tuned to respond specifically to that object (see fig. 2.21) GRANDMOTHER CELL neuron that responds only to a specific stimulus Distributed Coding: Representation by the Firing of Groups of Neurons DISTRIBUTED CODING the representation of a particular object by the PATTERN of firing of groups of neurons Sparse Coding: Distributed Coding With Just a Few Neurons SPARSE CODING a particular object is represented by the firing of a relatively small number of neurons The Mind Body Problem How do physical processes (nerve impulses etc) become transformed into the richness of perceptual experience (the mind)? NCC NEURAL CORRELATE OF CONSCIOUSNESS consciousness can be roughly defined as our experiences o Called the EASY PROBLEM OF CONSCIOUSNESS HARD PROBLEM OF CONSCIOUSNESS How do sodium and potassium ions flowing across a membrane or nerve impulses resulting from this flow become the perception of a persons face of the color red?

Chapter 3 Introduction to Vision Focusing Light onto the Retina Light: the Stimulus of Vision Light is a narrow band within the ELECTROMAGNETIC SPECTRUM o Energy within spectrum is a WAVELENGTH (the distance between the peaks) o Lights wavelengths 400-700nm The Eye Light reflected by objects in the environment enter the eye through the PUPIL, is focused by the CORNEA and LENS to form a sharp image on the RETINA, which contains the receptors for vision. The receptors on the retina react to light and convert it into electrical signals, which are transported down the OPTIC NERVE to the brain. 2 kinds of visual receptors o RODS o CONES o Both contain chemicals called VISUAL PIGMENTS that react to light and trigger electric signals CORNEA 80% of focusing power static Lens remaining 20% of focusing power adjustable o Beyond 20ft away, light enters eye parallel little adjustment required o Closer than 20ft, light enters eye at angle. Lens ACCOMMODATES this by changing shape. CILIARY MUSCLES at the front of the eye tighten to increase curvature of lens so that it becomes thicker. o NEAR POINT close distance at which eye can no longer focus PRESBYOPIA old eye distancing of near point as we age

6 MYOPIA nearsightedness o 2 types: REFRACTIVE MYOPIA cornea/lens bends light too much AXIAL MYOPIA eyeball is too long. o Solution move the stimulus closer (prevents the crossing of parallel lines) Point where object come into focus: FAR POINT. Use corrective lenses to bend light into same angle as far point o OR LASIK (Laser-Assisted-In-Situ-Keratomileusis) surgery sculpting cornea HYPEROPIA farsightedness often because eye is too short focus pt is behind eye

Transforming Light into Electricity Visual Receptors and Transduction OUTER SEGMENT where light acts to create electricity contains VISUAL PIGMENT MOLECULES o Each VPM contains 1 long strand protein called OPSIN, and one single RETINAL molecule o Photon impacting RETINAL causes retinal to ISOMERIZE (change shape), bending the opsin from bent to straight, leading to first step of light being converted into electricity Hechts Psychophysical Experiment o Hecht determined that of 100 photons entering eye: 50 are bounced off/absorbed by structures of eye 50 reach retina 7 are actually absorbed by visual pigment molecules o Hecht determined that it takes 7 visual pigment molecules to see a flash of light It is unlikely that any of the pigments hit the same receptor of the 500 in the area THEREFORE it takes 7 Pigments and Perception Distribution of the Rods and Cones FOVEA in centre of eye contains only cones o <1% of total cones (50,000 of 6,000,000) PERIPHERAL RETINA outside retina contains both rods and cones o 120,000,000 rods MACULAR DEGENERATION destroys fovea and surrounding area creates blind spot RETINITIS PIGMENTOSA destroys peripherals, slowly works its way into fovea BLIND SPOT where optic nerve leaves eye no receptors o Brain FILLS IN blind spot Dark Adaptation of the Rods and Cones DARK ADAPTATION eyes increasing sensitivity to the dark DARK ADAPTATION CURVE maps speed of dark adaptation o 2 stages: initial rapid stage, then slow continuation stage o 1st stage: lasts 3-4 minutes. Increases again after 7-10mins, till 20-30mins. o Eyes eventually become 100,000x more sensitive to light in dark-adapted stage ROD MONOCHROMATS people with no cones used to determine rod sensitivity When light hits light-sensitive retinal molecules, this causes VISUAL PIGMENT BLEACHING retina goes lighter in color as RETINAL breaks away from OPSIN. o At same time, VISUAL PIGMENT REGENERATION takes place as retinal and opsin rejoin

7 o Cone pigments take 6mins to regenerate, rods take 30mins DETACHED RETINA retina detaches due to traumatic eye injury o Separates retina from PIGMENT EPITHELIUM which contains enzymes essential to regeneration. Pigment bleaches, remains bleached, and subject goes blind.

Spectral Sensitivity of the Rods and Cones SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY an observers sensitivity to light. Sensitivity = 1/threshold o With this we can obtain the SPECTRAL SENSITIVITY CURVE Purkinje shift shift from cone to rod vision causes enhanced perception of short wavelengths during dark adaptation SEE PAGES 56, 57 ABSORPTION SPECTRUM plot of the amount of light absorbed by a substance versus the wavelength of light SEE PAGE 57 for spectrum Neural Convergence and Perception Receptors (R) travel to BIPOLAR CELLS (B) and then to GANGLION CELLS (G) which transmit signals to the brain o HORIZONTAL CELLS and AMACRINE CELLS connect neurons across the retina NEURAL CONVERGENCE one neuron receives signals from many other neurons o On avg, each ganglion cell receives signals from 126 receptors Avg 6 cones/ganglion (or less/private), 120 rods/ganglion Why Rods Result in Greater Sensitivity Than Cones Ganglion cells require 10 units of excitation to fire (and be considered sensitive) If 5 rods go to one ganglion cell, 1 unit of intensity will NOT cause the ganglion to fire (1x5=5), but 2 units of intensity WILL cause it to fire (2x5=10). But if only 2 cones go to each ganglion, it requires 5 units of intensity to fire (5x2=10) o Hence rods are more sensitive Why we use our CONES to see detail Cones have greater VISUAL ACUITY because of less convergence!\ o Instead of signals being averaged (in convergent rods), each cone signal is unique Lateral Inhibition and Perception LATERAL INHIBITION inhibition that is transmitted across the retina LIMULUS horseshoe crab o Eye made up of OMMATIDIA a tiny lens on eye located over single receptor o If you illuminate ommatidia A, it gives a response. If you illuminate A+B, it DECREASES the response. If you illuminate A+B with greater intensity on B, it further inhibits A. What a Twist! o LATERAL PLEXUS connects ommatidia, causes this inhibition Hermann grid: (SEE EX. PG 63=64). How do ghost squares appear??? o Assume pt A (at intersection) has illumination of 100 Pt B, C, D, E each have illumination of 100, but assume lateral inhibition to bipolar cells (where inhibition takes place) is 10% each .:. illumination = 100 10 10 10 10 = 60 o Now assume pt D (which has illumination of 100 but is in corridor instead of intersection). Assume black areas have illumination of 20. Same inhibition .:. illumination = 100 10 2 10 2 = 76 FOR ADVANCED INHIBITION CALCULATION, SEE PG 65

8 MACH BANDS = dark and light strips on edge of shadow caused by inhibition

Lateral Inhibition and Simultaneous Contrast Simultaneous Contrast our perception of brightness or color of one areas is affected by the presence of an adjacent or surrounding area The Display that Cannot Be Explained by Lateral Inhibition Whites Illusion (pg. 67) Why don't the inner squares in fig. 3.39 appear darker near the edges than the centres? o Concept of BELONGINGNESS the square appears to distinctly belong as one piece, so it looks the same color. Perception is INDIRECT Despite the feeling of direct contact with an object (my coffee cup is sitting in front of me in my table. I can see it, feel its heat and smoothness as I pick it up, taste it as I drink it), perception is INDIRECT. I can see/feel/hear/smell/taste because receptors in the eyes/fingers/ears/nose/mouth are converting these inputs into electrical signals and the brain is processing it.

Chapter 4 The Visual Cortex and Beyond Following the Signals from Retina to Cortex The Visual System Signals travel from retina down optic nerve to the LATERAL GENICULATE NUCLEUS (LGN) in the THALAMUS From there to PRIMARY VISUAL RECEIVING AREA in the OCCIPITAL LOBE o Also called STRIATE CORTEX (because it is striated/striped) From there along 2 pathways, one to TEMPORAL LOBE, one to PARIETAL LOBE o Also transmitted to FRONTAL LOBE 10% of optic nerve signals also get transmitted to SUPERIOR COLLICULUS, which is involved in eye movements and other visual behaviour Processing in the Lateral Geniculate Nucleus LGN neurons have the same center-surround configuration as retinal ganglion cells o Main function is to regulate inputs from the retina as it flows to visual cortex LGN receives inputs from multiple sources (cortex, brain stem, other areas of thalamus, other LGN neurons...) o Actually receives more input from cortex than from retina o For every 10 impulses LGN receives from retina, transfers just 4 to cortex Doesnt only regulate information, it ORGANIZES IT (by eye it came from, stimulus etc) LGN located on both sides of brain o It is LAYERED to process ipsilateral (same side as eye) and contralateral impulses Creates RETINOTOPIC MAP (map in which each point on LGN represents a point on the retina) o Created using OBLIQUE electrode track Receptive Fields of Neurons in the Striate Cortex Cells in striate cortex with receptive fields have excitatory and inhibitory areas Cells with side-by-side receptive field (unlike centre-surround configuration) are called SIMPLE CORTICAL CELLS

9 Relationship between orientation and firing is indicated by neurons ORIENTATION TUNING CURVE COMPLEX CELLS respond best to bars of a particular orientation END-STOPPED CELLS fire to moving lines of a specific length or to MOVING CORNERS or ANGLES FEATURE DETECTORS respond to specific features of the stimulus (orientation, direction of movement...) o Include Optic nerve fibres, Lateral geniculate, simple cortical, complex cortical, endstopped cortical.

Do Feature Detectors Play a Role in Perception Selective Adaptation and Feature Detector SELECTIVE ADAPTATION if neurons fire for long enough, they become fatigued or adapt o 1. The neurons firing rate decreases o 2. The neuron fires less when that stimulus is immediately presented again It is selective because only the neurons that respond to vertical lines adapt, while the rest do not Grating Stimuli and the Contrast Threshold GRATING STIMULI alternating bars CONTRAST THRESHOLD difference in intensity when the bars can just barely be seen If you look at a highly contrasted grating stimuli then look at grating stimuli of different orientations at the contrast threshold, it will be tougher to see the grating stimulus with the same orientation as the highly contrasted one Selective Rearing and Feature Detectors SELECTIVE REARING animal is reared in an environment containing only certain stimuli o Brain will naturally adapt to having more of those responsive neurons Due to NATURAL PLASTICITY/EXPERIENCE-DEPENDENT PLASTICITY Kittens raised in vertical-only environments would eventually learn to ignore horizontal lines and only respond to vertical ones Maps and Columns in the Striate Cortex Maps in the Striate Cortex FOVEA (0.01% of retinas areas) accounts for 8-10% of Reinotopic map o Called the CORTICAL MAGNIFICATION FACTOR Brain Imaging Techniques that result in images that show which areas of the brain are active POSITRON EMISSION TOMOGRAPHY (PET) person is injected with low dose of radioactive tracer indicates blood flow, indicating changes in activity o SUBTRACTION TECHNIQUE measures 2 conditions 1. Initial condition (before stimulus is presented) 2. Test condition (stimulus is presented) The difference is the activity due to stimulation FUNCTIONAL MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING (fMRI) also measures blood flow o Uses tiny magnets to measure haemoglobin (which is magnetic) o As blood is used, it becomes deoxygenated, and the haemoglobin becomes more magnetic. This shows relative activity in the brain.

10 Columns of the striate cortex Mapping the striate cortex by placing receptor perpendicular to surface (not oblique) Locating Columns Cortex is organized into LOCATION COLUMNS so that all neurons within a location column have their receptive at the same location in the retina Orientation Columns Each column contains cells that respond to a particular orientation Adjacent columns have cells with slightly different preferred orientations As Hubel and Wiesel moved their electrodes 1mm across the cortex, the electrode passed through orientation columns that represented the entire range of orientations Ocular Dominance Columns Most neurons respond to inputs from one eye or the other This neuron preference is called OCULAR DOMINANCE o Neurons with the same ocular dominance are organized into ocular dominance columns When electrode picks up neurons that respond best to one eye, the electrode can be moved 0.250.5mm across the cortex to find neurons that respond to other eye Hypercolumns (SEE DIAGRAM PG 86 for ICE-CUBE MODEL) All 3 types of columns can be organized into one larger unit called a hypercolumn Each hypercolumn contains a single location column (responds to a specific spot on the retina), left and right ocular dominance columns, and a complete set of orientation columns that cover all possible stimulus orientations from 0 to 180 degrees Hubel and Wiesel considered a hypercolumn as a PROCESSING MODULE that process info that falls on a specific location on the retina o In reality is far more complex How is an Object Represented in the Striate Cortex? Not 100% accurate (ex. when looking at tree, more cortex is focused on leaves than trunk) Each section of the trunk is translated into activity in a number of separated vertical orientation columns, and this activity looks very different from actual trunk o This is normal, because activity does not have to resemble the stimulus, just represent it Streams: Pathways for What, Where, and How streams are pathways that transfer information from striate cortex to rest of the brain Streams for Information About What and Where ABLATION destruction or removal of tissue in the nervous system Experiments with monkeys o OBJECT DISCRIMINATION PROBLEM monkey is shown rectangle, then offered a rectangle and a triangle. If it pushes aside the rectangle it gets the treat hidden underneath o LANDMARK DISCRIMINATION PROBLEM monkey has to open food well next to tall cylinder Part of temporal lobe is removed o Monkeys now have trouble with object discrimination problem o Indicated that the pathway that reaches the temporal lobes is responsible for determining and objects identity o Thus pathway from striate cortex to temporal lobes was called the WHAT PATHWAY, or VENTRAL PATHWAY (b/c its located in lower part of brain)

11 Part of Parietal lobe removed o Had difficulty with landmark discrimination problem o Indicated that parietal lobe is responsible for determining and objects location o Thus pathway from striate cortex to parietal lobe was called the WHERE PATHWAY, or DORSAL PATHWAY (b/c its located in upper part of brain) NOTE o Ventral and dorsal pathways are not entirely separate o Signals flow up and down these pathways

Streams for Information about What and How Arguments that ventral and dorsal streams should be called the WHAT and HOW streams Ventral stream is for perceiving objects (WHAT), dorsal stream for taking action (HOW)