TERM PAPEr

Wireless Communication Systems

ECE888

The Coming Of Wireless LAN Technology

DOS: 16th April 2012 Submitted to : Mr. Chandika Mohan Babu Deptt. Of ECE Submitted by : Name - Himprabha Jain Roll. No. ROE170A14 Reg. No. - 11008226 Section OE170

Acknowledgement

I wish to express my heartfelt gratitude to the all those people who have played a crucial role in the research for this project. Without their active cooperation, the preparation of this project could not have been completed within the specified time limit. I am thankful to our respected teacher, Mr. Chandika Mohan Babu, for motivating me to complete this project with complete focus and attention. Lastly, I appreciate the encouragement render by my friends. I am grateful to all them who have been instrumental in creating proper, healthy and conductive environment and including new and fresh innovative ideas for me during the project . I am indeed very thankful to all of them for rendering their time to make my efforts visible and consummate. Compiled by: Himprabha Jain

Abstract of Work undertaken

Undoubtedly, Wireless Networks are changing the way people connect to each other and that very fast. This kind of networks has become popular since the first days of introduction and use. The popularity gained is due to many reasons, such as ease of installation, flexibility, mobility, reduced cost-ofownership, and scalability. I believe that was my primary reason, why I have chosen this topic as my Term Project and think to cover some important details and necessary things which have to know everyone who thinks to use this kind of network. The Project includes an introduction part and overview on the concept of WLAN, components and its architecture. This paper will also cover the new standards to improve the security of WLAN such as the IEEE 802.11 standard. My idea was to cover the impact of this new technology in the modern world and changes made. Finally, this paper ends with the conclusion of highlighted issues and solutions. With the paper, comes everything which fulfils normal Research Project standards. I suppose that time spent on reading it, wont be a wasted time.

Table of Contents
1. Introduction: Wireless Networks 2. Types of Wireless Networks: Wireless PAN Wireless LAN Wireless MAN Wireless WAN 3. Wireless LAN: Overview 4. Historical Overview 5. Introducing IEEE 802.11 Wireless LANs Architecture 6. IEEE 802.11 Networking Modes Ad-hoc Mode Infrastructure Mode 7. IEEE 802.11 Services Station Services Distribution System Services 8. Defining Different Layers of 802.11 Physical Layer Narrowband Radio Technology Infrared Technology Spread Spectrum Technology: FHSS and DSSS OFDM Data Link Layer: MAC Layer and LLC Layer 9. IEEE 802.11 Subsets 802.11a 802.11b 802.11g 10. Wireless Home Networking 11. High Performance Radio LAN (HiperLAN): HiperLAN1 and HiperLAN2 12. 5GHz vs. 2.4GHz 13. How are Wireless LANs Different? 14. Real Life Applications of WLANs 15. Challenges and Constraints 16. Conclusion

1. INTRODUCTION: WIRELESS NETWORKS

2.1. Wireless PAN:

Wireless Personal Area Networks interconnect devices within a relatively small area that is generally within a person's reach. For example, two current technologies for wireless personal area networks are Bluetooth radio (IEEE 802.15) and invisible infrared (IR) light provides a WPAN for interconnecting a headset to a laptop. In the Personal Area Network, there is no independent preexisting network. The participating devices establish an ad-hoc network when they are within range, and the network is dissolved when the devices pass out of range.

2.2. Wireless LAN:

Fig.1 Wireless Network Wireless network refers to any type of computer network that is not connected by cables of any kind and enables people to communicate and access applications and information. It is a technique by which homes, telecommunications networks and enterprise (business) installations avoid the costly process of introducing cables into a building, or as a connection between various equipment locations. Wireless telecommunications networks are generally implemented and administered using a transmission system called radio waves where the implementation takes place at the physical level. This provides freedom of movement and the ability to extend applications to different parts of a building, city, or nearly anywhere in the world. Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) links two or more devices using some wireless distribution method (spreadspectrum or OFDM radio), and usually providing a connection through an access point to the wider internet. This gives users the mobility to move around within a local coverage area and still be connected to the network. Most modern WLANs are based on IEEE 802.11 standards, marketed under the Wi-Fi brand name.

2.3. Wireless Mesh Network:

A Wireless Mesh Network is a wireless network made up of radio nodes organized in a mesh topology. Each node forwards messages on behalf of the other nodes. Mesh networks can "self heal", automatically re-routing around a node that has lost power.

2. TYPES Of NETWORKS:

WIRELESS

2.4. Wireless MAN:

Wireless Metropolitan Networks are a type of wireless network that connects high speed multiple wireless LANs that are geographically close (situates anywhere in a few dozen kilometres). The network allows two or more nodes to communicate

The types of networks are defined on the basis of their size (that is the number of machines), their range and the speed of data transfer.

with each other as if they belong to the same LAN. The set up makes use of routers or switches for connecting with high-speed links such as fibre optic cables. WiMAX described as 802.16 standards by the IEEE is a type of WMAN.

PCS is a radio band that can be used by mobile phones in North America and South Asia. Sprint happened to be the first service to set up a PCS. 2.6.3. D-AMPS: Digital Advanced Mobile Phone Service, an upgraded version of AMPS, is being phased out due to advancement in technology. Type Wirel ess PAN Within reach of a person (a few feet) Moder ate Altern ate to cable Wirel Wirele ess ss LAN MAN Withi n a buildi ng (camp us) High Alter nate to Wire d LAN No 111M BPS Wirel ess WAN

2.5. Wireless WAN:

Wireless Wide Area Networks are wireless networks that typically cover large areas, such as between neighbouring towns and cities, or city and suburb. The speed on such network depends on the cost of connection that increases with increasing distance. Developed on 2.4GHz band these systems usually contain access points, base station gateways and wireless bridging relays. Their connectivity with renewable source of energy makes them stand alone systems. The most commonly available WAN is Internet.

Cove rage Area

Within Worl a city dwide (metro politan area) High Extensi on of Wired LAN Low Exten sion of LAN

2.6. Mobile Devices Networks:

The development of smart phones makes the cellular telephone networks to routinely carry data in addition to telephone conversations: 2.6.1. Global System for Mobile Communications (GSM): The GSM network is divided into three major systems: the switching system, the base station system, and the operation and support system. The cell phone connects to the base system station which then connects to the operation and support station; it then connects to the switching station where the call is transferred to where it needs to go. GSM is the most common standard and is used for a majority of cell phones. 2.6.2. Personal Communications Service (PCS):

Perfor mance Functi on

Userfree Typica l throug hput

No 0.14Mbps

Yes 10100Kb ps

Yes 132Kb ps

Standa Blueto oth, rds IEEE 802.15 ,IrDA

IEEE IEEE Cellul 802. 802.16, ar 11, and 2G, WiWIMA 2.5G, Fi, X and and 3G Hipe rLA N Table1. Differences b/w WLAN and other Wireless Technologies.

3. WIRELESS LAN:
LAN operates through cables and network cards. Later WLAN, Wireless local area network was formed through LAN concept, there are no wires involved in communication between computers, and Wireless LAN cards are required to connect to wireless network. LAN is the original network out of which other networks are formed according to requirements. Wireless LANs are networks are set up to provide wireless connectivity within a finite coverage area. A Wireless Local Area Network (WLAN) links two or more devices over a short distance using a wireless distribution method, usually providing a connection through an access point for Internet access. The use of spread-spectrum technologies may allow users to move around within a local coverage area, and still remain connected to the network. Wireless LANs have their own share of terminology, including: 1. IEEE 802.11: This is the network technology used in wireless LANs. In fact, it is a family of technologies such as 802.11a, 802.11b, etc., differing in speed and other attributes. 2. Wi-Fi: A common name for the early 802.11b standard.

four islands to communicate with the central computer on the Oahu Island without using phone lines. "In 1979, F.R.G. Feller and U. Bapst published a paper in the IEEE Proceedings reporting an experimental Wireless Local Area Network using diffused infrared communications. Thereafter, in 1980, P. Ferret reported an experimental application of a single code spread spectrum radio for wireless terminal communications in the IEEE National Telecommunications Conference. In 1984, a comparison between Infrared and CDMA spread spectrum communications for wireless office information networks was published by Kaveh Pahlavan in IEEE Computer Networking Symposium which appeared later in the IEEE Communication Society Magazine. In May 1985, the efforts of Marcus led the FCC to announce experimental ISM bands for commercial application of spread spectrum technology. These efforts prompted significant industrial activities in the development of a new generation of wireless local area networks and it updated several old discussions in the portable and mobile radio industry. The first of the IEEE Workshops on Wireless LAN was held in 1991. At that time IEEE 802.11 committee had just started its activities to develop a standard for wireless LANs. The focus of that first workshop was evaluation of the alternative technologies. By 1996, the technology was relatively mature, a variety of applications had been identified and addressed and technologies that enable these applications were well understood. Wireless LANs were being used in hospitals, stock exchanges, and other in building and campus settings for nomadic access, pointto-point LAN bridges, ad-hoc networking, and even larger applications through internetworking. The IEEE 802.11 standard and variants and alternatives,

4. HISTORICAL OVERVIEW:
In1970,University of Hawaii, under the leadership of Norman Abramson, developed the worlds first computer communication network using low-cost ham-like radios, named ALOHA net that includes seven computers deployed over

such as the wireless LAN interoperability forum and the European HiperLAN specification had made rapid progress, and the Unlicensed Personal Communications Services also presented new opportunities. WLAN hardware was initially so expensive that it was only used as an alternative to cabled LAN in places where cabling was difficult or impossible. Early development included industry-specific solutions and proprietary protocols, but at the end of the 1990s these were replaced by standards, primarily the various versions of IEEE 802.11. An alternative like 5 GHz standardized technology, HiperLAN2, has so far not succeeded in the market, and with the release of the faster 54 Mbps 802.11a (5 GHz) and 802.11g (2.4 GHz) standards, almost certainly never will. Since 2002 there has been newer standard added to 802.11; 802.11n which operates on both the 5GHz and 2.4GHz bands at 300 Mbps, most newer routers including those manufactured by Apple Inc. can broadcast a wireless network on both wireless bands, called dual band.

Fig.2 IEEE 802.11 Wireless LAN.

5.1. Architecture:
The 802.11 architecture is comprised of several components and services that interact to provide station mobility transparent to the higher layers of the network stack.

5. INTRODUCING IEEE 802.11 WIRELESS LAN:

A family of wireless LAN specifications developed by a working group at the Institute of Electrical and Electronic Engineers (IEEE). It was conceived in 1990 and final draft approved in June 1997. It specifies over the air interface between a wireless client & a base station (or access point) or wireless clients.

Fig.3 Overview: 802.11 Architecture. Wireless Station (STA): The station is the most basic component of the wireless network. A station is any device with a wireless network interface that contains the functionality of the 802.11 protocol. Typically the 802.11 functions are implemented in the hardware and software of a network interface card (NIC). Access Point (AP): It is a device used to bridge the wireless-wired boundary, or to increase distance as a wireless packet repeater.

Ad Hoc Network: A temporary one made up of stations in mutual range. Infrastructure Network: One with one or more Access Points. Channel: A radio frequency band used for shared communication. Basic Service Set (BSS): The BSS is the basic building block of an 802.11 wireless LAN. It is a set of stations communicating wirelessly on the same channel in the same area, Ad Hoc or Infrastructure.

Infrastructure Basic Service Set:

An Infrastructure Basic Service Set is a BSS with a component called an Access Point (AP). The access point provides a local relay function for the BSS. All stations in the BSS communicate with the access point and no longer communicate directly. All frames are relayed between stations by the access point. This local relay function effectively doubles the range of the IBSS. The access point may also provide connection to a distribution system.

Fig.4 Basic Service Set Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS):

Fig.5 Sketch of an Infrastructure Network Distribution System (DS): The distribution system (DS) is the means by which an access point communicates with another access point to exchange frames for stations in their respective BSSs, forward frames to follow mobile stations as they move from one BSS to another, and exchange frames with a wired network.

The most basic wireless LAN topology is a set of stations, which have recognized each other and are connected via the wireless media in a peer-to-peer fashion. This form of network topology is referred to as an Independent Basic Service Set (IBSS). In an IBSS, the mobile stations communicate directly with each other. Every mobile station may not be able to communicate with every other station due to the range limitations. There are no relay functions in an IBSS therefore all stations need to be within range of each other and communicate directly.

Extended Service Set (ESS): An

extended service set is a set of infrastructure BSS's, where the access points communicate amongst themselves to forward traffic from one BSS to another to facilitate movement of stations between BSS's.The access point performs this communication through the distribution system. The distribution system is a thin

layer in each access point that determines the destination for traffic received from a BSS. The distribution system determines if traffic should be relayed back to a destination in the same BSS, forwarded on the distribution system to another access point, or sent into the wired network to a destination not in the extended service set. Communications received by an access point from the distribution system are transmitted to the BSS to be received by the destination mobile station.

6.1.2. Infrastructure Network architecture:

1. Provides communication between wireless clients & wired network resources. 2. Transition of data from wireless to wired medium is via an AP. 3. Coverage area is defined by APs & associated wireless clients. 4. Together all devices form a Basic Service Set (BSS). Ad Hoc (Peer-to-Peer) Mode vs. Infrastructure Mode: The 802.11 specification defines two types of operational modes: Ad hoc (peer-topeer) mode and Infrastructure mode. In ad hoc mode, the wireless network is relatively simple and consists of 802.11 network interface cards (NICs). The networked computers communicate directly with one another without the use of an access point.

Fig.6 Extended Service Set

6. IEEE 802.11 NETWORKING MODES: 6.1.1. Ad-Hoc architecture: Network

Fig.7 Ad-hoc Mode 1. Used to support mutual communication among wireless clients. 2. Created spontaneously. 3. Does not support access to wired networks. 4. Does not need an AP to be part of the network. 5. Perfect for conference room setups.

In infrastructure mode, the wireless network is composed of a wireless access point(s) and 802.11 network interface cards (NICs). The access point acts as a base station in an 802.11 network and all communications from all of the wireless clients go through the access point.

Open system authentication:

This is the default authentication method, which is a very simple, two-step process. First the station wanting to authenticate with another station sends an authentication management frame containing the sending station's identity. The receiving station then sends back a frame alerting whether it recognizes the identity of the authenticating station.

Shared key authentication:

Fig.8 Infrastructure Mode

7. 802.11 SERVICES:
The 802.11 standard defines services for providing functions among stations.

7.1. Station Services:

Station services are implemented within all stations on an 802.11 WLAN (including access points). The main thrust behind station services is to provide security and data delivery services for the WLAN. 7.1.1 Authentication: Because wireless LANs has limited physical security to prevent unauthorized access, 802.11 defines authentication services to control access to the WLAN. The goal of authentication service is to provide access control equal to a wired LAN. The authentication service provides a mechanism for one station to identify another station. Without this proof of identity, the station is not allowed to use the WLAN for data delivery. All 802.11 stations, whether they are part of an independent BSS or ESS network, must use the authentication service prior to communicating with another station. IEEE 802.11 defines authentication services. two types of

This type of authentication assumes that each station has received a secret shared key through a secure channel independent of the 802.11 network. Stations authenticate through shared knowledge of the secret key. Use of shared key authentication requires implementation of encryption via the Wired Equivalent Privacy or WEP algorithm.
7.1.1.De-authentication:

The de-authentication service is used to eliminate a previously authorized user from any further use of the network. Once a station is de-authenticated, that station is no longer able to access the WLAN without performing the authentication function again. De-authentication is a notification and cannot be refused. For example, when a station wishes to be removed from a BSS, it can send a de-authentication management frame to the associated access point to notify the access point of the removal from the network. An access point could also de-authenticate a station by sending a de-authentication frame to the station.
7.1.2.

Privacy:

The privacy service of IEEE 802.11 is designed to provide an equivalent level of protection for data on the WLAN as that

provided by a wired network with restricted physical access. This service protects that data only as it traverses the wireless medium. It is not designed to provide complete protection of data between applications running over a mixed network. With a wireless network, all stations and other devices can "hear" data traffic tacking place within range on the network, seriously impacting the security level of a wireless link. IEEE 802.11 counters this problem by offering a privacy service option that raises the security of the 802.11 network to that of a wired network. The privacy service, applying to all data frames and some authentication management frames, is an encryption algorithm based on the 802.11 Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) algorithms.

The five distribution services and functions detailed below include: association, disassociation, re-association, distribution, and integration. 7.2.1 Association:

The association service is used to make a logical connection between a mobile station and an access point. Each station must become associated with an access point before it is allowed to send data through the access point onto the distribution system. The connection is necessary in order for the distribution system to know where and how to deliver data to the mobile station. The mobile station invokes the association service once and only once, typically when the station enters the BSS. Each station can associate with one access point though an access point can associate with multiple stations. 7.2.2 Disassociation:

Fig.9 Privacy of IEEE 802.11 7.1.3 Data Delivery: Data delivery service is similar to that provided by all other IEEE 802 LANs. The data delivery service provides reliable delivery of data frames from the MAC in one station to the MAC in one or more other stations, with minimal duplication and reordering of frames.

The disassociation service is used either to force a mobile station to eliminate an association with an access point or for a mobile station to inform an access point that it no longer requires the services of the distribution system. When a station becomes disassociated, it must begin a new association to communicate with an access point again. An access point may force a station or stations to disassociate because of resource restraints, the access point is shutting down or being removed from the network for a variety of reasons. When a mobile station is aware that it will no longer require the services of an access point, it may invoke the disassociation service to notify the access point that the logical connection to the services of the access point from this mobile station is no longer required.

7.2. Distribution System Services:

Distribution services provide functionality across a distribution system. Typically, access points provide distribution services.

Stations should disassociate when they leave a network, though there is nothing in the architecture to assure this happens. Disassociation is a notification and can be invoked by either associated party. Neither party can refuse termination of the association. 7.2.3 Re-association: Re-Association enables a station to change its current association with an access point. The re-association service is similar to the association service, with the exception that it includes information about the access point with which a mobile station has been previously associated. A mobile station will use the re-association service repeatedly as it moves through out the ESS, loses contact with the access point with which it is associated, and needs to become associated with a new access point. Buy using the re-association service, a mobile station provides information to the access point to which it will be associated and information pertaining to the access point which it will be disassociated. This allows the newly associated access point to contact the previously associated access point to obtain frames that may be waiting there for delivery to the mobile station as well as other information that may be relevant to the new association. The mobile station always initiates reassociation. 7.2.4 Distribution: Distribution is the primary service used by an 802.11 station. A station uses the distribution service every time it sends MAC frames across the distribution system. The distribution service provides the distribution with only enough information to determine the proper destination BSS for the MAC frame.

The three association services (association, re-association, and disassociation) provide the necessary information for the distribution service to operate. Distribution within the distribution system does not necessarily involve any additional features outside of the association services, though a station must be associated with an access point for the distribution service to forward frames properly. 7.2.5 Integration:

The integration service connects the 802.11 WLAN to other LANs, including one or more wired LANs or 802.11 WLANs. A portal performs the integration service. The portal is an abstract architectural concept that typically resides in an access point though it could be part of a separate network component entirely. The integration service translates 802.11 frames to frames that may traverse another network, and vice versa as well as translates frames from other networks to frames that may be delivered by an 802.11 WLAN.

8. DEFINING DIFFERENT LAYER Of 802.11:

8.1. Physical layer: Provides the transmission of bits through a communication over the medium or channel

8.2. Data link layer:

Ensures error control & synchronization between two entities Includes Medium Access Control (MAC) & Logical Link Control (LLC)

8.3. Network layer:

Provides the routing of packets through routers from source to destination Protocols such as IP operate at this layer

DSSS (Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum) operating at 2.4 GHz band - Used in IEEE 802.11b. All 11 Mbps radios are DSSS. FHSS (Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum ) operating at 2.4 GHz band

Choice between FSSS & DSSS depends on the users applications & environment that the system will be operating 4. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing )operating at 5 GHz band - Used in IEEE802.11a 8.1.1. Narrowband Radio Technology: Narrowband radio is a technology that uses a minimal amount of bandwidth. Many data and technologies usually associated with the narrowband radio can be adapted for transmission over the broadband and wide-band frequencies. The broadband bandwidth which handles a much wider range of frequencies, however, is not made to be handled by narrowband frequencies. This means that narrowband radios can only be used for narrowband technologies and data. Most broadband networks can support multiple traffic forms while narrowband is exclusive to support only one. The United States Federal Communications Commission (FCC) has set aside this specific narrowband frequency range for radio services and mobile services. These services include paging systems used in emergencies or regular everyday personal use. Narrowband radio transmits and receives both analog and digital data over just a few kilohertz of bandwidth. A narrowband radio meets all the requirements set by the FCC in terms of

Fig.10 Wireless LAN Functionality

8.1.

802.11 Physical Layer:

The 802.11 physical layer (PHY) is the interface between the MAC and the wireless media where frames are transmitted and received. The PHY provides three functions. First, the PHY provides an interface to exchange frames with the upper MAC layer for transmission and reception of data. Secondly, the PHY uses signal carrier and spread spectrum modulation to transmit data frames over the media. Thirdly, the PHY provides a carrier sense indication back to the MAC to verify activity on the media. At the PHY layer, IEEE 802.11 defines some physical characteristics for wireless LANs: 1. Narrowband technology 2. Diffused infrared operating at baseband 3. Spread Spectrum Technology:

usable bandwidth, which is very small when compared to its operating frequency. 8.1.2. Infrared (IR) Data Association: The Infrared PHY utilizes infrared light to transmit binary data either at 1 Mbps (basic access rate) or 2 Mbps (enhanced access rate) using a specific modulation technique for each. For 1 Mbps, the infrared PHY uses a 16-pulse position modulation (PPM). The concept of PPM is to vary the position of a pulse to represent different binary symbols. Infrared transmission at 2 Mbps utilizes a 4 PPM modulation technique. IR systems use very high frequencies, just below visible light in the electromagnetic spectrum to carry data. It cannot penetrate opaque objects and uses directed (line-ofsight) technology. It is used for personal area networks & occasionally in wireless LAN. The main advantage of IR systems is that it is fairly reliable and has low-cost. Drawback: It has less interference because it is a line-of-sight technology. It is one-to-one technology as we can send data only between two things at once.

Fig.11 Spread Spectrum Technology

8.1.3.1.

How Does SS Work? Receivers should be assigned different codes. It will address them away from other receivers with different codes Codes with low cross correlation properties should be chosen to minimize interference between groups of receivers. Selective addressing and Code Division Multiple Access (CDMA) are implemented via these coding. Power spectrum spreads out with spreading the intelligence of a signal over several MHz of spectrum. It makes the detection of the none-coded signals very difficult By increasing the bandwidth Signal/Noise may be decreased without decreased BER performance. C = W log2 (1+ S/N)

8.1.3. Spread Spectrum Technology: Spread spectrum is a modulation technique of transmission where the radio transceiver prepares the digital signal within the NIC for transmission over the airwaves. The transmitted signal occupies a bandwidth greater than the minimum necessary to send the information. Spread spectrum spreads the transmitted bandwidth of the resulting signal, reducing the peak power but keeping total power the same.

Where C = Channel capacity in bits W = Bandwidth in Hertz S = Signal Power N = Noise Power

8.1.3.2.

Spread Spectrum Advantages:

Operation: In an FHSS system, a transmitter "hops" between available frequencies according to a specified algorithm, which can be either random or pre-planned. The transmitter operates in synchronization with a receiver, which remains tuned to the same centre frequency as the transmitter. A short burst of data is transmitted on a narrowband. Then, the transmitter tunes to another frequency and transmits again. The receiver thus is capable of hopping its frequency over a given bandwidth several times a second, transmitting on one frequency for a certain period of time, then hopping to another frequency and transmitting again. Frequency hopping requires a much wider bandwidth than is needed to transmit the same information using only one carrier frequency.

Low power spectral density: Spreading the signal over a large frequency band makes the power spectral density very small. The Gaussian noise level increases Interference limited operation: In all situations the whole frequencyspectrum is used. Spread spectrum reduces multipath effects Privacy is kept due to unknown random codes: Applied codes are unknown to a hostile user Random access possibilities: Users can start their transmission at any arbitrary time Types Of Spread Spectrum:

8.1.3.3.

Spread spectrum modulators use one of two methods to spread signal over a wider area .Data is sent in small pieces over a number of discrete frequencies available for use at any time in the specified range Frequency Hopping Direct Sequence Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS): Fig.12 FHSS example Frequency hopping is one of two basic modulation techniques used in spread spectrum signal transmission. Data signal is modulated with a narrowband carrier signal that hops from frequency to frequency as a function of time over a wide band of frequencies. Frequency Hopping utilizes a set of narrow channels and "hops" through all of them in a predetermined sequence. The 802.11 Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS) PHY uses the 2.4 GHz radio frequency band, operating with at 1 or 2 Mbps data rate. With FHSS, the carrier frequency changes periodically .The incoming digital stream is shifted in frequency by an amount determined by a code that spreads the signal power over a wide bandwidth. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS): The principle of Direct Sequence is to spread a signal on a larger frequency band by multiplexing it with a signature or code to minimize localized interference and background noise. To spread the signal,

each bit is modulated by a code. In the receiver, the original signal is recovered by receiving the whole spread channel and demodulating with the same code used by the transmitter.

data bit equal to 1 would result in the sequence 00010011100 being sent.

Digital Modulation of Data:

Fig.13 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum The 802.11 Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) PHY also uses the 2.4 GHz radio frequency band. The signals generated with this technique appear as noise in the frequency domain. The wide bandwidth provided by the PN code allows the signal power to drop below the noise threshold without loss of information. Chipping Code: 0=11101100011 1=00010011100 Data Stream: 101 Transmitted Sequence:

Fig. 15 With PRN Sequence, DSSS systems use technology similar to GPS satellites and some types of cell phones. Each information bit is combined via an XOR function with a longer Pseudo-Random Numerical (PRN) sequence as shown in figure. The result is a high speed digital stream which is then modulated onto a carrier frequency using Differential Phase Shift Keying (DPSK). Effect of PN Sequence on Transmit & Receive Signal

Fig.16 Effect of PN Sequence on Transmit Spectrum Received Signal is correlated with PRN to recover data & reject interference.

Fig.14 DSSS sends a specific string of bits for each data bit sent. The transition of a

Upgradable to higher speed at 2.4GHz. DSSS can have up to 2 or 3 channels

Fig.17 Signal is correlated with the same PN sequence The PN sequence spreads the transmitted bandwidth of the resulting signal. Thus the term spread spectrum reduces peak power. The total power however remains unchanged. Upon reception, signal is correlated with the same PN sequence to reject narrow band interference and recover the original binary data. 8.1.3.4. DSSS vs. FHSS:

FH systems use a radio carrier that hops from frequency to frequency in a pattern known to both transmitter and receiver. Easy to implement Resistance to noise Limited throughput (2-3 Mbps at 2.4 GHz) Less expensive than DS systems FHSS can have up to 10 or 15 channels

Frequency Hopping Spread Spectrum When using FHSS, the frequency spectrum is divided into channels. Data packets are split up and transmitted on these channels in a random pattern known only to the transmitter and receiver. Because collocated networks follow different random patterns, or hop code tables, multiple networks can operate in close proximity without interfering. If interference is present on one channel, data transmission is blocked. The transmitter and receiver hop to the next channel in the hop table and the transmitter resends the data packet. Frequency hopping technology works best for small data packets in high interference environments. Direct Sequence Spread Spectrum: The DSSS encoder spreads the data across a broad range of frequencies using a mathematical key. The receiver uses the same key to decode the data. While narrowband and DSSS transmissions use the same total power to send data, DSSS uses a lower power density (power/frequency), making it harder to detect. DSSS also sends redundant copies of the encoded data to ensure reception. Narrowband interference appears to the receiver as another narrowband transmission. When the total received signal is decoded, the wider band Transmission (DSSS encoded data) is decoded back to its original narrowband format while the interference is decoded to a lower power density signal, thereby reducing its effects. When broadband interference is present, however, the resulting decoded broadband interference can give a much higher noise floor, almost as high as the decoded signal. For this reason, DSSS works best for large data packets in a low to medium interference environment, but not as well

DS systems use a carrier that remains fixed to a specific frequency band. The data signal is spread onto a much larger range of frequencies (at a much lower power level) using a specific encoding scheme. Much higher throughput than FH (11 Mbps) Better wider range Less resistant to noise (made up for by redundancy it transmits at least 10 fully redundant copies of the original signal at the same time)

in higher interference industrial applications. As a general rule, FHSS can resist interference from spurious RF signals ten times better than DSSS.

The DSSS signal uses a much lower power density than narrowband inference.

Fig.18 The frequency range is divided into channels. The data is transmitted on these randomly ordered channels.

Fig. 21 When the DSSS signal is decoded back to its original narrowband state, the narrowband inference picked up during transmission is decoded to a lower power density signal and is ignored by the receiver.

Fig.19

The narrowband signal is converted into this DSSS signal for transmission. Fig.22

8.1.3.5.

Understanding WLAN Interoperability:

It is a key principle upon which modern communication networks are built. It is simple in concept, but complex in execution. The process of WLAN interoperability is similar to wired LANs. It involves documentation of test procedures with software suites which verify interoperability. Fig, 20

8.1.4. OFDM (Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing): Frequency division multiplexing (FDM) is a technology that transmits multiple signals simultaneously over a single transmission path, such as a cable or wireless system. Each signal travels within its own unique frequency range (carrier), which is modulated by the data (text, voice, video, etc.). Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing(OFDM) is a method of digital modulation in which a signal is split into several narrowband channels that are then transmitted simultaneously at different frequencies to the receiver. The technology was first conceived in the 1960s and 1970s during research into minimizing interference among channels near each other in frequency. The benefits of OFDM are high spectral efficiency, resiliency to RF interference, and lower multi-path distortion. This is useful because in a typical terrestrial broadcasting scenario there are multipathchannels (i.e. the transmitted signal arrives at the receiver using various paths of different length). Since multiple versions of the signal interfere with each other (inter symbol interference (ISI)) it becomes very hard to extract the original information.

OFDM is sometimes called multi-carrier or discrete multi-tone modulation. It is the modulation technique used for digital TV in Europe, Japan and Australia. Like all wireless transmission schemes, OFDM encodes data on to a radio frequency (RF) signal. OFDM transmits multiple high data rate signals concurrently on different frequencies. The channel spectrum is passed into a number of independent nonselective frequency sub-channels. These sub-channels are used for one transmission link between the AP and Multiple Transmissions.

Fig.24 In OFDM, a single high-frequency carrier is replaced by multiple subcarriers, each operating at a significantly lower frequency. 8.1.4.1. OFDM Compared to Narrowband: Power to transmit the data is increased to overcome the noise: This improves the performance of the transmission, but interferes with other signals that are being sent by other users of the band, causing data errors for others. Sensitive to multipath interference: In this your own signal is reflected off another object and arrives late at the destination, scrambling the original signal. This requires ongoing tuning and adjustment using specific hardware which means an increased system cost.

Fig.23 Multipath Transmission Broadcasting Application

in

8.1.4.3. Fig.25 OFDM vs. Narrowband 8.1.4.2. OFDM Compared to Spread Spectrum: Uses much more bandwidth than is absolutely required to send signals, but this allows it to overcome noise & multipath problems. As the amount of data increases, the bandwidth required rises. The best systems to date deliver 11 Mbps and use 22MHz of spectrum. That translates to less than 44 Mbps maximum if one used the entire 2.4 GHz license-exempt band. The best possible speed achievable is approximately 15 Mbps in 22 MHz, which means that spread spectrum technology is approaching its limits in speed. 8.1.4.4.

Applications of OFDM: Digital Television European and Australian standard Wireless Local Area Networks (LANs) HiperLAN2 ADSL (asymmetric digital subscriber loop) High speed data transmitted along existing telephone lines Future mobile telephony? Advantages of OFDM: OFDM results in a very efficient use of bandwidth. Provides robust communications in the presence of noise, intentional or unintentional interference & reflected signals that degrade radio communications. Lesser utilization of hardware. Effective signal processing, FFT. Increased spectral efficiency that is, more bps/Hz than conventional transmission schemes. All frequencies are utilized similarly OFDM is less sensitive to timing errors. A timing error is simply translated to a phase offset in the frequency domain.

8.2.

802.11 Data Link Layer:

efficient between machines

It provides a reliable, communication protocol physically connected communicating over a channel.

Fig.26 OFDM vs. DSSS

Functions: Provide services to the network layer Framing: Determines the grouping of the physical layer bits into frames

Error control (detection and correction): Deals with transmission errors Flow control: Regulates the flow of frames so that the slow receivers are not swamped by fast senders.

MAC layer performs the addressing and recognition of frames. Accessing the wireless medium: CSMA/CA More on CSMA/CA The fundamental access method of 802.11 is Carrier Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance or CSMA/CA. CSMA/CA works by a "listen before talk scheme". This means that a station wishing to transmit must first sense the radio channel to determine if another station is transmitting. If the medium is not busy, the transmission may proceed. The CSMA/CA protocol avoids collisions among stations sharing the medium by utilizing a random back off time if the station's physical or logical sensing mechanism indicates a busy medium. The period of time immediately following a busy medium is the highest probability of collisions occurring, especially under high utilization. The CSMA/CA scheme implements a minimum time gap between frames from a given user. Once a frame has been sent from a given transmitting station, that station must wait until the time gap is up to try to transmit again. Once the time has passed, the station selects a random amount of time (the back off interval) to wait before "listening" again to verify a clear channel on which to transmit. If the channel is still busy, another back off interval is selected that is less than the first. This process is repeated until the waiting time approaches zero and the station is allowed to transmit. This type of multiple access ensures judicious channel sharing while avoiding collisions.

8.2.1. Media Access Control (MAC): The 802.11 MAC layer, sub-layer of the data link layer, provides functionality to allow reliable data delivery for the upper layers over the wireless PHY media. The data delivery itself is based on an asynchronous, best-effort, connectionless delivery of MAC layer data. There is no guarantee that the frames will be delivered successfully. The 802.11 MAC provides a controlled access method to the shared wireless media called Carrier-Sense Multiple Access with Collision Avoidance (CSMA/CA). The third function of the 802.11 MAC is to protect the data being delivered by providing security and privacy services. Security is provided by the authentication services and by Wireless Equivalent Privacy (WEP), which is an encryption service for data delivered on the WLAN. What Does the MAC Do? Provide access control functions for shared medium PHYs MAC layer provides these primary functions: 1. Addressing: Accessing the wireless medium 2. Access coordination: Joining the network 3. Frame check sequence generation and checking: Providing authentication and privacy

Fig.27 Multiple Access with collision Avoidance Before every data transmission: Sender sends a Request to Send (RTS) frame containing the length of transmission. The receiver respond with a Clear to Send (CTS) frame Sender sends data After the data frame is received, an ACK frame is sent back by the receiver verifying a successful data transmission. Now another sender can send data Fig.28 Hidden Node Example:

If the CTS frame is not received by the sender, it is assumed that a collision occurred and the RTS process starts over. Hidden Node Problem: A common limitation with wireless LAN systems is the "hidden node problem. This can disrupt 40% or more of the communications in a highly loaded LAN environment. It occurs when there is a station in a service set that cannot detect the transmission of another station to detect that the media is busy. The figure shows how stations A and B can communicate. However an obstruction prevents station C from receiving station A and it cannot determine when the channel is busy. Therefore both stations A and C could try to transmit at the same time to station B. The use of RTS, CTS, Data and ACK sequences helps to prevent the disruptions caused by this problem..

Fig.29 The AP is within range of the STAA, but STA-B is out of range. STA-B would not be able to detect transmissions from STA-A and the probability of collision is greatly increased. This is known as the Hidden Node.

8.2.2. Logical Link Control (LLC) Sublayer: It is the sub-layer above the MAC where Framing/Frame construction takes place. LLC inserts certain fields in the frame such as source address & destination address at the head end of the frame & error handling bits at the end of the frame.

9. IEEE 802.11 SUBSETS :

9.1.

802.11a:

Higher data rates and increased signal require more power OFDM is less power-efficient then DSSS

It is an extension to 802.11 that applies to wireless LANs and supports data rates up to 54 Mbps in the 5GHz UNII (Unlicensed National Information Infrastructure) band. 802.11a uses an Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM) encoding scheme rather than FHSS or DSSS. The 802.11a specification applies to wireless ATM systems and is used in access hubs.

802.11a Applications: Building-to-building connections Video, audio conferencing video Large file transfers, such as engineering CAD drawings Faster Web access and browsing High worker density or high throughput scenarios Numerous PCs running graphicsintensive applications

Frequency: 5.8 GHz Typical Data Rate: 23 Mbps Max Data rate: 54 Mbps Range: 115 feet

9.2.

802.11b:

It is an extension to 802.11 (also referred to as 802.11 High Rate or Wi-Fi) that applies to wireless LANs and provides 11 Mbps transmission (with a fallback to 5.5, 2 and 1 Mbps) in the 2.4GHz band. 802.11b uses only DSSS. 802.11b was ratification to the original 802.11 standard, allowing wireless functionality comparable to Ethernet. Frequency - 2.45 GHz Typical Data Rate - 4.5 Mbps Max Data rate 11 Mbps Range - 115 feet

802.11a Advantages: Ultra-high spectrum efficiency:5 GHz band @ 300 MHz More data can travel over a smaller amount of bandwidth High speed up to 54 Mbps Less interference

802.11a Disadvantages: Standard not accepted worldwide No interoperability certification available for 802.11a products. Not compatible or interoperable with 802.11b. License-free spectrum in 5 GHz band not available worldwide. Beyond LAN-LAN bridging, there is limited interest for 5 GHz adoption. At equivalent power, 5 GHz range will be ~50% of 2.4 GHz

Wireless Fidelity (Wi-Fi): Essentially, this technology is a variation of the IEEE 802.11 specification known as 802.11b. It focuses on Direct-Sequence Spread Spectrum (DSSS) having high data rate (max of 11 Mbps). In the case of interference, speed drops in halves (11 Mbps to 5.5 Mbps to 2 Mbps to 1 Mbps).

 802.11b Advantages: Fast (11 Mbps) Reliable Long Range (up to 1000 ft outdoors, 400 ft indoors) Easy integration to wired networks Compatible with original 802.11 DSSS standard 802.11b Disadvantages: Speed may fluctuate

Provides path to even higher speeds in the future

10. THE COMING Of WIRELESS HOME NETWORKING:

9.3.

802.11g:

802.11g is a high-speed extension to 802.11b. It offers wireless transmission over relatively short distances at 20-54 Mbps in the 2.4GHz band. The 802.11g also uses the OFDM encoding scheme for backward equipment. Frequency - 2.4 GHz Typical Data Rate 19 Mbps Max Data rate - 54 Mbps Range 125 feet compatibility with 802.11b Fig.30 Complete Home Networking Picture Home networking solutions demands No new additional wires or phone jacks and interoperability. It compliments phone line-based home network solutions as it has low cost, convenient, simple to install and easy-to-use. The bandwidth to support common home networking applications is quite secure. It has big industry & consortium support (e.g. Bluetooth, IEEE) 10.1. Why Go Wireless? Provide core home networking capabilities Multiple PC users share Internet access, printers, files, drives & participate in multi-player games Internet access - anywhere in & around the home Share wireless voice & data Review incoming messages Activate other home electronic systems by voice Needed in countries where phone lines cannot be used

802.11g advantages: Provides higher speeds and higher capacity requirements for applications Compatible with existing 802.11b standard Leverages Worldwide spectrum availability in 2.4 GHz Likely to be less costly than 5 GHz alternatives Provides easy migration for current users of 802.11b WLANs Delivers backward support for existing 802.11b products

Market Requiremen ts Broadban d Access High speed access for data, Always on, Simultaneou s up-link & down-link communicati on, Support simultaneous and multiuser access Residentia l Gateway Provides access into home, Remote Management Access Platform, Bridging between different networks, Firewall and security Low cost, Home Networkin Speed , Mobility, g Technolog Quality of service, ies Security, Reliability, Ease of use

Solutions Available

Cable, Power line, Satellite, Mobile/Wirel ess

Informati on Applicatio n Networks

Digital electronics with advanced computation al capabilities that add more value and convenience network

Digital TV, Internet screen phones, Digital VCR, MP3 players, Cordless phones, Security systems, PCs, digital cameras etc.

Table 2 Market Requirements & Solutions Available 10.2. Open System Gateway Initiative(OS GI) Wireless Home networking solutions: Pros and Cons

Pros: Flexibility & mobility Broad geography support at specific frequency Can compliment a wired network with bridging Cons: Relatively expensive Distance limits & wall attenuation Security must be addressed Performance Prone to narrowband interference

No phone lines, Power lines, New wires (Ethernet), Bluetooth, Wireless LAN)

Fig.31 Wireless Technologies in Home Networking

11. HIGH PERFORMANCE RADIO LAN:

MEO satellite "HiperLAN is a set of wireless local area network (WLAN) communication standards primarily used in European countries. There are two specifications: HiperLAN/1 and HiperLAN/2. Both have been adopted by the European Telecommunications Standards Institute (ETSI). Developing HiperLAN standards as part of an effort called BRAN (Broadband Radio Access Network). The HiperLAN standards provide features and capabilities similar to those of the IEEE802.11 wireless local area network (WLAN) standards, used in the U.S. and other adopting countries. HiperLAN/1 provides communications at up to 20 Mbps in the 5-GHz range of the radio frequency (RF) spectrum. HiperLAN/2 operates at up to 54 Mbps in the same RF band. HiperLAN/2 is compatible with 3G (third-generation) WLAN systems for sending and receiving data, images, and voice communications. HiperLAN/2 has the potential, and is intended, for implementation worldwide in conjunction with similar systems in the 5GHz RF band. Descri ption

Hiper LAN 1 Wirele ss Ethern et

Hiper LAN 2 Wirele ss ATM

Hiper Hipe Access r Link Wirele ss Local Loop Wire less Point -toPoint 17G Hz

Frequ ency Range PHY Bit Rate

5GHz

5GHz

5GHz

23.5M bps

6~54 Mbps

~25M bps (data rate)

~155 Mbp s(dat a rate)

Table 3 HiperLAN Family

11.1. HiperLAN1:
It is a high-speed wireless LAN technology developed by ETSI during 1991 to 1996. It offers the fastest route to market for a high-speed wireless LAN technology while minimizing the complexity of the radio technology. It support asynchronous data transfer, carrier-sense multiple access multiple access with collision avoidance (CSMA/CA), no QoS guaranteed. Goal: To achieve higher data rate than IEEE 802.11 data rates: 1~2 Mbps, and to be used in ad hoc networking of portable devices. It uses Gaussian Minimum Shift (GMSK) Broadly used in GSM System for Communications) networks & CDPD. Throughput up to 25Mbps Keying (Global Mobile cellular

Fig.32 HiperLAN Reference Model

11.2. HiperLAN2:
It is the most sophisticated (& technically challenging) wireless LAN technology so far defined. It is pproposed by ETSI BRAN (Broadband Radio Access Networks) in 1999, and is still under development. It uses a new type of radio technology called Orthogonal Frequency Division Multiplexing (OFDM). It is designed for fixed outdoor use to provide access to a wired infrastructure. Goal: Providing high-speed (raw bit rate ~54Mbps) communications access to different broadband core networks and moving terminals. Features: connection-oriented, QoS guaranteed, security mechanism, highly flexibility. Product: Prototypes are available now, and commercial products are expected at the end of 2001 (Ericsson). Fig.34 HiperLAN Type 2 Reference Model MAC: Medium Access Sub-layer EC: Error Control CAC: Channel Access Control Sub-layer RLC: Radio Link Control PHY: Physical Layer RRC: Radio Resource Control DLC: Data Link Control Layer ACF: Association Control Function CL: Convergence Layer DCC: DLC Connection Control Three main control functions: Association control function (ACF): authentication, key management, association, disassociation, encryption. Radio resource control function (RRC): handover, dynamic frequency selection, mobile terminal alive/absent, power saving, power control. DLC user connection control function (DCC): setup and release of user connections, multicast and broadcast.

Architecture: HiperLAN2 defines a PHY layer & a Data-link layer. Above these layers is a Convergence layer that accepts packets or cells from existing networking systems & formats them for delivery over the wireless medium.

Fig.33 HiperLAN2

Connection-oriented After completing association, a mobile terminal may request one or several DLC connections, with one unique DLC address corresponding to each DLC connection, thus providing different QoS for each connection.

11.3. Hiper Access and Hiper Link :

In parallel to developing the HIPERLAN Type 2 standards, ETSI BRAN has started work on standards complementary to HIPERLAN Type 2.

network, Internet & the ability to make and receive multimedia calls. University: HiperLAN2 benefits both students and lecturers, allowing wireless access to the university Internet. Covering the entire campus, students can access information, such as videotaped lectures and remote supervision transmitted by their lecturer. Two-way communication can take place between students and lecturers through laptops.

11.4. Applications of HiperLAN:

Office: HiperLAN2 benefits companies with a flexible workforce. Employees can transfer their laptop computers from one project to another. It allows continuous exchange of large amounts of information between project members and the company server. It is also possible to connect several desktop computers & video projectors via HiperLAN2. Construction: With HiperLAN2 installed, workers on a construction site can use laptops to collect blue prints, order materials & communicate with experts. By sending short video sequences via the integrated camera to an expert in real time, a problem can be looked at, discussed & solved, using the high quality audio function. The broadcast function also means that everyone working on site can be contacted with any information and that creates a more efficient on-site operation. Home: Domestic electronics like TVs, cameras, stereo equipment & PCs can all be interconnected by HiperLAN2 using small H2 modules which automatically establish connectivity. HiperLAN2 allows multimedia equipment to be intelligently controlled from any computing device in the home without the need for network cables. Airport: HiperLAN2 enables travellers and employees to work while on the move. Gives them access to the company

12. 5GHz Vs. 2.4GHz: THE BETTER SPECTRUM BAND FOR WIRELESS LANs:
2.4GHz Band: Most LANs operate in this unlicensed band. Several limitations: Only 80MHz wide Mandates use of spread spectrum technology WLAN users must not interfere with primary license holders 5GHz Band: Developed after recognition the limitations of 2.4GHz band. Licensing authorities around the world have allocated large blocks of spectrum in the 5GHz band. Broad blocks of spectrum & lenient operating rules enable high-speed. Operation by large numbers of users.

13. HOW Are WIRELESS LAN DIFFERENT ??

They use specialized physical and data link protocols. They integrate into existing networks through access points which provide a bridging function. They let you stay connected as you roam from one coverage area to another. They have unique security considerations. They have specific interoperability requirements. They require different hardware. They offer performance that differs from wired LANs. Flexible data communication systems: Implemented as an extension to the wired networks (LAN). Reliance on networking in business & meteoric growth of the Internet & online services are strong testimonies to the benefits of shared data & shared resources. Minimizes the need for wired connections. Users can access shared information without looking for a place to plug in. Network managers can set up or augment networks without installing or moving wires. Electromagnetic waves (radio or infrared) are used to transmit & receive data over the air.

Consulting and/or audit teams: Consulting, accounting audit teams and/or small workgroups increase productivity with quick network setup. Library for reference: Students holding class on a campus greensward access the Internet to consult the catalogue of the Library of Congress. Information technology/network management: Network managers in dynamic environments minimize the overhead caused by moves, extensions to networks & other changes with WLANs. Network managers installing networked computers in older buildings find that WLANs are a cost-effective network infrastructure solution. Trade show & branch office workers minimize setup requirements by installing pre-configured WLANs needing no local MIS support. Network managers implement WLANs to provide backup for mission-critical applications running on wired networks. Training sites: Employees at corporations & students at universities use wireless connectivity for easy information access, information exchanges and learning. Industrial parks, industries and factories: Warehouse workers use WLANs to exchange information with central databases, thereby increasing productivity. Critical decision making: Senior executives in meetings make quicker & better decisions because they have real-time information at their fingertips

14. REAL-LIFE APPLICATIONS Of WLANs:

Increased productivity for doctors & nurses in hospitals: Patient information can be delivered instantly using hand-held devices or notebook PCs with WLAN capability.

15. CHALLENGES And CONSTRAINTS:

Security: Wired networks can have a physically secure transmission medium. Access to the network is easily controlled. Wireless network is more difficult to secure since the transmission medium is open to anyone within the geographical range of a transmitter. Data privacy is accomplished over a radio medium using encryption & authentication. Encryption comes at increased cost and decreased performance. Security Encryption: Intended to provide a level of security comparable to that of a wired LAN. In IEEE 802.11 the Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) feature uses the RC4 PRNG algorithm from RSA Data Security. The WEP algorithm was intended to be reasonably strong , self-synchronizing, computationally efficient, exportable, optional. Encryption comes at increased cost & decreased performance. Security Authentication: Means by which one station is verified to have authorization to communicate with a second station in a given coverage area. In the infrastructure mode, authentication is established between an access point (AP) and each station, can be either Open System or Shared Key. In an Open System, any STA may request authentication. The STA receiving the request may grant authentication to any request, or only those from stations on a user-defined list. In a Shared Key system, only stations which possess a secret encrypted key can be authenticated. Shared Key authentication is available only to systems having the optional encryption capability. Interference: Interference in wireless communications may be caused by simultaneous

transmissions, i.e., collisions, by 2 or more resources sharing the same frequency band. Collisions are typically the result of multiple stations waiting for the channel to become idle and then begin transmission at the same time - CSMA/CD technique. Collisions are also caused by the hidden terminal problem. Where a station believing that the channel is idle begins transmission without successfully detecting the presence of a transmission already in progress. Interference is also caused by multipath fading. Characterized by random amplitude and phase fluctuations at the Receiver. Throughput: WLANs are currently targeted at data rates between 1-40 Mbps. Physical limitations & limited available bandwidth do not allow the capacity of WLANs to approach that of wired LANs as they ideally should. To support multiple transmissions simultaneously spread spectrum techniques are employed. Power consumption: Wireless devices are portable and meant to be portable and/or mobile and are typically battery powered. Devices connected to a wired network are powered by the local 110V commercial power provided in a building. Very energy efficient devices must be designed. Sleep modes, lowpower displays are a must Timing beacons plays an important role in power management. All station clocks within a BSS are synchronized by periodic transmissions of time stamped beacons. Synchronization is maintained to within 4uSec plus propagation delay. 2 defined power saving modes: awake & sleep. Human safety: Networks should be designed to minimize the power transmitted by network devices. Ongoing research has to confirm whether RF transmissions from radio and cellular phones are linked to human illness. Infrared WLAN systems optical

transmitters must be designed to prevent vision impairment. Mobility: System designs must accommodate handoff between transmission boundaries & route traffic to mobile users. While wired networks are static the primary advantage of WLANs is freedom of mobility.

REFERENCES used:
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirele ss_network http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wirele ss_LAN http://www.wifinotes.com/wireless -networks.html http://freewimaxinfo.com/wirelessnetwork.html http://www.intelligraphics.com/intr oduction-ieee-80211 Brian P Crow, Indra Widjaja, J G Kim, Prescott T Sakai. IEEE 802.11 Wireless Local Area Networks. IEEE Communications Magazine http://www.scribd.com/doc/136288 38/Wireless-Network-ProjectWireless Communications: Theodore S. Rappaport; Pearsons, second edition 2009. Mobile Communications: Jochen Schiller; Pearson, edition 2009.

16. Conclusion:
Wireless networking has a promising future with 802.11 leading the way as the standard for adoption in local networking environments. Wireless LAN proves to be a reliable and reasonably fast mobile networking solution. 802.11 addresses mobility, security, reliability, and the dynamic nature of wireless LANS while keeping compatibility with 802-type legacy networks. Expect to see availability of 802.11 products increase dramatically in the near future. Who knows what will happen after 10 yearsNew standards will be created, old standards will die offIt is the choices of today which will inevitably help to shape the emerging world of wireless tomorrow.