1

2

1o 0ov|n Z|o| 3hormor
|or our sma|| contr|but|on-0,80b days or 18.0 yoars trom b|rth to |ndopondonco-to tho motaphor|ca||y
m|racu|ous 8.b-b||||on-yoar cont|nu|ty ot ||to on Earth trom ono gonorat|on to tho noxt, unbrokon ovor tho oons,
g|or|ous |n |ts cont|gu|ty, sp|r|tua| |n |ts contomp|at|on. 1ho mant|o |s now yours.
3

lot tbo mloo o moo ls ot tom tbo oototo o o c|oot ooo oqoo| g|oss, wbotolo tbo booms o tblogs sboo|o
to|oct occotolog to tbolt ttoo locloooco, ooy, lt ls totbot |lko oo oocbootoo g|oss, o|| o sopotstltloo ooo
lmpostoto, l lt bo oot oo|lvotoo ooo tooocoo.
-|lAlCl3 3ACOl, Novom Otgooom, 1020
4

Contonta
1|t|o lago
0od|cat|on
Ep|graph
lro|oguo: l Want to 3o||ovo
Part |: Journoya ot BoIiot
1. Vr. 0'Arp|no's 0||omma
2. 0r. Co|||ns's Convors|on
8. A 3kopt|c's 1ournoy
Part ||: 1ho BioIogy ot BoIiot
4. lattorn|c|ty
b. Agont|c|ty
0. 1ho 3o||ov|ng louron
Part |||: BoIiot in 1hinga unaoon
7. 3o||ot |n tho Attor||to
8. 3o||ot |n God
0. 3o||ot |n A||ons
10. 3o||ot |n Consp|rac|os
Part |V: BoIiot in 1hinga 5oon
11. lo||t|cs ot 3o||ot
12. Cont|rmat|ons ot 3o||ot
18. Goograph|os ot 3o||ot
14. Cosmo|og|os ot 3o||ot
Ep||oguo: 1ho 1ruth ls Out 1horo
lotos
Acknow|odgmonts
lndox
About tho Author
A|so by V|chao| 3hormor
Copyr|ght
5

ProIoguo
| Want to BoIiovo
1ho 1000s' bor consp|racy-thoory to|ov|s|on sor|os 7bo X-ll|os was a docado-dot|n|ng and cu|turo-rot|oct|ng mosh
p|t ot U|Os, oxtratorrostr|a|s, psych|cs, domons, monstors, mutants, shapo-sh|ttors, sor|a| k|||ors, paranorma|
phonomona, urban |ogonds turnod roa|, corporato caba|s and govornmont covor-ups, and |oakagos that |nc|udod a
0oop 1hroat-||ko c|garotto smok|ng man' charactor p|ayod, |ron|ca||y, by roa|-||to skopt|c W||||am 3. 0av|s. G||||an
Andorson's skopt|ca| |3l agont 0ana 3cu||y p|ayod ott 0av|d 0uchovny's bo||ov|ng charactor |ox Vu|dor, whoso
s|ogans bocamo postor|zod pop-cu|turo catchphrasos: l want to bo||ovo' and 1ho truth |s out thoro.'
As tho show's croator-producor Chr|s Cartor dovo|opod tho sor|os narrat|vo arc, 3cu||y and Vu|dor camo to
symbo||zo skopt|cs and bo||ovors |n a psycho|og|ca| tug-ot-war botwoon roa||ty and tantasy, tact and t|ct|on, story and
|ogond. 3o popu|ar was 7bo X-ll|os that |t was parod|od |n a 1007 op|sodo ot 7bo 5lmpsoos ont|t|od 1ho
3pr|ngt|o|d |||os,' |n wh|ch |omor has an a||on oncountor |n tho woods attor |mb|b|ng ton bott|os ot lod 1|ck 3oor.
1ho producors |ngon|ous|y omp|oyod loonard l|moy to vo|co tho |ntro as ho onco d|d tor h|s post-3pock run on tho
to|ov|s|on mystory sor|os lo 5ootcb o., a 1070s nont|ct|on vors|on ot 7bo X-ll|os. l|moy: 1ho to||ow|ng ta|o ot a||on
oncountors |s truo. And by truo, l moan ta|so. lt's a|| ||os. 3ut thoy'ro ontorta|n|ng ||os, and |n tho ond |sn't that tho roa|
truth? 1ho answor |s no.'
lo squarod. 1ho postmodorn|st bo||ot |n tho ro|at|v|sm ot truth, coup|od w|th tho c||ckor cu|turo ot mass mod|a, |n
wh|ch attont|on spans aro moasurod |n low York m|nutos, |oavos us w|th a bow||dor|ng array ot truth c|a|ms packagod
|n |ntota|nmont un|ts. lt must bo truo-l saw |t on to|ov|s|on, tho mov|os, tho lntornot. 7bo 7wl|lgbt Zooo, 7bo Ootot
Llmlts, 7bot`s loctoolb|o!, 7bo 5lxtb 5ooso, Po|totgolst, Looso Cboogo, Zoltgolst. 7bo Vovlo. Vystor|os, mag|c,
myths, and monstors. 1ho occu|t and tho supornatura|. Consp|rac|os and caba|s. 1ho taco on Vars and a||ons on
Earth. 3|gtoot and loch loss. E3l and ps|. U|Os and E1ls. O3Es and l0Es. 1|K, l|K, and VlK 1r.-a|phabot
consp|rac|os. A|torod statos and hypnot|c rogross|on. lomoto v|ow|ng and astroprojoct|on. Ou|ja boards and tarot
cards. Astro|ogy and pa|m road|ng. Acupuncturo and ch|ropract|c. loprossod momor|os and ta|so momor|os. 1a|k|ng
to tho doad and ||ston|ng to your |nnor ch||d. lt's a|| an obtuscat|ng ama|gam ot thoory and conjocturo, roa||ty and
tantasy, nont|ct|on and sc|onco t|ct|on. Cuo dramat|c mus|c. 0arkon tho backdrop. Cast a shatt ot ||ght across tho
host's taco. 7tost oo ooo. 7bo ttotb ls oot tboto. l woot to bo|lovo.
l bo||ovo that tho truth |s out thoro but that |t |s raro|y obv|ous and a|most novor too|proot. What l want to bo||ovo
basod on omot|ons and what l shou|d bo||ovo basod on ov|donco do not a|ways co|nc|do. l'm a skopt|c not bocauso l
do not want to bo||ovo, but bocauso l want to koow. |ow can wo to|| tho d|ttoronco botwoon what wo wou|d ||ko to bo
truo and what |s actua||y truo?
1ho answor |s sc|onco. Wo ||vo |n tho Ago ot 3c|onco, |n wh|ch bo||ots aro supposod to bo groundod |n rock-so||d
ov|donco and omp|r|ca| data. Why, thon, do so many poop|o bo||ovo |n what most sc|ont|sts wou|d cons|dor to bo tho
unbo||ovab|o?
1ho Domograhica ot BoIiot
ln a 2000 |arr|s lo|| ot 2,808 adu|t Amor|cans, poop|o woro askod to |nd|cato tor oach [catogory bo|ow| |t you
bo||ovo |n |t, or not.' 1ho rosu|ts woro rovoa||ng.
1
God 82 %
V|rac|os 70 %
|oavon 7b %
1osus |s God or tho 3on ot God 78 %
Ango|s 72 %
3urv|va| ot tho sou| attor doath 71 %
1ho rosurroct|on ot 1osus Chr|st 70 %
|o|| 01 %
6
1ho v|rg|n b|rth (ot 1osus) 01 %
1ho dov|| 00 %
0arw|n's thoory ot ovo|ut|on 4b %
Ghosts 42 %
Croat|on|sm 40 %
U|Os 82 %
Astro|ogy 20 %
W|tchos 28 %
lo|ncarnat|on 20 %
Voro poop|o bo||ovo |n ango|s and tho dov|| than bo||ovo |n tho thoory ot ovo|ut|on. 0|sturb|ng. And yot, such rosu|ts
do not surpr|so mo, as thoy match t|nd|ngs |n s|m||ar survoys conductod ovor tho past sovora| docados,
2
|nc|ud|ng
|ntornat|ona||y.
8
|or oxamp|o, |n a 2000 Roooot`s Llgost survoy ot 1,000 adu|t 3r|tons, 48 porcont ot rospondonts sa|d
that thoy can road othor poop|o's thoughts or havo tho|r thoughts road, moro than ha|t sa|d that thoy havo had a droam
or promon|t|on ot an ovont that thon occurrod, moro than two-th|rds sa|d thoy cou|d too| whon somoono was |ook|ng at
thom, 20 porcont sa|d thoy had sonsod whon a |ovod ono was ||| or |n troub|o, and 02 porcont sa|d that thoy cou|d to||
who was ca|||ng botoro thoy p|ckod up tho phono. A t|tth sa|d thoy had soon a ghost, and noar|y a th|rd sa|d thoy
bo||ovo that noar-doath oxpor|oncos (l0Es) aro ov|donco tor an attor||to.
4
A|though tho spoc|t|c porcontagos ot bo||ot |n tho supornatura| and tho paranorma| across countr|os and docados
vary s||ght|y, tho numbors roma|n ta|r|y cons|stont: a major|ty ot poop|o ho|d somo torm ot paranorma| or supornatura|
bo||ot.
b
A|armod by such t|guros and concornod about tho d|sma| stato ot sc|onco oducat|on and |ts ro|o |n tostor|ng
bo||ot |n tho paranorma|, tho lat|ona| 3c|onco |oundat|on (l3|) conductod |ts own oxtons|vo survoy ot bo||ots |n both
tho paranorma| and psoudosc|onco, conc|ud|ng 3uch bo||ots may somot|mos bo tuo|od by tho mod|a's
m|scommun|cat|on ot sc|onco and tho sc|ont|t|c procoss.'
0
l, too, wou|d ||ko to |ay tho b|amo at tho toot ot tho mod|a, bocauso tho t|x thon sooms stra|ghttorward-just |mprovo
how wo commun|cato sc|onco. 3ut that's too oasy, and |t |sn't ovon supportod by tho l3|'s own data. A|though bo||ot
|n oxtrasonsory porcopt|on (E3l) docroasod trom 0b porcont among h|gh schoo| graduatos to 00 porcont among
co||ogo graduatos, and bo||ot |n magnot|c thorapy droppod trom 71 porcont among h|gh schoo| graduatos to bb
porcont among co||ogo graduatos, that st||| |oavos moro than ha|t ot oducatod poop|o tu||y ondors|ng such c|a|ms! And
tor ombrac|ng a|tornat|vo mod|c|no (a torm ot psoudosc|onco), tho porcontagos actua||y loctoosoo, trom 80 porcont
tor h|gh schoo| grads to 02 porcont tor co||ogo grads.
lart ot tho prob|om may bo that 70 porcont ot Amor|cans st||| do not undorstand tho sc|ont|t|c procoss, dot|nod |n
tho l3| study as grasp|ng probab|||ty, tho oxpor|monta| mothod, and hypothos|s tost|ng. 3o ono so|ut|on horo |s
toach|ng bowsclooco wotks |n add|t|on to wbot sclooco koows. A 2002 art|c|o |n 5koptlc magaz|no ont|t|od 3c|onco
Educat|on ls lo Guarantoo ot 3kopt|c|sm' prosontod tho rosu|ts ot a study that tound no corro|at|on botwoon sc|onco
know|odgo (tacts about tho wor|d) and paranorma| bo||ots. 3tudonts that scorod wo|| on thoso [sc|onco know|odgo|
tosts woro no moro or |oss skopt|ca| ot psoudosc|ont|t|c c|a|ms than studonts that scorod vory poor|y,' tho authors
conc|udod. Apparont|y, tho studonts woro not ab|o to app|y tho|r sc|ont|t|c know|odgo to ova|uato thoso
psoudosc|ont|t|c c|a|ms. Wo suggost that th|s |nab|||ty stoms |n part trom tho way that sc|onco |s trad|t|ona||y
prosontod to studonts: 3tudonts aro taught wbot to th|nk but not bowto th|nk.'
7
1ho sc|ont|t|c mothod |s a toachab|o
concopt, as ov|doncod |n tho prov|ous|y rotoroncod l3| study, wh|ch tound that b8 porcont ot Amor|cans w|th a h|gh
|ovo| ot sc|onco oducat|on (n|no or moro h|gh schoo| and co||ogo sc|onco/math coursos) undorstand tho sc|ont|t|c
procoss, comparod to 88 porcont w|th a m|dd|o |ovo| (s|x to o|ght such coursos) ot sc|onco oducat|on, and 17 porcont
w|th a |ow |ovo| (|oss than t|vo such coursos) ot sc|onco oducat|on. 3o maybo tho koy to attonuat|ng suporst|t|on and
bo||ot |n tho supornatura| |s |n toach|ng bowsc|onco works, not just what sc|onco has d|scovorod.
1ho prob|om |s doopor st||| and ro|atod to tho tact that tho major|ty ot our most doop|y ho|d bo||ots aro |mmuno to
attack by d|roct oducat|ona| too|s, ospoc|a||y tor thoso who aro not roady to hoar contrad|ctory ov|donco. 3o||ot
chango comos trom a comb|nat|on ot porsona| psycho|og|ca| road|noss and a doopor soc|a| and cu|tura| sh|tt |n tho
undor|y|ng zo|tgo|st, wh|ch |s attoctod |n part by oducat|on but |s moro tho product ot |argor and hardor-to-dot|no
po||t|ca|, oconom|c, ro||g|ous, and soc|a| changos.
BoIiot-Doondont RoaIiam: Why PooIo BoIiovo
3o||ot systoms aro powortu|, porvas|vo, and ondur|ng. l havo dovotod my caroor to undorstand|ng how bo||ots aro
born, tormod, nour|shod, ro|ntorcod, cha||ongod, changod, and oxt|ngu|shod. 1h|s book synthos|zos th|rty yoars ot
7
rosoarch to answor tho quost|on ot how and why wo bo||ovo what wo do |n a|| aspocts ot our ||vos. |oro l am
|ntorostod |n moro than just why poop|o bo||ovo wo|rd th|ngs, or why poop|o bo||ovo th|s or that c|a|m, but why poop|o
bo||ovo anyth|ng at a||. Why do poop|o bo||ovo? Vy answor |s stra|ghttorward:
o otm oot bo|los ot o votloty o sobjoctlvo, potsooo|, omotlooo|, ooo psycbo|oglco| toosoos lo tbo cootoxt o oovltoomoots ctootoo
by oml|y, tlooos, co||oogoos, co|toto, ooo socloty ot |otgo, otot otmlog oot bo|los wo tboo ooooo, jostly, ooo totlooo|lzo tbom wltb o
bost o loto||octoo| toosoos, cogoot otgomoots, ooo totlooo| oxp|oootloos. Bo|los como ltst, oxp|oootloos ot bo|los o||ow. l co|| tbls
ptocoss bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm, wboto oot potcoptloos oboot too|lty oto oopooooot oo tbo bo|los tbot wo bo|o oboot lt. Roo|lty
oxlsts looopooooot o bomoo mloos, bot oot ooootstooolog o lt oopooos opoo tbo bo|los wo bo|o ot ooy glvoo tlmo.
1ho bra|n |s a bo||ot ong|no. |rom sonsory data t|ow|ng |n through tho sonsos tho bra|n natura||y bog|ns to |ook tor
and t|nd pattorns, and thon |ntusos thoso pattorns w|th moan|ng. 1ho t|rst procoss l ca|| pottotolclty. tbo tooooocy to
loo mooologo| pottotos lo botb mooologo| ooo mooolog|oss ooto. 1ho socond procoss l ca|| ogootlclty. tbo
tooooocy to looso pottotos wltb mooolog, lotootloo, ooo ogoocy. Wo can't ho|p |t. Our bra|ns ovo|vod to connoct tho
dots ot our wor|d |nto moan|ngtu| pattorns that oxp|a|n why th|ngs happon. 1hoso moan|ngtu| pattorns bocomo bo||ots,
and thoso bo||ots shapo our undorstand|ng ot roa||ty.
Onco bo||ots aro tormod, tho bra|n bog|ns to |ook tor and t|nd cont|rmatory ov|donco |n support ot thoso bo||ots,
wh|ch adds an omot|ona| boost ot turthor cont|donco |n tho bo||ots and thoroby acco|oratos tho procoss ot ro|ntorc|ng
thom, and round and round tho procoss goos |n a pos|t|vo toodback |oop ot bo||ot cont|rmat|on. As wo||, occas|ona||y
poop|o torm bo||ots trom a s|ng|o rovo|atory oxpor|onco |argo|y unoncumborod by tho|r porsona| background or tho
cu|turo at |argo. laror st|||, thoro aro thoso who, upon carotu||y wo|gh|ng tho ov|donco tor and aga|nst a pos|t|on thoy
a|roady ho|d, or ono thoy havo yot to torm a bo||ot about, computo tho odds and mako a stoo|y-oyod omot|on|oss
doc|s|on and novor |ook back. 3uch bo||ot rovorsa|s aro so raro |n ro||g|on and po||t|cs as to gonorato hoad||nos |t |t |s
somoono prom|nont, such as a c|or|c who changos ro||g|ons or ronouncos h|s or hor ta|th, or a po||t|c|an who changos
part|os or goos |ndopondont. lt happons, but |t |s as raro as a b|ack swan. 3o||ot rovorsa|s happon moro otton |n
sc|onco, but not at a|| as troquont|y as wo m|ght oxpoct trom tho |doa||zod v|sago ot tho oxa|tod sc|ont|t|c mothod'
whoro on|y tho tacts count. 1ho roason tor th|s |s that sc|ont|sts aro poop|o too, no |oss subjoct to tho wh|ms ot omot|on
and tho pu|| ot cogn|t|vo b|asos to shapo and ro|ntorco bo||ots.
1h|s procoss ot bo|lo-oopooooot too|lsm |s pattornod attor tho ph||osophy ot sc|onco ca||od modo|-dopondont
roa||sm' prosontod by tho Un|vors|ty ot Cambr|dgo cosmo|og|st 3tophon |awk|ng and mathomat|c|an and sc|onco
wr|tor loonard V|od|now |n tho|r book, 7bo Otooo Loslgo, |n wh|ch thoy oxp|a|n that bocauso no ono modo| |s
adoquato to oxp|a|n roa||ty, wo aro troo to uso d|ttoront modo|s tor d|ttoront aspocts ot tho wor|d. Vodo|-dopondont
roa||sm |s basod on tho |doa that our bra|ns |ntorprot tho |nput trom our sonsory organs by mak|ng a modo| ot tho
wor|d. Whon such a modo| |s succosstu| at oxp|a|n|ng ovonts, wo tond to attr|buto to |t, and to tho o|omonts and
concopts that const|tuto |t, tho qua||ty ot roa||ty or abso|uto truth. 3ut thoro may bo d|ttoront ways |n wh|ch ono cou|d
modo| tho samo phys|ca| s|tuat|on, w|th oach omp|oy|ng d|ttoront tundamonta| o|omonts and concopts. lt two such
phys|ca| thoor|os or modo|s accurato|y prod|ct tho samo ovonts, ono cannot bo sa|d to bo moro roa| than tho othor,
rathor, wo aro troo to uso wh|chovor modo| |s most convon|ont.'
8
l tako th|s ono stop turthor to arguo that ovon thoso d|ttoront modo|s ot phys|cs and cosmo|ogy usod by sc|ont|sts to
oxp|a|n, say, ||ght as a part|c|o or ||ght as a wavo, aro thomso|vos bo||ots, and whon coup|od to h|ghor-ordor thoor|os
about phys|cs, mathomat|cs, and cosmo|ogy, torm ont|ro wor|dv|ows about naturo, and thorotoro bo||ot-dopondont
roa||sm |s a h|ghor-ordor torm ot modo|-dopondont roa||sm. On top ot th|s, our bra|ns p|aco a judgmont va|uo upon
bo||ots. 1horo aro good ovo|ut|onary roasons tor why wo torm bo||ots and judgo thom as good or bad that l w||| d|scuss
|n tho chaptor on po||t|ca| bo||ots, but sutt|co |t to say horo that our ovo|vod tr|ba| tondonc|os |oad us to torm coa||t|ons
w|th to||ow ||ko-m|ndod mombors ot our group and to domon|zo othors who ho|d d|ttor|ng bo||ots. 1hus, whon wo hoar
about tho bo||ots ot othors that d|ttor trom our own, wo aro natura||y |nc||nod to d|sm|ss or d|smant|o tho|r bo||ots as
nonsonso, ov||, or both. 1h|s propons|ty makos |t ovon moro d|tt|cu|t to chango our m|nds |n tho tooth ot now ov|donco.
ln tact, o|| modo|s ot tho wor|d, not just sc|ont|t|c modo|s, aro toundat|ona| to our bo||ots, and bo||ot-dopondont
roa||sm moans that wo cannot oscapo th|s op|stomo|og|ca| trap. Wo can, howovor, omp|oy tho too|s ot sc|onco, wh|ch
aro dos|gnod to tost whothor or not a part|cu|ar modo| or bo||ot about roa||ty matchos obsorvat|ons mado not just by
ourso|vos but by othors as wo||. A|though thoro |s no Arch|modoan po|nt outs|do ot ourso|vos trom wh|ch wo can v|ow
tho 1ruth about loa||ty, sc|onco |s tho bost too| ovor dov|sod tor tash|on|ng prov|s|ona| truths about cond|t|ona|
roa||t|os. 1hus, bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm |s not op|stomo|og|ca| ro|at|v|sm whoro a|| truths aro oqua| and ovoryono's
roa||ty dosorvos rospoct. 1ho un|vorso roa||y d|d bog|n w|th a b|g bang, tho oarth roa||y |s b||||ons ot yoars o|d, and
ovo|ut|on roa||y happonod, and somoono's bo||ot to tho contrary roa||y |s wrong. Evon though tho lto|oma|c oarth-
contorod systom can rondor obsorvat|ons oqua||y wo|| as tho Coporn|can sun-contorod systom (at |oast |n tho t|mo ot
8
Coporn|cus anyway), no ono today ho|ds that thoso modo|s aro oqua| bocauso wo know trom add|t|ona| ||nos ot
ov|donco that ho||ocontr|sm moro c|oso|y matchos roa||ty than goocontr|sm, ovon |t wo cannot doc|aro th|s to bo an
Abso|uto 1ruth about loa||ty.
1hat sa|d, tho ov|donco l prosont |n th|s book domonstratos how dopondont our bo||ots aro on a mu|t|tudo ot
subjoct|vo, porsona|, omot|ona|, and psycho|og|ca| tactors that mako our undorstand|ng ot roa||ty such an onchantod
g|ass' and so tu|| ot suporst|t|on and |mposturo,' |n |ranc|s 3acon's op|grammat|c doscr|pt|on. Wo bog|n w|th
anocdota| ov|donco trom throo porsona| bo||ot stor|os. 1ho t|rst story |s about a man whom you w||| havo novor hoard
ot but who had a protound and ||to-chang|ng oxpor|onco |n tho woo hours ot tho morn|ng many docados ago that drovo
h|m to soarch tor u|t|mato moan|ng |n tho cosmos. 1ho socond story |s about a man whom you w||| most dot|n|to|y havo
hoard ot, as ho |s ono ot tho groatost sc|ont|sts ot our ago, and ho too had a ||to-chang|ng oar|y-morn|ng oxpor|onco
that cont|rmod h|s doc|s|on to mako a ro||g|ous |oap ot ta|th. 1ho th|rd story |s my own passago trom bo||ovor to
skopt|c, and what l havo |oarnod a|ong tho way that drovo mo |nto a protoss|ona| caroor ot tho sc|ont|t|c study ot bo||ot
systoms.
|rom narrat|vo ov|donco wo sha|| turn to tho arch|tocturo ot bo||ot systoms, how thoy aro tormod, nour|shod,
ro|ntorcod, changod, and oxt|ngu|shod, t|rst concoptua||y through tho two thoorot|ca| constructs ot pottotolclty and
ogootlclty, and thon do|vo doopor |nto how thoso cogn|t|vo procossos ovo|vod and what purposo thoy sorvod |n tho
||vos ot our ancostors as wo|| as |n our ||vos today. Wo sha|| thon boro doopor |nto tho bra|n, r|ght down to tho
nourophys|o|ogy ot bo||ot systom construct|on at tho s|ng|o nouron |ovo|, and thon roconstruct trom tho bottom up how
bra|ns torm bo||ots. 1hon wo sha|| oxam|no how bo||ot systoms oporato w|th rogard to bo||ot |n ro||g|on, tho attor||to,
God, oxtratorrostr|a|s, consp|rac|os, po||t|cs, oconom|cs, and |doo|og|os, and thon cons|dor how a host ot cogn|t|vo
procossos conv|nco us that our bo||ots aro truths. ln tho t|na| chaptors wo w||| cons|dor how wo know any ot our bo||ots
aro bo||ovab|o, wh|ch pattorns aro truo and wh|ch ta|so, wh|ch agonts aro roa| and wh|ch aro not, and how sc|onco
works as tho u|t|mato pattorn dotoct|on dov|co that a||ows us a tow dogroos ot troodom w|th|n bo||ot-dopondont
roa||sm, and somo moasurab|o progross away trom |ts psycho|og|ca| trapp|ngs.
9

PAR1 |
JOuRNEY5 OF BEL|EF

Evoty moo ls tbo ctoototo o tbo ogo lo wblcb bo |lvos, voty owoto ob|o to tolso tbomso|vos obovo tbo
looos o tbo tlmos.
-vOl1AllE
10

1

Nr. D'Arino'a DiIomma
1ho vo|co was as d|st|nct as tho mossago |t do||vorod was unm|stakab|o. Em|||o Ch|ck' 0'Arp|no bo|tod upr|ght trom
h|s bod, start|od that tho words ho hoard so c|oar|y woro not spokon by anyono |n tho room. lt was 4 a.m. on |obruary
11, 1000, and Vr. 0'Arp|no was a|ono |n h|s bodroom, soom|ng|y unporturbod by what ho was hoar|ng. lt wasn't a
mascu||no vo|co, yot no|thor was |t tom|n|no. And ovon though ho had no rotoronco gu|do bu||t by oxpor|onco trom
wh|ch to comparo, Vr. 0'Arp|no somohow know that tho sourco was not ot th|s wor|d.

l mot Ch|ck 0'Arp|no on my torty-sovonth b|rthday, 3optombor 8, 2001, just throo days botoro tho ca|am|tous ovont
that wou|d honcotorth c|oavo h|story |nto pro- and post-0/11. Ch|ck wantod to know |t l wou|d bo w||||ng to wr|to an
ossay to answor th|s quost|on: ls lt posslb|o to koowl tboto ls o sootco oot tboto tbot koows wo oto boto
Uh? You moan God?' l quor|od.
lot nocossar||y,' Ch|ck rop||od.
E1?'
Vaybo,' Ch|ck cont|nuod, but l don't want to spoc|ty tho naturo ot tho sourco, just that |t |s out thoro and not horo.'
Who wou|d ask such a quost|on, l wondorod, and moro |mportant, wby? Ch|ck oxp|a|nod that ho was a rot|rod
br|ck|ayor |ntorostod |n pursu|ng answors to doop quost|ons through ossay contosts and ono-day contoroncos ho was
sponsor|ng at 3an 1oso 3tato Un|vors|ty and at 3tantord Un|vors|ty, noar h|s homo |n 3|||con va||oy. l had novor hoard
ot a rot|rod br|ck|ayor sponsor|ng contoroncos botoro, so th|s got my attont|on, as l havo |ong adm|rod autod|dacts.
Ovor tho yoars, as Ch|ck and l bocamo c|oso tr|onds, l grow moro and moro cur|ous to know why a br|ck|ayor wou|d
spond what ||tt|o monoy ho had on tund|ng ossay contosts and contoroncos to answor ||to's b|g quost|ons. l had a
sonso that Ch|ck a|roady know tho answors to tho quost|ons ho was pos|ng, but tor a docado ho took tho ||tth w|th mo
unt|| ono day, whon l probod ono moro t|mo, ho gavo mo a h|nt:
l boo oo oxpotlooco.
An oxpor|onco. Okay! low wo'ro ta|k|ng my |anguago-tho |anguago ot bo||ot systoms groundod |n oxpor|oncos.
What typo ot oxpor|onco?
Ch|ck c|ammod up aga|n, but l pushod and proddod tor dota||s. Whon was th|s oxpor|onco?
Bock lo 1000.
What t|mo ot day d|d |t happon?
loot lo tbo motolog.
0|d you soo or hoar somoth|ng?
l ooo`t woot to to|k oboot tbot ospoct o lt.
3ut |t |t was a protound onough oxpor|onco to bo dr|v|ng you to th|s day to oxp|oro such b|g quost|ons, |t |s suro|y
worth shar|ng w|th somoono.
Nopo, lt`s ptlvoto.
Como on, Ch|ck, l'vo known you pract|ca||y a docado. Wo'ro tho bost ot tr|onds. l'm gonu|no|y cur|ous.
Okoy, lt wos o volco.
A vo|co. Um.
l koowwbot yoo`to tbloklog, Vlcboo|-l`vo tooo o|| yoot sto oboot oooltoty bo||oclootloos, |oclo otooms, ooo
s|oop poto|ysls. Bot tbot`s oot wbot boppoooo to mo. 7bls wos c|oot|y, olstloct|y, oomlstokob|y oot tom my mloo. lt
wos tom oo ootsloo sootco.
low wo woro gott|ng somowhoro. |oro |s a man l'vo como to know and |ovo as a doar tr|ond, a man who
othorw|so |s as sano as tho noxt guy and as smart as a wh|p. l noodod to know moro. Whoro d|d th|s happon?
At my slstot`s booso.
What woro you do|ng s|oop|ng at your s|stor's houso?
l wos sopototoo tom my wlo ooo golog tbtoogb o olvotco.
Aha, r|ght, tho stross ot d|vorco.
l koow, l koow, my psycblottlst tboogbt tbo somo tblog yoo`to tbloklog oow-sttoss coosoo tbo oxpotlooco.
11
A psych|atr|st? |ow doos a br|ck|ayor ond up |n tho ott|co ot a psych|atr|st?
o||, soo, tbo ootbotltlos soot mo to soo tbls psycblottlst op ot Agoows 5toto losplto|.
What?! Why?
l wootoo to soo tbo ptoslooot.
Okay, |ot's soo . 1000 . lros|dont lyndon 1ohnson . v|otnam War protosts . construct|on workor wants to
soo tho pros|dont . monta| hosp|ta|. 1horo's a compo|||ng story horo tor somoono who stud|os tho powor ot bo||ot tor
a ||v|ng, so l prossod tor moro.
Why d|d you want to soo tho pros|dont?
7o oo|lvot to blm tbo mossogo tom tbo sootco o tbo volco.
What was tho mossago?
7bot l wl|| oovot to|| yoo, Vlcboo|-l bovo oovot to|o ooyooo ooo l`m toklog lt to my gtovo. l bovoo`t ovoo to|o my
cbl|otoo.
Wow, th|s must bo somo mossago, ||ko Vosos on tho mounta|ntop tak|ng d|ctat|on trom Yahwoh. Vust havo gono
on tor qu|to somo t|mo. |ow |ong?
Loss tboo o mlooto.
loss than a m|nuto?
lt wos tblttooo wotos.
0o you romombor tho th|rtoon words?
O cootso!
Como on, Ch|ck, to|| mo what thoy woro.
Nopo.
0|d you wr|to thom down somowhoro?
Nopo.
Can l guoss what tho thomo ot tho mossago was?
5oto, go obooo, toko o gooss.
lovo.
Vlcboo|! Yos! 7bot`s oxoct|y tlgbt. lovo. 7bo sootco oot oo|y koows wo`to boto, bot lt |ovos os ooo wo coo bovo o
to|otloosblp wltb lt.
1ho 5ourco
l wou|d ||ko to undorstand what happonod to my tr|ond Ch|ck 0'Arp|no on that oar|y morn|ng |n |obruary 1000 and how
that oxpor|onco changod h|s ||to |n protound ways ovor s|nco. l want to comprohond what happonod to Ch|ck bocauso
l want to know what happons to a|| ot us whon wo torm bo||ots.
ln Ch|ck's caso tho oxpor|onco happonod wh||o soparatod trom h|s w|to and ch||dron. 1ho dota||s ot tho soparat|on
aro not |mportant (and ho w|shos to protoct tho pr|vacy ot h|s tam||y), but |ts ottocts aro. l was a brokon man,' Ch|ck
to|d mo.
1
l was broko |n ovory way you can th|nk ot: t|nanc|a||y, phys|ca||y, omot|ona||y, and psycho|og|ca||y.'
1o th|s day Ch|ck ma|nta|ns that what ho oxpor|oncod was unquost|onab|y outs|do ot h|s m|nd. l strong|y suspoct
othorw|so, so what to||ows |s my |ntorprotat|on. ly|ng a|ono |n bod, Ch|ck was awako and porhaps anx|ous about tho
now dawn that wou|d soon broak ovor h|s day and ||to. Away trom h|s bo|ovod w|to and ch||dron, Ch|ck was troub|od
by tho uncorta|nty ot whoro h|s ||to wou|d go trom thoro, rost|oss about wh|ch path botoro h|m to tako, and ospoc|a||y
approhons|vo about whothor ho was |ovod. 1hoso ot us who havo to|t tho st|ng ot unroqu|tod |ovo, tho angu|sh ot
ro|at|onsh|p uncorta|nty, tho torturous suttor|ng ot a troub|od marr|ago, or tho sou|-shattor|ng doso|at|on ot d|vorco, wo||
know tho pa|ntu| |nnor turmo|| that st|rs tho omot|ona| |oos-stomach-churn|ng, hoart-pound|ng, stross-hormono-
pump|ng t|ght-or-t||ght omot|ona| ovordr|vo-ospoc|a||y |n tho woo hours ot tho morn|ng botoro tho sun s|gna|s tho
poss|b|||ty ot rodompt|on.
l havo oxpor|oncod such omot|ons myso|t, so porhaps l am projoct|ng. Vy paronts d|vorcod whon l was tour, and
a|though dota||od momor|os ot tho soparat|on and d|srupt|on aro toggy, ono momory |s as c|oar to mo now as |t was
thoso |ato n|ghts and oar|y morn|ngs wh||o |y|ng awako: l had an a|most vort|go sonso ot sp|ra||ng down and shr|nk|ng
|nto my bod, as tho room l was |n oxpandod outward |n a|| d|roct|ons, |oav|ng mo too||ng ovor sma||or and |ns|gn|t|cant,
tr|ghtonod and anx|ous about . wo|| . ovoryth|ng, |nc|ud|ng and ospoc|a||y bo|ng |ovod. And a|though tho ovor-
shr|nk|ng-room oxpor|onco has morc|tu||y rocodod, today thoro aro st||| too many |ato n|ghts and oar|y morn|ngs whon
|ost-|ovo anx|ot|os roturn to haunt mo, omot|ons that l usua||y wash away w|th product|vo work or phys|ca| oxorc|so,
somot|mos (but not a|ways) succosstu||y.
What happonod to Ch|ck noxt can bost bo doscr|bod as surroa|, othoroa|, and othorwor|d|y. On that oar|y morn|ng |n
12
|obruary 1000, a sooth|ng, tranqu|| vo|co ca|m|y do||vorod a mossago ot what l |mag|no a m|nd rackod |n turmo||
|ongod to hoar:
Yoo oto |ovoo by o blgbot sootco tbot woots yoot |ovo lo tototo.
l do not know |t thoso aro tho oxact th|rtoon words hoard by Ch|ck 0'Arp|no that morn|ng, and ho's st||| not ta|k|ng,
othor than to oxpos|t:
7bo mooolog wos |ovo botwooo tbo sootco ooo mo. 7bo sootco loootlloo lts to|otloosblp to mo ooo my
to|otloosblp to lt. Aoo lt ooo|t wltb L-O-V-E. l l boo to soy wbot lt wos oboot, lt wos oboot tbo motoo| |ovo wo bovo ot
ooo oootbot, mo ooo tbo sootco, tbo sootco ooo mo.

|ow doos ono mako sonso ot a supornatura| occurronco w|th natura| oxp|anat|ons? 1h|s |s Vr. 0'Arp|no's d||omma.
l am burdonod by no such d||omma bocauso l do not bo||ovo |n othorwor|d|y torcos. Ch|ck's oxpor|onco to||ows trom
tho p|aus|b|o causa| sconar|o l am construct|ng horo tor what l bo||ovo to bo an |nnor sourco ot that outor vo|co. 3|nco
tho bra|n doos not porco|vo |tso|t or |ts |nnor oporat|ons, and our norma| oxpor|onco |s ot st|mu|| ontor|ng tho bra|n
through tho sonsos trom tho outs|do, whon a noura| notwork m|st|ros or othorw|so sonds a s|gna| to somo othor part ot
tho bra|n that rosomb|os an outs|do st|mu|us, tho bra|n natura||y |ntorprots thoso |ntorna| ovonts as oxtorna|
phonomona. 1h|s happons both natura||y and art|t|c|a||y-|ots ot poop|o oxpor|onco aud|tory and v|sua| ha||uc|nat|ons
undor vary|ng cond|t|ons, |nc|ud|ng stross, and cop|ous rosoarch that l w||| rov|ow |n dota|| |ator domonstratos how
oasy |t |s to art|t|c|a||y tr|ggor such |||usory ophomora.
logard|oss ot tho actua| sourco ot tho vo|co, what doos ono do attor such an oxpor|onco? Ch|ck p|ckod up tho
story and rocountod tor mo ono ot tho most transt|x|ng ta|os l'vo ovor hoard.

lt boppoooo oo o ltlooy. 7bo ooxt Vooooy-l tomombot lt wos Vo|ootloo`s Loy-l woot oowo to tbo 5ooto C|oto
Post Olco bocooso tbot`s wboto tbo lBl olco wos |ocotoo ot tbo tlmo. l wootoo to soo tbo ptoslooot lo otoot to
oo|lvot my mossogo to blm, bot l oloo`t koowbowooo ls sopposoo to go oboot soolog tbo ptoslooot. l lgotoo tbot
tbo lBl wos o gooo p|oco to stott. 5o l wo|k lo tboto ooo to|| tbom wbot l woot to oo, ooo tboy oskoo mo, 5o Vt.
L`Atploo, wby oo yoo woot to soo tbo ptoslooot Yoo ptotostlog somotblog' l solo, No s|r, l`vo got good oows!'
|ad you thought through what you wou|d to|| tho pros|dont?
Nopo. l oloo`t koowwbot l wos golog to soy. l jost lgotoo lt woo|o como to mo. Boslco||y, l wootoo to to|| tbo
ptoslooot 7boto`s o sootco oot tboto tbot koows wo`to boto, ooo tbot sootco too||y cotos ot os.'
|ow d|d tho |3l agont rospond?
lo soys, o||, l`|| to|| yo, l tbot`s tbo coso yoo oooo to go to tbo 5octot 5otvlco olco sloco tboy ooo| d|roct|y wltb
tbo ptoslooot.' 5o l oskoo blm, bowoo l go oboot tbot lo |ookoo ot bls wotcb ooo solo, o||, Vt. L`Atploo, otlvo
op to 5oo ltooclsco ooo go to tbo oooto| bol|olog tboto, ooo oo tbo slxtb |oot yoo`|| loo tbo 5octot 5otvlco olco.
l yoo |oovo oow, bottlog ooy ttolc, yoo sboo|o bo ob|o to moko lt booto tboy c|oso.' 5o tbot`s oxoct|y wbot l olo! l
got lo my cot ooo otovo op to 5oo ltooclsco, woot to tbo oooto| bol|olog, got lo tbo o|ovotot ooo woot op to tbo
slxtb |oot, ooo soto oooogb, lt wos tbo 5octot 5otvlco olco!
1hoy |ot you |n?
Ob, soto. l mot oo ogoot, oboot slx oot to||, ooo l to|o blm my stoty oboot wootlog to soo tbo ptoslooot. lo
lmmooloto|y oskoo mo, Vt. L`Atploo, ls tbo ptoslooot lo ooy ooogot' l solo, Not tbot l koowo.' 5o bo booos mo
o ploco o popot wltb o pbooo oombot oo lt ooo soys, o||, tboo, boto, co|| tbo osblogtoo, L.C., blto looso
swltcbbooto opototot ooo to|k to tbo oppolotmoot soctototy ooo soo l yoo coo moko oo oppolotmoot to soo tbo
ptoslooot. 7bot`s bowlt`s oooo.'
o||, l coo|oo`t bo|lovo lt! lt wos golog to bo tbot slmp|o. 5o l co||oo. Aoo l co||oo. Aoo l co||oo ogolo. Aoo ogolo. l
oovot got tbtoogb. 5o oowl wos stock. l oloo`t koowwbot o|so to oo. 5loco l wos o oovy vototoo, l woot ovot to tbo
Vototoos Aomlolsttotloo bosplto| ooo to|o tbom ovotytblog tbot l boo oooo so ot. As yoo coo lmogloo, tboy ttloo to
to|k mo oot o lt. NowVt. L`Atploo, wby woo|o yoo woot to soo tbo ptoslooot' 7boo tboy oskoo mo to |oovo, bot l
wos ot tbo ooo o my optloos ooo l oloo`t koowwbot o|so to oo, so l took lospltotloo tom tboso ptotostots tbo lBl
goy wos osklog mo oboot. l jost sot oowo tboto ot tbo VA bosplto| ooo toosoo to |oovo!
lt was a s|t-|n!
Yoob. 7boo tbo c|otk tboto soys, Como oo, Vt. L`Atploo, l yoo ooo`t |oovo l`m golog to bovo to co|| tbo po|lco
ooo l ooo`t woot to oo tbot. Yoo soom |lko o olco goy.' 5o l go bock ooo ottb wltb tbls goy. l tomombot bls oomo wos
Votcy bocooso tbot`s my ooogbtot`s oomo. llvo boots |otot bo comos bock ooo soys, Yoo`to stl|| boto, Vt.
L`Atploo' l solo Yop, ooo l`m stoylog boto.' lo soys, Nowooggooo lt, Vt. L`Atploo, l yoo ooo`t |oovo l too||y om
13
golog to co|| tbo po|lco.' l solo, Votcy, yoo gotto oo wbot yoo tblok ls tlgbt, bot l`m stoylog boto.'
5o bo co||oo tbo po|lco. 7wo olcots sbowoo op ooo tboy osk, bot`s tbo ptob|om' Votcy top|los, 7bls moo
woots to soo tbo ptoslooot.' 5o tbo ooo cop soys, Vt. L`Atploo, yoo coo`t stoy boto. 7bls ls govotomoot ptopotty.
7bls ls ot vototoos.' l soy, l`m o vototoo.' lo soys, Ob, wow, okoy, wo||.' 7boo bo osks Votcy, ls bo cooslog ooy
ptob|oms ls bo oolog ooytblog wtoog' Aoo Votcy soys, No, slt, bo`s jost slttlog boto.' 5o tbo cop to||s blm, l
bovo oo jotlsolctloo boto.' 5o tboy o|| klbltzoo ot o wbl|o ooo tboo ooclooo tbot tboy woo|o toko mo op to moot
somo poop|o wbo coo|o bo|p mo ot Agoows 5toto losplto|.
Now, os yoo coo lmogloo, l boo oo looo wbot wos golog to boppoo ooco l oototoo o stoto mooto| lostltotloo. At
ltst tboy to|koo to mo ot o wbl|o ooo tboy coo|o soo l woso`t ctozy ot ooytblog |lko tbot, so ooo o tbo cops oscottoo
mo to my cot ooo solo, loto yoo go, Vt. L`Atploo, boto`s yoot koys. l yoo ptomlso tbot yoo wl|| oovot tty to soo tbo
ptoslooot, yoo coo jost go bomo oow.' Bot l wos stl|| loslstoot oo soolog tbo ptoslooot, so tboy solo tboy woto golog
to bo|o mo ot sovooty-two boots ot obsotvotloo. 7bot wos my blggost mlstoko. l tboogbt l coo|o jost |oovo otot tbot
l l wootoo, bot oo.
You spont throo days |n a monta| hosp|ta|? What d|d you do?
7boy soot lo sovoto| psycblottlsts to to|k to mo, ooclolog tbot l oooooo oooltlooo| obsotvotloo ooo tbot l woo|o
oooo to oppoot booto o sopotlot coott joogo o|oog wltb two coott-oppolotoo psycblottlsts to oototmloo l l woo|o bo
commlttoo to tbo mooto| lostltotloo ot |oogot tboo tbtoo ooys. Oo lobtooty twooty-oottb, l oppootoo booto tbo
joogo ooo two psycblottlsts, wbo oskoo mo somo qoostloos ooo tocommooooo tbot l bo commlttoo. Llogoosls.
psycbosls. 7lmo. to bo ooclooo.
At th|s po|nt |n tho story l'm p|ctur|ng 1ack l|cho|son's land|o VcVurphy and lou|so ||otchor's lurso latchod
wrang||ng ovor pat|ont pr|v||ogos |n Kon Kosoy's tamous novo| cum Acadomy Award-w|nn|ng t||m, a tancy l suggost to
Ch|ck.
Nob! Ono ||ow Ovor tho Cuckoo's lost wos o ploco o coko compotoo to tbls p|oco. lt wos toogb. lot o yoot ooo
o bo| l sot lo my toom ooo olo o|| tbo |ltt|o tosks tboy govo mo to oo ooo ottooooo tbo gtoop sossloos ooo to|koo to
tbo psycblottlsts.

What shou|d wo mako ot a|| th|s? ls Ch|ck 0'Arp|no just somo crazy man out ot touch w|th roa||ty-a |unat|c |n a t|nto||
hat? lo. Ono th|rty-socond oxpor|onco doos not a psychot|c mako, |ot a|ono a ||tot|mo spont pursu|ng sc|onco,
thoo|ogy, and ph||osophy |n books, contoroncos, and un|vors|ty coursos to bottor undorstand both h|mso|t and tho
human cond|t|on. Ch|ck may bo oxcood|ng|y amb|t|ous, but ho |s not crazy. lorhaps ho had a momontary broak w|th
roa||ty tr|ggorod by an onv|ronmonta| strossor. lorhaps. And that |s what l suspoct happonod . or somoth|ng ||ko |t.
Yot m||||ons ot poop|o havo gono through tho omot|ona| strossor ot d|vorco w|thout ovor hav|ng such protornatura|
oncountors.
Vaybo |t |s a comb|nat|on ot an onv|ronmonta| strossor p|us an anoma|ous bra|n h|ccup-random nourona| t|r|ngs,
tor oxamp|o, or porhaps a m|nor tompora| |obo so|zuro, tho |attor ot wh|ch aro wo|| documontod as caus|ng both
aud|tory and v|sua| ha||uc|nat|ons a|ong w|th hypor-ro||g|ous bohav|or. Or maybo |t was somo sort ot aud|tory
ha||uc|nat|on tr|ggorod by who knows what. Wo m|ght ovon cha|k |t up moro broad|y to tho |aw ot |argo numbors, whoro
m||||on-to-ono odds happon throo hundrod t|mos a day |n Amor|ca-g|von onough bra|ns |ntoract|ng w|th tho
onv|ronmont ovor onough t|mo, |t |s |nov|tab|o that ovon oxtraord|nary |nc|donts bocomo ord|nary. And thanks to our
so|oct|vo momory, wo romombor tho anoma||os and torgot tho mundano.
Vost ot us don't hoar vo|cos or soo v|s|ons, yot a|| ot our bra|ns aro w|rod |n tho samo noura|-chom|ca| way as tho
v|s|onar|os who do, trom Vosos, 1osus, and Vuhammad to 1oan ot Arc, 1osoph 3m|th, and 0av|d Korosh. 1ho modo|
ot how bra|ns torm bo||ots and thon act on thom |s what |s ot |ntorost horo, bocauso th|s |s somoth|ng wo a|| do-
|nov|tab|y, |noxorab|y, |nd|sputab|y. 3o||ots aro what bra|ns mako. Whatovor happonod to Ch|ck 0'Arp|no, l am ovon
moro |ntorostod |n tho powor that bo||ot systoms |ord ovor us onco wo torm thom and ospoc|a||y onco wo comm|t to
to||ow through on thom, whatovor typo ot bo||ots thoy aro: porsona|, ro||g|ous, po||t|ca|, oconom|c, |doo|og|ca|, soc|a|,
or cu|tura|. Or psych|atr|c.
5ano in an |naano Land
Whon l was an undorgraduato psycho|ogy studont at loppord|no Un|vors|ty |n tho m|d-1070s, tor a courso on
abnorma| psycho|ogy wo woro roqu|rod to vo|untoor at a c||n|c or hosp|ta| |n ordor to g|vo us hands-on oxpor|onco w|th
monta| |||noss. |or ono somostor l drovo up tho lac|t|c Coast ||ghway ovory 3aturday to spond tho day at Camar|||o
3tato Vonta| |osp|ta|. lt was a gr|m oxpor|onco. lt was so dopross|ng that ovon tho transcondont boauty ot tho lac|t|c
14
Ocoan on tho dr|vo back d|d ||tt|o to ho|st my sagg|ng sp|r|ts. 3ch|zophron|cs and othor psychot|c pat|onts shutt|od up
and down tho corr|dors, shutt||ng botwoon baro and toaturo|oss bodrooms and baro|y oqu|ppod gamo rooms.
A|though Camar|||o was a p|onoor |n tho trans|t|on |n monta| hoa|th troatmont trom |obotom|os to psychotrop|c drugs,
stuporous bra|ns soomod baro|y d|st|ngu|shab|o trom somnambu||st|c bod|os.
ln proparat|on tor our hosp|ta| st|nt, our protossor had us road (and ||ston to an |ntorv|ow w|th tho author ot) a papor
pub||shod |n tho prost|g|ous journa| 5clooco ont|t|od On 3o|ng 3ano |n lnsano l|acos,' by 3tantord Un|vors|ty
psycho|og|st 0av|d losonhan.
2
1ho art|c|o, now ono ot tho most tamous ovor pub||shod |n tho anna|s ot psycho|ogy,
rocountod an oxpor|mont by losonhan and h|s assoc|atos |n wh|ch thoy ontorod a dozon monta| hosp|ta|s |n t|vo
d|ttoront statos on tho East and Wost coasts, roport|ng hav|ng had a br|ot aud|tory ha||uc|nat|on. 1hoy statod that tho
vo|cos woro otton unc|oar, but as tar as thoy cou|d to|| sa|d somoth|ng ||ko ompty,' ho||ow,' and thud.' lt prossod, thoy
woro to |ntorprot tho moan|ng ot tho vo|co's mossago as Vy ||to |s ompty and ho||ow.'
A|| o|ght woro adm|ttod, sovon ot thom d|agnosod as sch|zophron|c and ono as man|c-dopross|vo. 1hoy woro, |n
tact, a psycho|ogy grad studont, throo psycho|og|sts, a psych|atr|st, a pod|atr|c|an, a housow|to, and a pa|ntor (throo
womon, t|vo mon), nono ot whom had any h|story ot monta| |||noss. Outs|do ot tho taux aud|tory ha||uc|nat|on and ta|so
namos, thoy woro |nstructod to to|| tho truth attor adm|ss|on, act norma||y, and c|a|m that tho ha||uc|nat|ons had stoppod
and that thoy now to|t portoct|y t|no. 0osp|to tho tact that tho nursos roportod tho pat|onts as tr|ond|y' and
cooporat|vo' and sa|d thoy oxh|b|tod no abnorma| |nd|cat|ons,' nono ot tho hosp|ta| psych|atr|sts or statt caught on to
tho oxpor|mont, cons|stont|y troat|ng thoso norma|s as abnorma|s. Attor an avorago stay ot n|notoon days (rang|ng
trom sovon to t|tty-two days-thoy had to got out by tho|r own dov|cos), a|| ot losonhan's sh|||s woro d|schargod w|th a
d|agnos|s ot sch|zophron|a |n rom|ss|on.'
1ho powor ot tho d|agnost|c bo||ot ong|no was str|k|ng. ln tho rocordod rad|o convorsat|on,
8
losonhan rocountod
that |n h|s adm|ss|on |ntorv|ow tho psych|atr|st askod about h|s ro|at|onsh|p w|th h|s paronts and w|to, and |nqu|rod |t
ho ovor spankod h|s ch||dron. losonhan answorod that botoro ado|osconco ho got on wo|| w|th h|s paronts but dur|ng
h|s toon yoars ho oxpor|oncod somo tons|on w|th thom, that ho and h|s w|to got a|ong ta|r|y wo|| but had occas|ona|
t|ghts, and that ho a|most novor' spankod h|s k|ds, tho oxcopt|on bo|ng whon ho spankod h|s daughtor tor gott|ng |nto
a mod|c|no cab|not and h|s son onco tor runn|ng across a busy stroot, add|ng that tho psych|atr|st novor |nqu|rod |nto
tho contoxt ot o|thor tho spousa| t|ghts or tho spank|ngs. lnstoad, losonhan oxp|a|nod, th|s was a|| |ntorprotod as
rot|oct|ng my onormous amb|va|onco |n |ntorporsona| ro|at|onsh|ps and a groat doa| ot d|tt|cu|ty |n |mpu|so contro|,
bocauso |n tho ma|n l don't spank my k|ds, but boy l got angry and l thon spank thom.' 1ho psych|atr|st, losonhan
conc|udod, hav|ng doc|dod that l was crazy, |ookod |nto my caso h|story to t|nd th|ngs that wou|d support that v|ow,
and so amb|va|onco |n |ntorporsona| ro|at|onsh|ps was a damn good oxamp|o.'
1ho d|agnost|c bo||ot b|as was porvas|vo. 3ocauso losonhan's chargos woro borod out ot tho|r sku||s |n thoso
|nst|tut|ons, to pass tho t|mo thoy kopt dota||od notos ot tho|r oxpor|oncos. ln ono po|gnant doscr|ptor, tho statt
roportod that pat|ont ongagos |n wr|t|ng bohav|or' on a ||st ot s|gns ot patho|ogy. 1ho pa|ntor psoudopat|ont bogan
churn|ng out canvas attor canvas, many ot wh|ch woro ot such good qua||ty that thoy woro hung on tho most|y barron
wa||s ot tho |nst|tut|on sho ontorod-wh|ch happonod to bo a hosp|ta| tor wh|ch losonhan was a consu|tant.
l como |n ono day tor a caso prosontat|on contoronco to hoar tho statt go|ng across hor pa|nt|ngs ovor t|mo say|ng, |n ottoct, |ook, horo
you can soo roa| d|sturbancos |n hor sonsor|um, you can soo how th|ngs aro orupt|ng |nto consc|ousnoss, ||b|d|nous pushos, and
horo you can a|roady soo |t soa|od ovor,' and so on. lt's c|oar that |n th|s mattor, w|th rogard to projoct|vos ot a|| k|nd, you road |n what
you want to road |n to |t. 1ho statomonts that monta| hoa|th protoss|ona|s mako about pat|onts otton to|| us moro about tho
protoss|ona|s than thoy do about tho pat|onts.
1o|||ng|y, tho roa| pat|onts-not pr|vy to tho psych|atr|sts' d|agnosos ot tho psoudopat|onts-suspoctod somoth|ng
was up r|ght away. Ot tho 118 pat|onts whoso romarks woro rocordod, 8b ot thom |nd|catod that thoy know what was
roa||y go|ng on. As ono oxc|a|mod: You'ro not crazy. You'ro a journa||st, or a protossor. You'ro chock|ng up on tho
hosp|ta|.' Ot courso. Who o|so wou|d bo s|tt|ng around a monta| hosp|ta| tak|ng cop|ous notos?
|ow doos tho patho|ogy bo||ot systom transmogr|ty norma| |nto abnorma| bohav|or? G|von that tho pat|ont |s |n tho
hosp|ta|, ho must bo psycho|og|ca||y d|sturbod,' losonhan oxp|a|nod. And g|von that ho |s d|sturbod, cont|nuous
wr|t|ng must bo bohav|ora| man|tostat|on ot that d|sturbanco, porhaps a subsot ot tho compu|s|vo bohav|ors that aro
somot|mos corro|atod w|th sch|zophron|a.' And not just wr|t|ng. Ono psoudopat|ont, wh||o pac|ng up and down tho ha||,
was askod by a nurso, lorvous, Vr. X?' |o rop||od, lo, borod.' Anothor orsatz pat|ont ovorhoard a psych|atr|st
oxp|a|n|ng to somo |ntorns that tho ||no ot pat|onts quouod up tor |unch th|rty m|nutos oar|y was charactor|st|c ot tho
ora|-acqu|s|t|vo naturo ot tho syndromo.' lah, |t cou|dn't bo that thoy woro just borod and hungry.
lt tho d|agnost|c |abo| |s so powortu| as to causo somoono to judgo sano poop|o |nsano, cou|d |t work |n tho
rovorso? V|ght |nsano bohav|or bo |abo|od sano undor d|ttoront c|rcumstancos? ln a subsoquont oxpor|mont to tost
tho rovorso powor ot d|agnost|c bo||ot, losonhan contactod a monta| |nst|tut|on attor thoy wroto h|m to oxp|a|n that
15
tboy wou|d novor ta|| tor such a p|oy. losonhan to|d thom that ovor tho courso ot tho noxt throo months ho wou|d sond
|n ono or moro psoudopat|onts, w|th tho statt |nstructod to rocord wh|ch pat|onts thoy thought woro tako. Onco aga|n
domonstrat|ng tho powor ot bo||ot to |ntorprot tho data |n ||ght ot tho d|agnost|c too|, out ot 108 pat|onts adm|ttod to
th|s hosp|ta|, 41 woro c|ass|t|od as |mpostors by at |oast ono statt mombor, w|th an add|t|ona| 42 c|ass|t|od as
suspoctod takos. ln po|nt ot tact, oo psoudopat|onts woro sont to that |nst|tut|on! lt |s c|oar that wo cannot d|st|ngu|sh
tho sano trom tho |nsano |n psych|atr|c hosp|ta|s,' losonhan conc|udod. 1ho hosp|ta| |tso|t |mposos a spoc|a|
onv|ronmont |n wh|ch tho moan|ng ot bohav|or can oas||y bo m|sundorstood.'
What you bo||ovo |s what you soo. 1ho |abo| |s tho bohav|or. 1hoory mo|ds data. Concopts dotorm|no porcopts.
3o||ot-dopondont roa||sm.
Know tho Nind |taoIt and You Know Eumanity
low troo on h|s own rocogn|zanco, Ch|ck 0'Arp|no roturnod to work and bogan h|s journoy ot undorstand|ng. 1o what
ond?
Booto l olo l woot to ooootstooo tbo bomoo copoclty to cottoct|y ooswot socb qoostloos os bot om l' bo
om l' ls tboto o sootco oot tboto wbo koows wo oto boto' l tblok l bovo ooswots to tboso blg qoostloos tbot l woot
to sboto booto l olo.
Whoro d|d you got thoso answors?
l got tboso ooswots tom tbo sootco.
What |s tho sourco?
7bo mloo ltso|.

l am not tho t|rst to ask Ch|ck 0'Arp|no such quost|ons. Whon ho |n|t|a||y approachod 3tantord Un|vors|ty to sponsor
ossay contosts on h|s b|g quost|ons, somo protossors thoro had quost|ons s|m||ar to m|no. ln a |ottor datod
3optombor 10, 2002, Ch|ck oxp|a|nod h|mso|t to tho 3tantord protossors thus|y, and |n tho procoss ottors us an
op|stomo|og|ca| go|don nuggot:
Boslco||y, l wos motlvotoo to lottoooco tbo toplc o tbls cootost bocooso l om ptooooo|y owoto tbot tboto ls o cottoct ooswot to tbo
qoostloo, bo om l' l woot to oo wbot l coo to btlog oot' oltmotlvo|y oot bomoo obl|lty to ooootstooo cottoct|y tbo wbo|o oxtoot o
ovoty potsoo`s loolvlooo| so|-loootlty. lo togoto to tbo otlgloo| sootco tbot ptovlooo botb tbo mooto| obl|lty ooo tbo lootmotloo tbot ls
oocossoty to ocblovo solo ooootstooolog, l botoby o|so oltm tbot oot bol|t-lo to|otloosblp to tbot sootco wos oplstomo|oglco||y
oxptossoo os o||ows. Koow tbo mloo ltso| ooo yoo koow bomoolty.'
|oro|n ||os what |s arguab|y tho groatost cha||ongo sc|onco has ovor tacod, and |t |s tho prob|om l am tack||ng |n th|s
book: koowtbo mloo ltso| ooo yoo koowbomoolty.
|or a mator|a||st such as myso|t, thoro |s no such th|ng as m|nd.' lt u|t|mato|y roducos down to nourons t|r|ng and
nourochom|ca| transm|ttor substancos t|ow|ng across synapt|c gaps botwoon nourons, comb|n|ng |n comp|ox pattorns
to produco somoth|ng wo ca|| mloo but |s actua||y just bra|n. Ch|ck boggod to d|ttor.
7bot`s o sopposltloo, Vlcboo|. Yoot stottlog polot ls tbot tboto coo bo ootblog moto tboo btolo, so o cootso yoo
ottlvo ot tbot cooc|osloo.
Wo||, yos, l supposo that's truo. 3ut you havo to start somowhoro, so l start at tho bottom, at nourons and tho|r
act|ons.
Bot tbo voty cbolco to boglo tboto ls ltso| oo ottlc|o o oltb, Vlcboo|. 7bot`s oot o sclootllc loooctloo, tbot`s jost o
cooscloos cbolco oo yoot pott.
3uro, but why not start at tho bottom? 1hat's tho pr|nc|p|o ot roduct|on|sm that |s such an |ntogra| part ot sc|onco.
Bot l yoo go tbot tooto yoo c|oso yootso| o to otbot posslbl|ltlos. top-oowo lostooo o bottom-op posslbl|ltlos.
Yoo coo|o jost os oosl|y stott ot tbo top wltb mloo ooo wotk yoot woy oowo to oootoos, wblcb opoos op otbot
posslbl|ltlos.
lsn't th|s just a roundabout way ot oxp|a|n|ng what happonod to you as bo|ng somoth|ng moro than just a product ot
your bra|n-that thoro roa||y |s a sourco out thoro that knows wo aro horo?
lt ls o olotoot stottlog polot o oplstomo|ogy. Yoot cooc|osloos oto oo|y os soooo os yoot ptomlsos.

3y now l'm bog|nn|ng to too| ||ko a charactor |n Vy Llooot wltb Aooto, tho 1081 lou|s Va||o t||m |n wh|ch Wa||aco
3hawn and Andro Grogory convorso tor hours on protound ph||osoph|ca| |ssuos |n ||to, |n wh|ch so much turns on how
words aro dot|nod.
16

l|ko what?
Yoo soy tbot tbo btolo coo`t potcolvo ltso|.
Yos.
Lo yoo koowwbo yoo oto
3uro, ot courso.
7boo oomoosttoto lt. bo ls oolog tbo osklog lo totms o loootlty, somoooo ls oolog tbo potcolvlog lo tboto.
bo ls tbo l' oolog tbo potcolvlog lot yoo, tbo mloo ls ootblog moto tboo tbo btolo, bot ot mo tbo mloo ls moto
tboo tbot. lt ls oot loootlty. 7bo oct tbot yoo koowwbo yoo oto mooos tbot tbo btolo coo potcolvo ltso|.
Okay, l soo what you moan, but that can bo oxp|a|nod by a noura| toodback |oop botwoon a noura| notwork that
mon|tors tho body, wh|ch |s |n tho par|ota| |obo, and a noura| notwork that mon|tors othor parts ot tho bra|n, wh|ch |s |n
tho protronta| cortox. 3o that's st||| a bottom-up noura| oxp|anat|on tor m|nd. You soom to bo ta|k|ng about somoth|ng
moro.
l om. 7bo mloo ls oolvotso|-lt oxtooos boyooo bomoo bologs, wblcb o|so loc|ooos ooy otm o E7 ot Ooo ot tbo
sootco ot wbotovot.
|ow do you know that? W|th what prom|sos d|d you start to got to that conc|us|on?
l boglo wltb oot copoclty to ooootstooo. boto olo tbot como tom ltom tbo mloo ltso|.
l don't undorstand. What do you moan by undorstand'?
7bo mloo potcolvos tbo mloo. Yoo potcolvo yootso| lo tbo oct o potcoptloo. Yoo oto tbo sobjoct ooo tbo objoct
ot tbo somo tlmo. o bovo tbo obl|lty to potcolvo ootso|vos ooo to ooootstooo too|lty os lt too||y ls.
l th|nk that th|s must bo why l wont |nto sc|onco |nstoad ot ph||osophy. You'ro |os|ng mo horo. lsn't th|s just
op|stomo|ogy and tho |ssuo ot how wo know anyth|ng?
Yos, tbot`s wbot l |ovo oboot |oglc ooo oplstomo|ogy. boto ooos |oglc como tom Atlstot|o boto olo bo got
lt U|tlmoto|y lt ls tbo mloo ltso|, wblcb ls oolvotso|. Loglc, |lko motbomotlcs, ls o ptlotl. o ooo`t ctooto |oglc ot
motbomotlcs. 7bo syotox o |oglc ooo motbomotlcs ls lovootoo, bot tbo |oglco| ooo motbomotlco| ptloclp|os woto
o|toooy tboto.
E|nsto|n bo||ovod |n |og|c and mathomat|cs and tho |aws ot naturo, but ho d|d not bo||ovo |n a porsona| God or a
supromo bo|ng ot any k|nd. You soom to bo||ovo that |n add|t|on to |og|c and mathomat|cs and tho |aws ot naturo, th|s
un|vorsa| m|nd a|so roprosonts an |ntont|ona| agont, a porsona| bo|ng who knows wo'ro horo and caros about us. |ow
do you know tbot?
Bocooso lt to|koo to mo.
3o |t doos como down to porsona| oxpor|onco.
Yos, ooo tbot`s wby l woot to got post o|| tbls olo|ogoo ooo ooboto oboot wbotbot ot oot Ooo ot o blgbot powot
oxlsts ooo btlog lt oowo to jost tbtoo wotos. Lo oo oxpotlmoot.'
What oxpor|mont?
7bo 5E7l oxpotlmoot-tbo 5ootcb ot Exttotottosttlo| loto||lgooco.
1hat's a|roady bo|ng dono.
Yos, ooo l tblok wo oooo to oo moto, socb os tbo VE7l ptogtom, ot Vossoglog to Exttotottosttlo| loto||lgooco,
wboto wo sooo slgoo|s oot lo bopos o tbom bolog ootoctoo. Ot ovoo tbo lE7l ptogtom, ot lovltotloo to
Exttotottosttlo| loto||lgooco, wblcb bos oo lmptosslvo co||octloo o sclootlsts ooo scbo|ots wbo bovo o|toooy
oxtooooo oo lovltotloo to E7 oo|loo.
l'vo soon tho lE1l |nv|tat|on. 1h|s prosumos that E1s w||| bo ab|o to road Eng||sh and nav|gato a wob pago on tho|r
computors, whon on|y twonty yoars go-or twonty yoars trom now-nono ot what wo'ro us|ng today workod or w|||
work.
7bot`s wby l tblok wo oooo to jost oxtooo tbo lovltotloo to tbo sootco votbo||y tbtoogb o g|obo| otgoolzotloo socb
os tbo Uoltoo Notloos.
What wou|d you say?
l woo|o soy somotblog |lko tbls. o, tbo cltlzoos o Eottb, wltb poocoo| lotootloo, lovlto ooy ooo o||
oxttotottosttlo| loto||lgoocos to moko cootoct wltb os.'

Whothor Ch|ck 0'Arp|no ovor roa||zos h|s droam ot a Ul-sponsorod E1 |nv|tat|on ovont roma|ns to bo soon (|t you
want to road Ch|ck's own statomont on tho E1 |nv|to, go to: http://www.ch|ckdarp|no.b|og.com/). 1horo |s no harm |n
try|ng, and maybo |t wou|d ovon sorvo to br|ng human|ty togothor tor a br|ot rosp|to botwoon tr|ba| d|sputos. 1horo |s,
17
attor a||, no |aw ot naturo that says thoro cannot bo an oxtratorrostr|a| |nto|||gonco out thoro, ovon ono that knows wo
aro horo. l'm skopt|ca| that wo wou|d got a rosponso, as l am that what happonod to Ch|ck on that oar|y morn|ng thoso
|ong gono docados ago roprosonts a m|nd outs|do ot tho bra|n, but as a sc|ont|st l must a|ways cons|dor tho
poss|b|||ty that l cou|d bo wrong. E|thor way, Ch|ck 0'Arp|no's journoy |s a tostamont to tho powor ot bo||ot.
18

2

Dr. CoIIina'a Convoraion
3y now you may bo th|nk|ng to yourso|t, Oh como on! |ow doos any ot th|s app|y to mo? 1h|s 0'Arp|no guy |s an
unoducatod br|ck|ayor. Vy bo||ots aro basod on roasonod ana|ys|s and oducatod cons|dorat|on. l'vo novor hoard
vo|cos or tr|od to soo tho pros|dont. Vy bra|n and bo||ots aro just t|no, thank you.'
1h|s |s why l sha|| bookond Vr. 0'Arp|no's story w|th that ot 0r. |ranc|s Co|||ns, an V.0. and lh.0., tormor hoad ot
tho |uman Gonomo lrojoct, curront d|roctor ot tho lat|ona| lnst|tutos ot |oa|th, w|nnor ot tho lros|dont|a| Voda| ot
|roodom, and mombor ot tho prost|g|ous lat|ona| Acadomy ot 3c|oncos and tho lont|t|ca| Acadomy ot 3c|oncos, to
namo just a tow ot h|s accomp||shmonts. 0r. Co|||ns a|so had a ||to-chang|ng op|phany, a|so |n tho oar|y morn|ng,
propo|||ng h|m to bocomo an outspokon born-aga|n ovango||ca| Chr|st|an and wr|to a bostso|||ng book about both h|s
oxpor|onco and h|s journoy trom hard-coro atho|st to |mpass|onod bo||ovor. You may roasonab|y th|nk yourso|t
|mmuno to tho powor ot bo||ot as w|tnossod |n tho narrat|vo arc ot a br|ck mason, but tow roadors ot th|s book can say
that thoy havo tho |nto||octua| horsopowor or sc|ont|t|c crodont|a|s ot |ranc|s Co|||ns, ono ot tho groatost m|nds ot our
gonorat|on. lt |t can happon to h|m, |t can happon to anyono. ln tact, as l arguo |n th|s book, tho powor ot bo||ot
happons to a|| ot us, a|bo|t at d|ttoront |ovo|s ot |ntons|ty and |n vary|ng parts and t|mos ot our ||vos. 1ho part|cu|ars ot
0r. Co|||ns's bo||ot path aro rad|ca||y d|ttoront trom that ot Vr. 0'Arp|no's, but tho procoss ot how bo||ots aro tormod
and ro|ntorcod |s what l w|sh to oxam|no |n tho ma|n.
ln h|s bostso|||ng 2000 book, 7bo Loogoogo o Ooo. A 5clootlst Ptosoots Evloooco ot Bo|lo,
1
|ranc|s Co|||ns
rocounts h|s journoy trom atho|st to tho|st, wh|ch at t|rst was a ha|t|ng |nto||octua| procoss t|||od w|th tho |ntorna|
dobatos sc|ont|sts typ|ca||y havo w|th thomso|vos wh||o work|ng on now |doas (l hos|tatod, atra|d ot tho
consoquoncos, and att||ctod by doubts'). |o road books on tho ox|stonco ot God and tho d|v|n|ty ot Chr|st, most
notab|y tho works ot tho co|obratod Oxtord scho|ar and novo||st C. 3. low|s, whoso popu|ar nont|ct|on works havo
bocomo a stap|o ot Chr|st|an apo|ogot|cs, and whoso ch||dron's book sor|os 7bo Cbtoolc|os o Notolo-t|||od w|th
th|n|y d|sgu|sod b|b||ca| a||ogor|os-aro |n stoady product|on as |o||ywood t||ms. Whon l was study|ng at loppord|no
Un|vors|ty, l took an ont|ro courso on tho wr|t|ngs ot C. 3. low|s and can attost t|rsthand to tho powor ot h|s wr|t|ngs
(a|though h|s sc|onco-t|ct|on spaco tr||ogy |ags boh|nd tho larn|a sor|os |n qua||ty and |s un||ko|y to soo tho ||ght ot
t||m). Co|||ns roca||od h|s |n|t|a| roact|on to tho argumont that 1osus was God |ncarnato who had to como to Earth as a
man |n ordor to pay our dobt ot s|n so that wo may a|| bo born aga|n (tamous|y postor|zod at sport|ng ovonts |n 1ohn
8:10: |or God so |ovod tho wor|d, that ho gavo h|s on|y bogotton 3on, that whosoovor bo||ovoth |n h|m shou|d not
por|sh, but havo ovor|ast|ng ||to.'): 3otoro l bocamo a bo||ovor |n God, th|s k|nd ot |og|c soomod ||ko uttor nonsonso.
low tho cruc|t|x|on and rosurroct|on omorgod as tho compo|||ng so|ut|on to tho gap that yawnod botwoon God and
myso|t, a gap that cou|d now bo br|dgod by tho porson ot 1osus Chr|st.' Aga|n, as tho pr|nc|p|o ot bo||ot-dopondont
roa||sm d|ctatos, onco tho bo||ot |s tormod, roasons can bo tound to support |t.
3otoro Co|||ns mado tho |oap, howovor, h|s tra|n|ng |n sc|onco and rat|ona||ty kopt ro||g|ous bo||ot at bay. 1ho
sc|ont|st |n mo rotusod to go any turthor a|ong th|s path toward Chr|st|an bo||ot, no mattor how appoa||ng, |t tho b|b||ca|
wr|t|ngs about Chr|st turnod out to bo a myth or, worso yot, a hoax.' As |ong as bo||ot was socondary to oxp|anat|on,
skopt|c|sm ro|gnod supromo. 3ut onco you opon your m|nd to tho poss|b|||ty ot bo||ot, oxp|anat|ons ta|| natura||y |nto
p|aco. As ho to|d a 7lmo magaz|no roportor |n a pr|nt dobato w|th tho co|obratod atho|st l|chard 0awk|ns-who
cha||ongod Co|||ns's c|a|m that God |s outs|do ot tho un|vorso and ca||od |t tho mothor and tathor ot a|| cop outs'-
Co|||ns rop||od:
l do objoct to tho assumpt|on that anyth|ng that m|ght bo outs|do ot naturo |s ru|od out ot tho convorsat|on. 1hat's an |mpovor|shod
v|ow ot tho k|nds ot quost|ons wo humans can ask, such as Why am l horo?' What happons attor wo d|o?' lt you rotuso to
acknow|odgo tho|r appropr|atonoss, you ond up w|th a zoro probab|||ty ot God attor oxam|n|ng tho natura| wor|d bocauso |t doosn't
conv|nco you on a proot bas|s. 3ut |t your m|nd |s opon about whothor God m|ght ox|st, you can po|nt to aspocts ot tho un|vorso that aro
cons|stont w|th that conc|us|on.
1ho oxp|anat|on-bo||ot ordor was about to bo rovorsod. Co|||ns was po|sod on tho proc|p|co ot tho |oap ot ta|th that
tho 0an|sh thoo|og|an 3ron K|orkogaard c|a|mod was nocossary to c|rcumvont tho paradox ot bo||ov|ng that a bo|ng
cou|d bo both tu||y human and tu||y God. C. 3. low|s prov|dod tho catapu|t that Co|||ns noodod to hur| across that
19
thoo|og|ca| canyon. ln Voto Cbtlstloolty, low|s tamous|y prosontod what has como to bo known as tho l|ar, lunat|c,
or lord' argumont:
Aman who was moro|y a man and sa|d tho sort ot th|ngs 1osus sa|d wou|d not bo a groat mora| toachor. |o wou|d o|thor bo a |unat|c
-on a |ovo| w|th a man who says |o |s a poachod ogg-or o|so |o wou|d bo tho 0ov|| ot |o||. You must mako your cho|co. E|thor th|s
man was, and |s, tho 3on ot God: or o|so a madman or somoth|ng worso. You can shut ||m up tor a too|, you can sp|t at ||m and k|||
||m as a domon, or you can ta|| at ||s toot and ca|| ||m lord and God.
1ho |nto||octua| argumonts pro and con tor tho d|v|n|ty ot Chr|st that had so bodov||od Co|||ns dur|ng h|s sp|r|tua|
quost co||apsod |n ono attornoon wh||o commun|ng w|th naturo:
low|s was r|ght. l had to mako a cho|co. Atu|| yoar had passod s|nco l doc|dod to bo||ovo |n somo sort ot God, and now l was bo|ng
ca||od to account. On a boaut|tu| ta|| day, as l was h|k|ng |n tho Cascado Vounta|ns dur|ng my t|rst tr|p wost ot tho V|ss|ss|pp|, tho
majosty and boauty ot God's croat|on ovorwho|mod my ros|stanco. As l roundod a cornor and saw a boaut|tu| and unoxpoctod trozon
watorta||, hundrods ot toot h|gh, l know tho soarch was ovor. 1ho noxt morn|ng, l kno|t |n tho dowy grass as tho sun roso and
surrondorod to 1osus Chr|st.

l wantod to know moro about th|s oxpor|onco and managod to catch Co|||ns dur|ng a |ong dr|vo to v|s|t tam||y, |so|atod
|n h|s car trom tho d|stract|ons that bo|ng hoad ot tho lat|ona| lnst|tutos ot |oa|th br|ngs.
2
|o was rotrosh|ng|y (and
rovoa||ng|y) opon about h|s bo||ots and how ho arr|vod at thom, start|ng w|th what |od to tho trozon watorta|| op|phany.
Co|||ns was a mod|ca| ros|dont work|ng hundrod-hour wooks. l was ovorworkod and undors|opt, try|ng a|so to bo a
good husband and tathor, and l roa||y had ||tt|o t|mo tor doop rot|oct|on. 3o |t thoro was anyth|ng to that momont |n tho
mounta|ns |t was bo|ng sot as|do trom thoso d|stract|ons and a||ow|ng myso|t to contomp|ato thoso protound
quost|ons.' ln th|s stato ot road|noss, Co|||ns oxp|a|nod, l turnod tho cornor ot tho tra|| and saw th|s trozon watorta||
g||ston|ng |n tho sun. lt wasn't so much a m|racu|ous s|gn trom God as |t was a too||ng that l was bo|ng ca||od to a
doc|s|on. l ovon romombor th|nk|ng that |t a ba|d oag|o t|ow ovorhoad at that momont that wou|d bo roa||y coo|, but that
d|dn't happon. 3ut l d|d oxpor|onco a too||ng ot poaco and ot bo|ng roady and |n tho r|ght p|aco to mako that doc|s|on.
l just had a poacotu| sonso ot 'l'm horo. l mado |t.''
Attor a honoymoon por|od ot about a yoar' |n wh|ch Co|||ns to|t groat joy and ro||ot and ta|kod to |ots ot poop|o
about my convors|on,' doubts bogan to croop |nto h|s m|nd, mak|ng h|m wondor |t th|s had a|| boon an |||us|on.' Ono
3unday ot part|cu|ar|y |ntonso doubt, Co|||ns wont up to tho a|tar, kno|t tor a wh||o |n groat d|stross, cry|ng out |n somo
vo|co|oss prayor tor ho|p.' 1ust thon ho to|t a hand on h|s shou|dor. l turnod and thoro was a man who had just jo|nod
tho church that day. |o askod mo what l was go|ng through. l to|d h|m, ho took mo to |unch, wo ta|kod, and wo bocamo
good tr|onds. lt turns out that ho was a phys|c|st who had travo|od a s|m||ar path to m|no, and ho ho|pod mo soo that
doubt |s part ot tho ta|th journoy.' loassurod by a to||ow sc|ont|st, Co|||ns was ab|o to go back and roconstruct how l
camo to ta|th |n tho t|rst p|aco, and l conc|udod that my ro||g|ous bo||ot was roa| and not countorto|t.'
0|d |t ho|p that ho was a|so a sc|ont|st?
lt soto olo! lo to|klog to |ots o poop|o o oltb l`vo olscovotoo tbot l bovo loto||octoo|lzoo my bo|lo ot moto tboo
most poop|o, so lt wos ospoclo||y bo|po| to sboto my ooobt wltb o o||owsclootlst.
|av|ng doubts d|dn't sot you back |n your ta|th?
No, ooobt ls oo oppottoolty to cootlooo gtowlog.
|ow can you to|| tho d|ttoronco botwoon tho pos|t|on that God ox|sts and doubt |s tho norma| part ot ta|th, and tho
pos|t|on that God doos not ox|st and doubt |s roasonab|o and appropr|ato?
7boto ls o spocttom o bo|lo, botwooo obso|oto cooloooco lo Ooo`s oxlstooco oo ooo ooo ooo obso|oto
cooloooco tbot tboto ls oo Ooo oo tbo otbot ooo. o oto o|| |lvlog somowboto oo tbls spocttom. l om ovot towoto
tbo bo|lo ooo, bot by oo mooos o|| tbo woy ovot tboto. Aoo l koowwbot lt`s |lko to |lvo oo tbo otbot ooo o tbo
spocttom sloco tbot`s wboto l wos lo my twootlos. l yoo |ook ot tbot spocttom tom o poto|y totlooo| potspoctlvo,
ooltbot oxttomo ls ooooslb|o, o|tboogb ot o|| tbo toosoos l oosctlbo lo my book l cooc|ooo tbot tbo bo|lo sloo ls
moto totlooo| tboo tbo olsbo|lo sloo.

7bo Loogoogo o Ooo |s an honost and gonu|no|y conc|||atory ottort at br|dg|ng tho d|v|do botwoon sc|onco and
ro||g|on. l quoto |t otton |n my dobatos w|th croat|on|sts bocauso Co|||ns-somoono w|th cons|dorab|o sc|ont|t|c status
|n h|s ro||g|ous camp-novortho|oss oxp|a|ns c|oar|y why |nto|||gont dos|gn croat|on|sm |s bunk. And h|s chaptor on tho
gonot|c ov|donco tor human ovo|ut|on |s ono ot tho most o|oquont summar|os ovor ponnod on tho subjoct. lt |s worth
br|ot|y summar|z|ng horo bocauso |t wo|| capturos Co|||ns's |ntogr|ty botoro tho tacts and sots up a conundrum that ho
(and a|| ot us) must nav|gato around whon |t comos to u|t|mato quost|ons about naturo.
20
Co|||ns bog|ns by doscr|b|ng anc|ont ropot|t|vo o|omonts' (AlEs) |n 0lA. AlEs ar|so trom jump|ng gonos,' wh|ch
aro gonos capab|o ot copy|ng and |nsort|ng thomso|vos |n othor |ocat|ons |n tho gonomo, usua||y w|thout any tunct|on.
W|th|n tho gonomo, 0arw|n's thoory prod|cts that mutat|ons that do not attoct tunct|on (namo|y, thoso |ocatod |n 'junk
0lA') w||| accumu|ato stoad||y ovor t|mo,' Co|||ns oxp|a|ns. Vutat|ons |n tho cod|ng rog|on ot gonos, howovor, aro
oxpoctod to bo obsorvod |oss troquont|y, s|nco most ot thoso w||| bo do|otor|ous, and on|y a raro such ovont w|||
prov|do a so|oct|vo advantago and bo rota|nod dur|ng tho ovo|ut|onary procoss. 1hat |s oxact|y what |s obsorvod.' ln
tact, mamma||an gonomos aro ||ttorod w|th AlEs, w|th rough|y 4b porcont ot tho human gonomo mado up ot thom. lt
you a||gn soct|ons ot, say, human and mouso gonomos, |dont|ca| gonos and many AlEs aro |n tho samo |ocat|on.
Co|||ns conc|udos h|s summat|on w|th th|s b|t|ng od|tor|a|: Un|oss ono |s w||||ng to tako tho pos|t|on that God has
p|acod thoso docap|tatod AlEs |n thoso proc|so pos|t|ons to contuso and m|s|oad us, tho conc|us|on ot a common
ancostor tor humans and m|co |s v|rtua||y |noscapab|o.'
lt sc|onco |s so good at oxp|a|n|ng naturo that wo do not nood to |nvoko tho do|ty tor such romarkab|o product|ons
as 0lA, why doos |ranc|s Co|||ns bo||ovo |n God? lndood, why wou|d any sc|ont|st or roason|ng porson bo||ovo |n
God? 1hat quost|on has two answors: |nto||octua| and omot|ona|. lnto||octua||y, Co|||ns |s a||gnod t|ght|y w|th h|s to||ow
sc|ont|sts whon |t comos to oxp|a|n|ng ovoryth|ng |n tho wor|d by natura| |aw, w|th two oxcopt|ons (|n lmmanuo| Kant's
poot|c doscr|pt|on): tbo stotty boovoos obovo ooo tbo moto| |owwltblo.
8
|oro-|n tho roa|m ot tho cosm|c or|g|n ot
tho |aws ot naturo and tho ovo|ut|onary or|g|ns ot mora||ty-Co|||ns stands on tho craggy odgo ot tho abyss. lnstoad ot
push|ng tho sc|onco ovon turthor, ho makos a |oap ot ta|th. Why?
1ho numbor ono prod|ctor ot anyono's ro||g|ous bo||ots |s that ot tho|r paronts and tho ro||g|ous onv|ronmont ot tho
tam||y. lot so tor |ranc|s Co|||ns, whoso paronts woro Ya|o graduato socu|ar trooth|nkors who homoschoo|od tho|r
tour boys (Co|||ns was tho youngost) through s|xth grado and no|thor oncouragod nor d|scouragod ro||g|ous thought.
Attor paronts, s|b||ngs, and tam||y dynam|cs, poor groups and toachors p|ay a powortu| ro|o |n shap|ng ono's bo||ots,
and |n h|s m|dd|o schoo| yoars-now onro||od |n pub||c schoo|s-Co|||ns oncountorod a compo|||ng chom|stry toachor
and doc|dod thon and thoro that sc|onco was h|s ca|||ng. Assum|ng that ro||g|ous skopt|c|sm was part and parco| ot
tho sc|ont|t|c m|nd, Co|||ns dotau|tod |nto agnost|c|sm, not attor carotu| ana|ys|s ot tho argumonts and ov|donco, but
moro a|ong tho ||nos ot 'l don't want to know.'' load|ng a b|ography ot E|nsto|n and tho groat sc|ont|st's rojoct|on ot
tho porsona| God ot Abraham, on|y ro|ntorcod my conc|us|on that no th|nk|ng sc|ont|st cou|d sor|ous|y ontorta|n tho
poss|b|||ty ot God w|thout comm|tt|ng somo sort ot |nto||octua| su|c|do. And so l gradua||y sh|ttod trom agnost|c|sm to
atho|sm. l to|t qu|to comtortab|o cha||ong|ng tho sp|r|tua| bo||ots ot anyono who mont|onod thom |n my prosonco, and
d|scountod such porspoct|vos as sont|monta||ty and outmodod suporst|t|on.'
4
1ho |nto||octua| od|t|co ho had bu||t on tho skopt|ca| s|do ot tho spoctrum was gradua||y ch|ppod away by omot|ona|
oxpor|oncos as a mod|ca| studont and ros|dont, ovorwho|mod by tho pa|n and suttor|ng ot h|s pat|onts and |mprossod
by how wo|| tho|r ta|th sorvod thom |n tho|r t|mo ot nood. What struck mo protound|y about my bods|do convorsat|ons
w|th thoso good lorth Caro||na poop|o was tho sp|r|tua| aspoct ot what many ot thom woro go|ng through. l w|tnossod
numorous casos ot |nd|v|dua|s whoso ta|th prov|dod thom w|th a strong roassuranco ot u|t|mato poaco, bo |t |n th|s
wor|d or tho noxt, dosp|to torr|b|o suttor|ng that |n most |nstancos thoy had dono noth|ng to br|ng on thomso|vos. lt ta|th
was a psycho|og|ca| crutch, l conc|udod, |t must bo a vory powortu| ono. lt |t was noth|ng moro than a vonoor ot cu|tura|
trad|t|on, why woro thoso poop|o not shak|ng tho|r t|sts at God and domand|ng that tho|r tr|onds and tam||y stop a|| th|s
ta|k about a |ov|ng and bonovo|ont supornatura| powor?'
lt's a ta|r quost|on, as was tho ono askod ot h|m by a woman suttor|ng trom sovoro and untroatab|o ang|na: what
d|d ho bo||ovo about God? Co|||ns's skopt|ca| conv|ct|ons gavo way to thoughttu| sons|t|v|ty ot tho momont: l to|t my
taco t|ush as l stammorod out tho words 'l'm not roa||y suro.' |or obv|ous surpr|so brought |nto sharp ro||ot a
prod|camont that l had boon runn|ng away trom tor noar|y a|| ot my twonty-s|x yoars: l had novor roa||y sor|ous|y
cons|dorod tho ov|donco tor and aga|nst bo||ot.'
Co|||ns's tam||y background, upbr|ng|ng, and oducat|on |od h|m to bo a ro||g|ous skopt|c, a pos|t|on ro|ntorcod
through h|s sc|ont|t|c tra|n|ng and oxposuro to othor skopt|ca| sc|ont|sts. low an omot|ona| tr|ggor causod h|m to bo|t
upr|ght and rooxam|no tho ov|donco and argumonts tor ro||g|ous bo||ot trom a d|ttoront porspoct|vo. 3uddon|y a|| my
argumonts soomod vory th|n, and l had tho sonsat|on that tho |co undor my toot was crack|ng,' ho roca||od. 1h|s
roa||zat|on was a thorough|y torr|ty|ng oxpor|onco. Attor a||, |t l cou|d no |ongor ro|y on tho robustnoss ot my atho|st|c
pos|t|on, wou|d l havo to tako rospons|b|||ty tor act|ons that l wou|d protor to koop unscrut|n|zod? Was l answorab|o to
somoono othor than myso|t? 1ho quost|on was now too pross|ng to avo|d.'
lt was at th|s cruc|a| momont-an |nto||octua| t|pp|ng po|nt that an omot|ona| tr|ggor can sond cascad|ng down a
d|ttoront path-that Co|||ns turnod to tho |nt|uont|a| wr|t|ngs ot C. 3. low|s, who h|mso|t was onco |ost but thon tound.
1ho bo||ot door now ajar, low|s rosonatod w|th Co|||ns, |oad|ng h|m |noxorab|y to an omot|ona| road|noss whoro a
trozon watorta|| wou|d c|oso tho door ot skopt|c|sm. |or a |ong t|mo l stood tromb||ng on tho odgo ot th|s yawn|ng gap.
21
||na||y, soo|ng no oscapo, l |oapt.'

What was that |oap ||ko?
Obvloos|y lt wos tlgbtoolog, ot l woo|oo`t bovo tokoo so |oog to got tboto. Bot wboo l loo||y mooo tbo |oop tboto
wos o sooso o pooco ooo to|lo. l boo booo |lvlog wltb tbo toosloo o bovlog o|toooy ottlvoo ot o cooloooco lo tbo
p|ooslbl|lty o bo|lo bot too|lzlog tbot tbot coo|o oot bo o stob|o posltloo ot tbo tost o my |lo. l wos oltbot golog to
bovo to oooy tbot ot go otwoto. Oolog otwoto soomoo tlgbtoolog ooo golog bock soomoo loto||octoo||y
lttospooslb|o. 7bot oooosy mloo|o gtoooo c|oot|y woso`t golog to bo o p|oco l coo|o |lvo ot too |oog.
1h|s doos mako mo wondor that |t you had boon born at a d|ttoront t|mo or |n a d|ttoront p|aco you m|ght havo had a
d|ttoront |oap ot ta|th w|th a d|ttoront ro||g|on, and thus thoro |s a|ways go|ng to bo somo cu|tura|-h|stor|ca| componont
to bo||ot.
7boto ls, o|tboogb l`m gtotoo| tbot tbo jootooy tbot btoogbt mo to my oltb oloo`t tost opoo o boovy ooso o
cbl|obooo oxposoto to o pottlco|ot to|lgloo. 7bot bos oosoo somo o my ooobts oboot wbotbot tbls wos my owo
ooclsloo ot somotblog co|toto||y lmposoo.
As a bo||ovor who was onco a nonbo||ovor, why do you supposo that God makos h|s ox|stonco so uncorta|n? lt ho
wants us to bo||ovo |n h|m, why not just mako |t obv|ous?
Bocooso lt oppotoot|y soltoo Ooo to glvo os too wl|| ooo osk os to cbooso. l Ooo mooo bls oxlstooco
comp|oto|y c|oot to ovotyooo, wo`o o|| bo tobots ptoctlclog o slog|o oolvotso| oltb. bot woo|o bo tbo polot o tbot
Why do you supposo that thoro aro |ots ot thoughttu| poop|o who |ook at tho samo ov|donco as you and como to a
d|ttoront conc|us|on? Vaybo thoy'ro mak|ng omot|ona| doc|s|ons tho othor way.
o o|| btlog boggogo to ovoty ooclsloo wo moko, ooo tboto oto ospocts o wbot tbo ovloooco soys ooo ospocts
o wbot wo woot tbo ovloooco to soy. Cottolo|y, tboto oto |ots o poop|o wbo oto ooboppy wltb tbo looo o o Ooo wbo
bos ootbotlty ovot tbom, ot o Ooo wbo oxpocts somotblog o tbom-tbot cottolo|y took|oo mo wboo l wos twooty-two,
ooo l`m soto lt took|os somo poop|o tbolt wbo|o |lvos. l boo to bocomo o bo|lovot to oxpotlooco tbo toooom lt
btlogs.
You havo dobunkod tho |nto|||gont dos|gn croat|on|sts tor tho|r God ot tho Gaps' argumont, and yot |n a way you
aro say|ng that tho u|t|mato or|g|ns ot tho un|vorso and tho mora| |aw w|th|n aro gaps that cannot bo oxp|a|nod by
sc|onco. ls |t |nov|tab|o that thoro w||| a|ways bo gaps |t wo go back tar onough?
l tblok tbot`s tlgbt. 7boto oto gops ooo tboto oto Oops. Oops tbot sclooco coo l|| wltb oototo| oxp|oootloos ooo`t
oooo o Ooo. Bot gops tbot coo|o oovot bo l||oo wltb o oototo| oxp|oootloo |ooo tbomso|vos to o sopotoototo|
oxp|oootloo. 7boy cty oot ot ooo. Aoo tbot ls wboto Ooo comos lo.
ln 7bo 5clooco o Oooo ooo Evl| l arguo that tho mora| sonso ovo|vod w|th|n us bocauso wo aro a soc|a| pr|mato
spoc|os and wo nood to got a|ong w|th ono anothor and thorotoro wo aro pro-soc|a|, cooporat|vo, and ovon a|tru|st|c
at t|mos. And not a|tru|st|c |n a gamo thoory t|t-tor-tat ca|cu|at|ng way, |n wh|ch l ho|p you and you owo mo ono, but |n a
doopor gonu|no sonso ot too||ng good about ho|p|ng othors. 1hat sma|| |nnor vo|co' ot our mora| consc|onco |s
somoth|ng that ovo|ut|on croatod. |rom a bo||ovor's porspoct|vo, why cou|dn't God havo usod ovo|ut|on to croato tho
mora| sonso w|th|n us, just ||ko ho usod ovo|ut|on to croato tho bactor|a t|ago||um or 0lA, wh|ch you arguo d|d ovo|vo?
l`m toto||y wltb yoo oo tbot. Vy tbloklog bos ovo|voo oo tbls qoostloo sloco wtltlog 1ho languago ot God, wboto l
wos moto olsmlsslvo o tbo looo tbot toolco| o|ttolsm coo|o bovo ovo|voo. l oowtblok tbot ls o posslbl|lty. Bot tbot
woo|oo`t to|o oot tbot Ooo p|ooooo lt, sloco ot o tbolstlc ovo|otloolst |lko myso|, ovo|otloo wos Ooo`s owosomo p|oo
ot a|| ctootloo. l Ooo`s p|oo coo|o glvo tlso to tooool|s ooo tompoto| |obos, wby oot o|so o moto| sooso Aoo l ooo
ttlos to olsmlss o|ttolsm os poto|y oototo|lstlc, tboto ls stl|| tbo qoostloo o wby tboto oto ptloclp|os o tlgbt ooo
wtoog ot o||. l oot moto| sooso ls poto|y oo ottloct o ovo|otloooty ptossoto, booowloklog os loto bo|lovlog tbot
moto|lty mottots, tboo o|tlmoto|y tlgbt ooo wtoog oto oo l||osloo. 7o soy tbot gooo ooo ovl| bovo oo mooolog-tbot`s
o voty boto p|oco to go, ovoo ot o sttlct otbolst. Loos tbot botbot yoo, Vlcboo|
3omot|mos, yos, |t doos. lt l woro tacod w|th that quost|on trom that dy|ng woman you oncountorod |n tho hosp|ta|,
l'm not suro what l wou|d say. 3ut l'm not an oth|ca| ro|at|v|st-that |s a dangorous road to go down. l th|nk that thoro
roa||y aro mora| pr|nc|p|os that aro noar|y abso|uto-what l ca|| ptovlslooo| moto| ttotbs, whoro somoth|ng |s
prov|s|ona||y r|ght or prov|s|ona||y wrong. 3y th|s l moan that tor most poop|o |n most p|acos most ot tho t|mo bohav|or
X |s r|ght or wrong. l th|nk th|s |s as good as |t can got w|thout an outs|do sourco ||ko God. 3ut ovon |t thoro |s a God
who objoct|t|os r|ght and wrong, how aro wo to |oarn what that |s? 1hrough ho|y books? 1hrough prayor? |ow?
7btoogb tbot stl|| smo|| volco wltblo.
Yos, l hoar that vo|co as wo||. 1ho quost|on |s th|s: what |s |ts sourco?
Rlgbt. lot mo, tbo sootco o tbot looot moto| volco ls Ooo.
22
l undorstand. |or mo, tho vo|co |s part ot our mora| naturo that ovo|vod.
5oto, ooo moybo Ooo govo os tbot moto| oototo tbtoogb ovo|otloo.
3o |t roa||y doos como down to somo u|t|mato unknown?
Yos, lt ooos.

l ||ko and rospoct |ranc|s Co|||ns. |o |s a man who has bravo|y tacod ||to's doopost quost|ons, odgod h|mso|t up to
tho c||tt, |ookod ovor, and d|d what ho thought was r|ght. ||s path |s not m|no, but to th|no own so|t bo truo. 1h|s |s
whoro bo||ot |s u|t|mato|y porsona|-bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm. 1horo aro no u|t|mato answors to thoso otorna|
quost|ons.
Whoro |s tho moan|ng ot ||to undor such o|omonta| uncorta|nty? Whothor you aro a bo||ovor or a skopt|c, tho
moan|ng ot ||to |s horo. lt |s now. lt |s w|th|n us and w|thout us. lt |s |n our thoughts and |n our act|ons. lt |s |n our ||vos
and |n our |ovos. lt |s |n our tam|||os and |n our tr|onds. lt |s |n our commun|t|os and |n our wor|d. lt |s |n tho courago ot
our conv|ct|ons and |n tho charactor ot our comm|tmonts. |opo spr|ngs otorna|, whothor ||to |s otorna| or not.
Roaaon'a Bit and BoIiot'a Eorao
A common myth most ot us |ntu|t|vo|y accopt |s that thoro |s a nogat|vo corro|at|on botwoon |nto|||gonco and bo||ot: as
|nto|||gonco goos up bo||ot |n suporst|t|on or mag|c goos down. 1h|s, |n tact, turns out not to bo tho caso, ospoc|a||y as
you movo up tho lO spoctrum. ln protoss|ons |n wh|ch ovoryono |s abovo avorago |n lO (doctors, |awyors, ong|noors,
and so torth), thoro |s no ro|at|onsh|p botwoon |nto|||gonco and succoss bocauso at that |ovo| othor var|ab|os como
|nto p|ay that dotorm|no caroor outcomos (amb|t|on, t|mo a||ocat|on, soc|a| sk|||s, notwork|ng, |uck, and so on).
3|m||ar|y, whon poop|o oncountor c|a|ms that thoy know ||tt|o about (wh|ch |s most c|a|ms tor most ot us), |nto|||gonco |s
usua||y not a tactor |n bo||ot, w|th ono oxcopt|on: onco poop|o comm|t to a bo||ot, tho smartor thoy aro tho bottor thoy
aro at rat|ona||z|ng thoso bo||ots. 1hus: smott poop|o bo|lovo wolto tblogs bocooso tboy oto skl||oo ot ooooolog
bo|los tboy ottlvoo ot ot ooosmott toosoos.
Vost poop|o, most ot tho t|mo, arr|vo at tho|r bo||ots tor a host ot roasons |nvo|v|ng porsona||ty and tomporamont,
tam||y dynam|cs and cu|tura| background, paronts and s|b||ngs, poor groups and toachors, oducat|on and books,
montors and horoos, and var|ous ||to oxpor|oncos, vory tow ot wh|ch havo anyth|ng at a|| to do w|th |nto|||gonco. 1ho
En||ghtonmont |doa| ot lomo totlooo|ls has us s|tt|ng down botoro a tab|o ot tacts, wo|gh|ng thom |n tho ba|anco pro
and con, and thon omp|oy|ng |og|c and roason to dotorm|no wh|ch sot ot tacts bost supports th|s or that thoory. 1h|s |s
not at a|| how wo torm bo||ots. What happons |s that tho tacts ot tho wor|d aro t||torod by our bra|ns through tho co|orod
|onsos ot wor|dv|ows, parad|gms, thoor|os, hypothosos, conjocturos, hunchos, b|asos, and projud|cos wo havo
accumu|atod through ||v|ng. Wo thon sort through tho tacts and so|oct thoso that cont|rm what wo a|roady bo||ovo and
|gnoro or rat|ona||zo away thoso that contrad|ct our bo||ots.
Vr. 0'Arp|no's d||omma was to undorstand what happonod to h|m-not to oxp|a|n |t away as an art|tact ot ||to
trauma or nouro-m|st|r|ng, but to rostructuro |t as g|v|ng an outor vo|co to |nnor moan|ng. 0r. Co|||ns's convors|on
cons|stod ot roconstruct|ng h|s oxpor|oncos |nto a moan|ngtu| caso tor bo||ot, and h|s |nto||octua| journoy |s an o|oquont
oxpross|on ot tho powor ot bo||ot to dr|vo roason and rat|ona||ty to |ts onds, and v|co vorsa. loason's b|t |s |n tho
mouth ot bo||ot's horso. 1ho ro|ns pu|| and d|roct, cajo|o and coax, whood|o and |nvo|g|o, but u|t|mato|y tho horso w|||
tako |ts natura| path.
23

8

A 5kotic'a Journoy
ln tho cortox ot our bra|ns thoro |s a noura| notwork that nourosc|ont|sts ca|| tho |ot-bomlspboto lototptotot. lt |s, |n a
mannor ot spoak|ng, tho bra|n's storyto|||ng apparatus that roconstructs ovonts |nto a |og|ca| soquonco and woavos
thom togothor |nto a moan|ngtu| story that makos sonso. 1ho procoss |s ospoc|a||y potont whon |t comos to b|ography
and autob|ography: onco you know how a ||to turns out |t |s oasy to go back and roconstruct how ono arr|vod at that
part|cu|ar dost|nat|on and not somo othor, and how th|s journoy bocomos a|most |nov|tab|o onco tho |n|t|a| cond|t|ons
and t|na| outcomos aro ostab||shod.
A|though l havo rocountod |n my var|ous wr|t|ngs b|ts and p|ocos ot autob|ograph|ca| mator|a| |n ordor to |||ustrato a
part|cu|ar po|nt, l w||| narrato horo how l arr|vod at my own ro||g|ous, po||t|ca|, oconom|c, and soc|a| bo||ots, and a|ong
tho way d|sc|oso somo tacts ot my porsona| ||to that l'vo not wr|tton about botoro. W|th h|nds|ght and tho undorstand|ng
that my own |ott-hom|sphoro |ntorprotor |s no |oss b|asod than anyono o|so's |n roconstruct|ng my own romomborod
past, horo |s ono skopt|c's journoy.
Born Again
Ovor tho yoars much has boon mado ot tho tact that l was onco a born-aga|n Chr|st|an who o|thor |apsod (|t you'ro a
bo||ovor) or advancod (|t you'ro a skopt|c) |nto ro||g|ous d|sbo||ot. Croat|on|sts havo tr|od to p|n my bo||ot |n ovo|ut|on
to my dom|so as a bo||ovor, thoroby cha|k|ng up anothor |ost sou| to tho ov||s ot ||bora| socu|ar oducat|on. Atho|sts
havo trumpotod my doconvors|on as ov|donco that oducat|on, ospoc|a||y |n tho sc|oncos, domo||shos anc|ont
mytho|og|os and ant|quatod ta|th-basod bo||ots. 1ho truth |s tar moro comp|ox, raro|y aro |mportant ro||g|ous, po||t|ca|,
or |doo|og|ca| bo||ots attr|butab|o to s|ng|o causa| tactors. |uman thought and bohav|or aro a|most a|ways mu|t|var|ato
|n causo, and bo||ots aro no oxcopt|on.
l was not born |nto a born-aga|n tam||y. lono ot my tour paronts (b|o and stop) woro ro||g|ous |n tho |oast, yot
no|thor woro thoy nonro||g|ous. l th|nk that thoy just d|dn't th|nk about God and ro||g|on a|| that much. l|ko most ch||dron
ot tho Groat 0opross|on who camo ot ago dur|ng and tought |n tho 3ocond Wor|d War, my paronts just wantod to got
on w|th ||to. lono attondod co||ogo, and a|| workod hard to support tho|r ch||dron. Vy paronts d|vorcod whon l was tour
and both romarr|od: my mothor to a man w|th throo k|ds who bocamo my stops|b||ngs, my tathor to a woman w|th
whom ho had two daughtors-my ha|t s|stors. V|no woro tho qu|ntossont|a| Amor|can b|ondod tam|||os. A|though l was
por|od|ca||y droppod ott tor tho ob||gatory 3unday schoo| c|assos (l st||| havo my 3|b|o trom tho Church ot tho l|ghtod
W|ndow |n la Canada, Ca||torn|a), ro||g|ous sorv|cos, prayor, 3|b|o road|ng, and tho usua| sty|o ot God ta|k that ono
m|ght t|nd |n ro||g|ous tam|||os woro absont |n both ot my homos. 1o th|s day, as tar as l know, nono ot my s|b||ngs aro
vory ro||g|ous and no|thor aro my two roma|n|ng stopparonts. Vy tathor d|od ot a hoart attack |n 1080, and my mothor
d|od ot bra|n cancor |n 2000, no|thor ono ot thom ovor ombracod ro||g|on, not ovon my mom dur|ng hor docado|ong
strugg|o through ha|t a dozon bra|n surgor|os and rad|at|on troatmonts.
lmag|no tho|r surpr|so, thon, whon |n 1071-at tho start ot my son|or yoar |n h|gh schoo|-l announcod that l had
bocomo born aga|n,' accopt|ng 1osus as my sav|or. At tho bohost ot my bost tr|ond Goorgo, ro|ntorcod tho noxt day
|n church w|th h|m and h|s doop|y ro||g|ous paronts, l ropoatod thoso words trom 1ohn 8:10 as |t thoy woro gospo|,
wh|ch thoy aro. l bocamo protound|y ro||g|ous, tu||y ombrac|ng tho bo||ot that 1osus suttorod wrotchod|y and d|od, not
just tor human|ty, but tor mo porsona||y. 1ust tor mo! lt to|t good. lt soomod roa|. And tor tho noxt sovon yoars l wa|kod
tho ta|k. l|tora||y. l wont door-to-door and porson-to-porson, w|tnoss|ng tor God and ovango||z|ng tor Chr|st|an|ty. l
bocamo a 3|b|o thumpor,' as ono ot my tr|onds ca||od mo, a 1osus troak' |n tho words ot a s|b||ng. A ||tt|o ro||g|on |s
ono th|ng, but whon |t |s a|| ono ta|ks about |t can bocomo awkward and uncomtortab|o tor tam||y and tr|onds who don't
sharo your ta|th pass|on.
Ono so|ut|on to tho prob|om ot soc|a| appropr|atonoss |s to narrow tho scopo ot ono's poor group to ||ko-m|ndod
bo||ovors, wh|ch l d|d. l hung around othor Chr|st|ans at my h|gh schoo|, attondod 3|b|o-study c|assos, and part|c|patod
|n s|ng|ng and soc|a||z|ng at a Chr|st|an houso ot worsh|p ca||od 7bo Boto (||tora||y a rod houso w|th barn||ko toaturos).
l matr|cu|atod at loppord|no Un|vors|ty, a Church ot Chr|st |nst|tut|on that mandatod chapo| attondanco tw|co a wook,
a|ong w|th a curr|cu|um that |nc|udod coursos |n tho O|d and low 1ostamonts, tho ||to ot 1osus, and tho wr|t|ngs ot C.
24
3. low|s. A|though a|| th|s thoo|og|ca| tra|n|ng wou|d como |n handy yoars |ator |n my pub||c dobatos on God, ro||g|on,
and sc|onco, at tho t|mo l stud|od |t bocauso l bo||ovod |t, and l bo||ovod |t bocauso l unquost|on|ng|y accoptod God's
ox|stonco as roa|, a|ong w|th tho rosurroct|on ot 1osus and a|| tho othor tonots ot tho ta|th. Vy yoars at loppord|no-
||v|ng |n Va||bu, shar|ng a dorm room w|th a protoss|ona| tonn|s p|ayor (lau| lowman ca||od onco to arrango |ossons,
caus|ng my mom to noar|y ta|nt whon l to|d hor that l actua||y spoko to hor m|nor do|ty), p|ay|ng l|ng-long and
Vonopo|y w|th a bunch ot jocks |n 0orm 10 (womon woro not a||owod |n tho mon's dorms, and v|co vorsa), hoar|ng
spoochos by lros|dont Gora|d |ord and |-bomb tathor Edward 1o||or, and study|ng ro||g|on and psycho|ogy undor
oxcopt|ona| protossors-aro among tho most momorab|o ot my ||to.
What happonod noxt has bocomo a mattor ot somo cur|os|ty among croat|on|sts and |nto|||gont dos|gn propononts
|ook|ng to bo|stor tho|r bo||ot that |oarn|ng about tho thoory ot ovo|ut|on throatons ro||g|ous ta|th.
1
1horo woro a numbor
ot tactors |nvo|vod |n my doconvors|on-|n my bocom|ng unborn, aga|n-go|ng back to my convors|on oxpor|onco.
3hort|y attor l accoptod Chr|st |nto my hoart, l oagor|y announcod to anothor doop|y ro||g|ous h|gh schoo| tr|ond ot m|no
namod |rank that l had bocomo a Chr|st|an. Expoct|ng an onthus|ast|c ombraco ot accoptanco |nto tho c|ub ho had
|ong cajo|od mo to jo|n, |rank |nstoad was d|sappo|ntod that l had gono to a lrosbytor|an church-and jo|nod no |oss!
-wh|ch ho oxp|a|nod was a b|g m|stako bocauso that was tho wrong' ro||g|on. |rank was a 1ohovah's W|tnoss. Attor
h|gh schoo| (but botoro loppord|no) l attondod G|onda|o Co||ogo whoro my ta|th was tostod by a numbor ot socu|ar
protossors, most notab|y l|chard |ard|son, whoso ph||osophy courso torcod mo to chock my prom|sos, a|ong w|th my
tacts, wh|ch woro not a|ways sound or corroct. 3ut tho Chr|st|an mantra was that whon your bo||ot |s tostod |t |s an
opportun|ty tor your ta|th |n tho lord to grow. And grow |t d|d, s|nco thoro woro somo ta|r|y sor|ous cha||ongos to my
ta|th.
Attor loppord|no, l bogan my graduato stud|os |n oxpor|monta| psycho|ogy at Ca||torn|a 3tato Un|vors|ty-|u||orton.
l was st||| a Chr|st|an, a|though tho toundat|ons ot my ta|th woro a|roady crack|ng undor tho wo|ght ot othor tactors. Out
ot cur|os|ty, l rog|storod tor an undorgraduato courso |n ovo|ut|onary b|o|ogy, wh|ch was taught by an |rropross|b|o
protossor namod 3ayard 3rattstrom, a horpoto|og|st (ono who stud|os ropt||os) and showman oxtraord|na|ro. 1ho
c|ass mot on 1uosday n|ghts trom 7 to 10 p.m. l d|scovorod that tho ov|donco tor ovo|ut|on |s undon|ab|o and r|ch, and
tho argumonts tor croat|on|sm that l had boon road|ng woro dup||c|tous and ho||ow. Attor 3rattstrom oxhaustod h|mso|t
w|th a throo-hour d|sp|ay ot orud|t|on and ontorta|nmont, tho c|ass adjournod to tho 801 C|ub |n downtown |u||orton, a
n|ghtc|ub whoro studonts hung out to d|scuss tho 3|g Ouost|ons, a|dod by adu|t bovoragos. A|though l had a|roady
boon oxposod to a|| s|dos |n tho groat dobatos |n my var|ous coursos and road|ngs at loppord|no, what was str|k|ng|y
d|ttoront |n th|s contoxt was tho hotorogono|ty ot my to||ow studonts' bo||ots. 3|nco l was no |ongor oxc|us|vo|y
surroundod by Chr|st|ans, thoro woro no soc|a| pona|t|os tor bo|ng skopt|ca|-about anyth|ng. Excopt tor tho 801 C|ub
d|scuss|ons that wont on |nto tho woo hours ot tho morn|ng, howovor, ro||g|on a|most novor camo up |n tho c|assroom
or |ab. Wo woro thoro to do sc|onco, and that |s a|most a|| wo d|d. lo||g|on was s|mp|y not part ot tho onv|ronmont. 3o
|t was not tho tact that l |oarnod about ovo|ut|onary thoory that ront asundor my Chr|st|an ta|th, |t was that |t was okay to
cha||ongo any and a|| bo||ots w|thout toar ot psycho|og|ca| |oss or soc|a| ropr|sa|. 1horo woro othor tactors as wo||.
1ho Dittoronco in WorIdviowa (and tho Dittoronco |t Nakoa)
Ovor |n tho psycho|ogy dopartmont, whoro l was ott|c|a||y study|ng tor a mastor's dogroo |n oxpor|monta| psycho|ogy,
my adv|sor and montor was 0oug|as lavar|ck, an o|d-schoo| 3k|nnor|an who proachod tho gospo| ot r|gorous
sc|ont|t|c mothodo|ogy and who brookod no suporst|t|on or s|oppy th|nk|ng |n h|s studonts. As ho rom|ndod mo |n a
rocont |ottor |n rosponso to my quory about h|s bo||ots back thon (momor|os do tado attor throo docados), W|th|n a
sc|ont|t|c tramowork, l tako a convont|ona|, omp|r|c|st, causo-and-ottoct approach (|.o., |ndopondont and dopondont
var|ab|os). 3ut outs|do that tramowork l try to koop an 'opon m|nd' so l won't m|ss anyth|ng, such as tho poss|b|||ty that
a co|nc|donco cou|d moan somoth|ng moro than a chanco ovont, so l'|| bo a|ort tor add|t|ona| |nd|cat|ons ot somo
moan|ng, |.o., pattorns ot ovonts, but rocogn|z|ng that |t's shoor spocu|at|on.'
lndood, l v|v|d|y roca|| |ncu|cat|ng th|s ph||osophy ot sc|onco trom lavar|ck bocauso at tho samo t|mo that wo woro
conduct|ng r|gorous contro||od-|oarn|ng oxpor|monts |n h|s |ab, thoro was much hoop|a about 1ho|ma Voss's
parapsycho|ogy |ab at UClA, whoro sho stud|od K|r||an photography' (photograph|ng onorgy t|o|ds' surround|ng
||v|ng organ|sms), a|ong w|th hypnos|s, ghosts, |ov|tat|on, and tho ||ko. 3|nco thoso woro tra|nod sc|ont|sts smartor and
moro oducatod than myso|t, l t|gurod that thoro m|ght actua||y bo somoth|ng to tho paranorma|. 3ut onco l d|scovorod
tho skopt|ca| movomont and |ts roasonod ana|ys|s ot such c|a|ms, my skopt|c|sm ovorrodo my bo||ot.
As wo||, my curront bo||ot that thoro |s no such th|ng as m|nd,' and that a|| monta| procossos can bo oxp|a|nod on|y
by undorstand|ng tho undor|y|ng noura| corro|atos ot bohav|or, was pr|mar||y shapod by lavar|ck's 3k|nnor|an
ph||osophy: l rojoct 'monta||st|c' oxp|anat|ons ot bohav|or,' ho rom|ndod mo, |.o., attr|but|ng bohav|or to thoorot|ca|
25
constructs that rotor to |ntorna| statos, ||ko 'undorstands,' 'too|s that,' 'knows,' 'gots |t,' 't|guros out,' 'wants,' 'noods,'
'bo||ovos,' 'th|nks,' 'oxpocts,' 'p|oasuro,' 'dos|ro,' otc., tho ro|t|od concopts that studonts rout|no|y uso |n tho|r papors
dosp|to |nstruct|ons that thoy cou|d |oso po|nts tor do|ng so.'
2
lt |sn't just studonts who ro|ty m|nd out ot bohav|or.
v|rtua||y ovoryono doos, bocauso m|nd' |s a torm ot dua||sm that l sha|| arguo |n a |ator chaptor appoars to bo |nnato
to our cogn|t|on. Wo aro natura|-born dua||sts, wh|ch |s why bohav|or|sts and nourosc|ont|sts strugg|o so m|ght||y-and
trustrat|ng|y-to ro|n |n m|nd-ta|k.
3ocauso ot my nowtound |ntorost |n ovo|ut|onary thoory attor 3rattstrom's c|ass, l stud|od otho|ogy (tho study ot tho
ovo|ut|onary or|g|ns ot an|ma| bohav|or) undor tho doop|y thoughttu| and warm|y adv|s|ng Vargarot Wh|to, who
groundod mo |n tho b|o|ogy ot human bohav|or and tho ovo|ut|on ot soc|a| dynam|cs |n pr|mato groups. (3ho onco sont
mo ott to tho 3an 0|ogo Zoo to obsorvo a s||vorback gor|||a tor an ont|ro wookond, wh|ch both tho gor|||a and l-
star|ng at oach othor tor ond|oss hours-tound oqua||y tru|t|oss.) 1h|s was noar|y two docados botoro tho b|rth ot
ovo|ut|onary psycho|ogy as a tu||-t|odgod sc|onco, but tho groundwork was |a|d tor my |ator work on tho ovo|ut|onary
or|g|ns ot ro||g|on and mora||ty. l a|so took a courso |n cu|tura| anthropo|ogy trom tho wo||-travo|od and wor|d|y Var|ono
0obk|n do l|os. |or |octuros and books on hor oxpor|oncos |n 3outh Amor|ca w|th ha||uc|nogon|c-|mb|b|ng shamans
and tho numorous an|m|sms, sp|r|ts, ghosts, and gods mado mo roa||zo just how |nsu|ar my wor|dv|ow was and how
na|vo l was |n assum|ng that my Chr|st|an bo||ots woro groundod |n tho Ono 1ruo lo||g|on wh||o a|| tho othors woro so
obv|ous|y cu|tura||y dotorm|nod.
1ogothor, thoso |nputs |od mo to a porsona| oxp|orat|on ot comparat|vo wor|d ro||g|ons and to tho ovontua|
roa||zat|on that thoso otton mutua||y |ncompat|b|o bo||ots woro ho|d by poop|o who bo||ovod as t|rm|y as l d|d that thoy
woro r|ght and ovoryono o|so was wrong. V|dway through my graduato tra|n|ng, l qu|ot|y gavo up my ro||g|ous bo||ot
and romovod my s||vor lcbtbos (Grook tor t|sh,' somot|mos rondorod as 1osus Chr|st 3on ot God 3av|or') trom
around my nock. l d|dn't announco |t to anyono bocauso no ono roa||y carod ono way or tho othor-w|th tho poss|b|o
oxcopt|on ot my s|b||ngs, who woro probab|y ro||ovod that l wou|d now t|na||y qu|t try|ng to savo thom.
Ono ot tho t|rst th|ngs l not|cod upon |os|ng my ro||g|on was just how grat|ng l must havo boon around poop|o ot
d|ttoront ta|ths (or no ta|th at a||) w|th my |ncossant ovango||z|ng-tho |og|ca| product ot bo||ov|ng that you havo tho Ono
1ruo lo||g|on to wh|ch othors must convort or torovor |oso a chanco at otorna| b||ss. 1o nonbo||ovors, such a torcod
cho|co botwoon bo||ot, w|th |ts u|t|mato roward |n hoavon, and d|sbo||ot, w|th |ts u|t|mato pun|shmont |n ho||, sounds so
harsh and, wo||, O|d 1ostamont. 3ut |t wasn't moant to bo that way. Earnost ovango||ca|s-ot wh|ch l was corta|n|y ono
-ovango||zo not just on 3undays, but ovory day, |n ovory way, novor h|d|ng tho|r |antorn undor a busho|, as proc|a|mod
|n Vatthow b:10: lot your ||ght sh|no botoro othors, so that thoy may soo your good works and g|vo g|ory to your
|athor who |s |n hoavon.' 1ho pr|mary po|nt ot bo|ng an ovango||ca| Chr|st|an, |n tact, |s to |ovo tho lord opon|y and try
to br|ng to Chr|st as many poop|o as poss|b|o, othorw|so you wou|dn't bo an ovango||ca|. l was do|ng God's work, and
what cou|d bo moro |mportant than that? ln tho ovango||ca| wor|dv|ow thoro roa||y |s no soparat|on ot church and stato.
Yos, 1osus to|d us (|n Vatthow 22:21) to londor unto Caosar tho th|ngs wh|ch aro Caosar's, and unto God tho th|ngs
that aro God's,' but wo bo||ovod that th|s app||os to spoc|t|c th|ngs, such as taxos and t|th|ngs, not tho gonora| goa| ot
br|ng|ng a|| poop|o to tho lord.
Evon moro |mportant, as a nonbo||ovor l roa||zod tho powor that tho bo||ov|ng parad|gm has |n t||tor|ng ovoryth|ng
that happons through a ro||g|ous |ons. Chanco, randomnoss, and cont|ngonc|os d|sso|vo |nto |ns|gn|t|canco |n tho
Chr|st|an wor|dv|ow. Evoryth|ng happons tor a roason, and God has a p|an tor oach and ovory ono ot us. Whon
somoth|ng good happons, God |s roward|ng us tor our ta|th, our good works, or our |ovo ot Chr|st. Whon somoth|ng
bad happons, wo||, God works |n mystor|ous ways, don't you know? Who am l to doubt, quost|on, or cha||ongo tho
A|m|ghty? 1h|s bo||ot t||tor oporatos on ovory |ovo|, trom tho sub||mo to tho r|d|cu|ous, trom caroor opportun|t|os to
sports scoros. l thankod God tor ovoryth|ng, trom gott|ng mo |nto loppord|no (l hard|y had tho grados or 3A1 scoros
tor adm|ss|on, that's tor suro) to t|nd|ng a park|ng p|aco at tho YVCA whoro l workod. ln tho Chr|st|an wor|dv|ow thoro
|s a p|aco tor ovoryth|ng and ovoryth|ng |s |n |ts p|aco, a t|mo to bo born, and a t|mo to d|o' (Ecc|os|astos 8:2), a
mossago rondorod ovon |nto a 1000s pop tuno that, whon l was a bo||ovor, d|d not sound noar|y as sacchar|no as |t
doos today.
ln th|s bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm, ovon po||t|ca|, oconom|c, and soc|a| ovonts unto|d by tho |og|c ot b|b||ca| ond t|mos
-l had tho Los Aogo|os 7lmos opon |n my |ott hand and tho books ot 0an|o|, Ezok|o|, or lovo|at|on opon |n my r|ght.
Was tho Ayato||ah Khomo|n| tho Ant|chr|st, or was |t |onry K|ss|ngor? 1ho tour horsomon ot tho apoca|ypso woro
suro|y go|ng to bo nuc|oar war, ovorpopu|at|on, po||ut|on, and d|soaso. 1ho modorn stato ot lsrao| was toundod |n
1048, so |t wo crunch tho numbors corroct|y tho socond com|ng shou|d bo com|ng . vory soon. Whon l bocamo a
nonbo||ovor, such po||t|ca| and oconom|c ovonts mado moro sonso as mach|nat|ons groundod |n human naturo and
cu|tura| h|story. A socu|ar wor|dv|ow |od mo to soo that tho |aws ot naturo and tho cont|ngonc|os ot chanco unto|d by
tho|r own |og|c a|ong tho carvod channo|s ot h|story |argo|y |ndopondont ot our act|ons and |rrospoct|vo ot our w|shos.
26
ln tho ond, though, what t|na||y t|ppod my bo||ot |nto skopt|c|sm was tho prob|om ot ov||-|t God |s a|| know|ng, a||
powortu|, and a|| good, thon why do bad th|ngs happon to good poop|o? ||rst, thoro was tho |nto||octua| cons|dorat|on,
whoro tho moro l thought about th|ngs such as cancor, b|rth dotocts, and acc|donts, tho moro l camo to bo||ovo that
God |s o|thor |mpotont or ov||, or s|mp|y nonox|stont. 3ocond, thoro was an omot|ona| cons|dorat|on that l was torcod
to contront on tho most pr|ma| ot |ovo|s. l'vo novor to|d anyono th|s botoro, but tho |ast t|mo l ovor prayod to God was |n
oar|y 1080, short|y attor l doc|dod that l no |ongor bo||ovod |n God. What happonod to br|ng mo back ono |ast t|mo?
Vy co||ogo swoothoart, Vauroon, a br||||ant and boaut|tu| A|askan whom l mot at loppord|no and whom l was st|||
dat|ng, was |n a horr|t|c automob||o acc|dont |n tho m|dd|o ot tho n|ght |n tho m|dd|o ot nowhoro. Vauroon workod tor
an |nvontory company that vannod tho|r omp|oyoos around tho stato dur|ng ott hours, thoy s|opt sup|no on bonch soats
botwoon jobs. 1ho van voorod ott tho h|ghway and ro||od sovora| t|mos, snapp|ng Vauroon's back and rondor|ng hor
para|yzod trom tho wa|st down. Whon sho ca||od mo |n tho woo hours ot tho morn|ng trom a lodunk hosp|ta| hours
trom los Ango|os, l t|gurod |t cou|dn't bo too bad s|nco sho soundod as |uc|d and sangu|no as ovor. lt wasn't unt|| days
|ator, attor wo had hor transportod to tho long 3oach Vod|ca| Contor so sho cou|d bo put |nto a hyporbar|c chambor
to try to coax somo ||to |nto hor sovoro|y bru|sod sp|na| cord, d|d tho tu|| |mp||cat|ons ot what th|s moant tor hor bog|n to
dawn on mo. 1ho cogn|zanco ot Vauroon's prospocts gonoratod a s|ckon|ng too||ng |n tho p|t ot my stomach, an
|ndoscr|bab|o sonso ot droad-what's tho po|nt |t |t can a|| bo takon away |n tho t|ash ot a momont?
1horo, |n tho lCU, day attor droary day, n|ght attor s|oop|oss n|ght, a|tornat|ng botwoon pac|ng up and down co|d
stor||o ha||ways and s|tt|ng on hard p|ast|c cha|rs |n tho wa|t|ng room ||ston|ng to tho moans and prayors ot othor
gr|ov|ng sou|s, l took a knoo and bowod my hoad and askod God to hoa| Vauroon's brokon back. l prayod w|th
doopost s|ncor|ty. l cr|od out to God to ovor|ook my doubts |n tho namo ot Vauroon. l w||||ng|y suspondod a|| d|sbo||ot.
At that t|mo and |n that p|aco, l was onco aga|n a bo||ovor. l bo||ovod bocauso l wantod to bo||ovo that |t thoro was any
just|co |n tho un|vorso-any at a||-th|s swoot, |ov|ng, smart, rospons|b|o, dovotod, car|ng sp|r|t d|d not dosorvo to bo
|n a shattorod body. A just and |ov|ng God who had tho powor to hoa| wou|d suro|y hoa| Vauroon. |o d|dn't. |o d|dn't, l
now bo||ovo, not bocauso God works |n mystor|ous ways' or |o has a spoc|a| p|an tor Vauroon'-tho nausoat|ng|y
bana| comtorts bo||ovors somot|mos ottor |n such try|ng and u|t|mato|y tut||o t|mos-but bocauso thoro |s no God.
1ho PrinciIo ot PrinciIod VaIuoa
lt |t turns out that l am wrong and that thoro |s a God, and |t |s tho 1udoo-Chr|st|an God moro prooccup|od w|th bo||ot
than bohav|or, thon l'd rathor not spond otorn|ty w|th h|m and wou|d joytu||y go to tho othor p|aco whoro l suspoct most
ot my tam||y, tr|onds, and co||oaguos w||| bo, s|nco wo sharo most ot tho samo pr|nc|p|od va|uos.
Whothor or not thoro |s a God, howovor, tho pr|nc|p|os that l ho|d and try to ||vo by shou|d stand on tho|r own. ln
ph||osophy th|s |s known as Euthyphro's d||omma,' t|rst do||noatod 2,b00 yoars ago by tho Grook ph||osophor l|ato |n
h|s d|a|oguo Eotbypbto. l|ato's protagon|st 3ocratos asks a young man namod Euthyphro tho to||ow|ng quost|on:
1ho po|nt wh|ch l shou|d t|rst w|sh to undorstand |s whothor tho p|ous or ho|y |s bo|ovod by tho gods bocauso |t |s ho|y,
or ho|y bocauso |t |s bo|ovod ot tho gods?' 1hat |s, do wo judgo somo act|ons to bo p|ous or ho|y bocauso tho gods
happon to |ovo thoso act|ons, or do tho gods |ovo thoso act|ons bocauso thoy aro |nhoront|y p|ous or ho|y? 1ho
d||omma stands |n monotho|sm today just as |t d|d tor tho po|ytho|sm ot tho anc|ont Grooks: 0oos God ombraco mora|
pr|nc|p|os natura||y occurr|ng and oxtorna| to h|m bocauso thoy aro sound (ho|y'), or aro thoso mora| pr|nc|p|os sound
on|y bocauso God says that thoy aro sound?
8
lt mora| pr|nc|p|os ho|d va|uo on|y bocauso wo bo||ovo that God croatod thom, thon what |s tho|r va|uo |t thoro |s no
God? 1ho pr|nc|p|o ot truth to|||ng and honosty |n human |ntoract|ons, tor oxamp|o, |s tho toundat|on ot trust and |s
abso|uto|y ossont|a| tor human ro|at|ons, th|s |s truo whothor or not thoro |s a sourco outs|do ot our wor|d to va||dato
such pr|nc|p|os. 0o wo roa||y nood God to to|| us that murdor |s wrong? lsn't broak|ng a prom|so |mmora| bocauso |t
dostroys trust botwoon poop|o, and not bocauso tho croator ot tho un|vorso says |t |s |mmora|? 1hus |t |s that most ot
tho pr|nc|p|os l havo |ncu|catod a|ong my bo||ot journoy-|nc|ud|ng my po||t|ca|, oconom|c, and soc|a| att|tudos-turn
out to bo sharod ovon by my tho|st and consorvat|vo tr|onds and co||oaguos, and thus l do not t|t tho trad|t|ona| |abo|s
ot o|thor ||bora| or consorvat|vo. lt |s to th|s part ot my bo||ot journoy wo turn to now.
A RadicaI tor Liborty
l cannot say tor corta|n whothor |t was tho mor|ts ot troo markot oconom|cs and t|sca| consorvat|sm that conv|ncod mo
ot tho|r vorac|ty, or |t |t was my tomporamont and porsona||ty that rovorboratod so wo|| w|th tho|r cogn|t|vo sty|o. As |t |s
tor most bo||ot systoms wo ho|d, |t was probab|y a comb|nat|on ot both. l was ra|sod by paronts who cou|d bost bo
doscr|bod as t|sca||y consorvat|vo and soc|a||y ||bora|, wh|ch today wou|d bo ca||od |lbottotloo, but thoro was no such
27
|abo| whon thoy woro com|ng ot ago |n tho 1040s and 10b0s. 1hroughout my ch||dhood l was |ncu|catod w|th tho
tundamonta| pr|nc|p|os ot oconom|c consorvat|sm: hard work, porsona| rospons|b|||ty, so|t-dotorm|nat|on, t|nanc|a|
autonomy, sma|| govornmont, and troo markots.
lt was |n th|s stato ot oconom|c proparodnoss that l t|rst oncountorod At|os 5btoggoo by tho novo||st-ph||osophor
Ayn land whon l was a son|or at loppord|no Un|vors|ty. l was untam|||ar w|th tho book and tho author, and l was not a
b|g roador ot t|ct|on, but l managod to drag myso|t through tho t|rst hundrod pagos unt|| l was t|na||y hookod. V||||ons ot
roadors havo managod tho hurd|o thomso|vos, and hor to||owors boast that a survoy ot books that mado a d|ttoronco
|n roadors' ||vos' |n 1001 conductod by tho l|brary ot Congross and 3ook ot tho Vonth C|ub tound that At|os
5btoggoo was ratod socond on|y to tho 3|b|o (a|though |t appoars that tho survoy' was moro ot a promot|ona|
campa|gn to ont|co roadors to purchaso cop|os ot books carr|od by tho 3ook ot tho Vonth C|ub).
4
land's popu|ar|ty
and |nt|uonco cont|nuo to th|s day. ln 2000, on tho hoo|s ot tho tr||||on-do||ar ba||out w|th |ts accompany|ng program ot
govornmont |ntorvont|on |nto tho troo markot that cou|d havo boon r|ppod trom tho pagos ot At|os, roadors turnod to
land as novor botoro. 1oa part|os postor|zod At|os w|th such momorab|o landona||a as At|as |s 3hrugg|ng' Who |s
1ohn Ga|t?' and tho bor-coo| 1ho lamo |s Ga|t. 1ohn Ga|t.' 3a|os ot At|os approachod ha|t a m||||on cop|os that yoar
a|ono, putt|ng |t |n compot|t|on tor sa|os w|th tho top now novo|s ot tho yoar-not bad tor a ha|t-contury-o|d thousand-
p|us-pago novo| chockab|ock w|th |ongthy spoochos about ph||osophy, motaphys|cs, oconom|cs, po||t|cs, and ovon
sox and monoy.
b
What |s tho appoa| ot land's charactors and hor p|ot||nos that makos poop|o want to road hor books and |nvo|g|o
othors to do so as wo||? lt |s, l suspoct, bocauso |n th|s postmodorn ago ot mora| ro|at|v|sm Ayn land stood tor
somoth|ng c|oar|y, unoqu|voca||y, unrosorvod|y, and w|th pass|on. |or charactors aro lomo ocooomlcos on storo|ds:
u|tra-rat|ona|, ut|||ty-max|m|z|ng, troo|y choos|ng bormonschos. Accord|ng to land's rocont b|ographor 1onn|tor 3urns
|n Oooooss o tbo Votkot. Ayo Rooo ooo tbo Amotlcoo Rlgbt, tho u|t|mato appoa| ot land |s hor a|most moss|an|c
v|s|on ot tho wor|d: land |ntondod hor books to bo a sort ot scr|pturo, and tor a|| hor omphas|s on roason |t |s tho
omot|ona| and psycho|og|ca| s|dos ot hor novo|s that mako thom t|mo|oss.'
0
lndood, ovon though land ca||od hor
ph||osophy Objoctlvlsm, wh|ch sho sa|d |s groundod |n tour contra| tonots-objoct|vo roa||ty, roason, so|t-|ntorost, and
cap|ta||sm-tho pu|| ot hor grav|ty comos out ot hor pass|on tor ||to and va|uos.
Ot courso, tho shortcom|ngs ot land and hor movomont woro not |ost to my skopt|ca| scrut|ny. ln my 1007 book,
by Poop|o Bo|lovo olto 7blogs, l dovotod a chaptor to tho cu|t||ko to||ow|ng that dovo|opod around land (1ho
Un||ko||ost Cu|t |n ||story,' l ca||od |t), |n an attompt to show that oxtrom|sm ot any k|nd, ovon tho sort that oschows
cu|t|sh bohav|or, can bocomo |rrat|ona|. Vany ot tho charactor|st|cs ot a cu|t, |n tact, soomod to t|t what tho to||owors ot
Objoct|v|sm bo||ovod, most notab|y vonorat|on ot tho |oador, bo||ot |n tho |norrancy and omn|sc|onco ot tho |oador, and
comm|tmont to tho abso|uto truth and abso|uto mora||ty as dot|nod by tho bo||ot systom. 1o w|t, l c|tod tho doscr|pt|on
ot land's |nnor c|rc|o by lathan|o| 3randon-land's choson |nto||octua| ho|r-|n wh|ch ho ||stod tho othor contra|
tonots (bos|dos tho tour abovo) to wh|ch to||owors woro to adhoro, |nc|ud|ng:
Ayn land |s tho groatost human bo|ng who has ovor ||vod. At|os 5btoggoo |s tho groatost human ach|ovomont |n tho h|story ot tho
wor|d. Ayn land, by v|rtuo ot hor ph||osoph|ca| gon|us, |s tho supromo arb|tor |n any |ssuo porta|n|ng to what |s rat|ona|, mora|, or
appropr|ato to man's ||to on oarth. lo ono can bo a good Objoct|v|st who doos not adm|ro what Ayn land adm|ros and condomn what
Ayn land condomns. lo ono can bo a tu||y cons|stont |nd|v|dua||st who d|sagroos w|th Ayn land on any tundamonta| |ssuo.
7
lovortho|oss, any d|scuss|on ot land's to||owors or hor sa|ac|ous porsona| ||to must carry th|s d|sc|a|mor: Ctltlclsm
o tbo ooooot o o pbl|osopby ooos oot, by ltso|, coostltoto o oogotloo o ooy pott o tbo pbl|osopby. 3y most
accounts, 3|r lsaac lowton was a narc|ss|st|c, m|sogyn|st|c, ogocontr|c curmudgoon, and yot h|s thoor|os about ||ght,
grav|ty, and tho structuro ot tho cosmos stand on tho|r own and wou|d bo no moro or |oss truo |t ho woro a sa|nt|y
gont|oman. land's cr|t|quo ot commun|sm may havo boon onorg|zod and an|matod by tho horr|t|c oxpor|oncos sho
and hor tam||y ondurod undor tho bruta| Commun|st rog|mo |n luss|a (|nc|ud|ng tho cont|scat|on ot hor tathor's
bus|noss), but hor cr|t|c|sms ot commun|sm wou|d bo just as truo or ta|so (thoy'ro truo) had sho boon ra|sod a tarm g|r|
|n lowa.
Vost ot what land taught o|thor go||od w|th what l a|roady bo||ovod or ro|ntorcod tho bo||ot pathway l had a|roady
startod down, so l havo no prob|om |dont|ty|ng myso|t as a tan ot Ayn land and a proponont ot hor work, as |ong as |t
|s c|oar that whoro sc|ont|t|c data cont||ct w|th po||t|ca| and oconom|c ph||osophy, l am go|ng w|th tho data. |or
oxamp|o, l am most troub|od by land's thoory ot human naturo as who||y so|t|sh and compot|t|vo, dot|nod |n At|os
through tho tamous oath' pronouncod by tho novo|'s horoos: l swoar-by my ||to and my |ovo ot |t-that l w||| novor
||vo tor tho sako ot anothor man, nor ask anothor man to ||vo tor m|no.' Evo|ut|onary psycho|og|sts and anthropo|og|sts
havo now domonstratod unoqu|voca||y that humans havo a dua| naturo ot bo|ng so|t|sh, compot|t|vo, and groody as
wo|| as a|tru|st|c, cooporat|vo and char|tab|o. And |n 7bo 5clooco o Oooo ooo Evl| and 7bo Vloo o tbo Votkot, l
28
bu||t a caso tor ovo|ut|onary oth|cs and ovo|ut|onary oconom|cs that most land|ans wou|d t|nd qu|to pa|atab|o w|th troo
markot oconom|cs. load|ng land, and absorb|ng tho |og|c ot hor caso tor oconom|c troodom and po||t|ca| ||borty-
sho rotorrod to horso|t as a rad|ca| tor cap|ta||sm'-|od mo to tho oxtons|vo body ot work on tho sc|onco ot markots
and oconom|os and tho ph||osophy ot ||borty and troodom, a|| ot wh|ch rosonatod doop|y w|th my porsona||ty and
tomporamont. l am a rad|ca| tor ||borty.
Ono sourco ot |nt|uonco on my po||t|ca| and oconom|c thought was a rot|rod phys|c|st namod Androw Ga|ambos,
who taught pr|vato coursos through h|s own |roo Entorpr|so lnst|tuto. |o ca||od h|s t|o|d vo|ltlooo| sclooco, and l took
tho |ntroductory courso, v-b0. lt was a comb|nat|on ot ph||osophy ot sc|onco, oconom|cs, po||t|cs, and h|story, tho ||kos
ot wh|ch l novor hoard |n co||ogo. 1h|s was troo markot cap|ta||sm on portormanco-onhanc|ng drugs. lt was a|so a vory
b|ack-and-wh|to wor|dv|ow |n wh|ch Adam 3m|th |s good, Kar| Varx |s bad, |nd|v|dua||sm |s good, co||oct|v|sm |s bad,
troo oconom|os aro good, m|xod oconom|os aro bad. land advocatod ||m|tod govornmont, but ovon that was too
much tor Ga|ambos, whoso thoory out||nod a soc|oty |n wh|ch ovoryth|ng wou|d bo pr|vat|zod unt|| tho govornmont
s|mp|y w|thors away. |ow cou|d th|s work? lt |s basod on Ga|ambos's dot|n|t|on ot troodom as tho soc|ota| cond|t|on
that ox|sts whon ovory |nd|v|dua| has tu|| (|.o. 100%) contro| ovor h|s own proporty.' 1hus, a troo soc|oty |s ono whoro
anyono may do anyth|ng that ho p|oasos-w|th no oxcopt|ons-so |ong as h|s act|ons attoct on|y h|s own proporty, ho
may do noth|ng wh|ch attocts tho proporty ot anothor w|thout obta|n|ng consont ot |ts ownor.' Ga|ambos |dont|t|od
throo typos ot proporty: ptlmotolo| (ono's ||to), ptlmoty (ono's thoughts and |doas), and socooooty (dor|vat|vos ot
pr|mord|a| and pr|mary proporty, such as tho ut|||zat|on ot |and and mator|a| goods). Cap|ta||sm, thon, |s that soc|ota|
structuro whoso mochan|sm |s capab|o ot protoct|ng a|| torms ot pr|vato proporty comp|oto|y.' 1o roa||zo a tru|y troo
soc|oty, thon, wo havo moro|y to d|scovor tho propor moans ot croat|ng a cap|ta||st soc|oty.'
8
1h|s was cap|ta||sm no oconom|st wou|d rocogn|zo, but Ga|ambos had tho chutzpah to so|| |t w|th pass|on, and
many ot us carr|od h|s |doas out |nto tho wor|d-to tho oxtont that wo woro a||owod, anyway, wo a|| had to s|gn a
contract prom|s|ng that wo wou|d not d|sc|oso h|s |doas to anyono, wh||o wo woro a|so oncouragod to so||c|t othors to
onro||. As |n tho caso w|th land, somo ot my po||t|cs and oconom|cs woro shapod by Ga|ambos, but my skopt|c|sm
k|ckod |n attor tho |nchoato onthus|asm wanod-most notab|y tho trans|at|on ot thoory |nto pract|co. lroporty
dot|n|t|ons aro a|| wo|| and good, but what happons whon wo cannot agroo on proporty r|ghts |ntr|ngomonts? 1ho
answor was |nov|tab|y somoth|ng ||ko th|s: ln a tru|y troo soc|oty a|| such d|sputos w||| bo poacotu||y roso|vod through
pr|vato arb|trat|on.' 3uch countortactua| tantas|os rom|ndod mo ot my Varx|st protossors who answorod cha||ongos
a|ong tho samo ||nos (|n a tru|y commun|st soc|oty, X wou|d not bo a prob|om').
1hrough tho poop|o who rocommondod Ga|ambos to mo l mot ono ot h|s protogos namod 1ay 3tuart 3no|son, who
taught coursos undor h|s own lnst|tuto tor |uman lrogross attor ho had a ta|||ng out w|th Ga|ambos. 1o d|stanco
h|mso|t trom h|s montor, 3no|son bu||t h|s thoory ot a troo markot soc|oty on tho Austr|an 3choo| ot Econom|cs, most
notab|y tho work ot tho Austr|an oconom|st ludw|g von V|sos and h|s 1040 magnum opus lomoo Actloo. Out||n|ng
tho count|oss and var|od govornmonta| act|ons that attonuato troodom, 3no|son oxp|a|nod that |roodom ox|sts whoro
tho |nd|v|dua|'s d|scrot|on to chooso |s not cont|scatod by |ntorvont|on|sm. 1ho troo markot ox|sts whoro poop|o havo
tho unrostr|ctod troodom to buy and so||.' A|though th|ovos, thugs, muggors, and murdorors cont|scato our troodoms,
3no|son cont|nuod, congrossmon, sonators, govornors, and pros|donts rostr|ct our troodoms on a sca|o ordors ot
magn|tudo groator than a|| pr|vato cr|m|na|s comb|nod. And thoy do so, 3no|son showod, w|th tho bost ot |ntont|ons,
bocauso thoy bo||ovo that tho cont|scat|on ot tho poop|o's troodom to chooso w||| ach|ovo tho groatost sat|stact|on tor
tho groatost numbor.' W|th such good |ntont|ons, and tho po||t|ca| powor to ontorco thom, statos havo |ntorvonod |n
bus|noss, oducat|on, transportat|on, commun|cat|ons, hoa|th sorv|cos, onv|ronmonta| protoct|on, cr|mo provont|on, troo
trado ovorsoas, and count|oss othor aroas.
|ow thoso sorv|cos cou|d a|| bo succosstu||y pr|vat|zod was tho pr|mary thrust ot 3no|son's work. |o bo||ovod that
tho soc|a| systom that opt|m|zos poaco, prospor|ty, and troodom |s ono whoro anyono at any t|mo can chooso to
produco or prov|do any product or sorv|co, h|ro any omp|oyoo, chooso any product|on, d|str|but|on, or sa|os s|to, and
ottor to so|| products or sorv|cos at any pr|co.' 1ho on|y a||owab|o rostr|ct|ons aro trom tho markot |tso|t. 3o omp|oyod,
systomat|ca||y throughout tho wor|d, a troo markot soc|oty wou|d opon tho wor|d to a|| poop|o.'
0
1hoso woro hoady words tor a hoady t|mo |n my ||to, botoro torma| comm|tmonts to caroor and tam||y woro
congoa|od. |or sovora| yoars l taught 3no|son's pr|nc|p|os courso, a|ong w|th my own coursos on tho h|story ot
sc|onco and tho h|story ot war. l a|so dovo|opod a month|y d|scuss|on group l namod tho lunar 3oc|oty'-attor tho
tamous o|ghtoonth-contury lunar 3oc|oty ot 3|rm|ngham-contorod on books such as lomoo Actloo. As a soc|a|
sc|ont|st |n soarch ot a rosoarch projoct, l accoptod ludw|g von V|sos's cha||ongo: Ono must study tho |aws ot human
act|on and soc|a| cooporat|on as tho phys|c|st stud|os tho |aws ot naturo.'
10
Wo woro go|ng to bu||d a now sc|onco,
and out ot that sc|onco wo wou|d bu||d a now soc|oty. l ovon ponnod a 0oc|arat|on ot |roodom' and a spooch ont|t|od
l |avo a 0roam ll.'
11
What cou|d bo grandor?
29
Wo||, as Yog| 3orra onco sa|d, ln thoory, thoro |s no d|ttoronco botwoon thoory and pract|co. ln pract|co thoro |s.' l
soon d|scovorod that 3orra's pr|nc|p|o app||os |n spados to tho oconom|c sphoro. Wo ||vo |n a wor|d dramat|ca||y
d|ttoront trom that onv|s|onod by my v|s|onary montors, so l turnod my attont|on to tho wr|t|ngs ot oconom|sts trom tho
Austr|an 3choo| and tho|r protogos at tho Un|vors|ty ot Ch|cago, who woro doc|dod|y bocom|ng moro ma|nstroam |n
tho 1080s as tho country bogan a systomat|c sh|tt toward tho r|ght. 1hrough thoso wr|t|ngs l tound a sc|ont|t|c
toundat|on tor my oconom|c and po||t|ca| protoroncos. 1ho toundors ot tho Austr|an and Ch|cago schoo|s ot
oconom|cs-ot wh|ch l cons|dor myso|t a mombor ovon today-ponnod a numbor ot books and ossays whoso |doas
burnod |nto my bra|n a c|oar undorstand|ng ot r|ght and wrong human act|on.
l road |r|odr|ch A. von |ayok's 7bo Coostltotloo o Llbotty and 7bo Rooo to 5otoom, l absorbod |onry |az||tt's
Ecooomlcs lo Ooo Lossoo, an oxcopt|ona| summary ot troo markot oconom|cs, and l tound V||ton |r|odman's ltoo to
Cbooso to bo ono ot tho c|oarost oxpos|t|ons ot oconom|c thoory ovor ponnod. ||s l33 documontary sor|os by tho
samo namo-|ntroducod by tho most muscu|ar ||bortar|an |n h|story, Arno|d 3chwarzonoggor-was so powortu| that l
purchasod tho sor|os on v|doo and watchod tho op|sodos sovora| t|mos.
12
ln tho g|ants ot ||bortar|an thought who most
shapod my th|nk|ng, ludw|g von V|sos was t|rst among oqua|s, ho taught mo that |ntorvont|on|sm |oads to moro
|ntorvont|on|sm, and that |t you can |ntorvono to protoct |nd|v|dua|s trom dangorous drugs, what about dangorous
|doas?
18
lt |s th|s ||nk botwoon troodom and |doas that br|ngs togothor my pass|on tor sc|onco and my |ovo ot ||borty, and has
|od to tho typo ot sc|onco that l pract|co today.
An unauthorizod Autobiograhy ot 5cionco
Ovor tho past throo docados l havo notod two d|sturb|ng tondonc|os |n both sc|onco and soc|oty: t|rst, to rank tho
sc|oncos trom hard' (phys|ca| sc|oncos) to mod|um' (b|o|og|ca| sc|oncos) to sott' (soc|a| sc|oncos), socond, to
d|v|do sc|onco wr|t|ng |nto two torms, tochn|ca| and popu|ar. As such rank|ngs and d|v|s|ons aro wont to bo, thoy
|nc|udo an assossmont ot worth, w|th tho hard sc|oncos and tochn|ca| wr|t|ng rospoctod tho most, and tho sott
sc|oncos and popu|ar wr|t|ng ostoomod tho |oast. 3oth ot thoso projud|cos aro so tar ott tho mark that thoy aro not
ovon wrong.
l havo a|ways thought that |t thoro must bo a rank ordor (wh|ch thoro mustn't), tho curront ono |s proc|so|y rovorsod.
1ho phys|ca| sc|oncos aro hard, |n tho sonso that ca|cu|at|ng d|ttoront|a| oquat|ons |s d|tt|cu|t, tor oxamp|o. 1ho numbor
ot var|ab|os w|th|n tho causa| not ot tho subjoct mattor, howovor, |s comparat|vo|y s|mp|o to constra|n and tost whon
contrastod w|th, say, comput|ng tho act|ons ot organ|sms |n an ocosystom or prod|ct|ng tho consoquoncos ot g|oba|
c||mato chango. Evon tho d|tt|cu|ty ot construct|ng comprohons|vo modo|s |n tho b|o|og|ca| sc|oncos, howovor, pa|os |n
compar|son to that ot tho work|ngs ot human bra|ns and soc|ot|os. 3y thoso moasuros, tho soc|a| sc|oncos aro tho
hard d|sc|p||nos, bocauso tho subjoct mattor |s ordors ot magn|tudo moro comp|ox and mu|t|tacotod w|th many moro
dogroos ot troodom to contro| and prod|ct.
3otwoon tochn|ca| and popu|ar sc|onco wr|t|ng, thoro |s what l ca|| lotogtotlvo sclooco, a procoss that b|onds data,
thoory, and narrat|vo. W|thout a|| throo ot thoso motaphor|ca| |ogs, tho soat upon wh|ch tho ontorpr|so ot sc|onco rosts
w||| co||apso. Attompts to dotorm|no wh|ch ot tho throo |ogs has tho groatost va|uo |s on a par w|th dobat|ng whothor
or t
2
|s tho most |mportant tactor |n comput|ng tho aroa ot a c|rc|o. l c|ass|ty two typos ot narrat|vo. |orma| sc|onco
wr|t|ng-what l ca|| tho oottotlvo o oxp|oootloo-prosonts a noat and t|dy stop-by-stop procoss ot |ntroduct|on-
mothods-rosu|ts-d|scuss|on groundod |n a nonox|stont sc|ont|t|c mothod' ot obsorvat|on-hypothos|s-prod|ct|on-
oxpor|mont to||owod |n a ||noar tash|on. 1h|s typo ot sc|onco wr|t|ng |s ||ko autob|ography, and as tho comod|an
3tovon Wr|ght sa|d, l'm wr|t|ng an unauthor|zod autob|ography.' Any othor k|nd |s t|ct|on. lt |s a|so a typo ot Wh|gg|sh
h|story-tho conc|us|on draws tho oxp|anat|on toward |t, torc|ng tacts and ovonts to ta|| noat|y |nto a causa| cha|n
whoro tho t|na| outcomo |s an |nov|tab|o rosu|t ot a |og|ca| soquonco.
lntorma| sc|onco wr|t|ng-what l ca|| tho oottotlvo o ptoctlco-prosonts tho actua| courso ot sc|onco as |t |s sown
through w|th por|od|c |ns|ghts and subjoct|vo |ntu|t|ons, random guossos and tortu|tous t|nd|ngs. 3c|onco, ||ko ||to, |s
mossy and haphazard, tu|| ot qu|rky cont|ngonc|os, unoxpoctod b|turcat|ons, sorond|p|tous d|scovor|os, unant|c|patod
oncountors, and unprod|ctab|o outcomos. Whoro a narrat|vo ot oxp|anat|on m|ght road somoth|ng ||ko tho data |oad
mo to conc|udo.' a narrat|vo ot pract|co roads moro ||ko |uh, that's wo|rd.'
1ho rost ot th|s part|cu|ar |ntograt|vo work ot sc|onco appoars |n tho sty|o ot tho narrat|vo ot pract|co and |s, |n a
mannor ot spoak|ng, an unauthor|zod autob|ography ot tho sc|onco ot bo||ot.
What |t |'m Wrong? What | WouId 5ay to Cod
30
l am o|d onough now to havo |oarnod tho hard way that thoro |s a|ways tho poss|b|||ty l cou|d bo wrong. l havo boon
wrong about many th|ngs, so |t |s poss|b|o that l am wrong about God.
Vaybo what Ch|ck 0'Arp|no oxpor|oncod that oar|y morn|ng |n 1000 was tho roa| doa|: an |ntont|ona| agont outs|do
ot our wor|d-ca|| |t God, an lnto|||gont 0os|gnor, E1, or tho sourco-spoko to Ch|ck and do||vorod a mossago that by
most poop|o's judgmont wou|d bo a wo|como ono: thoro |s an ont|ty out thoro who caros tor us. 1hat |s most corta|n|y
what Ch|ck bo||ovos to th|s day, dosp|to tho tact that ho knows a|| about tho nourosc|onco ot such oxpor|oncos.
lorhaps |ranc|s Co|||ns |s r|ght |n h|s roason|ng that thoro had to bo a t|rst causo and pr|mo movor ot tho cosmos, an
actua| (not |mag|nary) |ntont|ona| agont who arrangod tho |aws ot naturo to g|vo r|so to stars, p|anots, ||to, |nto|||gonco,
and us.
Vaybo a|| thoso othor myst|cs and sagos and rogu|ar to|ks |n h|story and today who havo touchod tho sp|r|t wor|d or
oncountorod tho paranorma| aro s|mp|y moro attunod to anothor d|mons|on, tho|r skopt|c|sm roducod onough to a||ow
tho|r m|nds to connoct to such a sourco. 1h|s |s, |n tact, what tho groat lnst|tuto tor Advancod 3tudy phys|c|st |rooman
0yson bo||ovos. ln a 2004 ossay on tho paranorma|, 0yson conc|udos w|th a tonab|o' hypothos|s that paranorma|
phonomona may roa||y ox|st' bocauso, ho says, l am not a roduct|on|st' and that paranorma| phonomona aro roa| but
||o outs|do tho ||m|ts ot sc|onco |s supportod by a groat mass ot ov|donco.' 1hat ov|donco |s ont|ro|y anocdota|, ho
adm|ts, but bocauso h|s grandmothor was a ta|th hoa|or and h|s cous|n od|ts a journa| on psych|c rosoarch, and
bocauso anocdotos gathorod by tho 3oc|oty tor lsych|ca| losoarch and othor organ|zat|ons suggost that undor
corta|n cond|t|ons (tor oxamp|o, stross), somo poop|o somot|mos oxh|b|t somo paranorma| powors, l t|nd |t p|aus|b|o
that a wor|d ot monta| phonomona shou|d ox|st, too t|u|d and ovanoscont to bo graspod w|th tho cumborsomo too|s ot
sc|onco.'
14
Vaybo thoro |s m|nd outs|do ot tho bra|n, maybo God |s m|nd or somo man|tostat|on thoroot, and |t so maybo tho
m|nd transconds tho body and cont|nuos attor doath and th|s |s how wo may u|t|mato|y connoct to tho d|v|no. What |t |t
|s m|nd |tso|t that brought tho un|vorso |nto ox|stonco |n tho t|rst p|aco? ln th|s sconar|o, maybo God |s tho un|vorsa|
m|nd and tho attor||to |s whoro m|nds go w|thout tho|r bra|ns.
Vaybo. 3ut l doubt |t. l bo||ovo l havo out||nod a roasonab|o oxp|anat|on tor Ch|ck 0'Arp|no's oxpor|onco as a
stross-|nducod aud|tory ha||uc|nat|on, not un||ko tho sonsod-prosonco ottoct oxpor|oncod by c||mbors, oxp|orors, and
u|traonduranco ath|otos, wh|ch l doscr|bo at |ongth |n chaptor b. As tor 0yson's ondorsomont ot tho paranorma|, ho |s
ono ot tho groatost m|nds ot our t|mo and thus whatovor ho says |s worthy ot sor|ous cons|dorat|on. 3ut ovon a m|nd ot
th|s staggor|ng gon|us cannot ovorr|do tho cogn|t|vo b|asos that tavor anocdota| th|nk|ng. 1ho on|y way to t|nd out |t
anocdotos roprosont roa| phonomona |s contro||od tosts. E|thor poop|o can road othor poop|o's m|nds (or E3l
cards), or thoy can't. 3c|onco has unoqu|voca||y domonstratod that thoy can't. And bo|ng a ho||st |nstoad ot a
roduct|on|st, bo|ng ro|atod to a psych|c, or road|ng about wo|rd th|ngs that bota|| poop|o doos not chango th|s tact.
On tho mattor ot tho God quost|on, o|thor God ox|sts or ho doos not, rogard|oss what l th|nk on tho mattor, so l'm not
part|cu|ar|y worr|od about |t, ovon |t tho attor||to turns out to bo what Chr|st|ans th|nk |t |s w|th a hoavon and a ho||, and
w|th bo||ot |n God and h|s 3on as tho roqu|s|to cr|tor|a tor ontry. Why?
||rst ot a||, why wou|d an a||-know|ng, a||-powortu|, a||-|ov|ng God caro whothor l bo|lovoo |n h|m? 3hou|dn't ho know
th|s ahoad ot t|mo |n any caso? Evon assum|ng that ho has grantod mo troo w|||, s|nco God |s sa|d to bo omn|sc|ont
and outs|do ot t|mo and spaco, shou|dn't ho know ovoryth|ng that happons? ln o|thor caso, why wou|d bo||ot' mattor at
a||, un|oss God woro moro ||ko tho Grook and loman gods who compotod w|th ono anothor tor human attoct|ons and
worsh|p and woro t|||od w|th such human omot|ons as joa|ousy. 1ho O|d 1ostamont God Yahwoh corta|n|y sounds ||ko
th|s typo ot do|ty |n tho t|rst throo ot tho 1on Commandmonts (Exodus 20:2-17, K|ng 1amos vors|on): l om tbo LORL
tby Ooo.. 7boo sbo|t bovo oo otbot goos booto mo. 7boo sbo|t oot moko ooto tboo ooy gtovoo lmogo, ot ooy
|lkoooss o ooy tblog tbot ls lo boovoo obovo, ot tbot ls lo tbo oottb booootb, ot tbot ls lo tbo wotot oooot tbo oottb.
7boo sbo|t oot bowoowo tbyso| to tbom, oot sotvo tbom. ot l tbo LORL tby Ooo om o joo|oos Ooo, vlsltlog tbo
lolqolty o tbo otbots opoo tbo cbl|otoo ooto tbo tblto ooo oottb gooototloo o tbom tbot boto mo.'
Y|kos! 1ho s|ns ot tho tathors aro to bo borno by tho|r ch||dron's ch||dron's ch||dron? What sort ot just|co |s that?
What k|nd ot God |s th|s? 1h|s just sounds so . wo|| . ungod|y to my oars. Vost poop|o havo |oarnod to got ovor
joa|ousy, and l'vo ovon managod to koop |t |n chock much ot tho t|mo myso|t, and l'm no god, that's tor suro.
1b
Wou|dn't
an omn|sc|ont, omn|potont, omn|ph|||c do|ty bo moro concornod w|th how l comportod myso|t |n tbls wot|o, rathor than
obsoss|ng ovor whothor l bo||ovo |n h|m and/or h|s 3on |n hopos ot gott|ng to tho r|ght p|aco |n tho otbot wot|o? l wou|d
th|nk so. 3ohav|ora| comportmont d|nos at tho h|gh tab|o ot mora||ty and oth|cs, joa|ousy toasts on tho ompty ca|or|os
ot basor human omot|ons.
ln any caso, |t thoro |s an attor||to and a God who ros|dos ovor |t, l |ntond to mako my caso a|ong thoso ||nos:
Loto, l olo tbo bost l coo|o wltb tbo too|s yoo gtootoo mo. Yoo govo mo o btolo to tblok skoptlco||y ooo l osoo lt
occotolog|y. Yoo govo mo tbo copoclty to toosoo ooo l opp|loo lt to o|| c|olms, loc|oolog tbot o yoot oxlstooco. Yoo
31
govo mo o moto| sooso ooo l o|t tbo poogs o gol|t ooo tbo joys o ptloo ot tbo boo ooo gooo tblogs l cboso to oo. l
ttloo to oo ooto otbots os l woo|o bovo tbom oo ooto mo, ooo o|tboogb l o|| ot sbott o tbls looo| ot too mooy tlmos,
l ttloo to opp|y yoot oooootlooo| ptloclp|o wbooovot l coo|o. botovot tbo oototo o yoot lmmotto| ooo lololto
spltltoo| ossooco octoo||y ls, os o motto| lolto cotpotoo| bolog l coooot posslb|y otbom lt oosplto my bost ootts,
ooo so oo wltb mo wbot yoo wl||.
32

PAR1 ||
1EE B|OLOCY OF BEL|EF

7bo ltst ptloclp|o ls tbot yoo most oot oo| yootso|-ooo yoo oto tbo ooslost potsoo to oo|.
-llC|Al0 |EYlVAl,
5URELY YOU`RE 1OKlNO, VR. lEYNVAN, 1074
33

4

Pattornicity
lmag|no that you aro a hom|n|d wa|k|ng a|ong tho savanna ot an Atr|can va||oy throo m||||on yoars ago. You hoar a
rust|o |n tho grass. ls |t just tho w|nd or |s |t a dangorous prodator? Your answor cou|d moan ||to or doath.
lt you assumo that tho rust|o |n tho grass |s a dangorous prodator but |t turns out that |t |s just tho w|nd, you havo
mado what |s ca||od a 7ypo l ottot |n cogn|t|on, a|so known as a o|so posltlvo, or bo||ov|ng somoth|ng |s roa| whon |t
|s not. 1hat |s, you havo tound a nonox|stont pattorn. You connoctod (A) a rust|o |n tho grass to (3) a dangorous
prodator, but |n th|s caso A was not connoctod to 3. lo harm. You movo away trom tho rust||ng sound, bocomo moro
a|ort and caut|ous, and t|nd anothor path to your dost|nat|on.
lt you assumo that tho rust|o |n tho grass |s just tho w|nd but |t turns out that |t |s a dangorous prodator, you havo
mado what |s ca||od a 7ypo ll ottot |n cogn|t|on, a|so known as a o|so oogotlvo, or bo||ov|ng somoth|ng |s not roa|
whon |t |s. 1hat |s, you havo m|ssod a roa| pattorn. You ta||od to connoct (A) a rust|o |n tho grass to (3) a dangorous
prodator, and |n th|s caso A was connoctod to 3. You'ro |unch. Congratu|at|ons, you havo won a 0arw|n Award. You
aro no |ongor a mombor ot tho hom|n|d gono poo|.
Our bra|ns aro bo||ot ong|nos, ovo|vod pattorn-rocogn|t|on mach|nos that connoct tho dots and croato moan|ng out
ot tho pattorns that wo th|nk wo soo |n naturo. 3omot|mos A roa||y |s connoctod to 3, somot|mos |t |s not. 1ho basoba||
p|ayor who (A) doosn't shavo and (3) h|ts a homo run torms a ta|so assoc|at|on botwoon A and 3, but |t |s a ro|at|vo|y
harm|oss ono. Whon tho assoc|at|on |s roa|, howovor, wo havo |oarnod somoth|ng va|uab|o about tho onv|ronmont
trom wh|ch wo can mako prod|ct|ons that a|d |n surv|va| and roproduct|on. Wo aro tho doscondants ot thoso who woro
most succosstu| at t|nd|ng pattorns. 1h|s procoss |s ca||od ossoclotloo |ootolog and |s tundamonta| to a|| an|ma|
bohav|or, trom C. o|ogoos to l. soploos. l ca|| th|s procoss pottotolclty, or tbo tooooocy to loo mooologo| pottotos
lo botb mooologo| ooo mooolog|oss oolso.
Untortunato|y, wo d|d not ovo|vo a ba|onoy-dotoct|on notwork |n tho bra|n to d|st|ngu|sh botwoon truo and ta|so
pattorns. Wo havo no orror-dotoct|on govornor to modu|ato tho pattorn-rocogn|t|on ong|no. 1ho roason has to do w|th
tho ro|at|vo costs ot mak|ng 1ypo l and 1ypo ll orrors |n cogn|t|on, wh|ch l doscr|bo |n tho to||ow|ng tormu|a:
P = C
1|
< C
1||
lattorn|c|ty (l) w||| occur whonovor tho cost (C) ot mak|ng a 1ypo l orror (1l) |s |oss than tho cost (C) ot mak|ng a 1ypo ll orror (1ll).
1ho prob|om |s that assoss|ng tho d|ttoronco botwoon a 1ypo l and 1ypo ll orror |s h|gh|y prob|omat|c-ospoc|a||y |n
tho sp||t-socond t|m|ng that otton dotorm|nod tho d|ttoronco botwoon ||to and doath |n our ancostra| onv|ronmonts-so
tho dotau|t pos|t|on |s to assumo that a|| pattorns aro roa|, that |s, assumo that a|| rust|os |n tho grass aro dangorous
prodators and not tho w|nd.
1h|s |s tho bas|s tor tho ovo|ut|on ot a|| torms ot pattorn|c|ty, |nc|ud|ng suporst|t|on and mag|ca| th|nk|ng. 1horo was
a natura| so|oct|on tor tho cogn|t|vo procoss ot assum|ng that a|| pattorns aro roa| and that a|| pattorn|c|t|os roprosont
roa| and |mportant phonomona. Wo aro tho doscondants ot tho pr|matos who most succosstu||y omp|oyod pattorn|c|ty.
loto what l am argu|ng horo. 1h|s |s not just a thoory to oxp|a|n why poop|o bo||ovo wo|rd th|ngs. lt |s a thoory to
oxp|a|n wby poop|o bo|lovo tblogs. |u|| stop. lattorn|c|ty |s tho procoss ot sook|ng and t|nd|ng pattorns, connoct|ng
tho dots, ||nk|ng A to 3. Aga|n, th|s |s noth|ng moro than assoc|at|on |oarn|ng, and a|| an|ma|s do |t. lt |s how organ|sms
adapt to tho|r ovor-chang|ng onv|ronmonts whon ovo|ut|on |s too s|ow. Gonos aro so|octod tor and aga|nst |n chang|ng
onv|ronmonts, but th|s takos t|mo-gonorat|ons ot t|mo. 3ra|ns |oarn, and thoy can |oarn a|most |nstantanoous|y-t|mo
|s not an |ssuo.
ln a 2008 papor ont|t|od 1ho Evo|ut|on ot 3uporst|t|ous and 3uporst|t|on-l|ko 3ohav|our,'
1
|arvard b|o|og|st Kov|n
l. |ostor and Un|vors|ty ot |o|s|nk| b|o|og|st |anna Kokko tostod an oar||or vors|on ot my thoory through ovo|ut|onary
modo||ng, a too| usod to assoss tho ro|at|vo costs and bonot|ts ot d|ttoront ro|at|onsh|ps botwoon organ|sms. |or
oxamp|o, to whom shou|d you ottor ho|p? ln ovo|ut|onary thoory, a|tru|st|ca||y ho|p|ng othors sooms prob|omat|c
bocauso |n a so|t|sh gono modo|, shou|dn't wo hoard a|| rosourcos and novor ho|p anyono? lo. |am||ton's ru|o-
namod tor tho ronownod 3r|t|sh ovo|ut|onary b|o|og|st W||||am 0. |am||ton-statos that br ~ c: a pos|t|vo soc|a|
|ntoract|on botwoon two |nd|v|dua|s may occur whon tho bonot|t (b) ot tho gonot|c ro|atodnoss (r) oxcoods tho cost (c)
34
ot tho soc|a| act|on. A s|b||ng, tor oxamp|o, may mako an a|tru|st|c sacr|t|co tor anothor s|b||ng whon tho cost ot do|ng
so |s surpassod by tho gonot|c bonot|ts dor|vod trom gott|ng |ts gonos |nto tho noxt gonorat|on through tho surv|v|ng
s|b||ng. 1hat |s, you aro moro ||ko|y to ho|p a tu|| brothor than you aro a ha|t brothor, and a ha|t brothor moro than a
comp|oto strangor.
2
3|ood roa||y |s th|ckor than wator.
Ot courso, organ|sms do not consc|ous|y mako such ca|cu|at|ons. latura| so|oct|on mado thom tor us and |mbuod
us w|th mora| omot|ons that gu|do bohav|or. ln 7bo 5clooco o Oooo ooo Evl| l workod out tho ovo|ut|onary
advantagos ot bo|ng pro-soc|a|, cooporat|vo, and a|tru|st|c not on|y to b|ood ro|at|vos, but to to||ow group mombors
and ovon strangors who havo bocomo honorary tr|onds or ro|at|vos through pos|t|vo soc|a| |ntoract|ons. Examp|os
|nc|udo tood rod|str|but|on and too| shar|ng among mombors ot a tr|bo. ln th|s contoxt, ovo|ut|on ondowod us w|th a
ru|o ot thumb that says bo gonorous and ho|ptu| to our b|ood ro|at|vos and thoso who aro n|co and gonorous to us.'
Evon unro|atod mombors ot a c|an who oxh|b|t such pos|t|vo attr|butos tr|ggor |n our bra|ns a mora| pattorn: (A) Og
was n|co to mo, so (3) l shou|d bo n|co to Og, and (C) |t l ho|p Og, (0) Og w||| roturn tho tavor. ln 7bo Vloo o tbo
Votkot l domonstratod that th|s ottoct can bo soon botwoon c|ans and tr|bos whon thoy part|c|patod |n mutua||y
bonot|c|a| oxchangos, a|so known as trado. Evon |n tho modorn wor|d, opon|ng trado bordors botwoon two countr|os
tonds to |owor tons|ons and aggross|ons botwoon thom, and c|os|ng trado bordors-|mpos|ng trado sanct|ons-
|ncroasos tho ||ko||hood that two nat|ons w||| t|ght. 1hoso aro both good oxamp|os ot mora| pattorn|c|t|os that havo
workod tor and aga|nst our spoc|os.
8
|ostor and Kokko usod |am||ton's ru|o to dor|vo tho|r own tormu|a to domonstrato that whonovor tho cost ot
bo||ov|ng that a ta|so pattorn |s roa| |s |oss than tho cost ot not bo||ov|ng a roa| pattorn, natura| so|oct|on w||| tavor tho
pattorn|c|ty.
4
1hrough a sor|os ot comp|ox tormu|as that |nc|udod add|t|ona| st|mu|| (w|nd |n tho troos) and pr|or ovonts
(past oxpor|onco w|th prodators and w|nd), tho authors domonstratod that tho |nab|||ty ot |nd|v|dua|s-human or
othorw|so-to ass|gn causa| probab|||t|os to a|| sots ot ovonts that occur around thom w||| otton torco thom to |ump
causa| assoc|at|ons w|th non-causa| onos. |rom horo, tho ovo|ut|onary rat|ona|o tor suporst|t|on |s c|oar: natura|
so|oct|on w||| tavour stratog|os that mako many |ncorroct causa| assoc|at|ons |n ordor to ostab||sh thoso that aro
ossont|a| tor surv|va| and roproduct|on.' ln othor words, wo tond to t|nd moan|ngtu| pattorns whothor thoy aro thoro or
not, and thoro |s a portoct|y good roason to do so. ln th|s sonso, pattorn|c|t|os such as suporst|t|on and mag|ca|
th|nk|ng aro not so much orrors |n cogn|t|on as thoy aro natura| procossos ot a |oarn|ng bra|n. Wo can no moro
o||m|nato suporst|t|ous |oarn|ng than wo can o||m|nato a|| |oarn|ng. A|though truo pattorn rocogn|t|on ho|ps us surv|vo,
ta|so pattorn rocogn|t|on doos not nocossar||y got us k|||od, and so tho pattorn|c|ty phonomonon ondurod tho
w|nnow|ng procoss ot natura| so|oct|on. 3ocauso wo must mako assoc|at|ons |n ordor to surv|vo and roproduco,
natura| so|oct|on tavorod a|| assoc|at|on-mak|ng stratog|os, ovon thoso that rosu|tod |n ta|so pos|t|vos. W|th th|s
ovo|ut|onary porspoct|vo wo can now undorstand that poop|o bo|lovo wolto tblogs bocooso o oot ovo|voo oooo to
bo|lovo ooowolto tblogs.
1ho EvoIution ot Pattornicity
Anocdota| assoc|at|on |s a torm ot pattorn|c|ty that |s a|| too common and that |oads to tau|ty conc|us|ons. l hoard that
Aunt V||drod's cancor wont |nto rom|ss|on attor sho |mb|bod oxtract ot soawood. |oy, maybo |t works. 1hon aga|n,
maybo |t doosn't. Who can to||? 1horo |s on|y ono surot|ro mothod ot propor pattorn rocogn|t|on, and that |s sc|onco.
On|y whon a group ot cancor pat|onts tak|ng soawood oxtract |s comparod to a contro| group can wo draw a va||d
conc|us|on (and not a|ways thon).
As l wr|to th|s, thoro |s a major brouhaha ovor a torm ot anocdota| assoc|at|on |nvo|v|ng vacc|nat|ons and aut|sm,
w|th somo paronts ot aut|st|c ch||dron c|a|m|ng that short|y attor thoy took tho|r ch||dron |n tor (A) tho VVl (moas|os,
mumps, rubo||a) vacc|no thoy woro (3) d|agnosod w|th aut|sm. 1h|s |s pattorn|c|ty whoro |t roa||y counts. On lat|ona|
Aut|sm Awaronoss 0ay |n 2000, larry K|ng hostod a dobato on h|s show |n wh|ch ho had on ono s|do ot h|s tab|o a
coup|o ot mod|ca| rosoarchors and oxports on aut|sm and vacc|nos who oxp|a|nod that no connoct|on botwoon tho two
has ovor boon mado, that tho a||ogod|y tox|c chom|ca| th|morosa| was romovod trom vacc|nos |n 1000, and that
ch||dron born attor th|morosa| was romovod aro st||| bo|ng d|agnosod w|th aut|sm. On tho othor s|do ot tho tab|o woro
tho actor 1|m Carroy and h|s ox-P|oyboy bunny partnor 1onny VcCarthy, w|th v|doos ot hor adorab|o son oxh|b|t|ng
obv|ous s|gns ot aut|sm. Who aro you go|ng to bo||ovo-a coup|o ot nordy bra|n|acs w|th oxport|so, or a coup|o ot
g|amorous man|acs w|th co|obr|ty? lt was a c|ass|c caso ot tho omot|ona| bra|n runn|ng roughshod ovor tho rat|ona|
bra|n, as VcCarthy tuggod on tho hoartstr|ngs ot v|owors wh||o tho sc|ont|sts strugg|od to o|uc|dato how proot |s
ostab||shod |n sc|onco through carotu| contro||od oxpor|monts and op|dom|o|og|ca| stud|os. Onco aga|n, tho rat|ona|
b|t was |n tho omot|ona| horso's mouth, but tho ro|ns gavo no d|roct|on that day.
1ho prob|om wo taco |s that suporst|t|on and bo||ot |n mag|c aro m||||ons ot yoars o|d whoroas sc|onco, w|th |ts
35
mothods ot contro|||ng tor |ntorvon|ng var|ab|os to c|rcumvont ta|so pos|t|vos, |s on|y a tow hundrod yoars o|d.
Anocdota| th|nk|ng comos natura||y, sc|onco roqu|ros tra|n|ng. Any mod|ca| huckstor prom|s|ng that A w||| curo 3 has
on|y to advort|so a handtu| ot succosstu| anocdotos |n tho torm ot tost|mon|a|s.
3. |. 3k|nnor was tho t|rst sc|ont|st to systomat|ca||y study suporst|t|ous bohav|or |n an|ma|s, not|ng that whon tood
was prosontod to p|goons at random |ntorva|s |nstoad ot moro prod|ctab|o schodu|os ot ro|ntorcomont-tor wh|ch
pock|ng a koy |ns|do a box |n wh|ch tho p|goon was p|acod wou|d rosu|t |n do||vory ot tho tood through a sma|| tood
hoppor (soo t|guro 1)-tho p|goons oxh|b|tod an odd assortmont ot bohav|ors, such as s|do-to-s|do hopp|ng or
tw|r||ng around countorc|ockw|so botoro pock|ng tho koy. lt was an av|an ra|n danco ot sorts. 1ho p|goons d|d th|s
bocauso thoy woro put on somoth|ng ca||od a votlob|o lototvo| (vl) schodu|o ot ro|ntorcomont, |n wh|ch tho t|mo
|ntorva| botwoon gott|ng tho tood roward tor pock|ng a koy var|od. ln that |ntorva| ot t|mo botwoon pock|ng tho koy and
tho hoppor do||vor|ng tho tood, whatovor tho p|goons happonod to bo do|ng was scorod |n tho|r ||tt|o bra|ns as a
pattorn.
3upport|ng my thos|s that such pattorn|c|t|os woro |mportant |n tho ovo|ut|on ot rosponso bohav|ors to chang|ng
onv|ronmonts, 3k|nnor notod, oach rosponso was a|most a|ways ropoatod |n tho samo part ot tho cago, and |t
gonora||y |nvo|vod an or|ontat|on toward somo toaturo ot tho cago. 1ho ottoct ot tho ro|ntorcomont was to cond|t|on tho
b|rd to rospond to somo aspoct ot tho onv|ronmont rathor than moro|y to oxocuto a sor|os ot movomonts.' 1hoso
suporst|t|ous bohav|ors woro |ntonso|y ropoatod, typ|ca||y t|vo or s|x t|mos |n a mattor ot t|ttoon soconds or so, as
3k|nnor conc|udod: 1ho b|rd bohavos as |t thoro woro a causa| ro|at|on botwoon |ts bohav|or and tho prosontat|on ot
tood, a|though such a ro|at|on |s |ack|ng.'
b
ln tho b|rd's bra|n, (A) tw|r||ng around onco and pock|ng tho koy was
connoctod to (3) tood. 1hat |s bas|c pattorn|c|ty. lt you doubt |ts potoncy as a torco |n human bohav|or, just v|s|t a las
vogas cas|no and obsorvo poop|o p|ay|ng tho s|ots w|th tho|r var|od attompts to t|nd a pattorn botwoon (A) pu|||ng tho
s|ot mach|no hand|o and (3) tho payott. l|goons may havo b|rd bra|ns, but whon |t comos to such bas|c pattorn|c|t|os,
our bra|ns aro ||tt|o d|ttoront.
Figuro 1. Pattornicity in Pigoona
lns|do a 3k|nnor box |n 0oug|as lavar|ck's |aboratory at Ca||torn|a 3tato Un|vors|ty-|u||orton, whoro l conductod
rosoarch on |oarn|ng |n tho 1070s, ono ot our p|goons has |oarnod to pock at tho two koys abovo to roco|vo gra|n
through a tood hoppor bo|ow. 3k|nnor d|scovorod that |t ho random|y do||vorod tho tood ro|ntorcomont, whatovor
tho p|goon happonod to bo do|ng just botoro tho do||vory ot tho tood wou|d bo ropoatod tho noxt t|mo, such as
sp|nn|ng around onco to tho |ott botoro pock|ng at tho koy. 1h|s |s p|goon pattorn|c|ty, or tho |oarn|ng ot a
suporst|t|on. l|O1O3Y 1|E AU1|Ol.
lnsp|rod by 3k|nnor's c|ass|c oxpor|monts, Ko|ch| Ono ot Komazawa Un|vors|ty |n 1apan ran human subjocts
through tho oqu|va|ont ot a 3k|nnor box by hav|ng thom s|t |n a booth |n wh|ch thoro woro throo |ovors.
0
lndopondont ot
tho|r pu|||ng tho |ovors (but unknown to thom) tho subjocts woro thon oxposod to a numbor countor that grantod thom
ono po|nt at a t|mo, wh|ch was to||owod by a t|ash|ng ||ght and buzzor (a sca|od-down s|ot mach|no, as |t woro). 1ho
po|nts woro do||vorod |n a vl schodu|o ot ro|ntorcomont (just ||ko tho p|goons) ot, on avorago, o|thor 80 soconds (w|th
a rango ot 8 to b7 soconds) or 00 soconds (w|th a rango ot 2b to 0b soconds). 3otoro tho oxpor|mont bogan tho
subjocts woro |nstructod, 1ho oxpor|montor doos not roqu|ro you to do anyth|ng spoc|t|c. 3ut |t you do somoth|ng, you
may got po|nts on tho countor. low try to got as many po|nts as poss|b|o.'
3|nco tho subjocts cou|d not prod|ct whon tho po|nts wou|d bo do||vorod (bocauso tho schodu|o ot do||vory was
var|ab|o), and poop|o just soom to havo a natura| propons|ty to pu|| |ovors, somo ot thom |ntorrod a connoct|on
botwoon (A) pu|||ng tho hand|os and (3) gott|ng po|nts. lattorn|c|ty. And thoro woro somo dooz|os. 3ubjoct 1
happonod to got a po|nt attor pu|||ng tho |ovors |n tho ordor ot |ott, m|dd|o, r|ght, r|ght, m|dd|o, |ott, and so ropoatod that
36
pattorn throo moro t|mos. 3ubjoct b bogan tho soss|on w|th short pu||s ot a|| tho |ovors, w|th tho po|nts accumu|at|ng
qu|to |ndopondont|y ot h|s pu||s, but thon by chanco ho happonod to bo ho|d|ng tho m|dd|o |ovor whon a po|nt was
do||vorod, so thoroattor ho portormod tho suporst|t|ous r|tua| ot throo short pu||s to||owod by ho|d|ng tho m|dd|o |ovor.
Ot courso, tho |ongor ho ho|d tho |ovor tho groator tho chanco that ho wou|d got anothor po|nt (bocauso thoy woro
do||vorod on a var|ab|o t|mo schodu|o). Attor m|nuto n|no ot tho th|rty-m|nuto soss|on, 3ubjoct b had h|s r|tua| down pat.
3ubjoct 1b dovo|opod tho strangost r|to ot a||. ||vo m|nutos |nto hor soss|on a po|nt was do||vorod tho momont sho
happonod to touch tho po|nt countor. 1horoattor sho startod touch|ng anyth|ng and ovoryth|ng w|th|n roach, and, ot
courso, s|nco tho po|nts cont|nuod to bo do||vorod, th|s odd touch|ng bohav|or was ro|ntorcod. At tho ton-m|nuto mark
sho got a po|nt just as sho happonod to jump on tho t|oor, whoroby sho prompt|y abandonod touch|ng and took up
jump|ng as hor now stratogy, c||max|ng |n a po|nt bo|ng scorod whon sho touchod tho co|||ng, |oad|ng hor to ond tho
soss|on oar|y trom co|||ng-touch|ng oxhaust|on.
1ochn|ca||y spoak|ng, |n Ono's words, suporst|t|ous bohav|or |s dot|nod as bohav|or producod by rosponso
|ndopondont schodu|os ot ro|ntorcor do||vory, |n wh|ch on|y an acc|donta| ro|at|on ox|sts botwoon rosponsos and
do||vory ot ro|ntorcors.' 1hat's a tancy way ot say|ng that suporst|t|ons aro just an acc|donta| torm ot |oarn|ng. 1h|s |s
pattorn|c|ty. Can such |oarnod suporst|t|ous pattorn|c|t|os bo un|oarnod? 1hoy can. ln 1008, 3k|nnor's |arvard
co||oaguos Char|os Catan|a and 0av|d Cutts put humans through tho p|goon pacos by |nstruct|ng oach ot twonty-s|x
undorgraduato subjocts to pross ono ot two d|ttoront buttons on a box whonovor a yo||ow ||ght t|ashod and to try to
accumu|ato as many po|nts as poss|b|o on a countor. Whonovor tho subjoct ga|nod a po|nt a groon ||ght t|ashod. A rod
||ght |nd|catod that tho soss|on was ovor, wh|ch was whon tho subjoct roachod ono hundrod po|nts. Unboknownst to
tho subjocts, on|y tho r|ght button cou|d gonorato po|nts, and thoso po|nts woro do||vorod on a vl schodu|o ot
ro|ntorcomont, w|th an avorago t|mo botwoon po|nt do||vory ot th|rty soconds. 1ho rosu|ts woro rovoa||ng |n that human
bra|ns aro no |oss suporst|t|ous than b|rd bra|ns: most ot tho subjocts qu|ck|y dovo|opod suporst|t|ous button-push|ng
pattorns botwoon tho |ott and r|ght buttons, bocauso |t thoy prossod tho |ott button just botoro tho r|ght button
happonod to do||vor a po|nt, that part|cu|ar pattorn was ro|ntorcod. Onco subjocts ostab||shod a suporst|t|ous button-
push|ng pattorn, thoy stuck w|th that pattorn throughout tho soss|on bocauso thoy cont|nuod to bo ro|ntorcod tor |t.
1o oxt|ngu|sh tho 1ypo l ta|so-pos|t|vo pattorn, Catan|a and Cutts |ntroducod what |s ca||od a cboogoovot oo|oy
(CO0), wh|ch addod a por|od ot t|mo botwoon prossos on tho |ott button and subsoquont ro|ntorcod prossos on tho
r|ght button, thoroby untang||ng thom trom any moan|ngtu| pattorn. 1hat |s, whoro (A) tho |ott button was |ncorroct|y
assoc|atod w|th (3) a po|nt, a suporst|t|ous pattorn was ostab||shod, but by soparat|ng A and 3 |n t|mo tho assoc|at|on
||nk was d|sconnoctod. As you m|ght oxpoct (and corta|n|y hopo), humans noodod a |ongor CO0 than p|goons
bocauso, prosumab|y, wo havo a groator cogn|t|vo capac|ty tor ho|d|ng assoc|at|ons |n momory than b|rds do. 3ut th|s
|s a doub|o-odgod sword. Our groator capac|ty tor |oarn|ng |s otton ottsot by our groator capac|ty tor mag|ca| th|nk|ng.
3uporst|t|on |n p|goons can bo oas||y oxt|ngu|shod, |n humans |t |s much moro d|tt|cu|t.
7
Eardwirod Pattornicity
lattorn|c|ty |s common across tho an|ma| k|ngdom. Ear|y stud|os |n tho 10b0s by l|ko 1|nborgon and Konrad loronz,
who p|onoorod tho study ot otho|ogy-tho ovo|ut|onary or|g|ns ot an|ma| bohav|or-domonstratod tho capac|ty ot
many organ|sms to rap|d|y torm |ast|ng pattorns. loronz, tor oxamp|o, documontod lmptlotlog, a typo ot phaso-
dopondont |oarn|ng whoroby tho youth ot a spoc|os at a cr|t|ca| por|od |n tho|r dovo|opmont w||| torm a t|xod and
|ast|ng pattorn ot momory tor whoovor or whatovor appoars botoro thom dur|ng that br|ot span ot t|mo. ln tho baby
groy|ag gooso that loronz stud|od, tor oxamp|o, tho objoct ot gazo |n tho cr|t|ca| por|od ot th|rtoon to s|xtoon hours o|d
|s norma||y a mothor, and thus sho bocomos |mpr|ntod |n tho|r bra|ns. 1o tost th|s hypothos|s, tho m|sch|ovous loronz
mado corta|n that |t was ho who was |n tho duck||ngs' v|sua| t|o|d at tho cr|t|ca| momont, and thoroattor momma'
Konrad |od h|s t|ock around tho grounds ot h|s rosoarch stat|on.
8
A torm ot rovorso |mpr|nt|ng can bo tound |n humans |n tho |ncost taboo. 1wo poop|o grow|ng up |n c|oso prox|m|ty
to oach othor dur|ng a cr|t|ca| por|od |n ch||dhood aro un||ko|y to t|nd oach othor soxua||y attract|vo as adu|ts. Evo|ut|on
has programmod w|th|n us a ru|o ot thumb: don't mato w|th thoso w|th whom you'vo grown up bocauso thoy aro vory
||ko|y your s|b||ngs and aro thus too gonot|ca||y s|m||ar.
0
Aga|n, wo don't mako gonot|c ca|cu|at|ons. latura| so|oct|on
d|d tho ca|cu|at|ng tor us and ondowod us w|th omot|ons, |n th|s caso |ncost d|sgust. Our bra|ns aro dovo|opmonta||y
sons|t|vo to torm|ng |ncost pattorn|c|t|os, and that happons ovon w|th poop|o wo grow up w|th who aro stops|b||ngs or
othors not gonot|ca||y ro|atod to us. 1h|s |s a 1ypo l orror, a ta|so pos|t|vo, and |t ovo|vod bocauso |n our la|oo||th|c
past tho othor poop|o |n our ch||dhood homos woro most ||ko|y b|ood ro|at|vos.
ln h|s stud|os ot horr|ng gu||s, l|ko 1|nborgon obsorvod that whon tho ch|ck porco|vod tho mothor gu||'s yo||ow boak
w|th a rod dot, |t prompt|y bogan pock|ng at |t, wh|ch tr|ggorod tho mothor to rogurg|tato somo tood tor hor ch|ck to oat.
37
|urthor oxpor|monta| stud|os ot th|s phonomonon rovoa|od that yo||ow b|||s w|th a rod dot roco|vo moro than throo
t|mos as many pocks trom hatch||ngs ovor un|torm|y yo||ow boaks w|th no rod dots. 1|nborgon tound that |so|atod
hand-roarod b|rds wou|d a|so somot|mos pock at chorr|os or tho rod bottoms ot tonn|s shoos. 1h|s suggosts that
oxtromo|y young b|rds havo an un|oarnod protoronco tor tho co|or rod, ospoc|a||y whon p|acod on a boak. (3oo t|guro
2.) 1|nborgon cod|t|od th|s soquonco as to||ows: a slgo stlmo|os tr|ggors an loooto to|ooslog mocboolsm |n tho bra|n
that |oads to a lxoo octloo pottoto ot bohav|or, or 55-lRV-lAP. ln tho caso ot tho horr|ng gu|| ch|ck, tho rod dot |n
contrast w|th tho yo||ow boak ot |ts mothor actod as a s|gn st|mu|us that tr|ggorod an |nnato ro|oas|ng mochan|sm |n |ts
bra|n to do||vor a t|xod act|on pattorn ot pock|ng at tho rod dot. ln turn, tho ch|ck's pock|ng actod as a s|gn st|mu|us tor
tho mothor that tr|ggorod an |nnato ro|oas|ng mochan|sm |n |ts bra|n to do||vor a t|xod act|on pattorn ot tood
rogurg|tat|on.
10
Figuro 2. 1ho 55-|RN-FAP 5yatom ot Pattornicity
a. l|ko 1|nborgon d|scovorod that whon a horr|ng gu|| ch|ck soos |ts mothor gu||'s yo||ow boak w|th a rod dot, |t prompt|y bog|ns pock|ng at |t,
wh|ch causos tho mothor to rogurg|tato tood tor hor ch|ck to oat. 1h|s |s tho 3|gn 3t|mu|us (33)-lnnato lo|oas|ng Vochan|sm (llV)-||xod
Act|on lattorn (|Al) procoss. |lOV1O|l AlCOCK, ANlVAL BElAVlOR. ANEVOLU7lONARY APPROACl (3Ul0EllAl0, VA33.: 3llAUEl A33OClA1E3, 107b), l.
104. OllGllAllY AllEAlE0 ll llKO 1ll3ElGEl Al0 A. C. lEl0ECK , Ol 1|E 31lVUlU3 3l1UA1lOl lElEA3llG 1|E 3EGGllG lE3lOl3E ll 1|E lEWlY
|A1C|E0 |EllllGGUll C|lCK,' BElAVlOUR 8 (10b0): 1-80.
b. |urthor oxpor|monta| stud|os ot tho 33-llV-|Al pattorn|c|ty phonomonon rovoa|od that yo||ow b|||s w|th a rod dot roco|vo tour t|mos as many
pocks trom hatch||ngs ovor un|torm|y yo||ow boaks w|th no rod dot, and that somo b||| shapos act as suporst|mu||, tr|ggor|ng oxcoss|vo
bogg|ng. |lOV llKO 1ll3ElGEl Al0 A. C. lEl0ECK, BElAVlOUR 8 (10b0): 1-80. lEllll1E0 ll 1O|l AlCOCK, ANlVAL BElAVlOR. AN EVOLU7lONARY
APPROACl (3Ul0EllAl0, VA33.: 3llAUEl A33OClA1E3, 107b), l. 1b0.
FaciaI Rocognition Pattornicity
|aco rocogn|t|on |n humans |s anothor torm ot tho 33-llV-|Al systom ot pattorn|c|ty, and |t bog|ns short|y attor b|rth.
Whon an |ntant obsorvos tho coo|ng happy taco ot |ts mothor or tathor, tho taco acts as a s|gn st|mu|us that |n|t|atos
tho |nnato ro|oas|ng mochan|sm |n |ts bra|n to tr|ggor tho t|xod act|on pattorn ot sm|||ng back, thoroby sott|ng up a
symphony ot paront-ch||d star|ng and coo|ng and sm|||ng-and bond|ng attachmont. lt nood not ovon bo a roa| taco.
1wo b|ack dots on a cardboard cutout o||c|t a sm||o |n |ntants, a|though ono dot doos not, |nd|cat|ng that tho nowborn
bra|n |s procond|t|onod by ovo|ut|on to |ook tor and t|nd tho s|mp|o pattorn ot a taco roprosontod by two to tour data
po|nts: two oyos, a noso, and a mouth, wh|ch may ovon bo roprosontod as two dots, a vort|ca| ||no, and a hor|zonta|
38
||no.
|ac|a|-rocogn|t|on sottwaro was bu||t |nto our bra|ns by ovo|ut|on bocauso ot tho |mportanco ot tho taco |n
ostab||sh|ng and ma|nta|n|ng ro|at|onsh|ps, road|ng omot|ons, and dotorm|n|ng trust |n soc|a| |ntoract|ons. Wo not|co
tho wh|tos ot somoono's oyos tor d|roct|ona||ty ot tho|r gazo. Wo dotoct tho d||at|on ot anothor's pup||s as a s|gn ot
arousa| (angor, soxua|, or othorw|so). Wo scan othors' tacos tor omot|ona| |oakago: sadnoss, d|sgust, joy, surpr|so,
angor, and happ|noss. Wo subt|y not|co tho d|ttoronco botwoon a roa| and a tako sm||o |n tho upturn ot tho outor
oyo||ds tor tho gonu|no art|c|o. |acos aro |mportant to a soc|a| pr|mato spoc|os such as ourso|vos. 1h|s |s why wo aro
so |nc||nod to soo tacos |n random pattorns |n naturo: tho taco on Vars that |s an orodod mounta|n |s my tavor|to
oxamp|o, but thoro aro many othors. (3oo t|guro 8.)
1ho |ocat|on |n tho bra|n whoro tacos aro rocogn|zod and procossod has now boon ostab||shod by nourosc|ont|sts.
ln gonora|, |ns|do tho tompora| |obos ot tho bra|n (just abovo your oars) thoro |s a structuro ca||od tho oslotm gytos
that wo know |s act|vo|y |nvo|vod |n tac|a| rocogn|t|on bocauso damago to |t makos |t d|tt|cu|t or |mposs|b|o to
rocogn|zo tho taco ot somoono you know, ovon your own |n a m|rror! Voro spoc|t|ca||y, thoro aro two soparato noura|
pathways: ono tor procoss|ng tacos |n gonora| and anothor tor procoss|ng tac|a| charactor|st|cs |n part|cu|ar. 1h|s |s
dono through two d|ttoront typos ot nourons: |argo (mogoo) co||s that compr|so tho ro|at|vo|y rap|d-t|r|ng
mogooco||o|ot potbwoy that procossos |argo rocopt|vo t|o|ds and carr|os |ow-spat|a|-troquoncy (coarso-gra|nod data)
|ntormat|on (tho gonora| taco), and sma||or co||s that compr|so tho ro|at|vo|y s|owor t|r|ng potvoco||o|ot potbwoy that
procossos sma|| rocopt|vo t|o|ds and carr|os h|gh-spat|a|-troquoncy (t|no-gra|nod data) |ntormat|on (tac|a| dota||s such
as oyos, noso, and mouth).
|urthor, |t appoars that tho bra|n t|rst procossos tho g|oba| shapo ot a taco, such as tho gonora| out||no w|th two
oyos and a mouth, and thon procossos tho dota||s ot tac|a| toaturos, such as tho oyos, noso, and mouth. 1h|s |s why
whon you oxam|no tho ups|do-down photograph ot lros|dont Obama (|n t|guro 8) you rocogn|zo h|m |mmod|ato|y, but
|t you staro at |t awh||o you w||| soo that thoro |s somoth|ng odd about h|s oyos and mouth |n ono ot tho p|cturos. 1urn
tho book ups|do down and you w||| soo what |t |s. 1h|s |s tho ottoct ot your two d|ttoront tac|a|-rocogn|t|on notworks
oporat|ng at d|ttoront ratos and granu|ar|ty. ||rst thoro |s tho rap|d assossmont that |t |s a taco, and thon tho
rocogn|t|on that |t |s tho taco ot somoono you know, thon thoro |s tho procoss|ng ot tho dota||s ot that taco, wh|ch takos
a b|t |ongor. 1ho tormor happons qu|ck|y and unconsc|ous|y wh||o tho |attor happons s|ow|y and consc|ous|y.
11
1h|s d|ttoronco botwoon s|ow and rap|d procoss|ng ot |ntormat|on |s |ntorost|ng bocauso |n tho soarch tor tho
noura| corro|atos ot consc|ousnoss, most thoor|os ho|d that rap|d unconsc|ous procoss|ng happons botoro s|owor
consc|ous awaronoss. ln a tamous 108b study by nourosc|ont|st 3onjam|n l|bot, ho took EEG road|ngs ot subjocts
s|tt|ng |n tront ot a scroon |n wh|ch a dot was mov|ng about a c|rc|o (||ko tho socond hand on a c|ock taco). 1ho
subjocts woro askod to do two th|ngs: (1) noto tho pos|t|on ot tho dot on tho scroon whon thoy t|rst bocamo awaro ot
tho dos|ro to act, and (2) pross a button that a|so rocordod tho pos|t|on ot tho dot on tho scroon. 1ho d|ttoronco
botwoon 1 and 2 was two hundrod m||||soconds. 1hat |s, two-tonths ot a socond |apsod botwoon th|nk|ng about
pross|ng tho button and actua||y pross|ng tho button. 1ho EEG rocord|ngs tor oach tr|a| rovoa|od that tho bra|n act|v|ty
|nvo|vod |n tho |n|t|at|on ot tho act|on was pr|mar||y contorod |n tho socondary motor cortox, and that part ot tho bra|n
bocamo act|vo throo hundrod m||||soconds booto sobjocts topottoo tbolt ltst owotoooss o o cooscloos ooclsloo to
oct.
Figuro 8. Facoa Evorywhoro
1ho human taco |s so |mportant |n tho oxpross|on ot omot|ons that wo havo ovo|vod tac|a|-rocogn|t|on notworks |n
39
our bra|ns (soo dota||s |n tho toxt), to tho po|nt whoro wo soo tacos ovorywhoro wo |ook. |oro aro a tow
oxamp|os.
a. 1ho taco on Vars, or|g|na| gra|ny photograph trom 1070 Vlklog spacocratt m|ss|on. COUl1E3Y O| lA3A.
b. 1ho taco on Vars, c|osor dota||od photograph trom 2000 Vots 5otvoyot m|ss|on. COUl1E3Y O| lA3A.
c. 1ho happy taco on Vars. COUl1E3Y O| lA3A.
d. lnd|an ch|ot hoad or random cont|gurat|on ot h|||s and va||oys? Cont|gurat|on |s |n Cypross County, A|borta, Canada, southoast ot Ca|gary just
north ot tho U.3. bordor. 1urn tho book ups|do down to v|ow tho |mago trom a d|ttoront porspoct|vo or ontor tho coord|natos (+b0 0' 88.20,
-110 0' 48.82) |nto Goog|o Vaps and zoom |n on tho |mago and rotato |t yourso|t to soo tho taco pattorn appoar and d|sappoar. COUl1E3Y O|
GOOGlE VAl3.
o. Wh|ch ups|do-down photo ot lros|dont 3arack Obama |ooks odd? 1urn tho book ups|do down to t|nd out (soo tho toxt tor oxp|anat|on). Or|g|na|
|||us|on was d|scovorod by lotor 1hompson ot York Un|vors|ty and pub||shod |n 1080: lE1El 1|OVl3Ol, VAlGAlE1 1|A1C|El: AlEW lllU3lOl,'
PERCEP7lON 0, lO. 4 (1080): 488-84. 1|E O3AVAlllU3lOl VAY 3E |OUl0 A1 VlG|1Y Ol1lCAl lllU3lOl3: http://www.mo|||us|ons.com/2008/12/who-
says-wo-dont-havo-barack-obama.htm|.
1hat |s, tho awaronoss ot our |ntont|on to do somoth|ng tra||s tho |n|t|a| wavo ot bra|n act|v|ty assoc|atod w|th that
act|on by about throo hundrod m||||soconds-throo-tonths ot a socond |apsod botwoon tho bra|n mak|ng a cho|co and
our awaronoss ot tho cho|co. Add to th|s procoss|ng t|mo tho othor two-tonths ot a socond to act on tho cho|co, and |t
moans that a tu|| ha|t socond passos botwoon our bra|n's |ntont|on to do somoth|ng and our awaronoss ot tho actua|
act ot do|ng |t. 1ho noura| act|v|ty that procodos tho |ntont|on to act |s |naccoss|b|o to our consc|ous m|nd, so wo
oxpor|onco a sonso ot troo w|||. 3ut |t |s an |||us|on, causod by tho tact that wo cannot |dont|ty tho causo ot tho
awaronoss ot our |ntont|on to act.
12
1ogothor thoso stud|os show how doop|y |ngra|nod pattorn|c|ty |s |n our bra|ns,
hardw|rod |nto our unconsc|ous and gonorat|ng pattorns bonoath our awaronoss.
A t|na| oxamp|o |n our tac|a|-rocogn|t|on pattorn|c|ty |s tho now wo||-documontod tac|a| groot|ng tound |n noar|y
ovory human group around tho wor|d (oxcopt whoro |t |s cu|tura||y supprossod, as |n 1apan). Whon groot|ng ovor a
d|stanco poop|o sm||o and nod, and |t tr|ond|y thoy ra|so tho|r oyobrows |n a rap|d movomont tor approx|mato|y ono-
s|xth ot a socond. ln tho 1000s, tho Austr|an otho|og|st lronus E|b|-E|bosto|dt travorsod tho g|obo t||m|ng poop|o w|th
an |ngon|ous|y dov|sod camora oqu|ppod w|th an ang|o |ons, |n wh|ch tho camora appoarod to bo po|ntod |n ono
d|roct|on but tho t||m|ng was actua||y tak|ng p|aco at a n|noty-dogroo ang|o trom whoro |t was po|nt|ng. 1hus, tho tac|a|
oxpross|ons ot poop|o trom urban Europo to rura| lo|ynos|a woro unobtrus|vo|y moasurod' and |ator ana|yzod |n s|ow
mot|on. 1horo |s an |nnato pattorn ot groot|ng ovorywhoro |n tho wor|d that poop|o aro born undorstand|ng w|thout any
cu|tura| tra|n|ng. 1ho pattorn |s not just tor happy groot|ngs. E|b|-E|bosto|dt a|so rocordod romarkab|o s|m||ar|t|os
across rad|ca||y d|ttoront cu|turos |n othor omot|ona| oxpross|ons, such as angor, charactor|zod by opon|ng tho cornors
ot tho mouth, trown|ng, c|onch|ng tho t|sts, stamp|ng on tho ground, and ovon h|tt|ng at objocts.
18
E|b|-E|bosto|dt's
rosoarch has s|nco boon corroboratod by lau| Ekman, and togothor thoy havo prosontod a body ot uncontostab|o
ov|donco tor tho ovo|ut|onary or|g|ns ot tac|a| pattorn|c|t|os.
14
(3oo t|guro 4.)
Figuro 4. 1ho |nnato Pattorn ot Faco Crootinga Around tho WorId
1ho Austr|an otho|og|st lronus E|b|-E|bosto|dt travorsod tho g|obo t||m|ng poop|o w|th a h|ddon |ons as thoy
grootod ono anothor. |o d|scovorod that whon groot|ng ovor a d|stanco poop|o sm||o and nod, and |t tr|ond|y thoy
ra|so tho|r oyobrows |n a rap|d movomont tor approx|mato|y ono-s|xth ot a socond. 1h|s |s an oxamp|o ot |nnato
tac|a| pattorn|c|ty. |lOVllElU3 El3l-El3E3|El01, E7lOLOOY (lEW YOlK: |Ol1, lllE|Al1Al0 Wll31Ol), 1070.
Nimicking Pattorna
V|m|cry |s anothor torm ot pattorn|c|ty. ln tho|r papor on tho ovo|ut|on ot pattorn|c|ty d|scussod abovo, |ostor and
40
Kokko prosontod throo such oxamp|os: (1) prodators who norma||y avo|d oat|ng dangorous yo||ow and b|ack |nsocts
a|so avo|d harm|oss |nsocts w|th s|m||ar yo||ow and b|ack mark|ngs,
1b
(2) prodators ot snakos who norma||y avo|d
proy|ng upon po|sonous spoc|os a|so avo|d tho nonpo|sonous var|ot|os that m|m|c tho dangorous typos,
10
(8) s|ng|o-
co||od E. co|l (tound |n tho human gut) havo boon tound to sw|m toward a phys|o|og|ca||y |nort mothy|atod aspartato
bocauso thoy ovo|vod to d|gost tho phys|o|og|ca||y v|ab|o truo aspartato.
17
ln othor words, thoso organ|sms tormod
moan|ngtu| assoc|at|ons botwoon st|mu|| (v|sua|, tasto) and tho|r ottocts (dangorous, po|sonous) bocauso such
assoc|at|ons aro v|ta| to surv|va|, as such, tho ab|||ty to mako such assoc|at|ons was so|octod tor and cou|d thorotoro
bo oxp|o|tod by othor organ|sms by tr|ck|ng tho systom.
What happons w|th m|m|cry, as |n tho t|rst oxamp|o, |s that tho or|g|na| assoc|at|on botwoon (A) yo||ow and b|ack
|nsocts and (3) dangorous |s that nondangorous |nsocts rosomb||ng tho dangorous onos w||| a|so bo avo|dod by
prodators and thus aro moro ||ko|y to surv|vo and pass on tho gonos tor co|orat|on that moro c|oso|y match tho
dangorous spoc|os. 1ho socond oxamp|o |||ustratos tho samo pr|nc|p|o ot m|m|cry and oxp|o|tat|on ot an A-3
assoc|at|on |n wh|ch ovo|ut|on tavorod thoso nonpo|sonous snakos that rosomb|od tho po|sonous onos. lndood, an
ovo|ut|onary |ag to||ow|ng a changod onv|ronmont prov|dos anothor routo to suporst|t|ous bohav|ours,' |ostor and
Kokko oxp|a|nod, whoroby an organ|sm assoc|atos two ovonts that onco woro, but aro no |ongor causa||y ro|atod, o.g.
a prodator goos oxt|nct but tho proy st||| h|dos at n|ght.'
1ho th|rd oxamp|o ot tho E. co|l sw|mm|ng toward tho tasto ot a substanco chom|ca||y s|m||ar to aspartato bocauso
ot |ts or|g|na| protoronco tor tho roa| th|ng has obv|ous para||o|s w|th tho human onjoymont ot art|t|c|a| swootonors as
wo|| as w|th our modorn prob|om ot obos|ty. ln tho natura| onv|ronmont, (A) swoot and r|ch toods aro strong|y
assoc|atod w|th (3) nutr|t|ous and raro. 1horotoro, wo grav|tato to any and a|| toods that aro swoot and r|ch, and
bocauso thoy woro onco raro wo havo no sat|at|on notwork |n tho bra|n that to||s us to shut ott tho hungor mochan|sm,
so wo oat as much as wo can ot thom. On tho othor ond ot tho tasto spoctrum, thoro |s tho wo||-known tasto avors|on
ottoct-ono-tr|a| |oarn|ng-whoro tho pa|r|ng ot a tood or dr|nk w|th sovoro nausoa and vom|t|ng otton rosu|ts |n a |ong-
torm avors|on tor that tood or dr|nk. ln my caso |t was a graduato schoo| pa|r|ng ot (A) too much choap rod w|no w|th
(3) a n|ght ot vom|t|ng that mado |t d|tt|cu|t tor mo tor docados to onjoy rod w|nos, ovon oxpons|vo |abo|s. 1ho
ovo|ut|onary s|gn|t|canco |s c|oar: toods that can k||| you (but don't) shou|d novor bo tr|od a socond t|mo, so ono-tr|a|
|oarn|ng ovo|vod as an |mportant adaptat|on.
5uornormaI Pattornicitioa
5opotootmo| stlmo|l comb|no tho pr|nc|p|os ot m|m|cry and tho 33-llV-|Al systom and aro anothor oxamp|o ot an
|nnato torm ot pattorn|c|ty. l|ko 1|nborgon, tor oxamp|o, d|scovorod that gu|| ch|cks pock ovon moro torvont|y at a tako
b||| that |s |ongor and narrowor than tho roa| boak ot tho|r mothor. |o a|so stud|od a spoc|os ot b|rd that norma||y nosts
upon sma|| pa|o b|uo oggs w|th gray spocks on thom and tound that ho cou|d got thom to protor s|tt|ng on g|ant br|ght
b|uo oggs spock|od w|th b|ack po|ka dots. lt's a torm ot tr|ck|ng a bra|n proprogrammod by ovo|ut|on to oxpoct corta|n
pattorns by oxpos|ng |t to oxaggoratod torms ot tho samo.
18
|arvard Un|vors|ty ovo|ut|onary psycho|og|st 0o|rdro 3arrott, |n hor 2010 book 5opotootmo| 5tlmo|l, documontod
numorous |nstancos ot anc|ont |nnato human pattorn|c|t|os h|jackod by tho modorn wor|d.
10
ln add|t|on to tho pattorn ot
swoot and r|ch toods |oad|ng to obos|ty mont|onod abovo, 3arrott out||nod how modorn|ty has commandoorod our
anc|ont propons|t|os tor pattorns ot soxua| protoroncos, |oad|ng to oxpoctat|ons ot womon's tacos and t|guros to
match tho supornorma| st|mu|| soon |n portoct (and portoct|y mod|t|od) supormodo|s w|th |ong |ogs, hourg|ass t|guros,
0.7 wa|st-to-h|p rat|os, on|argod broasts, portoct|y symmotr|ca| tacos w|th b|om|sh-troo comp|ox|ons, tu|| ||ps, |argo
a||ur|ng oyos w|th d||atod pup||s, and tu||, th|ck hoads ot ha|r. ln tho onv|ronmont ot our la|oo||th|c ancostors, tho
norma|' d|mons|ons ot thoso phys|ca| charactor|st|cs woro prox|os tor gonot|c hoa|th, and thus thoro was a natura|
so|oct|on tor omot|ona| protoronco tor womon who approx|matod such phys|ca||ty. l|ko tood that |s nutr|t|ona||y r|ch
and onv|ronmonta||y raro, such phys|ca| charactor|st|cs aro both strong|y dos|rod and w|thout sat|at|on, so our bra|ns
can bo tr|ckod |nto too||ng that moro |s bottor.
1oday, ot courso, no ono wa|ks |nto a n|ghtc|ub w|th ca||pors to moasuro wa|st-to-h|p rat|os or tac|a| symmotr|os.
Evo|ut|on has dono tho moasur|ng tor us, |oav|ng us w|th such ossont|a| omot|ons as soxua| dos|ro. ln tho 33-llV-
|Al systom, such norma|' toaturos act as a s|gn st|mu|us to |n|t|ato tho |nnato ro|oas|ng mochan|sm |n tho bra|n ot
arousa| that |oads to tho t|xod act|on pattorn ot so||c|t|ng contact tor sox. 1hus, supornorma|' st|mu||, such as s|||cono-
onhancod broasts, ||p |mp|ants, makoup to onhanco tho oyos, rougo to b|ush tho chooks, h|gh hoo|s to oxtond tho |ogs,
and tho ||ko, a|| tr|ggor an ovon strongor omot|ona| and bohav|ora| rosponso.
What womon protor |n mon |s just as roa| and natura|, ot courso: womon aro attractod to mon who aro ta||or than
thom, w|th narrow wa|sts and broad shou|dors, |oan and muscu|ar bu||ds, symmotr|ca| tacos and c|oar comp|ox|ons,
41
and strong jaws and ch|ns. 1hoso aro a|| charactor|st|cs ro|atod to a good ba|anco ot tostostorono and othor
hormonos, and thoy sorvo as prox|os tor gonot|c hoa|th |n torms ot so|oct|ng a mato w|th whom to havo ch||dron.
3ocauso soxua||ty |s so much moro v|sua||y attondod to by mon, howovor, pornography as a supornorma| st|mu|us |s
a|most ont|ro|y a guy th|ng. lorn tor womon-actua||y tho t|t|o ot a parody |n wh|ch tu||y c|othod mon aro portorm|ng
domost|c choros (l just vacuumod tho who|o houso!')-|s ma|n|y tound |n soap oporas, ch|ck t||cks, and ospoc|a||y
romanco novo|s |n wh|ch tho p|ot concorns tho horo|no t|nd|ng and captur|ng tho hoart ot tho ono r|ght man,' wroto
3arrott. 3ox may bo oxp||c|t, |mp||od, or not dost|nod to occur unt|| attor a proposa| ot marr|ago, wh|ch const|tutos tho
ond ot tho book.'
20
1horo aro many othor torms ot proprogrammod pattorn|c|t|os |n supornorma| st|mu||. 1horo |s, tor oxamp|o, our
natura| torr|tor|a| |mporat|vo,' |n wh|ch wo havo a strong dos|ro to protoct what |s ours, ospoc|a||y ||tora| torr|tory |n tho
torm ot |and, commun|ty, and nat|on. 1h|s, too, has boon usurpod by modorn|ty. As 3arrott notos, thoro |s a
compo|||ng |nst|nct to prov|do tor ono's ottspr|ng, th|s |s pract|ca||y synonymous w|th whoso gonos w||| surv|vo.' ln tho
modorn wor|d, howovor, torr|tory has takon on supornorma| d|mons|ons. low tho powortu| and r|ch can d|roct thoso
|nst|ncts at supornorma| tam||y ostatos, trust tunds that onduro tor gonorat|ons, and, |n tho caso ot monarch|os,
pormanont ru|orsh|p tor tho tam||y.'
21
Vost torr|tor|a| an|ma|s roso|vo |and d|sputos w|th throat gosturos, voca| cr|os, and-|t worso comos to worst-a
br|ot phys|ca| attack |n wh|ch somoono may actua||y got pushod, shovod, or ovon b|tton. ln tact, |n |aboratory oyo
gazo' oxpor|monts, pr|mato|og|sts tr|ggorod ma|o rhosus monkoys to mako throaton|ng gosturos and d|sp|ays, and
ovon aggross|vo mot|ons toward thom, by s|mp|y star|ng at tho monkoys w|th an opon mouth. Onco aga|n roturn|ng to
tho 33-llV-|Al systom, tho c|osod oyo||d and opon mouth sorvo as a s|gn st|mu|us to sot ott an |nnato ro|oas|ng
mochan|sm ot angor and thoroby ro|oaso tho t|xod act|on pattorn ot aggross|on or roc|proca| throat d|sp|ay. ln th|s
rosoarch wo a|so t|nd d|roct ov|donco tor tho llV |n s|ng|o-co|| rocord|ng trom tho bra|n stom ot monkoys, |n wh|ch
thoro |s a s|gn|t|cant |ncroaso |n nourona| act|v|ty whon tho oxpor|montor staros at tho monkoy, tho broak|ng ot tho
gazo docroasos nourona| act|v|ty, a|ong w|th aggross|vo rosponsos.
22
Pattornicity and ControI
lattorn|c|t|os do not occur random|y but aro |nstoad ro|atod to tho contoxt and onv|ronmont ot tho organ|sm, to what
oxtont |t bo||ovos that |t |s |n contro| ot |ts onv|ronmont. lsycho|og|sts ca|| th|s |ocos o cootto|. loop|o who rato h|gh on
lototoo| |ocus ot contro| tond to bo||ovo that thoy mako th|ngs happon and that thoy aro |n contro| ot tho|r
c|rcumstancos, whoroas poop|o who scoro h|gh on oxtotoo| |ocus ot contro| tond to th|nk that c|rcumstancos aro
boyond tho|r contro| and that th|ngs just happon to thom.
28
1ho th|nk|ng horo |s that hav|ng a h|gh |ntorna| |ocus ot
contro| |oads you to bo moro cont|dont |n your porsona| judgmont, moro skopt|ca| ot outs|do author|t|os and sourcos ot
|ntormat|on, and havo a |owor tondoncy to contorm to oxtorna| |nt|uoncos. ln tact, poop|o who cons|dor thomso|vos
skopt|cs' about tho paranorma| and supornatura| tond to scoro h|gh |n lototoo| |ocos o cootto|, whoroas so|t-roportod
bo||ovors' |n E3l, sp|r|tua||sm, ro|ncarnat|on, and myst|ca| oxpor|oncos |n gonora| tond to rato h|gh |n oxtotoo| |ocos
o cootto|.
24
locus ot contro| |s a|so mod|atod by |ovo|s ot corta|nty or uncorta|nty |n phys|ca| and soc|a| onv|ronmonts. 3ron|s|aw
Va||nowsk|'s tamous stud|os ot suporst|t|ons among tho 1robr|and ls|andors |n tho 3outh lac|t|c domonstratod that as
tho |ovo| ot uncorta|nty |n tho onv|ronmont |ncroasos so, too, doos tho |ovo| ot suporst|t|ous bohav|or. Va||nowsk| notod
th|s |n part|cu|ar among tho 1robr|and t|shormon-tho tarthor out to soa thoy sa||od tho moro uncorta|n tho cond|t|ons
grow, a|ong w|th tho uncorta|nty ot succoss at a catch. 1ho|r |ovo|s ot suporst|t|ous r|tua|s roso w|th tho|r |ovo|s ot
uncorta|nty. Wo t|nd mag|c whorovor tho o|omonts ot chanco and acc|dont, and tho omot|ona| p|ay botwoon hopo and
toar havo a w|do and oxtons|vo rango,' Va||nowsk| oxp|a|nod. Wo do not t|nd mag|c whorovor tho pursu|t |s corta|n,
ro||ab|o, and wo|| undor tho contro| ot rat|ona| mothods and tochno|og|ca| procossos. |urthor, wo t|nd mag|c whoro tho
o|omont ot dangor |s consp|cuous.'
2b
l havo mado a s|m||ar obsorvat|on on suporst|t|ons among ath|otos, most notab|y basoba|| p|ayors. As t|o|dors
succood|ng ovor 00 porcont ot tho t|mo, thoy oxh|b|t a|most no suporst|t|ous r|tua|s, but whon thoy p|ck up a bat and go
to tho p|ato-whoro thoy aro suro to ta|| at |oast sovon out ot ton t|mos-thoy suddon|y bocomo mag|ca| th|nkors
omp|oy|ng a|| mannor ot b|zarro r|tua||st|c bohav|ors |n ordor to copo w|th tho uncorta|nty.
20
l|sk and contro| woro tostod |n a 1077 study that tound that |t you show parachuto jumpors about to |oap out ot a
p|ano a photograph|c roprosontat|on ot no|so (such as tho snow' on a to|ov|s|on scroon) thoy aro tar moro ||ko|y to
soo a nonox|stont omboddod t|guro than |t you prosontod |t to thom oar||or. Uncorta|nty makos poop|o anx|ous, and
anx|oty |s ro|atod to mag|ca| th|nk|ng. A 1004 study, tor oxamp|o, showod that anx|ous t|rst-yoar V3A studonts aro tar
moro consp|rator|a||y m|ndod than tho|r moro socuro socond-yoar co||oaguos. Evon such baso omot|ons as hungor
42
can |nt|uonco your porcoptua| pattorn|c|ty. A 1042 study tound that whon amb|guous |magos aro shown to both hungry
and sat|atod poop|o, tho tormor aro moro ||ko|y to soo tood. And apropos tho curront rocoss|on, oconom|c
onv|ronmonts may |oad to m|sporcopt|ons whoro, |n ono oxpor|mont, ch||dron trom poor no|ghborhoods and work|ng-
c|ass tam|||os tond to ovorost|mato tho s|zo ot co|ns comparod to tho ost|matos mado by ch||dron trom woa|thy
no|ghborhoods and tam|||os.
27
1ho ro|at|onsh|p botwoon porsona||ty, bo||ot, and pattorn|c|ty was oxp|orod by oxpor|monta| psycho|og|st 3usan
3|ackmoro, tamous tor hor dramat|c rovorsa| trom bo||ovor to skopt|c ot tho paranorma| attor yoars ot conduct|ng
rosoarch try|ng to t|nd tho o|us|vo ottocts ot E3l. What sho d|scovorod was that poop|o who bo||ovo |n E3l tond to
|ook at data sots and soo ov|donco ot tho paranorma|, whoroas skopt|cs do not. ln ono study, tor oxamp|o, 3|ackmoro
and hor co||oaguos had subjocts comp|oto a paranorma| bo||ot sca|o, thon prosontod thom w|th photographs ot
common objocts w|th vary|ng dogroos ot dogonorat|on |nto no|so (0 porcont, 20 porcont, b0 porcont, and 70 porcont)
and askod thom |t thoy cou|d rocogn|zo and |dont|ty oach objoct. 1ho rosu|ts rovoa|od that bo||ovors woro s|gn|t|cant|y
moro ||ko|y than nonbo||ovors to soo objocts |n tho no|s|ost |magos but to m|s|dont|ty thom. (3oo t|guro b.)
28
ln othor
words, thoy saw moro pattorns but mado moro 1ypo l ta|so-pos|t|vo orrors.
A s|m||ar ottoct was tound |n an oxpor|mont |n wh|ch subjocts woro askod to dotorm|no tho probab|||ty ot tho ro|| ot a
d|o. 1ry |t yourso|t. lmag|no that you havo a d|o |n your hand that you ro|| throo consocut|vo t|mos and noto tho outcomo.
Wh|ch ot tho to||ow|ng soquoncos |s moro ||ko|y: 2-2-2 or b-1-8? Vost poop|o say that tho socond outcomo |s moro
||ko|y than tho t|rst, bocauso |t sooms ||ko a stroak ot 2s |s moro |mprobab|o. ln tact, both aro oqua||y ||ko|y bocauso
d|co havo no momory, and tor oach ro|| a 2 |s as ||ko|y to como up as a b or 1 or 8. 1h|s psycho|og|ca| ottoct |s ca||od
topotltloo ovoloooco and |t attocts bo||ovors and skopt|cs d|ttoront|y. Whon bo||ovors |n E3l aro g|von th|s cho|co
thoy tond to rato b-1-8-typo soquoncos as s|gn|t|cant|y moro probab|o than skopt|cs do. 1hat |s, thoy t|nd groator
moan|ng |n randomnoss.
20
Figuro 5. Pattornicity and BoIiot
lsycho|og|st 3usan 3|ackmoro d|scovorod that bo||ovors |n E3l and othor torms ot tho paranorma| woro moro
||ko|y to soo an objoct |n tho max|ma||y dogradod |mago |n tho uppor |ott cornor than woro skopt|cs ot tho
paranorma|, but tho bo||ovors mado moro |dont|t|cat|on m|stakos. lllU31lA1lOl3 COUl1E3Y O| 3U3Al 3lACKVOlE.
An ovon moro d|roct ||nk botwoon pattorn|c|ty and porco|vod |ovo|s ot contro| ovor tho onv|ronmont was
domonstratod |n a 2008 study doscr|pt|vo|y t|t|od lack|ng Contro| lncroasos l||usory lattorn lorcopt|on,' by
managomont rosoarchors 1onn|tor Wh|tson at tho Un|vors|ty ot 1oxas-Aust|n and Adam Ga||nsky trom lorthwostorn
Un|vors|ty, who stud|od how psycho|og|ca| statos aro attoctod by corporato onv|ronmonts. 0ot|n|ng an |||usory pattorn
porcopt|on' (a torm ot pattorn|c|ty) as tho |dont|t|cat|on ot a cohoront and moan|ngtu| |ntorro|at|onsh|p among a sot ot
random or unro|atod st|mu|| (such as tho tondoncy to porco|vo ta|so corro|at|ons, soo |mag|nary t|guros, torm
suporst|t|ous r|tua|s, and ombraco consp|racy bo||ots, among othors),' tho rosoarchors conductod s|x oxpor|monts to
tost tho thos|s that whon |nd|v|dua|s aro unab|o to ga|n a sonso ot contro| objoct|vo|y, thoy w||| try to ga|n |t
porcoptua||y.'
80
Why do poop|o do th|s? 3ocauso,' Wh|tson oxp|a|nod to mo as sho tr|od to ga|n a sonso ot contro| |n
a qu|ot cornor ot a busy a|rport jott|ng botwoon contoroncos, too||ngs ot contro| aro ossont|a| tor our wo||-bo|ng-wo
th|nk c|oaror and mako bottor doc|s|ons whon wo too| wo aro |n contro|. lack|ng contro| |s h|gh|y avors|vo, and ono
tundamonta| way wo can bo|stor our sonso ot contro| |s to undorstand what's go|ng on. 3o wo |nst|nct|vo|y sook out
pattorns to roga|n contro|-ovon |t thoso pattorns aro |||usory.'
Wh|tson and Ga||nsky sat subjocts botoro a computor scroon, to|||ng ono group thoy must guoss wh|ch ot two
43
|magos ombod|od an undor|y|ng concopt tho computor had so|octod. |or oxamp|o, thoy m|ght soo a cap|ta| A and a
|oworcaso t, co|orod, undor||nod, or surroundod by a c|rc|o or squaro. 3ubjocts wou|d thon guoss at an undor|y|ng
concopt, such as a|| cap|ta| As aro rod. 1horo was no actua| undor|y|ng concopt-tho computor was programmod to
random|y to|| tho subjocts thoy woro o|thor corroct' or |ncorroct.' Consoquont|y, thoy dovo|opod a sonso ot |ack|ng
contro|. Anothor group d|d not roco|vo random|zod toodback and so to|t moro |n contro|. ln tho socond part ot tho
oxpor|mont subjocts woro shown twonty-tour snowy' photographs, ha|t ot wh|ch conta|nod h|ddon |magos such as a
hand, horsos, a cha|r, or tho p|anot 3aturn, whoroas tho othor ha|t just cons|stod ot gra|ny random dots. (3oo t|guro 0
tor an oxamp|o ot 3aturn dots vorsus random dots.) A|though noar|y ovory subjoct corroct|y |dont|t|od tho h|ddon
t|guros, subjocts |n tho |ack-ot-contro| group tound moro pattorns |n tho photographs that had no omboddod |magos
comparod to subjocts |n tho baso||no group.
ln a socond oxpor|mont, Wh|tson and Ga||nsky had subjocts v|v|d|y roca|| an oxpor|onco |n wh|ch thoy o|thor had tu||
contro| or |ackod contro| ovor a s|tuat|on. 1ho subjocts thon road stor|os |n wh|ch outcomos ot s|tuat|ons tor tho
charactors woro procodod by unconnoctod and suporst|t|ous bohav|ors (such as toot stomp|ng botoro ontor|ng a
moot|ng) that |od to succoss (such as hav|ng ono's |doa approvod |n tho moot|ng). 1ho subjocts woro thon askod
whothor thoy thought tho charactors' bohav|or was ro|atod to tho outcomo. 1hoso who had roca||od an oxpor|onco |n
wh|ch thoy |ackod contro| porco|vod a s|gn|t|cant|y groator connoct|on botwoon tho two unro|atod ovonts than thoso
who roca||od an oxpor|onco |n wh|ch thoy to|t |n contro|. lntorost|ng|y, tho |ow-contro| subjocts who road a story about
an omp|oyoo who ta||od to roco|vo a promot|on tondod to bo||ovo that a boh|nd-tho-sconos consp|racy was tho causo.
Figuro 0. Find tho Eiddon Pattorn
Vost poop|o can soo tho h|ddon t|guro ot 3aturn |n tho photograph on tho |ott. Can you p|ck out tho h|ddon t|guro
|n tho photograph on tho r|ght? lt not, thon you aro probab|y too||ng |n contro| ot your ||to bocauso subjocts who aro
put |nto a s|tuat|on whoro thoy too| out ot contro| aro moro ||ko|y to soo a pattorn |n th|s random sor|os ot dots.
lllU31lA1lOl3 COUl1E3Y O| 1Elll|El W|l13Ol.
Cons|dor 0/11,' Wh|tson suggostod whon l mont|onod tho t|mo spont by skopt|cs |n dobunk|ng consp|racy
thoor|os. 1horo wo saw an unstab|o onv|ronmont causod by tho torror|st attacks that |od d|roct|y and a|most |nstant|y
to tho gonorat|on ot h|ddon consp|racy thoor|os.' 3ut 0/11 wos a consp|racy, l rom|ndod hor, on|y |t was a consp|racy
by n|notoon mombors ot a|-Oaoda to t|y p|anos |nto bu||d|ngs, not an |ns|do job' by tho 3ush adm|n|strat|on. What's
tho d|ttoronco botwoon thoso two consp|rac|os? lt may bo that ovon though wo woro to|d |mmod|ato|y that |t was a|-
Oaoda, thoro was a torr|b|o uncorta|nty about tho tuturo, a sonso ot |oss ot contro|,' Wh|tson conjocturod, |oad|ng to
tho soarch tor h|ddon pattorns, wh|ch tho 0/11 'truthors' th|nk thoy tound.'
Vaybo. l suspoct th|s |s part|a||y truo, but thoro |s anothor tactor that l ca|| ogootlclty that comos |nto p|ay w|th
consp|racy thoor|os that l w||| oxp|oro |n tho noxt chaptor. |or now, koop |n m|nd that rosoarch cons|stont|y shows that
onco poop|o havo ostab||shod what thoy th|nk |s tho causo ot an ovont thoy just obsorvod-(|n othor words, thoy havo
tormod a ||nk botwoon A and 3)-thoy w||| thon cont|nuo to gathor |ntormat|on to support that causa| ||nk ovor othor
poss|b|||t|os-|t thoy can ovon th|nk ot a|tornat|vos onco tho t|rst causa| ||nk |s ostab||shod, wh|ch thoy usua||y cannot.
lntorost|ng|y, |t appoars that a nogat|vo ovont, such as a sport|ng gamo |oss or a ta||uro to ach|ovo a goa|, producos
ovon tastor causa| ||nks and support tor thoso ||nks, ospoc|a||y |t |t |s an unoxpoctod ovont. Obsorvors (ospoc|a||y tans)
produco moro causa| oxp|anat|ons whon a w|nn|ng toam unoxpoctod|y |osos to a vast|y |ntor|or opponont (an upsot'
|oss), or v|co vorsa, than |t tho ovont wont as oxpoctod.
81
As a ||to|ong obsorvor ot tho usua||y succosstu| los Ango|os
lakors, tor oxamp|o, l can attost to tho tact that |ong w|nn|ng stroaks aro notchod up to such s|mp|o oxp|anat|ons as
smooth toamwork, hard work, and tho natura| ta|ont ot tho p|ayors, whoroas tho occas|ona| |oss gonoratos dozons ot
co|umn |nchos and hours ot rad|o ta|k t|mo |n tho ond|oss soarch tor th|s, that, and tho othor causo-Kobo and 3haq's
toud, lh||'s bad back, payro|| d|sputos, too much travo|, too many |o||ywood d|stract|ons, and so on, anyth|ng but tho
tact that tho othor toam just outp|ayod thom.
1ho most |ntr|gu|ng and pract|ca| t|nd|ng by Wh|tson and Ga||nsky camo whon thoy tostod tho ro|at|onsh|p botwoon
|ack ot contro| and pattorn porcopt|on |n tho stock markot. Contro| was man|pu|atod by doscr|b|ng tho markot
onv|ronmont as o|thor vo|at||o (ono group ot subjocts was shown a hoad||no that road lough 3oas Ahoad tor
44
lnvostors' w|th a short paragraph doscr|pt|on that |nc|udod tho ||no that |nvost|ng |n tho stock markot was ||ko wa|k|ng
through a m|not|o|d') or stab|o (tho othor group was shown a hoad||no that road 3mooth 3a|||ng Ahoad tor lnvostors'
w|th a short paragraph doscr|pt|on that |nc|udod tho ||no that |nvost|ng |n tho stock markot was ||ko wa|k|ng through a
t|o|d ot t|owors'). 3ubjocts woro thon oxposod to uncorro|atod sots ot |ntormat|on about stocks, thoy road a sor|os ot
twonty-tour statomonts about tho t|nancos ot two compan|os, somo pos|t|vo and somo nogat|vo. Company A had
s|xtoon pos|t|vo and o|ght nogat|vo statomonts wh||o Company 3 had o|ght pos|t|vo and tour nogat|vo statomonts.
Evon though tho rat|o ot pos|t|vo to nogat|vo statomonts was tho samo tor both compan|os (2:1), subjocts oxposod to
tho vo|at||o markot' cond|t|on (lough 3oas Ahoad') woro s|gn|t|cant|y |oss ||ko|y to |nvost |n Company 3 comparod
to thoso subjocts oxposod to tho stab|o markot' cond|t|on (3mooth 3a|||ng Ahoad'). Why? 3ocauso thoso subjocts
|n tho vo|at||o markot' cond|t|on romomborod moro nogat|vo statomonts mado about Company 3, whoroas thoso |n
tho stab|o markot' cond|t|on accurato|y romomborod tho numbor ot nogat|vo statomonts. Why shou|d th|s bo?
1h|s |s tho rosu|t ot somoth|ng ca||od l||osoty cotto|otloo, tho porcopt|on ot a causa| ro|at|onsh|p botwoon two sots
ot var|ab|os whoro nono ox|sts, or tho ovorost|mat|on ot a connoct|on botwoon two var|ab|os. 1ho |||usory corro|at|on
ottoct |s strongost whon poop|o torm ta|so assoc|at|ons botwoon (X) momborsh|p |n a stat|st|ca||y sma|| group and (Y)
raro and usua||y nogat|vo tra|ts or bohav|ors. 1r|v|a||y, tor oxamp|o, poop|o tond to roca|| tho days whon thoy (X)
washod tho|r car and (Y) |t ra|nod, nontr|v|a||y, wh|to Amor|cans typ|ca||y ovorost|mato tho rato that (X) Atr|can
Amor|cans aro (Y) arrostod.
82
What can wo do about |||usory corro|at|on and tho broador prob|om ot |||usory pattorn dotoct|on? ln tho|r t|na|
oxpor|mont, Wh|tson and Ga||nsky croatod a sonso ot |ack|ng contro| |n two groups ot subjocts, thon askod ono group
to contomp|ato and att|rm tho|r most |mportant va|uos |n ||to-a provon tochn|quo tor roduc|ng |oarnod ho|p|ossnoss.
1ho rosoarchors thon prosontod thoso samo snowy p|cturos, t|nd|ng that thoso who |ackod contro| but had no
opportun|ty tor so|t-att|rmat|on saw moro nonox|stont pattorns than d|d thoso |n tho so|t-att|rmat|on cond|t|on.
lntorost|ng|y, Wh|tson contossod to mo, sho or|g|na||y dov|sod th|s rosoarch protoco| whon sho was go|ng through a
part|cu|ar|y strosstu| t|mo |n hor ||to and too||ng rathor out ot contro| horso|t. Ca|| |t thorapout|c sc|onco. lt sooms to
work. 3otoro undorgo|ng surgory,' Wh|tson rot|octod, poop|o g|von dota||s about what |s go|ng to happon havo |oss
anx|oty and may ovon rocovor tastor. Know|odgo |s anothor torm ot contro|.' 1h|s |s rom|n|scont ot a 1070 study by
|arvard psycho|og|st E||on langor and hor co||oaguo 1ud|th lod|n, now pros|dont ot tho lockoto||or |oundat|on, |n a
low Eng|and nurs|ng homo. los|donts woro g|von p|ants and tho opportun|ty to soo wook|y t||ms but w|th somo
var|at|on ot contro|. los|donts on tho tourth t|oor, who woro |n chargo ot wator|ng tho p|ants and cou|d chooso tho n|ght
ot tho wook thoy wantod to v|ow tho t||m, ||vod |ongor and hoa|th|or ||vos than tho othor ros|donts, ovon thoso g|von
p|ants that woro watorod by tho statt. lt was tho sonso ot contro| that had tho apparont ottoct on hoa|th and wo||-bo|ng.
88
lorhaps th|s |s what vo|ta|ro moant at tho ond ot Coooloo, |n tho t|t|o charactor's rojo|ndor to 0r. lang|oss's
proc|amat|on that a|| ovonts aro ||nkod up |n th|s bost ot a|| poss|b|o wor|ds': 1|s wo|| sa|d,' rop||od Cand|do, but wo
must cu|t|vato our gardons.'
1ho Powor and PoriIa ot Pattornicity
Occas|ona||y l am cha||ongod about tho harm ot poop|o ombrac|ng suporst|t|ons, a|ong tho ||nos ot: Oh, como on,
3hormor, |ot poop|o havo tho|r do|us|ons. What's tho harm?' 3ott|ng as|do tor tho momont tho p|aytu| road|ng ot ono's
astro|ogy chart |n tho nowspapor or ono's tortuno |n an attor-d|nnor cook|o, my gonora| answor |s that |t |s bottor to ||vo
|n a roa| wor|d than a tantasy wor|d. 1ho harm, |n tact, can bo doad|y sor|ous whon our pattorn|c|t|os aro ot tho 1ypo l
ta|so-pos|t|vo typo.
What's tho harm? Ask tho v|ct|ms ot 1ohn latr|ck 3odo||, tho gunman who attackod guards at tho ontranco ot tho
lontagon |n Varch 2010, who now appoars to havo boon a r|ght-w|ng oxtrom|st and 0/11 truthor.' ln an lntornot
post|ng, ho sa|d that ho |ntondod to oxposo tho truth boh|nd tho 0/11 domo||t|ons.' Apparont|y tho do|us|ona| 3odo||
|ntondod to shoot h|s way |nto tho lontagon to t|nd out what roa||y happonod on 0/11. 0oath by consp|racy.
0oath by thoory prov|dos anothor caso |n po|nt. ln Apr|| 2000, a ton-yoar-o|d g|r| namod Candaco lowmakor
bogan troatmont tor somoth|ng ca||od ottocbmoot olsotoot (A0). Candaco's adopt|vo mothor ot tour yoars, 1oano
lowmakor, was hav|ng troub|o hand||ng what sho cons|dorod to bo Candaco's d|sc|p||nary prob|oms. Whon 1oano
sought ho|p trom a thorap|st att|||atod w|th tho so-ca||od Assoc|at|on tor 1roatmont and 1ra|n|ng |n tho Attachmont ot
Ch||dron,
84
sho was to|d Candaco noodod attachmont thorapy (A1), basod on tho thoory that |t a norma| attachmont |s
not tormod dur|ng tho cr|t|ca| t|rst two yoars, thon roattachmont can bo dono |ator. 1h|s |s a ||tt|o ||ko argu|ng that |t
|mpr|nt|ng |n a baby duck||ng doos not happon |n tho oar|y cr|t|ca| por|od |t can bo dono at a |ator t|mo (|t can't).
Accord|ng to tho thoory boh|nd A1, |n ordor tor th|s |ator attachmont procoss to bo succosstu|, tho ch||d must t|rst bo
subjoctod to phys|ca| controntat|on' and rostra|nt' |n ordor to ro|oaso supposod|y roprossod abandonmont angor.
45
1ho procoss ropoats tor as |ong as |s nocossary-hours, days, ovon wooks-unt|| tho ch||d |s phys|ca||y oxhaustod
and omot|ona||y roducod to an |ntant||o' stato. 1hon tho paronts crad|o, rock, and bott|o-tood tho ch||d, |mp|omont|ng a
roattachmont.' 1h|s wou|d bo ||ko tak|ng a tu||-grown duck and attompt|ng to roduco |t back to |ts duck||ng stago
through phys|ca| and omot|ona| constra|nts, and thon soo|ng |t |t w||| attach to |ts mothor. 1hat's tho thoory anyway. 1ho
pract|co rosu|tod |n somoth|ng rathor d|ttoront . and doad|y.
Candaco was takon to Evorgroon, Co|orado, whoro sho was troatod by Conno|| Watk|ns, a nat|ona||y prom|nont
attachmont thorap|st and past c||n|ca| d|roctor tor tho Attachmont Contor at Evorgroon, a|ong w|th hor assoc|ato 1u||o
londor, a rocont|y ||consod tam||y counso|or trom Ca||torn|a. 1ho troatmont was conductod |n Watk|ns's homo and
v|dootapod. Accord|ng to tr|a| transcr|pts, Watk|ns and londor conductod moro than tour days ot ho|d|ng thorap|os,'
|n wh|ch thoy grabbod or covorod Candaco's taco 188 t|mos, shook or bouncod hor hoad 802 t|mos, and shoutod |nto
hor taco 188 t|mos. Whon th|s ta||od to broak hor, thoy put tho t|ny s|xty-o|ght-pound Candaco |ns|do a t|anno| shoot
and covorod hor w|th sota p|||ows, wh||o sovora| adu|ts (w|th a comb|nod wo|ght ot noar|y sovon hundrod pounds) |ay
on top ot hor so that sho cou|d bo roborn.' londor to|d Candaco that sho was a toony ||tt|o baby' |n tho womb,
command|ng hor to como out hoad t|rst' and push w|th your toot.' ln rosponso, Candaco scroamod, l can't broatho, l
can't do |t! 3omobody's on top ot mo. l want to d|o now! l|oaso! A|r!'
Accord|ng to A1 thoory, Candaco's roact|on was a s|gn ot hor omot|ona| ros|stanco, sho noodod moro
controntat|on to roach tho rago nocossary to broak through' tho wa|| and ach|ovo omot|ona| hoa||ng. lutt|ng thoory
|nto pract|co, londor admon|shod hor: You'ro gonna d|o.' Candaco boggod, l|oaso, p|oaso, l can't broatho.'
londor |nstructod tho othors to pross moro on top,' on tho prom|so that A0 ch||dron oxaggorato tho|r d|stross.
Candaco vom|tod, thon cr|od l gotta poop.' |or mothor ontroatod, l know |t's hard but l'm wa|t|ng tor you.'
Attor torty m|nutos ot th|s torturo Candaco wont s||ont. londor robukod hor Ou|ttor, qu|ttor!' 3omoono jokod about
portorm|ng a C-soct|on, wh||o londor pattod a dog that moandorod by. Attor th|rty moro m|nutos ot s||onco, Watk|ns
sarcast|ca||y romarkod, lot's |ook at th|s tworp and soo what's go|ng on-|s thoro a k|d |n thoro somowhoro? 1horo
you aro |y|ng |n your own vom|t-aron't you t|rod?'
Candaco lowmakor was not t|rod, sho was doad. 1h|s ton-yoar-o|d ch||d d|od ot corobra| odoma and horn|at|on
causod by hypox|c-|schom|c oncopha|opathy,' tho autopsy roport c||n|ca||y statod. 1ho prox|mato causo ot Candaco's
doath was suttocat|on, and hor thorap|sts roco|vod tho m|n|mum sontonco ot s|xtoon yoars tor rock|oss ch||d abuso
rosu|t|ng |n doath.' 1ho u|t|mato causo was psoudosc|ont|t|c quackory masquorad|ng as psycho|og|ca| sc|onco. ln
tho|r ponotrat|ng ana|ys|s ot tho caso, Attocbmoot 7botopy oo 7tlo|, 1oan Vorcor, larry 3arnor, and l|nda losa
wr|to: |owovor b|zarro or |d|osyncrat|c thoso troatmonts appoar-and howovor |nottoct|vo or harmtu| thoy may bo to
ch||dron-thoy omorgo trom a comp|ox |ntorna| |og|c, basod, untortunato|y, on tau|ty prom|sos.'
8b
1hoso thorap|sts k|||od Candaco not bocauso thoy woro ov||, but bocauso thoy woro |n tho gr|p ot a
psoudosc|ont|t|c bo||ot groundod |n suporst|t|on and mag|ca| th|nk|ng. |onco, an oxtromo oxamp|o ot tho powor and
tho por|| ot pattorn|c|ty, and tho doad|y torco ot bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm.
46

5

Agonticity
lot us roturn to our orstwh||o hom|n|d on tho p|a|ns ot Atr|ca who hoars a rust|o |n tho grass, and tho cruc|a| mattor ot
whothor tho sound roprosonts a dangorous prodator or just tho w|nd. 1h|s |s an |mportant d|st|nct|on on a numbor ot
|ovo|s, not tho |oast ot wh|ch |s ||to or doath, but tako noto that thoro |s anothor d|ttoronco: w|nd' roprosonts an
looolmoto otco whoroas dangorous prodator' |nd|catos an lotootlooo| ogoot. 1horo |s a b|g d|ttoronco botwoon an
|nan|mato torco and an |ntont|ona| agont. Vost an|ma|s can mako th|s d|st|nct|on on tho suport|c|a| (but v|ta|) ||to-or-
doath |ovo|, but wo do somoth|ng othor an|ma|s do not do.
As |argo-bra|nod hom|n|ds w|th a dovo|opod cortox and a thoory ot m|nd'-tho capac|ty to bo awaro ot such
monta| statos as dos|ros and |ntont|ons |n both ourso|vos and othors-wo pract|co what l ca|| ogootlclty: tbo tooooocy
to looso pottotos wltb mooolog, lotootloo, ooo ogoocy. 1hat |s, wo otton |mpart tho pattorns wo t|nd w|th agoncy and
|ntont|on, and bo||ovo that thoso |ntont|ona| agonts contro| tho wor|d, somot|mos |nv|s|b|y trom tho top down, |nstoad ot
bottom-up causa| |aws and randomnoss that makos up much ot our wor|d.
1
3ou|s, sp|r|ts, ghosts, gods, domons,
ango|s, a||ons, |nto|||gont dos|gnors, govornmont consp|rac|sts, and a|| mannor ot |nv|s|b|o agonts w|th powor and
|ntont|on aro bo||ovod to haunt our wor|d and contro| our ||vos. Comb|nod w|th our propons|ty to t|nd moan|ngtu|
pattorns |n both moan|ngtu| and moan|ng|oss no|so, pattorn|c|ty and agont|c|ty torm tho cogn|t|vo bas|s ot shaman|sm,
pagan|sm, an|m|sm, po|ytho|sm, monotho|sm, and a|| modos ot O|d and low Ago sp|r|tua||sms.
2
And much moro. 1ho
lnto|||gont 0os|gnor |s sa|d to bo an |nv|s|b|o agont who croatod ||to trom tho top down. Extratorrostr|a| |nto|||goncos
aro otton portrayod as powortu| bo|ngs com|ng down trom on h|gh to warn us ot our |mpond|ng so|t-dostruct|on.
Consp|racy thoor|os prod|ctab|y |nc|udo h|ddon agonts at work boh|nd tho sconos, puppot mastors pu|||ng po||t|ca|
and oconom|c str|ngs as wo danco to tho tuno ot tho 3||dorborgors, tho lothsch||ds, tho lockoto||ors, or tho l||um|nat|.
Evon tho bo||ot that tho govornmont can |mposo top-down moasuros to roscuo tho oconomy |s a torm ot agont|c|ty,
w|th lros|dont Obama bo|ng ha||od w|th a|most moss|an|c powors as tho ono' who w||| savo us.
1horo |s now substant|a| ov|donco trom cogn|t|vo nourosc|onco that humans road||y t|nd pattorns and |mpart agoncy
to thom. ln h|s 2000 book 5opotsooso, Un|vors|ty ot 3r|sto| psycho|og|st 3ruco |ood documontod tho grow|ng body
ot data that domonstratos our tondoncy not on|y to |ntuso pattorns w|th agoncy and |ntont|on, but to a|so bo||ovo that
objocts, an|ma|s, and poop|o conta|n an ossonco-somoth|ng that |s at tho coro ot tho|r bo|ng that makos thom what
thoy aro-and that th|s ossonco may bo transm|ttod trom objocts to poop|o, and trom poop|o to poop|o. 1horo aro
ovo|ut|onary roasons tor th|s ossootlo|lsm, rootod |n toars about d|soasos and contag|ons that conta|n a||-too-natura|
ossoncos that can bo doad|y (and honco shou|d bo avo|dod), and thus thoro was a natura| so|oct|on tor thoso who
avo|dod doad|y d|soasos by to||ow|ng tho|r |nst|ncts about ossonco avo|danco. 3ut wo a|so gonora||zo thoso ossonco
omot|ons to both natura| and supornatura| bo|ngs, to any and a|| objocts and poop|o, and to th|ngs soon and unsoon,
wo a|so assumo that thoso soon and unsoon objocts and poop|o havo agoncy and |ntont|on. Vany h|gh|y oducatod
and |nto|||gont |nd|v|dua|s oxpor|onco a powortu| sonso that thoro aro pattorns, torcos, onorg|os, and ont|t|os oporat|ng
|n tho wor|d,' |ood wroto. Voro |mportant|y, such oxpor|oncos aro not substant|atod by a body ot ro||ab|o ov|donco,
wh|ch |s why thoy aro sopotnatura| and unsc|ont|t|c. 1ho |nc||nat|on or sonso that thoy may bo roa| |s our suporsonso.'
8
Examp|os ot agont|c|ty abound. 3ubjocts watch|ng rot|oct|vo dots movo about |n a darkonod room, ospoc|a||y |t tho
dots tako on tho shapo ot two |ogs and two arms, |ntor that thoy roprosont a porson or |ntont|ona| agont. Ch||dron
bo||ovo that tho sun can th|nk and to||ows thom around, and whon askod to draw a p|cturo ot tho sun thoy otton add a
sm||oy taco to g|vo agoncy to |t. Gon|ta|-shapod toods such as bananas and oystors aro otton bo||ovod to onhanco
soxua| potoncy. A th|rd ot transp|ant pat|onts bo||ovo that tho donor's porsona||ty or ossonco |s transp|antod w|th tho
organ. |ood's rosoarch toam conductod a study among hoa|thy adu|ts |n wh|ch thoy t|rst askod thom to rato tho tacos
ot twonty poop|o tor attract|vonoss, |nto|||gonco, and how w||||ng thoy wou|d bo to roco|vo a hoart transp|ant trom oach
porson. Attor thoso rat|ngs woro rocordod, |ood thon to|d tho subjocts that ha|t ot tho poop|o thoy had just ratod woro
conv|ctod murdorors, thon askod thom to rorato tho p|cturos. 1o|||ng|y, a|though tho rat|ngs ot tho murdorors'
attract|vonoss and |nto|||gonco docroasod, tho b|ggost drop ot a|| was |n tho w||||ngnoss to accopt a hoart trom a
murdoror, wh|ch |ood conc|udod was duo to tho toar that somo ot tho ossonco ot ov|| m|ght bo transm|ttod to tho
roc|p|ont.
4
1h|s t|nd|ng corroboratos tho study that rovoa|s most poop|o say thoy wou|d novor woar tho swoator ot a
47
murdoror, show|ng groat d|sgust at tho vory thought, as |t somo ot tho murdoror's ov|| wou|d rub ott |n tho mator|a| ot
tho swoator.
b
3y contrast, |n a torm ot pos|t|vo agont|c|ty, most poop|o say that thoy woo|o woar tho card|gan swoator ot tho
ch||dron's to|ov|s|on host Vr. logors, bo||ov|ng that woar|ng tho swoator wou|d mako thom a bottor porson.
0
What |s
tho doopor ovo|ut|onary bas|s ot th|s ossont|a||sm? lt ossoncos aro thought to bo transtorab|o, wo w||| not cons|dor
ourso|vos |so|atod |nd|v|dua|s but rathor mombors ot a tr|bo potont|a||y jo|nod to oach othor through bo||ots |n
supornatura| connoctodnoss,' |ood suggostod. Wo w||| soo othors |n torms ot tho proport|os that mako thom
ossont|a||y d|ttoront trom us. 3uch an |doa suggosts that somo ossont|a| qua||t|os aro moro ||ko|y to bo transm|ttod
than othors. Youth, onorgy, boauty, tomporamont, strongth, and ovon soxua| protoronco aro ossont|a| qua||t|os that wo
attr|buto to othors.'
7
l caught myso|t |n a momont ot agont|c|ty dur|ng a 2000 tr|p to Aust|n tor a dobato w|th croat|on|sts at tho Un|vors|ty
ot 1oxas. Wh||o |n town l pa|d a v|s|t to lanco Armstrong's tamous b|ko shop Vo||ow 1ohnny's (so namod bocauso
Amor|cans butchor tho pronunc|at|on ot mol||ot joooo, |ronch tor yo||ow jorsoy'). ln add|t|on to numorous yo||ow
jorsoys hang|ng on tho wa||s, on tho showroom t|oor woro sovora| ot Armstrong's b|kos on wh|ch ho won sovon 1ours
do |ranco. loop|o th|nk thoso aro rop||ca b|kos,' tho shop managor to|d mo. Whon l oxp|a|n that thoso aro tho actua|
b|kos on wh|ch lanco won tho tour, thoy touch thom ||ko ho|y ro||cs.' l was amusod by tho oxamp|o, but thon prompt|y
and w|thout th|nk|ng, l purchasod an array ot lanco Armstrong cyc||ng goar and dur|ng my dobato that n|ght l donnod a
pa|r ot lanco Armstrong yo||ow-r|mmod b|ack socks and a l|vostrong' 1-sh|rt undornoath my su|t. Vy rat|ona| bra|n
doos not tor a momont bo||ovo that tho ossonco ot Armstrong's co|obratod strongth and onduranco poworod mo
through tho throo-hour ovont, yot tor somo odd roason l to|t moro cont|dont. lorhaps, g|von tho |nt|uonco ot bo||ot-
dopondont roa||sm and tho powor ot p|acobo, l was a bottor dobator that n|ght. Who knows? 1horo may bo natura|
ottocts ot such supornatura| th|nk|ng.
Wo aro natura|-born supornatura||sts, dr|von by our tondoncy to t|nd moan|ngtu| pattorns and |mpart to thom
|ntont|ona| agoncy. Why do wo do th|s?
Agonticity and tho Domon-Eauntod Brain
||vo contur|os ago domons hauntod our wor|d, w|th |ncub| and succub| tormont|ng tho|r v|ct|ms as thoy |ay as|oop |n
tho|r bods. 1wo contur|os ago sp|r|ts hauntod our wor|d, w|th ghosts and ghou|s harass|ng tho|r suttorors a|| hours ot
tho n|ght. |or tho past contury a||ons havo hauntod our wor|d, w|th grays or groons mo|ost|ng poop|o |n tho|r s|oop,
do||vor|ng mossagos to thom as thoy |ay awako, or abduct|ng thom out ot tho|r bods and wh|sk|ng thom away to tho
mothor sh|p tor prodd|ng and prob|ng. 1oday poop|o aro undorgo|ng out-ot-body oxpor|oncos (O3Es), t|oat|ng abovo
tho|r bods, out ot tho|r bodrooms, and ovon ott tho p|anot |nto spaco.
What |s go|ng on horo? Aro thoso o|us|vo croaturos and mystor|ous phonomona |n our wor|d or |n our m|nds? 3y
now you know that l w||| arguo that thoy aro ont|ro|y |n our hoads, ovon wh||o thoy aro mod|t|od and twoakod by tho
cu|turo |nto wh|ch wo happonod to bo born. 1ho ov|donco that bra|n and m|nd aro ono |s now ovorwho|m|ng. Cons|dor
tho rosoarch by tho lauront|an Un|vors|ty nourosc|ont|st V|chao| lors|ngor, who |n h|s |aboratory |n 3udbury, Ontar|o,
|nducos a|| ot thoso ovonts |n vo|untoors by subjoct|ng tho|r tompora| |obos to pattorns ot magnot|c t|o|ds. lors|ngor
usos o|octromagnots |ns|do a mod|t|od motorcyc|o ho|mot (somot|mos ca||od tho Ooo lo|mot) to produco tompoto|
|obo ttoosloots-|ncroasos and |nstab|||t|os |n tho nourona| t|r|ng pattorns |n tho tompora| |obo rog|on just abovo tho
oars-|n tho bra|ns ot subjocts. lors|ngor bo||ovos that tho magnot|c t|o|ds st|mu|ato m|croso|zuros' |n tho tompora|
|obos, otton produc|ng what can bost bo doscr|bod as sp|r|tua|' or supornatura|' op|sodos: tho sonso ot a prosonco
|n tho room, an out-ot-body oxpor|onco, b|zarro d|stort|on ot body parts, and ovon protound ro||g|ous too||ngs ot bo|ng
|n contact w|th God, gods, sa|nts, and ango|s. Whatovor wo ca|| thom, tho procoss |tso|t |s an oxamp|o ot agont|c|ty.
Why doos th|s happon? 3ocauso, sa|d lors|ngor, our sonso ot so|t' |s ma|nta|nod by tho |ott hom|sphoro tompora|
|obo. Undor norma| bra|n tunct|on|ng th|s |s matchod by tho corrospond|ng systoms |n tho r|ght hom|sphoro's tompora|
|obo. Whon thoso two systoms aro out ot sync, tho |ott hom|sphoro |ntorprots tho uncoord|natod act|v|ty as anothor
so|t' or a sonsod prosonco,' bocauso thoro can on|y bo ono so|t. 1wo so|vos' aro rocont|gurod as ono so|t and ono
somoth|ng o|so, wh|ch may bo |abo|od as an ango|, domon, a||on, ghost, or ovon God. Whon tho amygda|a |s |nvo|vod
|n tho trans|ont ovonts, sa|d lors|ngor, omot|ona| tactors s|gn|t|cant|y onhanco tho oxpor|onco, wh|ch, whon connoctod
to sp|r|tua| thomos, can bo a powortu| torco tor |ntonso ro||g|ous too||ngs.
8
|av|ng road about lors|ngor's rosoarch l was natura||y cur|ous to know |t h|s ho|mot wou|d work |ts mag|c on a
skopt|c's bra|n. l had rocont|y tr|od hypnos|s tor tho t|rst t|mo |n noar|y two docados tor a to|ov|s|on sor|os l cohostod
tor tho |ox |am||y Channo| ca||od Exp|otlog tbo Uokoowo.
0
ln my tar-|oss-skopt|ca| oar|y twont|os, wh||o tra|n|ng tor
tho throo-thousand-m||o nonstop transcont|nonta| b|cyc|o laco Across Amor|ca, l ongagod tho ta|onts ot a tormor
48
to||ow graduato studont to toach mo so|t-hypnos|s so that l cou|d |oarn to doa| w|th pa|n and s|oop dopr|vat|on. l was
oas||y hypnot|zod, as ov|doncod |n an A3C loo ot|o o 5potts Up C|oso and lorsona|' sogmont on mo |n wh|ch l
was so doop|y ontrancod that my hypnot|st co||oaguo had a hard t|mo br|ng|ng mo out (dramat|ca||y rovoa|od on
to|ov|s|on). 3ut dur|ng my Exp|otlog tbo Uokoowo oxpor|onco, l was much too anx|ous about what was go|ng on |n my
bra|n dur|ng tho hypnot|c procoss and thoroby nogatod |ts ottocts, |oav|ng mo |n what was ||tt|o moro than a ro|o-
p|ay|ng modo (wh|ch cr|t|cs ot hypnos|s th|nk |s a|| that |t |s anyway). Wou|d tho samo th|ng happon |n lors|ngor's |ab
whon thoy strappod mo |nto tho God |o|mot, l wondorod?
Art|cu|ato, smart, and mod|a savvy, lors|ngor |s an |ntorost|ng charactor, tamous tor woar|ng 1070s-ora throo-
p|oco su|ts ovorywhoro ho goos (|nc|ud|ng, a||ogod|y, wh||o mow|ng tho |awn). ||s jargon-|adon doscr|pt|ons ot h|s
rosoarch mako |t hard to know whon hypothos|s and thoory b|ond |nto spocu|at|on and conjocturo. 3|nco tho oar|y
1070s, lors|ngor has dovotod h|s rosoarch to tost|ng tho hypothos|s that paranorma| oxpor|oncos aro |||us|ons
croatod by tho bra|n. 1|ny changos |n bra|n chom|stry or m|nuto a|torat|ons |n o|octr|ca| act|v|ty can croato powortu|
ha||uc|nat|ons that soom abso|uto|y roa|. 1hoso m|st|r|ngs ot tho bra|n can occur natura||y duo to oxtorna| torcos. |or
oxamp|o, |n h|s 1octon|c 3tra|n 1hoory,' lors|ngor spocu|atos that oarthquako act|v|ty may gonorato oxcoss|vo
o|octromagnot|c t|o|ds that |nt|uonco bra|ns, wh|ch cou|d go a |ong way to oxp|a|n|ng tho low Ago nutt|noss ot
oarthquako-burdonod 3outhorn Ca||torn|a.
l am skopt|ca| ot th|s hypothos|s, g|von tho tact that such t|o|ds woakon by tho squaro ot tho d|stanco: doub|o tho
d|stanco trom tho sourco and you roco|vo on|y a quartor ot tho onorgy trom |t. l ||vo |n 3outhorn Ca||torn|a. Vost
oarthquako contors aro tons to hundrods ot m||os away trom popu|at|on contors, usua||y out |n tho dosorts surround|ng
tho los Ango|os bas|n. 1h|s str|kos mo as dramat|ca||y d|ttoront trom woar|ng a ho|mot that do||vors o|octromagnot|c
t|o|ds trom m||||motors away. Whothor such natura| o|octromagnot|c t|o|ds occur |n strongths h|gh onough to |nt|uonco
bra|ns |n tho roa| wor|d roma|ns to bo soon, but lors|ngor doos |t art|t|c|a||y |n h|s |ab. 0ata co||octod trom thoso
oxpor|monts havo tormod a toundat|on tor computor s|mu|at|ons ot paranorma| oncountors. Wo know that a||
oxpor|onco |s dor|vod trom tho bra|n,' lors|ngor oxp|a|nod |n my |ntorv|ow w|th h|m. Wo a|so roa||zo that subt|o
pattorns gonorato comp|ox human oxpor|oncos and omot|ons. 1hanks to computor tochno|ogy, wo oxtractod tho
o|octromagnot|c pattorns gonoratod trom tho bra|n dur|ng thoso oxpor|oncos and thon ro-oxposod vo|untoors to thoso
pattorns.'
Attor our |ntorv|ow |t was t|mo to run tho oxpor|mont. A |ab ass|stant strappod mo |nto tho ho|mot, hookod up tho
|oads to my hands, chost, and sca|p to moasuro bra|n wavos, hoart rato, and othor phys|o|og|ca| act|v|ty, and soa|od
mo |n a soundproot room whoro l p|oppod myso|t |nto a comtortab|o cha|r that cou|d havo boon Arch|o 3unkor's oasy
cha|r trom tho sot ot A|| lo tbo loml|y. lors|ngor, h|s ass|stant, and tho camora crow ox|tod tho chambor and l sott|od
|nto cush|onod b||ss. A vo|co rang |n announc|ng that tho oxpor|mont wou|d now bog|n. Vagnot|c t|o|ds washod ovor
my tompora| |obos. Vy |n|t|a| roact|on was a ||tt|o g|dd|noss, as |t tho who|o procoss woro a s|||y oxorc|so that l cou|d
oas||y contro|, s|m||ar to my rocont hypnos|s oxpor|onco. l a|so worr|od that l m|ght acc|donta||y ta|| as|oop, so l tr|od to
ma|nta|n a|ortnoss. 3ut romombor|ng how ovorth|nk|ng thwartod my hypnot|c ottorts, l c|oarod my hoad and a||owod
myso|t to s|ump |nto a stato ot w|||tu| suspons|on ot d|sbo||ot. V|nutos |ator, l to|t a tug-ot-war botwoon tho rat|ona| and
omot|ona| parts ot my bra|n ovor whothor tho sonso that l wantod to |oavo my body was roa|.
What's happon|ng to V|chao| now,' lors|ngor oxp|a|nod to my producor dur|ng tho t|rst sot ot tr|a|s, |s ho's bo|ng
oxposod to comp|ox magnot|c t|o|ds assoc|atod w|th op|ato-||ko oxpor|oncos such as t|oat|ng and p|oasantnoss and
sp|nn|ng.' |a|tway through tho oxpor|mont lors|ngor's tochn|c|ans t|dd|od w|th somo d|a|s to chango tho
o|octromagnot|c pattorns. At th|s po|nt thoro |s now anothor pattorn bo|ng gonoratod a|ong tho r|ght hom|sphoro wh|ch
tonds to bo assoc|atod w|th moro torr|ty|ng oxpor|oncos.' lndood, undor thoso pattorns vo|untoors havo roportod
soo|ng tho dov||, bo|ng grabbod by a||ons, and ovon bo|ng transportod to ho||. As l to|d lors|ngor |n a postoxpor|mont
dobr|ot|ng tor tho show, ln tho t|rst ono, |t to|t ||ko somoth|ng wont by mo.. l wasn't suro |t |t was mo |oav|ng or
somobody or somoth|ng com|ng by mo. lt was vory strango. 1hon, |n tho socond round, thoro was tho too||ng ot bo|ng
|n wavos and that l wantod to como out ot my body but l kopt go|ng back |n. l can roa||y soo how |t somobody was
s||ght|y moro tantasy prono and tonds to |ntorprot onv|ronmonta| st|mu|| |n a paranorma| way, th|s k|nd ot oxpor|onco
wou|d bo a roa| w||d tr|p.'
10
1ompora| |obo st|mu|at|on may not account tor ovory oncountor w|th tho paranorma|, but lors|ngor's rosoarch may
bo tho t|rst stop toward domyst|ty|ng a numbor ot contur|os-o|d puzz|os. As ho summod up tor our show, |our hundrod
yoars ago tho paranorma| |nc|udod what |n |argo part |s sc|onco today. 1hat's tho tato ot tho paranorma|-|t bocomos
sc|onco, |t bocomos norma|.' Or, |t s|mp|y d|sappoars undor tho scrut|ny ot tho sc|ont|t|c mothod.
Agonta Who 5taro at Coata
49
3o||ot |n tho paranorma| |s |tso|t an oxtons|on ot agont|c|ty, as h|ddon powors aro thought to omanato trom powortu|
agonts. 0ur|ng my graduato st|nt |n oxpor|monta| psycho|ogy |n tho 1070s, l saw on to|ov|s|on tho lsrao|| psych|c Ur|
Go||or bond cut|ory and roproduco draw|ngs us|ng, so ho sa|d, psych|c powors a|ono. |or a wh||o l kopt an opon m|nd
to tho poss|b|||ty that such phonomona cou|d bo roa|, unt|| l saw 1amos 1ho Amaz|ng' land| on 1ohnny Carson's
7oolgbt 5bow, whoro land| usod mag|c tr|cks to dup||cato Go||or's ottocts. (As land| ||kos to say, lt Go||or |s bond|ng
spoons w|th psych|c powor ho's do|ng |t tho hard way.') land| bont spoons, rop||catod draw|ngs, |ov|tatod tab|os, and
ovon portormod a psych|c surgory. Whon askod about Go||or's ab|||ty to pass tho tosts ot protoss|ona| sc|ont|sts,
land| oxp|a|nod that sc|ont|sts aro not tra|nod to dotoct tr|ckory and |ntont|ona| docopt|on, tho vory art ot mag|c.
land| |s r|ght. l v|v|d|y roca|| a som|nar that l attondod |n 1080 at tho A|otho|a |oundat|on |n Grants lass, Orogon, |n
wh|ch a ho||st|c hoa|or namod 1ack 3chwarz |mprossod us by shov|ng a ton-|nch sa|| nood|o through h|s arm w|th no
apparont pa|n and on|y a drop ot b|ood. Yoars |ator, and to my chagr|n, land| portormod tho samo toat w|th tho
s|mp|ost ot mag|c. l attondod that som|nar at tho bohost ot a woman l was dat|ng namod A|||son, an Orogon|an
brunotto attract|vo |n a low Ago|sh way, botoro tho low Ago tu||y b|ossomod |n tho 1080s. 3ho woro natura|-t|bor
drossos, t|owors |n hor ha|r, and noth|ng on hor toot. 3ut what most |ntr|guod mo |n our yoar ot d|stanco dat|ng woro
A|||son's sp|r|tua| g|tts. l know sho cou|d soo through mo motaphor|ca||y, but A|||son a|so saw th|ngs that sho sa|d woro
not a||ogor|ca|: body auras, onorgy chakras, sp|r|tua| ont|t|os, and ||ght bo|ngs. Ono n|ght sho c|osod tho door and
turnod ott tho ||ghts |n my bathroom and to|d mo to staro |nto tho m|rror unt|| my aura appoarod. l starod vacuous|y |nto
spaco. 0ur|ng a dr|vo through tho Orogon countrys|do |ato ono co|d n|ght sho po|ntod out sp|r|tua| bo|ngs dott|ng tho
|andscapo. l starod b|ank|y |nto tho dark. l tr|od to soo tho wor|d as A|||son d|d, but l cou|dn't. 3ho cou|d soo |nv|s|b|o
|ntont|ona| agonts but l cou|d not. 3ho was a bo||ovor and l was a skopt|c. 1ho d|ttoronco doomod our ro|at|onsh|p.
3y 100b, just as tho hoyday ot low Ago codswa||op was w|nd|ng down, a story broko that tor tho prov|ous quartor
contury tho Contra| lnto|||gonco Agoncy, |n conjunct|on w|th tho U.3. Army, had |nvostod $20 m||||on |n a h|gh|y socrot
psych|c spy program ca||od 5totgoto (a|so Otl|| l|omo and 5coooto). 3targato was a Co|d War projoct |ntondod to
c|oso tho ps| gap' (tho psych|c oqu|va|ont ot tho m|ss||o gap) botwoon tho Un|tod 3tatos and 3ov|ot Un|on. 1ho
3ov|ots woro tra|n|ng psych|c sp|os, so wo wou|d as wo||. 1ho story ot 3targato-a torm ot agont|c|ty at tho ClA-
roomorgod wh||o l was wr|t|ng th|s chaptor |n tho torm ot a toaturo t||m basod on tho book 7bo Voo bo 5toto ot
Ooots by 3r|t|sh |nvost|gat|vo journa||st 1on lonson. 1h|s |s a 7btoogb tbo Looklog O|oss-||ko story ot what tho ClA-
oporat|ng through somoth|ng ca||od Psycbo|oglco| Opototloos (lsyOps)-was rosoarch|ng: |nv|s|b|||ty, |ov|tat|on,
to|ok|nos|s, wa|k|ng through wa||s, and ovon k||||ng goats just by star|ng at thom, w|th tho u|t|mato goa| ot k||||ng onomy
so|d|ors to|opath|ca||y. ln ono projoct, psych|c sp|os attomptod to uso romoto v|ow|ng' to |dont|ty tho |ocat|on ot
m|ss||o s||os, submar|nos, lOWs, and VlAs trom a sma|| room |n a run-down Vary|and bu||d|ng. lt thoso sk|||s cou|d bo
honod and comb|nod, |t was bo||ovod, porhaps m|||tary ott|c|a|s cou|d zap romoto|y v|owod onomy m|ss||os |n tho|r
s||os.
11
ln|t|a||y, tho 3targato story roco|vod broad mod|a attont|on-|nc|ud|ng a spoc|a| |nvost|gat|vo roport on A3C's
Nlgbt|loo-and mado m|nor co|obr|t|os out ot a tow ot tho psych|c sp|os, such as Ed 0amos and 1oo VcVonoag|o.
As rogu|ar guosts on Art 3o||'s pro-paranorma| rad|o ta|k show Coost to Coost, tho tormor sp|os spun ta|os that, had
thoy not boon documontod o|sowhoro, wou|d havo soomod ||ko tho ramb||ngs ot parano|d do|us|on|sts. |or oxamp|o,
lonson connocts somo ot tho b|zarro torturo tochn|quos usod on pr|sonors at Guantnamo 3ay, Cuba, and lraq's Abu
Ghra|b pr|son w|th s|m||ar tochn|quos omp|oyod dur|ng tho |3l s|ogo ot tho 3ranch 0av|d|ans |n Waco, 1oxas. |3l
agonts b|astod tho 3ranch 0av|d|ans a|| n|ght w|th such obnox|ous sounds as scroam|ng rabb|ts, cry|ng soagu||s,
dont|st dr|||s, and (l'm not mak|ng th|s up) lancy 3|natra's 1hoso 3oots Aro Vado tor Wa|k|ng.' 1ho U.3. m|||tary
omp|oyod tho samo tochn|quo on lraq| pr|sonors ot war, rop|ac|ng 3|natra's ba||ad w|th tho thomo song trom tho l33
k|ds' to|ov|s|on sor|os Botooy ooo ltlooos-a tuno many paronts concur doos bocomo torturous w|th ropot|t|on.
Ono ot lonson's sourcos, nono othor than Ur| Go||or (ot bont-spoon tamo), |od h|m to Vajor Gonora| A|bort
3tubb|ob|no lll, who d|roctod tho psych|c spy notwork trom h|s ott|co |n Ar||ngton, v|rg|n|a. 3tubb|ob|no thought that
w|th onough pract|co ho cou|d |oarn to wa|k through wa||s, a bo||ot oncouragod by l|outonant Co|ono| 1|m Channon, a
v|otnam vot whoso postwar oxpor|oncos at such low Ago moccas as tho Esa|on lnst|tuto |n 3|g 3ur, Ca||torn|a, |od
h|m to tound tho t|rst oarth batta||on' ot warr|or monks' and 1od| kn|ghts.' 1hoso warr|ors, accord|ng to Channon,
wou|d transtorm tho naturo ot war by ontor|ng host||o |ands w|th spark|y oyos,' march|ng to tho mantra ot ohm,' and
prosont|ng tho onomy w|th automat|c hugs' (acts co|ortu||y carr|od out by Goorgo C|oonoy's charactor |n tho t||m
vors|on ot 7bo Voo bo 5toto ot Ooots). 0|s|||us|onod by tho ug|y carnago ot modorn war, Channon onv|s|onod a
batta||on armory ot mach|nos that wou|d produco d|scordant sounds' (lancy and 3arnoy?) and psycho-o|octr|c' guns
that wou|d shoot pos|t|vo onorgy' at onomy so|d|ors.
As ontorta|n|ng as a|| th|s |s, can anyono actua||y |ov|tato, turn |nv|s|b|o, wa|k through wa||s, or v|ow a h|ddon objoct
50
romoto|y? lo. Undor contro||od cond|t|ons, romoto v|owors havo novor succoodod |n t|nd|ng a h|ddon targot w|th
groator accuracy than random guoss|ng. 1ho occas|ona| succossos you hoar about aro duo o|thor to chanco or
suspoct oxpor|monta| cond|t|ons, such as whon tho porson who subjoct|vo|y assossos whothor tho romoto v|owor's
narrat|vo doscr|pt|on matchos tho targot a|roady knows tho targot |ocat|on and |ts charactor|st|cs. Whon both tho
oxpor|montor and tho romoto v|owor aro b||ndod to tho targot, psych|c powors van|sh.
|oro|n ||os an |mportant |osson that l havo |oarnod |n many yoars ot paranorma| |nvost|gat|ons: what poop|o
romombor happon|ng raro|y corrosponds to what actua||y happonod. Caso |n po|nt: lonson |ntorv|owod a mart|a| arts
toachor namod Guy 3avo|||, who c|a|mod that ho was |nvo|vod |n tho psych|c spy program and had w|tnossod so|d|ors
k||||ng goats by star|ng at thom, and that ho h|mso|t had dono so as wo||. 3ut as tho dota||s ot tho story unto|d wo
d|scovor that 3avo||| was roca|||ng, yoars |ator, what ho romomborod about a part|cu|ar oxpor|mont' w|th th|rty
numborod goats. 3avo||| random|y choso Goat 10 and gavo |t h|s bost doath staro. 3ut ho cou|dn't concontrato that
day, so ho qu|t tho oxpor|mont, on|y to bo to|d |ator that Goat 17 had subsoquont|y d|od. End ot story. lo autopsy or
oxp|anat|on ot tho causo ot doath. lo |ntormat|on about how much t|mo had o|apsod botwoon tho star|ng op|sodo and
doath, tho cond|t|ons ot tho room |nto wh|ch tho th|rty goats had boon p|acod (tomporaturo, hum|d|ty, vont||at|on, and
so torth), how |ong tho goats woro |n tho room, and so torth. Whon askod tor corroborat|ng ov|donco ot th|s
oxtraord|nary c|a|m, 3avo||| tr|umphant|y producod a v|dootapo ot anothor oxpor|mont whoro somoono o|so
supposod|y stoppod tho hoart ot a goat. 3ut tho tapo showod on|y a goat whoso hoart rato droppod trom s|xty-t|vo to
t|tty-t|vo boats por m|nuto.
1hat was tho oxtont ot tho omp|r|ca| ov|donco ot goat k||||ng, and as somoono who has spont docados |n tho samo
tru|t|oss pursu|t ot phantom goats, l conc|udo that tho ov|donco tor tho paranorma| |n gonora| doosn't got much bottor
than th|s. 1hoy shoot horsos, don't thoy?
1oIohoning Doad Agonta
ln tho ta|| ot 2008, l attondod a paranorma| contoronco |n lonnsy|van|a whoro l was to do||vor tho koynoto addross, an
odd juxtapos|t|on |t ovor thoro was ono-a skopt|c ot tho paranorma| |octur|ng about tho nonox|stonco ot E3l to a
room tu|| ot so|t-proc|a|mod psych|cs, mod|ums, astro|ogors, tarot-card roadors, pa|m roadors, and sp|r|tua| gurus ot
a|| str|pos. l t|gurod tho oxpor|onco ot hang|ng out w|th paranorma| bo||ovors was worth tho transcont|nonta| tr|p, |t tor
no othor roason than to co||oct moro data on why poop|o bo||ovo |n |nv|s|b|o powors and agonts. l wasn't d|sappo|ntod.
1ho t|rst soss|on l attondod was on ta|k|ng to tho doad. Ot courso, anyono can ta|k to tho doad-|t's gott|ng tho doad
to ta|k back that |s tho hard part. And yot r|ght thoro at tho tront ot tho room that |s what appoarod to bo happon|ng-
tho doad woro ta|k|ng back, through a sma|| box on a tab|o.
ls Vatthow thoro?' askod Choyonno, an attract|vo b|ondo who was d|roct|ng hor vo|co toward tho box, c|oar|y
assum|ng that hor brothor wou|d como through trom tho othor s|do.
Yos,' tho spoakor |n tho box squawkod.
W|th a connoct|on va||datod,' Choyonno shak||y cont|nuod: Was tho su|c|do a m|stako?'
A vo|co crack|od, Vy doath was a m|stako.'
W|th toars now cascad|ng down hor chooks, Choyonno askod to spoak w|th hor mothor, and w|th tho matr|||noa|
connoct|on mado, Choyonno sputtorod out, 0o you soo my ch||dron, your boaut|tu| grandch||dron?'
Vom rop||od, Yos. l soo tho ch||dron.'
Choyonno's ||to-att|rm|ng mossagos woro com|ng out ot 1homas Ed|son's to|ophono to tho doad,' or at |oast a
tacs|m||o ot a rumorod mach|no that by a|| accounts tho groat |nvontor novor bu||t. lt was just ono ot many road|ngs that
day (at n|noty do||ars a pop) conductod by Chr|stophor Voon, tho ponyta||od son|or od|tor ot loootoo 7lmos
magaz|no and |auntod1|mos.com, a c|oar|nghouso tor a|| th|ngs paranorma|.
l cou|dn't hoar Choyonno's brothor, mothor, or any othor |ncorporoa| sp|r|ts, unt|| Voon |ntorprotod tho random
no|sos omanat|ng trom tho mach|no that, ho oxp|a|nod to mo, was croatod by a Co|orado man namod |rank
3umpt|on. |rank's 3ox,' accord|ng to |ts |nvontor, cons|sts ot a random vo|tago gonorator, wh|ch |s usod to tuno an
AV roco|vor modu|o rap|d|y. 1ho aud|o trom tho tunor (raw aud|o) |s amp||t|od and tod to an ocho chambor, whoro tho
sp|r|ts man|pu|ato |t to torm tho|r vo|cos.' (3oo t|guro 7.) Apparont|y th|s |s d|tt|cu|t tor tho doad to do, so Voon
omp|oys tho ho|p ot 1y|or,' a sp|r|t tochn|c|an' on tho othor s|do' who ho ca||s upon to corra| wayward sp|r|ts to w|th|n
oarshot ot tho roco|vor. What |t sounds ||ko to tho untra|nod oar (that |s to say, anyono not w|th|n oarshot ot Voon's
|ntorprotat|vo vo|co) |s tho rap|d tw|r||ng ot a rad|o d|a| so that on|y no|sos and word and sontonco tragmonts aro
aud|b|o.
Aro tho doad |n that ||tt|o box?' l askod Voon.
l don't know whoro tho doad aro. Anothor d|mons|on probab|y,' Voon conjocturod unho|ptu||y.
51
Wo||, s|nco wo know how oasy |t |s tor our bra|ns to t|nd moan|ngtu| pattorns |n moan|ng|oss no|so,' l cont|nuod,
how can you to|| tho d|ttoronco botwoon a doad porson's roa| words and random rad|o no|sos that just sound ||ko
words?'
3urpr|s|ng|y, Voon agrood w|th mo: You havo to bo vory carotu|. Wo rocord tho soss|ons and got cons|stoncy |n
what poop|o hoar.'
l pors|st: Cons|stoncy . as |n what, n|noty-t|vo porcont, t|tty-ono porcont?'
A |ot,' Voon rojo|ns.
Figuro 7. 1oIohono to tho Doad
|rank's 3ox,' a|so known as tho to|ophono to tho doad,' rumorod to havo boon t|rst |nvontod by 1homas Ed|son,
|s today constructod by a Co|orado man namod |rank 3umpt|on. l|O1OGlAl| 3Y 1|E AU1|Ol.
A |ot, as |n.?' Our |mpromptu O8A ondod thoro, as tho noxt soss|on was about to start and l d|dn't want to m|ss
tho |octuro on Ouantum Vochan|cs: ls lt lrov|ng tho Ex|stonco ot tho laranorma|?' by anothor ponyta||od spocu|ator
w|th tho un|-namo Konstant|nos.
1hat ovon|ng |n my koynoto addross l oxp|a|nod how pr|m|ng' tho bra|n to soo or hoar somoth|ng |ncroasos tho
||ko||hood that tho porcopts w||| oboy tho concopts. l p|ayod a port|on ot lod Zoppo||n's 3ta|rway to |oavon,' t|rst
torward w|th tho words on tho scroon: l tboto`s o bost|o lo yoot boogotow/ Loo`t bo o|otmoo oow/ lt`s jost o sptlog
c|ooo ot tbo Voy qoooo / Yos, tboto oto two potbs yoo coo go by / Bot lo tbo |oog too / 7boto`s stl|| tlmo to cboogo
tbo tooo yoo`to oo. l jokod that l'm not suro what tho |yr|cs moan torward, but that whon l was |n h|gh schoo| thoy woro
doop|y moan|ngtu|. 1hon l p|ayod th|s port|on ot tho song backward w|th no words on tho scroon, and a|most ovoryono
hoard 3atan,' w|th somo a|so hoar|ng sox' or 000.' ||na||y, l p|ayod |t aga|n attor pr|m|ng tho|r bra|ns w|th tho
a||ogod |yr|cs on tho scroon. 1ho aud|tory data jumpod out ot tho v|sua| pr|mos, and ovoryono cou|d now c|oar|y hoar:
Ob, boto`s to my swoot 5otoo / 7bo ooo wboso |ltt|o potb wl|| moko mo soo / wboso powot ls 5otoo / lo`|| glvo yoo /
Olvo yoo 000 / 7boto wos o |ltt|o too| sboo wboto bo mooo os soot, soo 5otoo.
12
1ho ottoct |s stunn|ng to aud|oncos
who, w|th tho|r unpr|mod oars, can hoar ono or maybo two words, but whon pr|mod can mako out tho ont|ro |yr|ca|
scoro.
18
1hoso aro a|| oxamp|os ot pattorn|c|ty and agont|c|ty, and tho noxt day l put thom to tho tost whon Voon gavo mo a
porsona| domo. W|th tho to|ophono to tho doad squawk|ng away l tr|od to connoct to my docoasod tathor and mothor,
ask|ng tor any va||dat|on' ot a connoct|on-namo, causo ot doath . anyth|ng. l coaxod and cajo|od. loth|ng. Voon
askod 1y|or to |ntorvono. loth|ng. Voon sa|d ho hoard somoth|ng, but whon l prossod h|m ho camo up w|th noth|ng. l
w||||ng|y suspondod my d|sbo||ot |n hopos ot ta|k|ng to my paronts whom l m|ss doar|y. loth|ng. l soarchod tor any
pattorn l m|ght t|nd. loth|ng. And that, l'm atra|d, |s my assossmont ot tho paranorma|. loth|ng.
Agonticity and tho 5onaod-Proaonco Ettoct
Ono ot tho most ottoct|vo moans wo havo ot undorstand|ng how tho bra|n works |s whon |t doosn't work wo||, whon
somoth|ng goos wrong, or undor oxtromo stross or cond|t|ons. As an oxamp|o ot tho |attor, thoro |s a phonomonon wo||
known among mounta|n c||mbors, po|ar oxp|orors, |so|atod sa||ors, and onduranco ath|otos ca||od tho th|rd-man
tactor,' but what l ca|| tho soosoo-ptosooco ooct. 1ho sonsod prosonco |s somot|mos doscr|bod as a guard|an
ango|' that appoars |n oxtromo and unusua| onv|ronmonts.
14
lart|cu|ar|y |n ||to-and-doath strugg|os tor surv|va| |n thoso
oxcopt|ona||y harsh c||mos, or undor unusua| stra|n or stross, tho bra|n apparont|y conjuros up ho|p tor phys|ca|
gu|danco or mora| support. 1ho doscr|pt|vo phraso tblto moo comos trom 1. 3. E||ot's poom 1ho Wasto land':
bo ls tbo tblto wbo o|woys wo|ks bosloo yoo
boo l cooot, tboto oto oo|y yoo ooo l togotbot.
52
Bot wboo l |ook obooo op tbo wblto tooo
7boto ls o|woys oootbot ooo wo|klog bosloo yoo
O|lolog wtopt lo o btowo moot|o, booooo.
ln h|s tootnotos to thoso ||nos, E||ot oxp|a|nod that thoy woro st|mu|atod by tho account ot ono ot tho Antarct|c
oxpod|t|ons (l torgot wh|ch, but l th|nk ono ot 3hack|oton's): |t was ro|atod that tho party ot oxp|orors, at tho oxtrom|ty ot
tho|r strongth, had tho constant do|us|on that thoro was ooo moto mombot than cou|d actua||y bo countod.'
1b
ln tact, |n
3|r Ernost |onry 3hack|oton's account |t was a tourth man who accompan|od tho roma|n|ng throo |n tho party: lt
soomod to mo otton that wo woro tour, not throo.' lo mattor, whothor |t |s a th|rd man, tourth man, ango|, a||on, or oxtra
man, |t |s tho sonsod prosonco that |ntorosts us horo bocauso th|s |s yot anothor oxamp|o ot tho bra|n's capac|ty tor
agont|c|ty, l sha|| rotor to such compan|ons as soosoo ptosoocos and tho procoss as tho soosoo-ptosooco ooct.
ln h|s book 7bo 7blto Voo loctot, 1ohn Go|gor ||sts tho cond|t|ons that aro assoc|atod w|th tho gonorat|on ot a
sonsod prosonco: monotony, darknoss, barron |andscapos, |so|at|on, co|d, |njury, dohydrat|on, hungor, tat|guo, and
toar.
10
1o th|s ||st wo can add s|oop dopr|vat|on, wh|ch probab|y accounts tor Char|os l|ndborgh's sonsod prosonco
dur|ng h|s transat|ant|c t||ght to lar|s. 0ur|ng tho h|stor|c journoy, l|ndborgh bocamo awaro that ho had company |n tho
cockp|t ot tho 5pltlt o 5t. Lools: 1ho tuso|ago boh|nd mo bocomos t|||od w|th ghost|y prosoncos-vaguo|y out||nod
torms, transparont, mov|ng, r|d|ng wo|ght|oss w|th mo |n tho p|ano. l too| no surpr|so at tho|r com|ng. 1horo's no
suddonnoss to tho|r appoaranco.' Vost cr|t|ca||y, thoso woro not aborrat|ons ot tho cockp|t onv|ronmont such as tog or
rot|octod ||ght bocauso, as l|ndborgh rocounts, W|thout turn|ng my hoad, l soo thom as c|oar|y as though |n my norma|
t|o|d ot v|s|on.' l|ndborgh ovon hoard vo|cos that spoko w|th author|ty and c|oarnoss,' yot attor tho t||ght roportod, l
can't romombor a s|ng|o word thoy sa|d.' What woro thoso phantom bo|ngs do|ng thoro? 1hoy woro thoro to ho|p,
convors|ng and adv|s|ng on my t||ght, d|scuss|ng prob|oms ot my nav|gat|on, roassur|ng mo, g|v|ng mo mossagos ot
|mportanco unatta|nab|o |n ord|nary ||to.'
17
1ho tamous Austr|an mounta|noor |ormann 3uh|, tho t|rst porson to summ|t tho 20,000-toot langa larbat-tho
n|nth h|ghost poak |n tho wor|d and known as K|||or Vounta|n' bocauso ot tho numbor ot c||mbors (th|rty-ono) who
havo por|shod thoro-suddon|y tound h|mso|t w|th company on h|s way back down, ovon though ho was c||mb|ng
a|ono: Out on tho 3||borsatto| l soo two dots. l cou|d shout w|th joy, now somoono |s com|ng up. l can hoar tho|r vo|cos
too, somoono ca||s '|ormann,' but thon l roa||zo that thoy aro rocks on Chongra loak that r|sos up boh|nd. lt |s a b|ttor
d|sappo|ntmont. l sot ott aga|n subduod. 1h|s roa||zat|on happons troquont|y. 1hon l hoar vo|cos, hoar my namo roa||y
c|oar|y-ha||uc|nat|ons.' 1hroughout tho ordoa|, |n tact, 3uh| sa|d, l had an oxtraord|nary too||ng, that l was not a|ono.'
18
3uch accounts havo bocomo |og|on |n c||mb|ng |oro. 1ho most tamous c||mb|ng so|o|st |n h|story (and tho t|rst to
summ|t Vount Evorost w|thout bott|od oxygon), lo|nho|d Vossnor, roca||s hav|ng many convorsat|ons w|th |mag|nary
compan|ons dur|ng h|s oxpod|t|ons |nto tho th|n a|r ot tho ||ma|ayas. l|nk|ng tho sonsod-prosonco ottoct to bo||ots
moro broad|y, l was |ntr|guod to road tho account ot c||mbor 1oo 3|mpson about what happonod to h|m dur|ng tho
doscont trom tho 20,814-toot summ|t ot 3|u|a Grando |n tho loruv|an Andos attor an acc|dont throatonod h|s surv|va|.
As 3|mpson strugg|od to mako |t back to baso camp, a socond m|nd suddon|y mator|a||zod |n h|s hoad to g|vo h|m
a|d and comtort. Attor dotorm|n|ng that tho vo|co was not omanat|ng trom h|s Wa|kman cassotto p|ayor, 3|mpson
doc|dod that |t was somoth|ng o|so ont|ro|y: 1ho vo|co was c|oan and sharp and command|ng. lt was a|ways r|ght, and
l ||stonod to |t whon |t spoko and actod on |ts doc|s|ons. 1ho othor m|nd ramb|od out a d|sconnoctod sor|os ot |magos,
and momor|os and hopos, wh|ch l attondod to |n a daydroam stato as l sot about oboy|ng tho ordors ot tho vo|co.'
10
Cons|stont w|th bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm and my thos|s that bo||ot comos t|rst, oxp|anat|on socond, tho so|t-
doc|arod atho|st 3|mpson attr|butod h|s oxpor|onco to a s|xth sonso' that ho t|gurod was probab|y an ovo|ut|onary
romnant trom tho d|stant past that ho s|mp|y ca||od tho vo|co.' 3y contrast, |n W||||am la|rd VcK|n|ay's c|ass|c surv|va|
momo| r, 7bo Lost Voyogo o tbo Kot|ok, tho doop|y ro||g|ous Arct|c oxp|oror doscr|bod a sonsod-prosonco
oxpor|onco that t|||od mo w|th an oxu|tat|on boyond a|| oarth|y too||ng. As |t passod, and l wa|kod back to tho sh|p, l to|t
who||y conv|ncod that no agnost|c, no scopt|c, no atho|st, no human|st, no doubtor, wou|d ovor tako trom mo tho
corta|nty ot tho ox|stonco ot God.'
20
lndood, as tho psycho|og|st 1amos A||an Choyno, an oxport on tho study ot
protornatura| oxpor|oncos, obsorvod: 1horo |s otton a dua| consc|ousnoss assoc|atod w|th tho prosonco |n wh|ch a
hard-nosod roa||st |s s|mu|tanoous|y awaro that tho prosonco |s not roa| |n tho norma| sonso ot tho torm, yot uttor|y
compo|||ng, so compo|||ng, and pors|stont, that tood may bo ottorod to tho prosonco |n a casua| and automat|c
mannor.'
21
1hat's tho powor ot agont|c|ty.
l'vo had many such oxpor|oncos myso|t |n assoc|at|on w|th tho throo-thousand-m||o nonstop transcont|nonta| b|cyc|o
laco Across Amor|ca (lAAV), wh|ch |n 1008 was rankod by Ootsloo magaz|no as tho wor|d's toughost sport|ng
ovont' (basod on such cr|tor|a as d|stanco, courso d|tt|cu|ty, pa|n and suttor|ng, onv|ronmonta| cond|t|ons, dropout rato,
rocovory t|mo, and othor tactors).
22
lAAV starts on tho Wost Coast and onds on tho East Coast, w|th compot|tors
53
s|oop|ng on|y whon nocossary and stopp|ng as ||tt|o as poss|b|o. 1ho top cyc||sts comp|oto tho throo-thousand-m||o
d|stanco |n o|ght and a ha|t to n|no days, avorag|ng 82b to 8b0 m||os a day and s|oop|ng on|y about n|noty m|nutos a
n|ght. Woathor cond|t|ons vary trom 120 dogroos |ahronho|t |n tho Ca||torn|a dosorts to tho |ow 80s and trooz|ng ovor
tho Co|orado lock|os. 1ho pa|n trom sadd|o soros and prossuro po|nts and tho agony ot tat|guo aro a|most
unboarab|o. 1horo |s no t|mo to rocovor. 1ho dropout rato ot about two-th|rds |s a staggor|ng tost|mony to tho d|tt|cu|ty
ot th|s u|tramarathon ovont, and |n noar|y throo docados ot rac|ng towor than two hundrod poop|o havo oarnod tho
covotod lAAV r|ng. 1ho laco Across Amor|ca |s a ro|||ng oxpor|mont |n phys|ca| oxhaust|on and psycho|og|ca|
dotor|orat|on, wh|ch whon coup|od w|th s|oop dopr|vat|on has producod somo w||d and wacky stor|os trom tho
h|ghways and byways ot Amor|ca. l know bocauso l cotoundod tho raco w|th throo othor mon |n 1082 and compotod |n
|t t|vo t|mos.
A|| lAAV r|dors havo stor|os to to|| about b|zarro oxpor|oncos thoy havo had undor thoso oxtraord|nary cond|t|ons. l
wou|d otton porco|vo c|ustors ot ma||boxos on tho s|do ot tho road |n tho V|dwost as choor|ng tans como out to root us
on. 3|otchos |n tho pavomont trom m|nor road ropa|rs |ookod ||ko an|ma|s and myth|ca| croaturos. ln tho 1082 raco
O|ymp|c cyc||st 1ohn |oward to|d tho A3C to|ov|s|on camora crow: 1ho othor day l saw about t|tty yards ot Egypt|an
h|orog|yph|cs sproad a|ong tho h|ghway-craz|ost th|ng l'vo ovor soon, but |t was thoro!' ln that samo raco 1ohn
Var|no roca||od, ln tho tog ot lonnsy|van|a l was r|d|ng a|ong and l v|sua||zod myso|t r|d|ng s|doways |n a tog tunno|. l
put my hand down, stoppod, got ott tho b|ko and sat down, thon got back on tho b|ko.' ln tho 1080 raco, Gary vorr|||
rocountod h|s out-ot-body-||ko oxpor|onco: Attor day throo my consc|ousnoss was |n a droam stato. l was a|ort
onough to carry on a convorsat|on, but at tho samo t|mo was v|ow|ng myso|t trom anothor p|ano. 1ho sonsat|on was
oxact|y ||ko droam|ng-tho on|y d|ttoronco was |n tho d|sappo|ntmont ot not bo|ng ab|o to wako up or contro| tho
droam.'
28
Whon l was tho raco d|roctor |n tho 1000s, l wou|d rout|no|y como across b|urry-oyod cyc||sts |n tho m|dd|o ot tho
n|ght b|athor|ng on about guard|an ango|s, mystor|ous t|guros, and assortod caba|s and consp|rac|os aga|nst thom.
Ono n|ght |n Kansas (whoro 0orothy had hor v|s|on quost to Oz) l camo across a lAAV r|dor stand|ng noxt to somo
ra||road tracks. Whon l askod h|m what ho was do|ng ho oxp|a|nod that ho was wa|t|ng to tako tho tra|n to soo God.
Voro rocont|y, t|vo-t|mo w|nnor 1uro lob|c w|tnossod aspha|t cracks morph |nto codod mossagos, and ha||uc|natod
boars, wo|vos, and ovon a||ons. A mombor ot tho 3|ovon|an army, lob|c onco d|smountod h|s b|ko to ongago |n
combat a gagg|o ot ma||boxos ho was conv|ncod woro onomy troops, and anothor yoar ho tound h|mso|t bo|ng
chasod by a how||ng band ot b|ack-boardod horsomon. Vujahodoon, shoot|ng at mo,' lob|c roca||od. 3o l r|do
tastor.'
24
A s|stor ovont to lAAV |s tho ono-thousand-m||o nonstop ld|tarod s|od dog raco trom Anchorago to lomo, A|aska,
|n wh|ch mushors go tor n|no to tourtoon days on m|n|mum s|oop, aro a|ono oxcopt tor tho|r dogs, raro|y soo othor
compot|tors, and ha||uc|nato horsos, tra|ns, U|Os, |nv|s|b|o a|rp|anos, orchostras, strango an|ma|s, vo|cos w|thout
poop|o, and occas|ona||y phantom poop|o on tho s|do ot tho tra|| or |mag|nary tr|onds h|tch|ng a r|do on tho|r s|ods and
chatt|ng thom up dur|ng |ong |ono|y strotchos. |our-t|mo w|nnor lanco Vackoy roca||od a day whon ho was r|d|ng tho
s|od and saw a g|r| s|tt|ng by tho s|do ot tho tra|| kn|tt|ng. 3ho |aughod at mo, wavod, and l wont by hor and sho was
gono. You just |augh.'
2b
A mushor namod 1oo Garn|o bocamo conv|ncod that a man was r|d|ng |n h|s s|od bag. |o
po||to|y askod tho man to |oavo, but tho man d|dn't movo. Garn|o tappod h|m on tho shou|dor and |ns|stod ho dopart
h|s s|od, and whon tho strangor rotusod Garn|o swattod h|m.
20
What |s happon|ng |n tho bra|n dur|ng an agont-t|||od sonsod-prosonco oxpor|onco? 3ocauso thoy happon undor
such d|ttor|ng onv|ronmonts, l strong|y suspoct that thoro |s moro than ono causo. lt |t happonod on|y at h|gh a|t|tudo,
tor oxamp|o, wo m|ght t|ngor hypox|a as tho suspoct, but arct|c oxp|orors oxpor|onco |t at |ow a|t|tudos. lorhaps |t |s
trooz|ng co|d tomporaturos, but so|o sa||ors and lAAV r|dors |n warm c||mos sonso prosoncos. l suspoct that oxtromo
onv|ronmonta| cond|t|ons aro a nocossary but not sutt|c|ont oxp|anat|on ot tho sonsod-prosonco oxpor|onco. Whatovor
|ts |mmod|ato causo (tomporaturo, a|t|tudo, hypox|a, phys|ca| oxhaust|on, s|oop dopr|vat|on, starvat|on, |ono||noss,
toar), a doopor causo ot tho sonsod-prosonco ottoct |s to bo tound |n tho bra|n. l suggost tour oxp|anat|ons: (1) an
oxtons|on ot our norma| sonso ot prosonco ot ourso|vos and othors |n our phys|ca| and soc|a| onv|ronmonts, (2) a
cont||ct botwoon tho h|gh road ot contro||od roason and tho |ow road ot automat|c omot|on, (8) a cont||ct w|th|n tho
body schoma, or our phys|ca| sonso ot so|t, |n wh|ch your bra|n |s tr|ckod |nto th|nk|ng that thoro |s anothor you, or (4) a
cont||ct w|th|n tho m|nd schoma, or our psycho|og|ca| sonso ot so|t, |n wh|ch tho m|nd |s tr|ckod |nto th|nk|ng that thoro
|s anothor m|nd.
1 . Ao oxtoosloo o oot ootmo| sooso o ptosooco o ootso|vos ooo otbots lo oot pbyslco| ooo soclo|
oovltoomoots. 1h|s procoss ot sons|ng a prosonco |s probab|y just an oxtons|on ot our norma| oxpoctat|ons ot othors
around us bocauso wo aro such a soc|a| spoc|os. Wo havo a|| ||vod w|th othors, part|cu|ar|y |n our tormat|vo ch||dhood
and toonago yoars, and wo dovo|op a sonso ot tho|r prosonco whothor thoy aro thoro or not. Undor norma| cond|t|ons,
54
you como homo trom schoo| or work oxpoct|ng your to||ow tam||y mombors to o|thor bo homo or to arr|vo soon. You
scan tor to||ta|o cuos ot cars or koys or coats. You ||ston tor tho|r tam|||ar sounds ot wo|como. 1ho|r prosonco |s o|thor
sonsod or ant|c|patod. |or yoars attor my mothor d|od, whonovor l v|s|tod my tathor at tho homo whoro l grow up l had
th|s ovorwho|m|ng too||ng that sho wou|d como around tho cornor at any momont, ovon though my rat|ona| bra|n kopt
corroct|ng my omot|ona| oxpoctat|ons. |or o|ght yoars attor my mothor's pass|ng my stoptathor kopt c|oso company
w|th h|s domonstrat|vo b|ack lab |udson, and whonovor l stoppod by tho houso |ud wou|d a|ways como runn|ng to
groot mo, ovon attor ho was gono l st||| to|t ||ko ho'd como runn|ng to tho door. 3o |ngra|nod aro thoso sonsod-
prosonco oxpoctat|ons that ovon yoars |ator, whonovor l was |n my ancostra| homo, l had tho oor|o too||ng that my
stopdad and l woro not a|ono.
2. A coo|lct botwooo tbo blgb tooo o cootto||oo toosoo ooo tbo |owtooo o ootomotlc omotloo.
27
3ra|n tunct|ons
can bo rough|y d|v|dod |nto two procossos: cootto||oo and ootomotlc. Contro||od procossos tond to uso ||noar stop-
by-stop |og|c and aro do||borato|y omp|oyod, and wo aro awaro ot thom whon wo uso thom. Automat|c procossos
oporato unconsc|ous|y, nondo||borato|y, and |n para||o|. Contro||od procossos tond to occur |n tho tront (orb|ta| and
protronta|) parts ot tho bra|n. 1ho protronta| cortox (l|C) |s known as tho oxocut|vo rog|on bocauso |t |ntogratos tho
othor rog|ons tor |ong-torm p|ann|ng. Automat|c procossos tond to occur |n tho back (occ|p|ta|), top (par|ota|), and s|do
(tompora|) parts ot tho bra|n. 1ho amygda|a |s assoc|atod w|th automat|c omot|ona| rosponsos, ospoc|a||y toar. 0ur|ng
oxtromo and unusua| ovonts thoro may bo a compot|t|on botwoon thoso contro||od and automat|c bra|n systoms. As |n
tho t|ght-or-t||ght rosponso-|n wh|ch b|ood t|ow |s shuntod toward tho contor ot tho body and away trom tho por|phory,
whoro cuts and gashos cou|d rosu|t |n doath through b|ood |oss-tho h|gh road ot contro||od roason bog|ns to shut
down duo to oxygon dopr|vat|on, s|oop dopr|vat|on, oxtromo tomporaturos, starvat|on, oxhaust|on, and tho ||ko. 1ho
body powors down h|ghor tunct|ons |n ordor to prosorvo tho |owor tunct|ons nocossary tor bas|c surv|va|. ln tho courso
ot norma|, day-to-day ||v|ng, thoso contro||od c|rcu|ts ot roason koop our automat|c c|rcu|ts ot omot|ons |n chock, and
wo do not just g|vo |n to ovory wh|m and |mpu|so. 3ut romovo tho rat|ona| govornor and tho omot|ona| mach|nory
bog|ns to sp|n out ot contro|.
losoarch shows, tor oxamp|o, that at |ow |ovo|s ot st|mu|at|on, omot|ons appoar to p|ay an adv|sory ro|o, carry|ng
add|t|ona| |ntormat|on to tho doc|s|on-mak|ng aroas ot tho bra|n a|ong w|th |nputs trom h|ghor-ordor cort|ca| rog|ons ot
tho bra|n. At mod|um |ovo|s ot st|mu|at|on, cont||cts can ar|so botwoon h|gh-road roason contors and |ow-road omot|on
contors. At h|gh |ovo|s ot st|mu|at|on (as |n oxtromo onv|ronmonta| cond|t|ons and phys|ca| and monta| oxhaust|on),
|ow-road omot|ons can so ovorrun h|gh-road cogn|t|vo procossos that poop|o can no |ongor roason tho|r way to a
doc|s|on, thoy roport too||ng out ot contro|' or act|ng aga|nst tho|r own so|t-|ntorost.'
28
lorhaps th|s |s whon tho bra|n
ca||s torth tho sonsod-prosonco compan|on.
8. A coo|lct wltblo tbo booy scbomo, ot oot pbyslco| sooso o so|, lo wblcb yoot btolo ls ttlckoo loto tbloklog tbot
tboto ls oootbot yoo. lomombor, tho pr|mary tunct|on ot tho bra|n |s to run tho body, wh|ch most|y |nvo|vos sond|ng
and roco|v|ng s|gna|s trom musc|os, tondons, t|ssuos, and organs. What wo th|nk ot as our oxa|tod m|nd capab|o ot
h|ghor-ordor tunct|ons, such as aosthot|c approc|at|on, mathomat|ca| computat|on, or ph||osoph|ca| spocu|at|on, |s a
rosu|t ot tho corobra| cortox that s|ts atop tho mass|vo structuro ot tho bra|n that most|y concorns |tso|t w|th count|oss
othor mundano and subconsc|ous procossos that mako a ||v|ng body poss|b|o. As such, your bra|n dovo|ops an
ovorarch|ng portra|t ot your body, trom your toos and t|ngors through your |ogs and arms and r|ght |nto your torso and
up your back to tho top ot your hoad. 1h|s |s your body schoma, and |t oxtonds boyond tho body |nto tho wor|d whon
your th|nk|ng ongagos w|th othor poop|o through |anguago, whon you wr|to somoth|ng down on papor or typo |t |nto a
computor, or portorm any othor oxtondod roach trom |ns|do your hoad to outs|do your body. 1h|s |s somot|mos ca||od
ombooloo cogoltloo, tho oxtooooo mloo, or, |n tho ph||osophor Andy C|ark's apt doscr|ptor, supors|z|ng tho m|nd.'
20
lhys|ca||y touch|ng somoono |s a m|nd oxtons|on, and |t thoy touch you back |t croatos a toodback |oop. languago
was tho t|rst ovo|vod torm ot oxtondod m|nd, and tho wr|tton word oxtondod |anguago ovon turthor, as d|d tho pr|nt|ng
pross, pr|ntod books, and nowspapors. Vost rocont|y, rad|o, to|ov|s|on, and ospoc|a||y tho lntornot havo supors|zod
tho bra|n and oxtondod tho m|nd throughout tho g|obo and ovon |nto spaco.
1h|s body schoma |s you, and thoro |s on|y ono ot you.
80
lt tor any roason your bra|n |s tr|ckod (or a|torod or
damagod) |nto th|nk|ng that thoro |s anothor you-an |ntorna| doppo|gngor-th|s |nov|tab|y cont||cts w|th your s|ng|o-
body schoma. 1o adjust tor th|s anoma|y, your bra|n constructs a p|aus|b|o oxp|anat|on tor th|s othor you: |t |s actua||y
somoono or somoth|ng o|so: a noncorporoa| ont|ty or sou| com|ng out ot your body (as |n tho out-ot-body oxpor|onco),
or that thoro |s anothor porson-a sonsod prosonco-noarby.
1ho m|smatch botwoon your body schoma and tho art|t|c|a||y |nducod doppo|gngor probab|y occurs botwoon tho
par|ota| |obo and tho tompora| |obo |n your bra|n. 3poc|t|ca||y, |t |s tho job ot tho postotlot sopotlot potloto| |obo to
or|ont your body |n phys|ca| spaco (tho back and uppor rog|ons ot th|s |obo s|t abovo and to tho roar ot tho tompora|
55
|obo abovo your oars). 1h|s |s tho part ot tho bra|n that can to|| tho d|ttoronco botwoon you and not-you, wh|ch |s to say
ovoryth|ng o|so outs|do ot your body. Whon th|s part ot tho bra|n |s qu|oscont dur|ng doop mod|tat|on and prayor (as
w|tnossod |n bra|n scan stud|os), subjocts (3uddh|st monks and Catho||c nuns) roport too||ng at ono w|th tho wor|d or
|n doop contact w|th tho transcondont.
81
ln a mannor ot spoak|ng, mod|tat|on and prayor havo croatod a m|smatch
botwoon tho body schoma and tho wor|d, and |t |s poss|b|o that somoth|ng ||ko th|s happons undor oxtromo and
unusua| cond|t|ons.
lhantom ||mbs aro anothor porcoptua| m|smatch. At tho Un|vors|ty ot Ca||torn|a-3an 0|ogo, tho nourosc|ont|st v.
3. lamachandran (lama') has usod tho concopt ot tho body schoma to troat phantom pa|n |n pat|onts who havo |ost
an arm. Essont|a||y, thoso pat|onts aro suttor|ng trom a ||mb schoma m|smatch, w|th tho|r oyos roport|ng that thoro |s
no ||mb wh||o tho|r body schoma st||| ma|nta|ns tho ||mb |mago. Why th|s shou|d rosu|t |n pa|n |s not c|oar. lama
suggosts sovora| oxp|anat|ons, |nc|ud|ng |rr|tat|on ot tho norvo ond|ngs, contra| romapp|ng (|oad|ng to rotorrod
sonsat|ons) |n wh|ch somo |ow throsho|d touch |nput m|ght cross-act|vato h|gh throsho|d pa|n nourons,' and a
m|smatch botwoon motor commands and tho 'oxpoctod' but m|ss|ng v|sua| and propr|ocopt|vo |nput' that may bo
porco|vod as pa|n.'
82
Whatovor tho causo, tho pat|ont's bra|n sonds a s|gna| to tho phantom arm to movo, but tho
s|gna| sont back to tho bra|n |s that |t can't movo (pat|onts roport too||ng as |t tho|r arm |s stuck |n comont' or trozon |n
a b|ock ot |co'), and thus thoro |s a |oarnod para|ys|s.' 1o corroct tho m|smatch, lama constructod a m|rror box. 1ho
pat|ont |nsortod h|s |ott phantom arm |nto ono s|do ot tho box boh|nd tho m|rror and h|s r|ght |ntact arm |nto tho othor
s|do. 1ho m|rror rot|octod tho r|ght who|o arm as a m|rror |mago ot tho |ott phantom arm. lama thon had tho man
w|gg|o tho t|ngors ot tho r|ght arm, wh|ch sont s|gna|s back to h|s bra|n that tho phantom arm was mov|ng, thoroby
ovorr|d|ng tho |oarnod para|ys|s and |oad|ng to a dramat|c roduct|on ot phantom pa|n.
88
lhantom ||mbs, body schomas, and v|sua| and aud|tory ha||uc|nat|ons aro a|| noura| corro|atos ot tho dua||st|c
stanco that m|nd and body ox|st as soparato agonts both |n ourso|vos and othors, and wo thoroby attr|buto |ntont|ona|
agoncy not on|y to roa| othors but to phantom othors as wo||.
4. A coo|lct wltblo tbo mloo scbomo, ot oot psycbo|oglco| sooso o so|, lo wblcb tbo mloo ls ttlckoo loto tbloklog
tbot tboto ls oootbot mloo. Our bra|ns cons|st ot many |ndopondont noura| notworks that at any g|von momont aro
work|ng away at var|ous prob|oms |n da||y ||v|ng. And yot wo do not too| ||ko wo'ro a bund|o ot notworks. Wo too| ||ko a
s|ng|o m|nd |n ono bra|n. 1ho nourosc|ont|st V|chao| Gazzan|ga th|nks that wo havo a noura| notwork that coord|natos
a|| tho othor noura| notworks and woavos thom togothor |nto a who|o. |o ca||s th|s tho |ot-bomlspboto lototptotot, tho
bra|n's storyto||or that puts togothor count|oss |nputs |nto a moan|ngtu| narrat|vo story. Gazzan|ga d|scovorod th|s
notwork wh||o study|ng sp||t-bra|n pat|onts whoso hom|sphoros havo boon soparatod to stop tho sproad ot op||opt|c
so|zuros. ln ono oxpor|mont, Gazzan|ga prosontod tho word wo|k to on|y tho r|ght hom|sphoro ot a sp||t-bra|n pat|ont,
who prompt|y got up and startod wa|k|ng. Whon askod why, h|s |ott-hom|sphoro |ntorprotor mado up a story to oxp|a|n
th|s bohav|or: l wantod to go got a Coko.'
Wo otton |oarn how tho bra|n works trom whon |t doosn't work r|ght. Gazzan|ga notos, tor oxamp|o, that pat|onts
w|th rodup||cat|vo paramnos|a' bo||ovo that thoro aro cop|os ot poop|o or p|acos. 1hoy m|x thoso cop|os up |nto ono
oxpor|onco or story that makos portoct sonso to thom ovon |t |t sounds r|d|cu|ous to ovoryono around thom. Ono such
pat|ont bo||ovod tho low York hosp|ta| whoro sho was bo|ng troatod was actua||y hor homo |n Va|no,' Gazzan|ga
roca||od. Whon hor doctor askod how th|s cou|d bo hor homo |t thoro woro o|ovators |n tho ha||way, sho sa|d, '0octor,
do you know how much |t cost mo to havo thoso put |n?' 1ho |ntorprotor w||| go to groat |ongths to mako suro tho |nputs
|t roco|vos aro wovon togothor to mako sonso-ovon whon |t must mako groat |oaps to do so. Ot courso, thoso do not
appoar as 'groat |oaps' to tho pat|ont, but rathor as c|oar ov|donco trom tho wor|d around h|m or hor.'
84
1h|s |s, |n part,
what l moan by pottotolclty and ogootlclty, a|though thoso aro just doscr|pt|vo torms tor a cogn|t|vo procoss. What wo
roa||y want to know |s what tho noura| corro|atos aro tor th|s procoss, and tor tho gonorat|on ot sonsod prosoncos and
othor torms ot ophomora| agont|c|t|os. 1h|s |ott-hom|sphoro |ntorprotor |s a good cand|dato tor whoro |t happons.
Vy brothor-|n-|aw |rod Z|o|, who has c||mbod many ot tho h|ghost and most dangorous poaks ot tho ||ma|ayas,
to||s mo that ho has tw|co oxpor|oncod a sonsod prosonco. 1ho t|rst t|mo was whon ho was trostb|tton and w|thout
oxygon at tho ||m|t ot phys|ca| ottort abovo tho ||||ary 3top, tho |ast hurd|o on Vount Evorost's southoast r|dgo. 1ho
socond t|mo was on Evorost's north r|dgo attor ho co||apsod trom dohydrat|on and hypox|a (oxygon dopr|vat|on) at
twonty-s|x thousand toot. 3oth t|mos ho was a|ono and w|sh|ng ho had a compan|on, wh|ch h|s bra|n ob||g|ng|y
prov|dod. 1o|||ng|y, whon l askod h|s op|n|on as a mod|ca| doctor on poss|b|o hom|sphor|c d|ttoroncos to account tor
such phonomona, |rod notod, 3oth t|mos tho sonso was on my r|ght s|do, porhaps ro|atod to bo|ng |ott-handod.'
lourosc|ont|sts bo||ovo that our sonso ot so|t' |s |ocatod pr|mar||y |n tho tompora| |obo ot tho |ott hom|sphoro, and that
our d|v|dod bra|n moans that |ott- and r|ght-bra|n c|rcu|ts aro cr|sscrossod so that, tor oxamp|o, tho r|ght v|sua| t|o|d |s
rog|storod |n tho |ott hom|sphoro's v|sua| cortox. lorhaps tho oxygon dopr|vat|on at twonty-s|x thousand toot, or tho
b|ttor co|d, or tho pa|n ot trostb|to, or tho too||ng ot bo|ng abandonod and a|ono-or somo comb|nat|on thoroot-
56
tr|ggorod tho |ott tompora| |obo |n |rod's bra|n to gonorato anothor so|t.' 3|nco tho bra|n has on|y ono body and ono
m|nd schoma-ono so|t-a socond so|t can bo porco|vod on|y as anothor bo|ng outs|do tho body, a sonsod prosonco
noarby.
1ho sonsod prosonco may bo tho |ott-hom|sphoro |ntorprotor's oxp|anat|on tor r|ght-hom|sphoro anoma||os. Or
thoro may bo noura| notwork cont||cts |n body or m|nd schomas. Or |t may bo |ono||noss and toar oxtond|ng our norma|
sonsod prosonco ot roa| othors |nto |mag|n|ng ophomora| compan|ons. Whatovor |ts causo, tho tact that |t happons
undor so many d|ttoront cond|t|ons to||s us that tho prosonco |s |ns|do tho hoad and not outs|do tho body.

1hoso oxamp|os ot and oxp|anat|ons tor suporst|t|on and mag|ca| th|nk|ng, rootod |n assoc|at|on |oarn|ng, thoory ot
m|nd, sonsod prosoncos, tho suporsonso, and tho ||ko-undor tho rubr|c ot pattorn|c|ty and agont|c|ty-aro not causa|
oxp|anat|ons por so. labo||ng a cogn|t|vo procoss |s a hour|st|c to ho|p us got our m|nds around a prob|om to bo
so|vod or a mystory to bo oxp|a|nod, but thoy aro on|y |abo|s, |n tho samo way that ca|||ng a sot ot ha||uc|natory
symptoms scblzopbtoolo oxp|a|ns tho causo ot thoso symptoms. Wo nood to boro doopor |nto tho bra|n |tso|t to
undorstand tho u|t|mato naturo ot bo||ot and tho truo causo ot our tondoncy to t|nd moan|ngtu| pattorns |n moan|ngtu|
and moan|ng|oss no|so, and to |ntuso thoso pattorns w|th moan|ng, |ntont|on, and agoncy. 1ho act|ons ot nourons |n
tho bra|n |s whoro wo w||| t|nd tho u|t|mato causa| oxp|anat|on.
57

0

1ho BoIioving Nouron
A|| oxpor|onco |s mod|atod by tho bra|n. 1ho m|nd |s what tho bra|n doos. 1horo |s no such th|ng as m|nd' por so,
outs|do ot bra|n act|v|ty. Vloo |s just a word wo uso to doscr|bo noura| act|v|ty |n tho bra|n. lo bra|n, no m|nd. Wo
know th|s bocauso |t a part ot tho bra|n |s dostroyod through stroko or cancor or |njury or surgory, whatovor that part ot
tho bra|n was do|ng |s now gono. lt tho damago occurs |n oar|y ch||dhood whon tho bra|n |s ospoc|a||y p|ast|c, or |n
adu|thood |n corta|n parts ot tho bra|n that aro conduc|vo to row|r|ng, thon that bra|n tunct|on-that m|nd' part ot tho
bra|n-may bo row|rod |nto anothor noura| notwork |n tho bra|n. 3ut th|s procoss just turthor ro|ntorcos tho tact that
w|thout noura| connoct|ons |n tho bra|n thoro |s no m|nd. lovortho|oss, tuzzy oxp|anat|ons tor monta| procossos aro st|||
common|y omp|oyod.
Forco NontaI: A NonoxIanation tor Nind
Whon l was a psycho|ogy undorgraduato at loppord|no Un|vors|ty wo woro roqu|rod to tako a courso ca||od
pbyslo|oglco| psycbo|ogy, wh|ch today wou|d bo ca||od cogoltlvo oootosclooco. lt turnod out to bo a roa| oyo-oponor
tor mo |n tho study ot tho m|nd bocauso our protossor-0arro|| C. 0oarmoro, ono ot tho c|oarost oxpos|tors ot sc|onco
l'vo ovor had-boro doop |nto tho coro ot tho bra|n to rovoa| tho toundat|ona| structuro ot a|| thought and act|on: tho
nouron. 3otoro l undorstood how tho nouron works, l was sat|st|od w|th tuzzy-word oxp|anat|ons tor what was go|ng on
|ns|do poop|o's hoads, such as th|nk|ng' or procoss|ng' or |oarn|ng' or undorstand|ng' togothor co||octod undor tho
rubr|c ot m|nd,' as |t thoso woro causa| accounts tor bra|n procossos. 1hoy aro not. 1hoy aro just words to doscr|bo a
procoss, wh|ch |tso|t noods a doopor oxp|anat|on.
ln tho oar|y twont|oth contury tho 3r|t|sh b|o|og|st 1u||an |ux|oy parod|od tho |ronch ph||osophor |onr| 3orgson's
tuzzy oxp|anat|on tor ||to as bo|ng causod by an o|oo vlto| (v|ta| torco), wh|ch |ux|oy sa|d was ||ko oxp|a|n|ng a ra||road
stoam ong|no as bo|ng dr|von by |ts o|oo |ocomotl (|ocomot|vo torco). l|chard 0awk|ns br||||ant|y omp|oyod a s|m||ar
ana|ogy to parody |nto|||gont dos|gn oxp|anat|ons tor ||to. 1o say that tho oyo, or tho bactor|a t|ago||um, or 0lA aro
dos|gnod' to||s us noth|ng. 3c|ont|sts want to know bow thoy woro dos|gnod, what otcos woro at work, how tho
ptocoss ot dovo|opmont unto|dod, and so on. 0awk|ns |mag|nod a countortactua| h|story |n wh|ch Androw |ux|oy and
A|an |odgk|n, w|nnors ot tho lobo| lr|zo tor t|gur|ng out tho mo|ocu|ar b|ophys|cs ot tho norvo |mpu|so, |n a croat|on|st
wor|dv|ow attr|butod |t to norvous onorgy.'
1
lnsp|rod by 0awk|ns's sat|r|ca| d|a|oguo, |mag|no |t 0av|d |ubo| and 1orston W|oso|-w|nnors ot tho 1081 lobo|
lr|zo tor tho|r p|onoor|ng rosoarch |n bra|n c|rcu|try and dotorm|n|ng tho nourochom|stry ot v|s|on-had, |nstoad ot
spond|ng yoars gott|ng down to tho co||u|ar and mo|ocu|ar |ovo| ot undorstand|ng how tho bra|n convorts photons ot
||ght |nto noura| |mpu|sos, s|mp|y attr|butod tho procoss to otco mooto|.
low soo horo, |ubo|, th|s bus|noss about how photons ot ||ght aro transducod |nto noura| act|v|ty |s a droadtu||y
thorny prob|om. l just can't undorstand how |t works, can you?'
lo, my doar W|oso|, l can't, and |mp|ant|ng thoso o|octrodos |nto monkoys' bra|ns |s tru|y unp|oasant and mossy,
and l havo tho hardost t|mo gott|ng tho o|octrodo |nto tho r|ght spot. Why don't wo just say that tho ||ght |s convortod
|nto a norvo |mpu|so by otco mooto|?'
What wou|d otco mooto| oxp|a|n? loth|ng. lt wou|d bo ||ko doscr|b|ng your automob||o's ong|no as oporat|ng by
otco combostloo, wh|ch ta||s to capturo what |s actua||y go|ng on |ns|do tho cy||ndors ot an |ntorna| combust|on
ong|no: a p|ston comprossos a vaporous m|xturo ot gaso||no and a|r that |s |gn|tod by a spark p|ug caus|ng an
oxp|os|on that dr|vos tho p|ston down thoroby turn|ng a crank arm that |s connoctod to a dr|vo shatt that |s ||nkod to a
d|ttoront|a| that rotatos tho whoo|s.
1h|s |s what l moan whon l say that tho m|nd |s what tho bra|n doos. 1ho nouron and |ts act|ons aro to psycho|ogy
what tho atom and grav|ty aro to phys|cs. 1o undorstand bo||ot wo havo to undorstand how nourons work.
5ynatic 5tatoa and BoIioving Nourona
1ho bra|n cons|sts ot about a hundrod b||||on nourons ot sovora| hundrod typos, oach ot wh|ch conta|ns a co|| body, a
58
doscond|ng axon cab|o, and numorous dondr|tos and axon torm|na|s branch|ng out to othor nourons |n approx|mato|y
a thousand tr||||on synapt|c connoct|ons botwoon thoso hundrod b||||on nourons. 1hoso aro staggor|ng numbors. A
hundrod b||||on nourons |s 10
11
, or a 1 to||owod by 11 zoros: 100,000,000,000. A thousand tr||||on connoct|ons |s a
quadr||||on, or 10
1b
, or a 1 to||owod by 1b zoros: 1,000,000,000,000,000. 1ho numbor ot nourons |n a human bra|n |s
about tho samo numbor ot stars |n tho V||ky Way ga|axy-||tora||y an astronom|ca| numbor! 1ho numbor ot synapt|c
connoct|ons |n tho bra|n |s oqu|va|ont to tho numbor ot soconds |n 80 m||||on yoars. 1h|nk about that tor a momont.
3tart count|ng soconds as ono ono thousand, two ono thousand, throo ono thousand..' Whon you got to 80,400 that
|s tho numbor ot soconds |n a day, whon you roach 81,b80,000 that |s tho numbor ot soconds |n a yoar, and whon you
t|na||y roach ono tr||||on soconds you w||| havo boon count|ng tor about 80,000 yoars, now, do that 80,000-yoar
count|ng b|ock ono thousand moro t|mos and you w||| havo countod tho numbor ot synapt|c connoct|ons |n your bra|n.
largo nourona| counts do gonorato groator computat|ona| powor to bo suro (||ko add|ng moro procossor ch|ps or
momory cards to your computor), but tho act|on |s |n tho |nd|v|dua| nourons thomso|vos. lourons aro o|ogant|y s|mp|o
and yot boaut|tu||y comp|ox o|octrochom|ca| |ntormat|on-procoss|ng mach|nos. lns|do a rost|ng nourona| co|| thoro |s
moro potass|um than thoro |s sod|um, and a prodom|nanco ot an|ons-nogat|vo|y chargod |ons-g|vos tho |ns|do ot
tho co|| a nogat|vo chargo. 0opond|ng on wh|ch typo ot nouron |t |s, |t you put a t|ny o|octrodo |ns|do tho nourona| co||
body |n a rost|ng stato |t wou|d road -70 mv (a m||||vo|t |s oqua| to ono-thousandth ot a vo|t). ln th|s rost|ng stato tho co||
wa|| ot tho nouron |s |mpormoab|o to sod|um but pormoab|o to potass|um. Whon tho nouron |s st|mu|atod by tho
act|ons ot othor nourons (or tho o|octr|ca| mach|nat|ons ot cur|ous nourosc|ont|sts w|th o|octrodos), tho pormoab|||ty ot
tho co|| wa|| changos, a||ow|ng sod|um to ontor and thoroby sh|tt tho o|octr|ca| ba|anco trom -70 mv toward 0. 1h|s |s
ca||od tho oxcltototy postsyooptlc potootlo|, or El3l. 1ho syoopso |s tho t|ny gap botwoon nourons, so postsyooptlc
moans tho nouron on tho roco|v|ng ond ot tho s|gna| that travo|s across tho synapt|c c|ott |s tho ono bo|ng oxc|tod to
roach |ts potont|a| to t|ro. 3y contrast, |t tho st|mu|at|on comos trom |nh|b|tory nourons |t causos tho vo|tago to sh|tt
downward trom -70 mv to -100 mv, mak|ng tho nouron |oss ||ko|y to t|ro, and th|s |s ca||od tho loblbltoty postsyooptlc
potootlo|, or ll3l. A|though thoro aro hundrods ot d|ttoront typos ot nourons, wo can c|ass|ty most ot thom as o|thor
oxc|tatory or |nh|b|tory |n tho|r act|ons.
lt thoro aro onough El3ls bu||t up (trom numorous nourona| t|r|ngs |n soquonco or trom mu|t|p|o connoct|ons trom
many othor nourons) tor tho pormoab|||ty ot tho nouron co|| wa|| to roach a ctltlco| polot, sod|um rushos |n, caus|ng an
|nstant sp|ko |n vo|tago to +b0 mv, wh|ch sproads throughout tho co|| body and cascados down tho axon |nto tho
torm|na|s. 1ust as qu|ck|y, tho nouron's vo|tago co||apsos back down to -80 mv, thon roturns to tho -70 mv rost|ng
stato. 1h|s procoss ot tho co|| wa|| bocom|ng pormoab|o to sod|um w|th a corrospond|ng sh|tt |n vo|tago trom nogat|vo
to pos|t|vo that travo|s down tho axon to tho dondr|tos and tho|r synapt|c connoct|ons to othor nourons |s ca||od an
octloo potootlo|. Voro co||oqu|a||y, wo say that tho co|| t|rod.' 1ho bu||dup ot El3ls |s ca||od sommotloo, and thoro
aro two typos: (1) tompoto| sommotloo, |n wh|ch two El3ls trom a s|ng|o nouron aro onough tor tho roco|v|ng nouron
to roach |ts cr|t|ca| po|nt and t|ro, and (2) spotlo| sommotloo, |n wh|ch two El3ls trom two d|ttoront nourons arr|vo at
tho samo t|mo and aro onough tor tho roco|v|ng nouron to roach |ts cr|t|ca| po|nt and t|ro. 1h|s o|octrochom|ca| chango
ot vo|tago sp|ko and sod|um pormoab|||ty propagatos down tho axon soquont|a||y trom tho co|| body to tho axon
torm|na|s, and th|s |s ca||od, appropr|ato|y onough, ptopogotloo. 1ho spood ot propagat|on doponds on two
cond|t|ons: (1) tho d|amotor ot tho axon (tho b|ggor tho tastor), and (2) tho myo||nat|on ot tho axon (tho moro myo||n
shoath thoro |s covor|ng and |nsu|at|ng tho axon tho tastor tho propagat|on ot tho |mpu|so down |t).
2
loto that |t tho cr|t|ca| po|nt tor tho nouron to t|ro |s not roachod, thon |t doos not t|ro, |t tho cr|t|ca| po|nt |s roachod
thon tho nouron doos t|ro. lt's an on-or-ott, a||-or-noth|ng systom. lourons do not t|ro sott' |n rosponso to a woak
st|mu|us, nor do thoy t|ro hard' |n rosponso to a strong st|mu|us. 1hoy o|thor t|ro or thoy do not t|ro. 1horotoro, nourons
commun|cato |ntormat|on |n ono ot throo ways: (1) ltlog toqooocy (tho numbor ot act|on potont|a|s por socond), (2)
ltlog |ocotloo (wh|ch nourons t|ro), and (8) ltlog oombot (how many nourons t|ro). ln th|s way, |t |s sa|d that nourons
aro b|nary |n act|on, ana|ogous to tho b|nary d|g|ts ot a computor-1 and 0-wh|ch corrospond to an on' or ott'
s|gna| bo|ng passod a|ong a noura| pathway or not. lt wo cons|dor thoso nourona| on-or-ott statos as a typo ot monta|
stato, w|th ono nouron g|v|ng us two monta| statos (on or ott), thon thoro aro 2 10
1b
poss|b|o cho|cos ava||ab|o to tho
bra|n |n procoss|ng |ntormat|on about tho wor|d and tho body |t |s runn|ng. 3|nco wo tako |n on|y a t|ny tract|on ot th|s
numbor, tho bra|n-tor a|| |ntonts and purposos-|s an |nt|n|to |ntormat|on-procoss|ng mach|no.
|ow do |nd|v|dua| nourons and tho|r act|on potont|a|s croato comp|ox thoughts and bo||ots? lt bog|ns w|th
somoth|ng ca||od noura| bloolog. A rod c|rc|o' wou|d bo an oxamp|o ot two noura| notwork |nputs (rod' and c|rc|o')
bound |nto ono porcopt ot a rod c|rc|o. 0ownstroam noura| |nputs, such as thoso c|osor to musc|os and sonsory
organs, convorgo as thoy movo upstroam through coovotgooco zooos, wh|ch aro bra|n rog|ons that |ntograto
|ntormat|on com|ng trom var|ous noura| |nputs (oyos, oars, touch, and so torth) so that what you ond up oxpor|onc|ng |s
59
a who|o objoct |nstoad ot count|oss tragmonts ot an |mago. ln tho ups|do-down |mago ot lros|dont Obama prosontod
|n chaptor 4, wo |n|t|a||y soo tho |ntogratod taco ho||st|ca||y, and on|y |ator do wo bog|n to not|co that thoro |s somoth|ng
wrong w|th tho oyos and mouth, as oxp|a|nod, th|s |s duo to two d|ttoront noura| notworks oporat|ng at d|ttoront spoods
-tho who|o taco porcopt t|rst, thon tho parts ot tho taco socond.
3|nd|ng |nvo|vos so much moro than th|s, howovor. 1horo may bo hundrods ot porcopts stroam|ng |nto tho bra|n
trom tho var|ous sonsos that must bo bound togothor tor h|ghor bra|n rog|ons to mako sonso ot |t a||. largo bra|n
aroas such as tho corobra| cortox coord|nato |nputs trom sma||or bra|n aroas such as tho tompora| |obos, wh|ch
thomso|vos co||ato noura| ovonts trom st||| sma||or bra|n modu|os such as tho tus|torm gyrus (tor tac|a| rocogn|t|on).
1h|s roduct|on cont|nuos a|| tho way down to tho s|ng|o nouron |ovo|, whoro h|gh|y so|oct|vo nourons-somot|mos
doscr|bod as grandmothor' nourons-t|ro on|y whon subjocts soo somoono thoy know. 1horo aro nourons that t|ro
on|y whon an objoct movos |ott to r|ght across your v|sua| t|o|d. 1horo aro othor nourons that t|ro on|y whon an objoct
movos r|ght to |ott across your v|sua| t|o|d. And thoro aro st||| othor nourons that havo an act|on potont|a| on|y whon thoy
roco|vo El3l |nputs trom othor nourons that t|ro |n rosponso to d|agona|-mov|ng objocts |n your v|sua| t|o|d. And so
on up tho notworks goos tho b|nd|ng procoss. 1horo aro ovon nourons that t|ro on|y whon you soo somoono you know
or rocogn|zo. Ca|toch nourosc|ont|sts Chr|stot Koch and Gabr|o| Kro|man, |n conjunct|on w|th UClA nourosurgoon
ltzhak |r|od, tor oxamp|o, havo ovon tound a s|ng|o nouron that t|ros whon tho subjoct |s shown a photograph ot 3|||
C||nton and no ono o|so. Anothor ono t|ros on|y whon shown 1onn|tor An|ston, but not a photograph ot hor and 3rad
l|tt.
8
Ot courso, wo aro not awaro ot tho work|ngs ot our own o|octrochom|ca| systoms. What wo actua||y oxpor|onco |s
what ph||osophors ca|| qoo|lo, or subjoct|vo statos ot thoughts and too||ngs that ar|so trom a concatonat|on ot noura|
ovonts. 3ut ovon qua||a |s |tso|t a typo ot noura| b|nd|ng ottoct, |ntograt|ng |nputs trom count|oss othor noura| notworks
downstroam. lt roa||y doos a|| como down to tho o|octrochom|ca| procoss ot nourona| act|on potont|a|s, or nourons
t|r|ng and commun|cat|ng w|th ono anothor, pass|ng |ntormat|on a|ong tho way. |ow do thoy do th|s? Voro chom|stry.
Commun|cat|on botwoon nourons happons |n that |mposs|b|y t|ny synapt|c c|ott botwoon nourons. Whon tho act|on
potont|a| ot a nouron rushos down tho axon and roachos tho torm|na|s |t tr|ggors tho ro|oaso ot t|ny packots ot
cbomlco| ttoosmlttot sobstoocos (C13) |nto tho synapso. Whon takon up by tho connoct|ng nouron, tho C13 act as
an El3l to chango tho vo|tago and pormoab|||ty ot tho postsynapt|c nouron, thoroby caus|ng |t to t|ro and propagato
|ts act|on potont|a| down |ts axon to |ts torm|na|s to ro|oaso |ts C13 |nto tho noxt synapt|c gap, and so on down tho ||no
|n a noura| notwork. Whon you stub your too tho pa|n s|gna| travo|s a|ong a c|rcu|try trom tho pa|n rocoptors |n tho
t|ssuos |n your too a|| tho way up to tho bra|n, wh|ch rog|stors tho pa|n and procossos tho s|gna| to othor aroas ot tho
bra|n that sond add|t|ona| s|gna|s to contract musc|os to pu|| your toot away trom tho ottond|ng objoct, a|| at a spood
that too|s a|most |nstantanoous.
1horo aro many typos ot C13. 1ho most common aro known as tho cotocbo|omloos and |nc|udo oopomloo,
ootoploopbtloo (ootootooo|loo), and oploopbtloo (ootooo|loo). 1ho C13 act ||ko koys tor tho |ocks on tho
postsynapt|c nouron. lt tho koy t|ts and turns, tho nouron t|ros, |t |t doosn't tho door roma|ns c|osod and tho
postsynapt|c nouron qu|ot. Attor tho t|r|ng procoss occurs, most unusod C13 go back to tho prosynapt|c nouron whoro
|t |s o|thor rousod or dostroyod by monoam|no ox|daso (VAO) |n a procoss ca||od Uptoko l. lt thoro aro too much C13
t|oat|ng around |n tho synapt|c gap, thon tho rost gots suckod up |nto tho postsynapt|c nouron |n a procoss ca||od
Uptoko ll.
0rugs act on synapsos and tho ro|oaso ot C13 and subsoquont uptako procossos. Amphotam|nos, tor oxamp|o,
spood up tho ro|oaso ot C13 |nto tho synapso, thoroby acco|orat|ng tho noura| commun|cat|on procoss-that's why
thoy'ro ca||od spooo. losorp|no, onco common|y proscr|bod tor psychos|s, broaks up C13 vos|c|os |n tho prosynapt|c
nouron so that tho VAO dostroys thom botoro thoy aro usod, thoroby s|ow|ng noura| notworks and contro|||ng man|a,
hyportons|on, and othor symptoms ot an ovoract|vo norvous systom. Coca|no b|ocks Uptako l so that tho C13 just stay
|n tho synapso and koop tho nourons t|r|ng away at an acco|oratod rato, crank|ng up noura| notworks |nto a tronz|od
stato-th|nk lob|n W||||ams w|th a m|crophono and an aud|onco, |n po|nt ot tact, W||||ams attr|butos much ot h|s man|c
comody |n tho 1080s to h|s coca|no add|ct|on. As ono ot tho most common C13, dopam|no |s cr|t|ca| to tho smooth
commun|cat|on botwoon nourons and musc|os, and whon thoro |sn't onough ot |t pat|onts |oso motor contro| and
shako uncontro||ab|y. 1h|s |s ca||od lark|nson's d|soaso, ono troatmont tor wh|ch |s l-dopa, a dopam|no agon|st that
st|mu|atos tho product|on ot moro dopam|no.
|ow do wo bu||d a systom trom tho bottom up, start|ng w|th a chom|ca| transm|ttor substanco such as dopam|no,
and b|nd tho |nputs |nto an |ntogratod bo||ot systom? 1hrough bohav|or. lomombor, tho pr|mary tunct|on ot tho bra|n |s
to run tho body and ho|p |t surv|vo. Ono way |t doos that |s through assoc|at|on |oarn|ng, or pattorn|c|ty. 1h|s |s tho ||nk
trom nourona| act|on potont|a|s to human act|on.
60
Doamino: 1ho BoIiot Drug
Ot a|| tho chom|ca| transm|ttor substancos s|osh|ng around |n your bra|n, |t appoars that dopam|no may bo tho most
d|roct|y ro|atod to tho noura| corro|atos ot bo||ot. 0opam|no, |n tact, |s cr|t|ca| |n assoc|at|on |oarn|ng and tho roward
systom ot tho bra|n that 3k|nnor d|scovorod through h|s procoss ot oporant cond|t|on|ng, whoroby any bohav|or that |s
ro|ntorcod tonds to bo ropoatod. A ro|ntorcomont |s, by dot|n|t|on, somoth|ng that |s roward|ng to tho organ|sm, that |s
to say, |t makos tho bra|n d|roct tho body to ropoat tho bohav|or |n ordor to got anothor pos|t|vo roward. |oro |s how |t
works.
ln tho d|v|dod bra|n stom-ono ot tho most ovo|ut|onar||y anc|ont parts ot tho bra|n sharod by a|| vortobratos-thoro
aro pockots ot rough|y t|ttoon thousand to twonty-t|vo thousand dopam|no-produc|ng nourons on oach s|do that shoot
out |ong axons connoct|ng to othor parts ot tho bra|n. 1hoso nourons st|mu|ato tho ro|oaso ot dopam|no whonovor |t |s
dotorm|nod that a roco|vod roward |s moro than oxpoctod, wh|ch causos tho |nd|v|dua| to ropoat tho bohav|or. 1ho
ro|oaso ot dopam|no |s a torm ot |ntormat|on, a mossago that to||s tho organ|sm 0o that aga|n.' 0opam|no producos
tho sonsat|on ot p|oasuro that accompan|os mastor|ng a task or accomp||sh|ng a goa|, wh|ch makos tho organ|sm
want to ropoat tho bohav|or, whothor |t |s pross|ng a bar, pock|ng a koy, or pu|||ng a s|ot mach|no |ovor. You got a h|t (a
ro|ntorcomont) and your bra|n gots a h|t ot dopam|no. Bobovlot-Rolootcomoot-Bobovlot. Ropoot soqoooco.
1ho dopam|no systom, howovor, has |ts p|usos and m|nusos. On tho pos|t|vo s|do, dopam|no has boon ||nkod to a
poanut-s|zod bund|o ot nourons |n tho m|dd|o ot tho bra|n ca||od tho ooc|oos occomboos (lAcc), wh|ch |s known to bo
assoc|atod w|th roward and p|oasuro. ln tact, dopam|no appoars to tuo| th|s so-ca||od p|oasuro contor ot tho bra|n that
has boon |mp||catod |n tho h|gh' dor|vod trom both coca|no and orgasms. 1h|s p|oasuro contor' was d|scovorod |n
10b4 by 1amos O|ds and lotor V||nor ot VcG||| Un|vors|ty, whon thoy acc|donta||y |mp|antod an o|octrodo |nto tho
lAcc ot a rat and d|scovorod that tho rodont bocamo vory onorg|zod. 1hoy thon sot up an apparatus so that whonovor
a rat prossod a bar |t gonoratod a sma|| o|octr|ca| st|mu|at|on to tho aroa. 1ho rats prossod tho bar unt|| thoy
co||apsod, ovon to tho po|nt ot torgo|ng tood and wator.
4
1ho ottoct has s|nco boon tound |n a|| mamma|s tostod,
|nc|ud|ng poop|o who havo undorgono bra|n surgory and had tho|r lAcc st|mu|atod. 1ho word thoy usod to doscr|bo
tho ottoct was otgosm.
b
low tbot |s tho typo spoc|mon ot a pos|t|vo ro|ntorcomont!
Untortunato|y, thoro's a downs|do to tho dopam|no systom, and that |s add|ct|on. Add|ct|vo drugs tako ovor tho ro|o
ot roward s|gna|s that tood |nto tho dopam|no nourons. Gamb||ng, pornography, and drugs such as coca|no causo tho
bra|n to t|ood |tso|t w|th dopam|no |n rosponso. 3o, too, do add|ct|vo |doas, most notab|y add|ct|vo boo |doas, such as
thoso propagatod by cu|ts that |oad to mass su|c|dos (th|nk 1onostown and |oavon's Gato), or thoso propagatod by
ro||g|ons that |oad to su|c|do bomb|ng (th|nk 0/11 and 7/7).
Ao lmpottoot covoot oboot oopomloo: nourosc|ont|sts mako a d|st|nct|on botwoon ||k|ng' (p|oasuro) and want|ng'
(mot|vat|on), and thoro |s a ||vo|y dobato about whothor dopam|no acts to st|mu|ato p|oasuro or to mot|vato bohav|or.
A pos|t|vo ro|ntorcomont may |oad to bohav|ora| ropot|t|on bocauso |t too|s good (||k|ng, or tho puro p|oasuro ot
gott|ng tho roward) or bocauso |t w||| too| bad |t tho bohav|or |sn't ropoatod (want|ng, or mot|vat|on to avo|d tho anx|oty
ot not gott|ng tho roward). 1ho t|rst roward |s ro|atod to tho puro p|oasuro ot, say, an orgasm, whoroas tho socond |s
ro|atod to tho anx|oty add|cts too| whon tho|r noxt t|x |s |n doubt. 1ho rosoarch l c|tod abovo supports tho p|oasuro
thos|s, but now rosoarch has sc|ont|sts |oan|ng toward tho mot|vat|on pos|t|on.
0
1ho UClA nourosc|ont|st lusso||
lo|drack to|d mo that, basod on th|s now data, ho suspocts tho ro|o ot dopam|no |s |n mot|vat|on rathor than |n
p|oasuro por so, whoroas tho op|o|d systom appoars to bo contra| to p|oasuro.' |o po|nts out, tor oxamp|o, you can
b|ock tho dopam|no systom |n rats and thoy w||| st||| onjoy rowards, but thoy just won't work to got thom.'
7
lt |s a subt|o
but |mportant d|st|nct|on, but tor our purposos |n undorstand|ng tho noura| corro|atos ot bo||ot, tho contra| po|nt |s that
dopam|no ro|ntorcos bohav|ors and bo||ots and pattorn|c|ty, and thus |t |s ono ot tho pr|mary bo||ot drugs.
1ho connoct|on botwoon dopam|no and bo||ot was ostab||shod by oxpor|monts conductod by lotor 3ruggor and
h|s co||oaguo Chr|st|no Vohr at tho Un|vors|ty ot 3r|sto| |n Eng|and. Exp|or|ng tho nourochom|stry ot suporst|t|on,
mag|ca| th|nk|ng, and bo||ot |n tho paranorma|, 3ruggor and Vohr tound that poop|o w|th h|gh |ovo|s ot dopam|no aro
moro ||ko|y to t|nd s|gn|t|canco |n co|nc|doncos and p|ck out moan|ng and pattorns whoro thoro aro nono. ln ono study,
tor oxamp|o, thoy comparod twonty so|t-protossod bo||ovors |n ghosts, gods, sp|r|ts, and consp|rac|os to twonty so|t-
protossod skopt|cs ot such c|a|ms. 1hoy showod a|| subjocts a sor|os ot s||dos cons|st|ng ot poop|o's tacos, somo ot
wh|ch woro norma| wh||o othors had tho|r parts scramb|od, such as swapp|ng out oyos or oars or nosos trom d|ttoront
tacos. ln anothor oxpor|mont, roa| and scramb|od words woro t|ashod. ln gonora|, tho sc|ont|sts tound that tho
bo||ovors woro much moro ||ko|y than tho skopt|cs to m|stakon|y assoss a scramb|od taco as roa|, and to road a
scramb|od word as norma|.
ln tho socond part ot tho oxpor|mont, 3ruggor and Vohr gavo a|| torty subjocts l-dopa, tho drug usod tor
lark|nson's d|soaso pat|onts that |ncroasos tho |ovo|s ot dopam|no |n tho bra|n. 1hoy thon ropoatod tho s||do show
61
w|th tho scramb|od or roa| tacos and words. 1ho boost ot dopam|no causod both bo||ovors and skopt|cs to |dont|ty
scramb|od tacos and roa| and jumb|od words as norma|. 1h|s suggosts that pattorn|c|ty may bo assoc|atod w|th h|gh
|ovo|s ot dopam|no |n tho bra|n. lntr|gu|ng|y, tho ottoct ot l-dopa was strongor on skopt|cs than bo||ovors. 1hat |s,
|ncroasod |ovo|s ot dopam|no appoar to bo moro ottoct|vo |n mak|ng skopt|cs |oss skopt|ca| than |n mak|ng bo||ovors
moro bo||ov|ng.
8
Why? 1wo poss|b|||t|os como to m|nd: (1) porhaps tho dopam|no |ovo|s ot bo||ovors aro a|roady
h|ghor than thoso ot skopt|cs and so tho |attor w||| too| tho ottocts ot tho drug moro, or (2) porhaps tho pattorn|c|ty
proc||v|ty ot bo||ovors |s a|roady so h|gh that tho ottocts ot tho dopam|no aro |owor than thoso ot skopt|cs. Add|t|ona|
rosoarch shows that poop|o who protoss bo||ot |n tho paranorma|-comparod to skopt|cs-show a groator tondoncy
to porco|vo pattorns |n no|so,'
0
and aro moro |nc||nod to attr|buto moan|ng to random connoct|ons thoy bo||ovo ox|st.
10
Finding tho 5ignaI in tho Noiao
What |s |t that dopam|no doos, oxact|y, whon |t onhancos bo||ot? Ono thoory-promu|gatod by Vohr, 3ruggor, and
tho|r co||oaguos-|s that dopam|no |ncroasos tho s|gna|-to-no|so rat|o (3ll), that |s, tho amount ot s|gna| your bra|n
w||| dotoct |n background no|so.
11
1h|s |s tho orror-dotoct|on prob|om assoc|atod w|th pattorn|c|ty. 1ho s|gna|-to-no|so
rat|o |s, |n ossonco, a prob|om |n pattorn|c|ty-t|nd|ng moan|ngtu| pattorns |n both moan|ngtu| and moan|ng|oss no|so.
1ho 3ll |s tho proport|on ot pattorns that your bra|n dotocts |n tho background no|so, whothor or not tho pattorns aro
roa|. |ow doos dopam|no attoct th|s procoss?
0opam|no onhancos tho ab|||ty ot nourons to transm|t s|gna|s botwoon ono anothor. |ow? 3y act|ng as an agon|st
(as opposod to antagon|st), or a substanco that onhancos noura| act|v|ty. 0opam|no b|nds to spoc|t|c rocoptor
mo|ocu|o s|tos on tho synapt|c c|otts ot tho nourons, as |t |t woro tho C13 that norma||y b|nd thoro.
12
lt |ncroasos tho
rato ot noura| t|r|ng |n assoc|at|on w|th pattorn rocogn|t|on, wh|ch moans that synapt|c connoct|ons botwoon nourons
aro ||ko|y to |ncroaso |n rosponso to a porco|vod pattorn, thoroby comont|ng thoso porco|vod pattorns |nto |ong-torm
momory through tho actua| phys|ca| growth ot now noura| connoct|ons and tho ro|ntorcomont ot o|d synapt|c ||nks.
lncroas|ng dopam|no |ncroasos pattorn dotoct|on, sc|ont|sts havo tound that dopam|no agon|sts not on|y onhanco
|oarn|ng but |n h|ghor dosos can a|so tr|ggor symptoms ot psychos|s, such as ha||uc|nat|ons, wh|ch may bo ro|atod to
that t|no ||no botwoon croat|v|ty (d|scr|m|nato pattorn|c|ty) and madnoss (|nd|scr|m|nato pattorn|c|ty). 1ho doso |s tho
koy. 1oo much ot |t and you aro ||ko|y to bo mak|ng |ots ot 1ypo l orrors-ta|so pos|t|vos-|n wh|ch you t|nd
connoct|ons that aro not roa||y thoro. 1oo ||tt|o and you mako 1ypo ll orrors-ta|so nogat|vos-|n wh|ch you m|ss
connoct|ons that aro roa|. 1ho s|gna|-to-no|so rat|o |s ovoryth|ng.
Pattornicity in tho Brain
ln h|s lu||tzor lr|zo-w|nn|ng book 7bo Ltogoos o Eooo, Car| 3agan conjocturod whoro |n tho bra|n suporst|t|on and
mag|ca| th|nk|ng aro ||ko|y to bo tound: 1horo |s no doubt that r|ght-hom|sphoro |ntu|t|vo th|nk|ng may porco|vo
pattorns and connoct|ons too d|tt|cu|t tor tho |ott hom|sphoro, but |t may a|so dotoct pattorns whoro nono ox|st.
3kopt|ca| and cr|t|ca| th|nk|ng |s not a ha||mark ot tho r|ght hom|sphoro.'
18
ln an oxtons|on ot tho oxpor|mont by 3usan
3|ackmoro d|scussod |n chaptor 4, |n wh|ch sho tound a d|ttoronco botwoon bo||ovors and skopt|cs on tho propons|ty
to t|nd moan|ngtu| pattorns |n moan|ng|oss no|so, lotor 3ruggor prosontod random dot pattorns |n a d|v|dod v|sua|
t|o|d parad|gm so that o|thor tho |ott hom|sphoro (v|a tho r|ght v|sua| t|o|d) or tho r|ght hom|sphoro (v|a tho |ott v|sua|
t|o|d) ot tho bra|n was oxposod to tho |mago. (loca|| that our bra|ns aro sp||t down tho m|dd|o and d|v|dod |nto two
hom|sphoros connoctod |n tho m|dd|o at tho cotpos co||osom, |nputs trom tho |ott s|do ot tho body go to tho r|ght
hom|sphoro and |nputs trom tho r|ght s|do ot tho body to tho |ott hom|sphoro.) 3ruggor tound that h|s subjocts
porco|vod s|gn|t|cant|y moro moan|ngtu| pattorns |n tho r|ght hom|sphoro than |n tho |ott hom|sphoro, and th|s
happonod tor both bo||ovors and skopt|cs.
14
3ubsoquont stud|os tound hom|sphor|c d|ttoroncos botwoon bo||ovors and skopt|cs. ln ono study, 3ruggor's toam
had b||ndto|dod subjocts ho|d a rod |n tho|r hands and phys|ca||y ost|mato |ts m|dd|o po|nt. 3ubjocts woro a|so g|von
tho Vag|ca| ldoat|on 3ca|o quost|onna|ro, wh|ch moasuros paranorma| bo||ots and oxpor|oncos. What tho sc|ont|sts
tound |s b|zarro: bo||ovors |n tho paranorma| ost|matod tho m|dd|o po|nt ot tho rod moro to tho |ott ot contor, wh|ch
moans that tho|r r|ght hom|sphoros woro |nt|uonc|ng tho|r porcopt|on ot spaco and d|stanco. 3ruggor's |ab thon ran
anothor oxpor|mont |n wh|ch str|ngs ot |ottors torm|ng o|thor a word or nonsonso woro prosontod to tho |ott v|sua| t|o|d
and tho r|ght v|sua| t|o|d, |nstruct|ng tho subjocts to rospond whon thoy rocogn|zod a word. 1ho subjocts a|so ratod
tho|r bo||ot |n E3l on a s|x-po|nt sca|o. losu|ts: skopt|cs had groator |ott hom|sphor|c dom|nanco comparod to
bo||ovors, and bo||ovors had supor|or r|ght hom|sphor|c portormancos comparod to skopt|cs. Add|ng EEG moasuros
to tho oxpor|mont rovoa|od that bo||ovors had moro r|ght hom|sphoro act|v|ty comparod to d|sbo||ovors |n E3l.
1b
62
What doos a|| th|s moan? 3p||t-bra|n stud|os show that thoro aro many d|st|nct d|ttoroncos botwoon tho |ott bra|n
and tho r|ght bra|n, but that tho d|ttoroncos aro tar moro subt|o and nuancod than or|g|na||y bo||ovod (thoroby
d|scount|ng most ot tho c|a|ms mado |n tho ond|oss stroam ot so|t-ho|p books pub||shod on how to, tor oxamp|o,
|mprovo your r|ght bra|n by us|ng your |ott hand moro, or |mprovo your |ott bra|n through corta|n r|ght-handod
oxorc|sos). lovortho|oss, thoro aro d|ss|m||ar tondonc|os botwoon tho hom|sphoros, w|th tho |ott cortox dom|nant |n
vorba| tasks such as wr|t|ng and spoak|ng, and tho r|ght cortox dom|nant |n nonvorba| and spat|a| tasks. lt's too s|mp|o
to say that tho |ott hom|sphoro |s your ||tora|, |og|ca|, rat|ona| bra|n and your r|ght hom|sphoro |s your motaphor|ca|,
ho||st|c, |ntu|t|vo bra|n, but |t |s a good t|rst-ordor approx|mat|on ot tho d|v|s|on ot |abor |n your hoad.
1h|s |s not to say that tho dom|nanco (howovor s||ght) ot ono hom|sphoro ovor tho othor |s good or bad. lt doponds
on tho task. Croat|v|ty |n a|| t|o|ds (art, mus|c, ||toraturo, and ovon sc|onco), tor oxamp|o, appoars to bo ro|atod to r|ght-
bra|n dom|nanco, and th|s makos sonso g|von that tho ab|||ty to t|nd now and |ntorost|ng pattorns |n both moan|ngtu|
and moan|ng|oss no|so |s what croat|v|ty |s a|| about. Woro wo on|y |og|c mach|nos churn|ng out products that woro tho
rosu|t ot str|ct|y dot|nod cogn|t|vo a|gor|thms, noth|ng now wou|d ovor bo croatod or d|scovorod. At somo po|nt wo
must th|nk outs|do tho box and connoct tho dots |nto now pattorns. Ot courso, tho rub |s |n str|k|ng tho r|ght ba|anco
botwoon t|nd|ng a tow now and |ntorost|ng pattorns w|th|n tho background no|so and t|nd|ng noth|ng but pattorns and
|oav|ng no no|so. lorhaps th|s |s tho d|ttoronco botwoon croat|v|ty and madnoss.
Pattornicity, Croativity, and Nadnoaa
ln a sonso, croat|v|ty |nvo|vos a procoss ot pattorn|c|ty, ot t|nd|ng novo| pattorns and gonorat|ng or|g|na| products or
|doas trom thom. Ot courso, tho products or |doas must bo usotu| or appropr|ato tor a g|von contoxt or onv|ronmont tor
us to |abo| thom as croat|vo, or o|so ovory amatour sc|ont|st and Amotlcoo loo| contostant wou|d bo |nd|st|ngu|shab|o
trom E|nsto|n or Vozart. 1ho connoct|on botwoon pattorn|c|ty, croat|v|ty, and madnoss comos trom a th|nk|ng sty|o that
|s too a|| |nc|us|vo and that |nd|scr|m|nato|y soos pattorns ovorywhoro. Whon l was |nvost|gat|ng tho nourosc|onco ot
croat|v|ty,' tho c||n|ca| psycho|og|st Androa Var|o Kuszowsk| oxp|a|nod, ono ot tho th|ngs l camo across was tho tra|t
ot '|ack ot |atont |nh|b|t|on,' or as |ans Eysonck doscr|bod |t, an 'a||-|nc|us|vo th|nk|ng sty|o.' loop|o on tho
sch|zophron|c spoctrum tond to havo an a||-|nc|us|vo th|nk|ng sty|o, wh|ch moans thoy soo pattorns whoro no
moan|ngtu| pattorns ox|st, and cannot to|| tho d|ttoronco botwoon a moan|ngtu| or a non-moan|ngtu| pattorn.'
10
1h|s |s, |n tact, what was tound by Vax l|anck lnst|tuto cogn|t|vo nourosc|ont|st Anna Abraham and hor co||oaguos,
|n a 200b study dos|gnod to oxp|oro tho ||nk botwoon croat|v|ty and a porsona||ty tra|t ca||od psycbotlclsm, ono ot
throo tra|ts that tho psycho|og|st |ans Eysonck |nc|udod |n h|s l-E-l modo| ot porsona||ty (tho othor two bo|ng
oxtravors|on and nourot|c|sm). Eysonck was tho t|rst to suggost a poss|b|o corro|at|on ot psychot|c|sm w|th croat|v|ty,
and that too much ot |t can |oad to psychosos and sch|zophron|a bocauso ot |ts charactor|st|c ovor|nc|us|vo cogn|t|vo
sty|o,' wh|ch can |oad to soo|ng pattorns whoro nono ox|st. Wo m|ght th|nk ot th|s as pattorn|c|ty on storo|ds. Abraham
oxp|orod two d|mons|ons ot porsona||ty |n o|ghty hoa|thy subjocts: tho or|g|na||ty/novo|ty d|mons|on and tho
pract|ca||ty/usotu|noss d|mons|on. 3ho and hor co||oaguos prod|ctod that h|ghor |ovo|s ot psychot|c|sm wou|d
accompany a groator dogroo ot concoptua| oxpans|on and o|ovatod |ovo|s ot or|g|na||ty |n croat|vo |magory, but wou|d
bo unro|atod to tho pract|ca||ty/usotu|noss ot an |doa.' 1h|s |s |ndood what thoy tound. 3ubjocts w|th h|ghor |ovo|s ot
psychot|c|sm woro moro croat|vo but |n |oss pract|ca| ways, and Abraham and hor co||oaguos conc|udod that th|s was
duo to tho|r capac|ty tor assoc|at|vo th|nk|ng' (t|nd|ng assoc|at|ons botwoon random th|ngs) |nstoad ot goa|-ro|atod
th|nk|ng.'
17
1hat |s, t|nd|ng now and usotu| pattorns |s good, t|nd|ng now pattorns ovorywhoro and bo|ng unab|o to
d|scr|m|nato botwoon thom |s bad.
1ho noxt stop |n tho causa| cha|n to undorstand|ng pattorn|c|ty and ta|so pattorn dotoct|on |s to dotorm|no whoro |n
tho bra|n th|s wou|d happon. loop|o ||ko th|s tond to havo a protronta| cortox (l|C) that doos not procoss dopam|no
propor|y (tho l|C |s tho aroa ot cogn|t|vo contro|),' Kuszowsk| hypothos|zod, and a|so havo a |oss than opt|ma||y
tunct|on|ng oototlot clogo|oto cottox (ACC). 1h|s aroa |s act|vatod whon g|von opt|ons botwoon mu|t|p|o cho|cos, and
hav|ng to doc|do wh|ch opt|on |s tho corroct ono. l ||ko to th|nk ot |t as tho aroa |n tho bra|n that ho|ps you to not|co tho
dota||s that d|st|ngu|sh two noar-|dont|ca| p|cturos, w|th on|y a tow m|nor dota||s that aro d|ttoront. You ro|y on tho ACC
to not|co what tho d|ttoronco |s (or tho 'orror') |n p|cturo A that makos |t vary trom p|cturo 3. Or moro s|mp|y, tho aroa |n
tho bra|n that ho|ps you |ocato Wa|do |n thoso boto`s o|oo puzz|o books.'
18
3o wo m|ght cons|dor tho ACC as tho boto`s o|oo Lotoctloo Lovlco. 3ut what has that got to do w|th
croat|v|ty and madnoss? lt you th|nk ot not|c|ng pattorns, a porson w|th sch|zophron|a p|cks up on r|d|cu|ous pattorns
and draws conc|us|ons basod on thom,' Kuszowsk| cont|nuod. |or oxamp|o, a strangor across tho room |ookod at
you, thon mado a phono ca||, and thon |ookod at you aga|n, thorotoro tho ta|so conc|us|on |s that tho porson |s sta|k|ng
you, and was ca|||ng consp|rators to como and hunt you down.'
63
l|ght, that's what wo ca|| consp|rator|a| th|nk|ng, but just bocauso you'ro parano|d doosn't moan thoy'ro not attor
you, so how can wo to|| tho d|ttoronco?
3ch|zophron|cs who aro do|us|ona| soo pattorns ||ko th|s a|| tho t|mo and th|nk thoy aro ro|ovant. 1ho|r l|C and
tho|r ACC aro not tunct|on|ng to wood out tho un||ko|y pattorns, but |nstoad soo a|| pattorns and g|vo thom oqua| wo|ght
tor ro|ovanco.'
10
ln a way, thoro's a t|no ||no botwoon tho croat|vo gon|us ot t|nd|ng novo| pattorns that chango tho wor|d
and tho madnoss or parano|a ot soo|ng pattorns ovorywhoro and bo|ng unab|o to p|ck out tho |mportant onos. A
porson who |s succosstu||y croat|vo w||| soo many pattorns a|so (bocauso croat|vo poop|o havo an ovor|nc|us|vo
th|nk|ng sty|o) but w||| havo a supor|or tunct|on|ng l|C and ACC that to|| h|m wh|ch pattorns mako no sonso, and
wh|ch onos aro usotu|, ro|ovant, yot or|g|na| |doas,' Kuszowsk| conc|udod.
An |nstruct|vo oxamp|o wou|d bo a compar|son botwoon tho lobo| lr|zo-w|nn|ng phys|c|st l|chard |oynman, who
d|d top-socrot govornmont work on tho Vanhattan lrojoct to bu||d an atom|c bomb (and whoso qu|rk|noss oxtondod
no turthor than p|ay|ng bongo drums, skotch|ng nudos, and crack|ng satos), and tho lobo| lr|zo-w|nn|ng
mathomat|c|an 1ohn lash, who was d|agnosod sch|zophron|c and portrayod |n tho t||m A Boootlo| Vloo as a man
strugg||ng w|th parano|d do|us|ons about top-socrot govornmont work on a codo-broak|ng projoct to dotoct onomy
|ntormat|on pattorns. 3oth |oynman and lash woro croat|vo gon|usos who mado novo| d|scovor|os ot un|quo pattorns
worthy ot a lobo| lr|zo-|oynman |n quantum phys|cs and lash |n gamo thoory-but lash's cogn|t|vo sty|o was a||
|nc|us|vo. |o saw pattorns ovorywhoro, |nc|ud|ng comp|ox consp|rac|os w|th nonox|stont govornmont agonts and no
bas|s |n roa||ty.
3omoono |n botwoon |oynman and lash on tho pattorn|c|ty sca|o |s tho lobo| lr|zo-w|nn|ng gonot|c|st Kary
Vu|||s, tho sc|ont|st boh|nd tho dovo|opmont ot tho po|ymoraso cha|n roact|on (lCl), tho |doa tor wh|ch ho says camo
to h|m |ato ono n|ght whon ho was dr|v|ng through tho mounta|ns ot northorn Ca||torn|a: latura| 0lA |s a tract|oss co||,
||ko an unwound and tang|od aud|o tapo on tho t|oor ot tho car |n tho dark. l had to arrango a sor|os ot chom|ca|
roact|ons, tho rosu|t ot wh|ch wou|d roprosont and d|sp|ay tho soquonco ot a strotch ot 0lA. 1ho odds woro |ong. l|ko
road|ng a part|cu|ar ||conso p|ato out on lntorstato b at n|ght trom tho moon.'
20
Vu|||s's |ns|ght was that ho cou|d uso a
pa|r ot chom|ca| pr|mors to brackot a dos|rod 0lA soquonco and copy |t us|ng 0lA po|ymoraso, wh|ch wou|d mako
|t poss|b|o tor a sma|| strand ot 0lA to bo cop|od an a|most |nt|n|to numbor ot t|mos. 3y most accounts Vu|||s |s a
croat|vo gon|us who |ovos to surt. |o has an occontr|c zoa| tor Ca||torn|a countorcu|turo w|th |ts propons|ty tor
art|t|c|a||y a|tor|ng ono's statos ot consc|ousnoss. ||s work has rovo|ut|on|zod b|ochom|stry, mo|ocu|ar b|o|ogy,
gonot|cs, mod|c|no, and ovon torons|cs-thoso chook-swab tosts tor 0lA that you soo on var|ous cr|mo to|ov|s|on
shows, tor oxamp|o, uso tho lCl mothod.
l t|rst mot Vu|||s at a soc|a| gathor|ng attor a contoronco sovora| yoars ago. Attor a tow boors |oosonod both ot our
tonguos, ho was on|y too happy to roga|o mo w|th stor|os about h|s c|oso oncountor w|th an oxtratorrostr|a| (a g|ow|ng
raccoon' ho says), h|s bo||ot |n astro|ogy, E3l, and tho paranorma| (ho says ho doosn't bo||ovo' but ho knows' thoy
aro roa|), h|s skopt|c|sm about g|oba| warm|ng, |lv, and Al03 (ho doosn't bo||ovo that humans causo g|oba| warm|ng
or that |lv causos Al03), and h|s unadu|toratod ondorsomont ot just about any c|a|m that |s rout|no|y dobunkod |n
5koptlc magaz|no-c|a|ms that 00 porcont ot a|| sc|ont|sts rojoct. l romombor s|tt|ng thoro, th|nk|ng, l can't bo||ovo th|s
guy won a lobo| lr|zo! Aro thoy just g|v|ng thoso th|ngs away to anyono thoso days?'
Wo||, now l th|nk l know why Kary Vu|||s |s a croat|vo gon|us who a|so bo||ovos wo|rd th|ngs: ho has h|s pattorn-
dotoct|on t||tor d|a|od up to wloo opoo, thoroby ava|||ng h|mso|t to a w|do var|oty ot pattorns, most ot wh|ch aro
nonsonso. 3ut ovory now and aga|n . lt may bo that 00 porcont ot sc|ont|sts aro skopt|ca| ot what Kary Vu|||s
bo||ovos, but 00 porcont ot sc|ont|sts novor w|n a lobo| lr|zo.
21
l documontod a s|m||ar ottoct |n my b|ography ot A|trod lusso| Wa||aco, tho cod|scovoror (w|th Char|os 0arw|n) ot
natura| so|oct|on.
22
Wa||aco was a br||||ant synthos|zor ot massos ot b|o|og|ca| data |nto a tow coro pr|nc|p|os that
rovo|ut|on|zod oco|ogy, b|ogoography, and ovo|ut|onary thoory. ln add|t|on to bo|ng a pathbroak|ng sc|ont|st, Wa||aco
was a|so a t|rm bo||ovor |n phrono|ogy, sp|r|tua||sm, and psych|c phonomona. |o rout|no|y attondod soancos and
wroto sor|ous sc|ont|t|c papors dotond|ng tho paranorma| aga|nst tho skopt|c|sm ot h|s to||ow sc|ont|sts as
voc|torous|y as ho prottorod natura| so|oct|on ovor tho v|ows ot h|s croat|on|st co||oaguos. ln h|nds|ght, Wa||aco was
ahoad ot h|s t|mo |n dotond|ng womon's r|ghts and |n w||d||to prosorvat|on, but ho was on tho wrong s|do |n tho ant|-
vacc|nat|on campa|gn that ho ho|pod |oad |n tho |ato n|notoonth contury. |o got h|mso|t |nto a |oga| ontang|omont w|th
a t|at-Earth dotondor-attor prov|ng to tho |unat|c that tho oarth roa||y was round Wa||aco spont yoars |n court try|ng to
co||oct tho pr|zo monoy that was ottorod tor tho dobato. Wa||aco to|| tor a scam surround|ng a |ost poom' ot Edgar
A||an loo's (a||ogod|y wr|tton to covor a hoto| b||| |n Ca||torn|a), and ovon ovontua||y broko w|th 0arw|n ovor tho
ovo|ut|on ot tho human bra|n, wh|ch Wa||aco bo||ovod cou|d not bo tho product ot natura| so|oct|on. |o had what l ca|| a
bototlc potsooo|lty, or tho un|quo pattorn ot ro|at|vo|y pormanont tra|ts that makos an |nd|v|dua| opon to subjocts at
var|anco w|th thoso cons|dorod author|tat|vo.' Wa||aco's pattorn|c|ty t||tor was porous onough to |ot through both
64
rovo|ut|onary and r|d|cu|ous |doas at tho samo t|mo. lorhaps, wo m|ght spocu|ato, tho ga|n on tho antor|or c|ngu|ato
cortox ot Vu|||s and Wa||aco was turnod down, thoroby onab||ng tho|r croat|vo gon|us to omorgo, a|ong w|th tho|r
propons|ty tor paranorma| p|tt|o.
28
1horo |s, |n tact, good ov|donco to support tho hypothos|s that tho antor|or c|ngu|ato cortox |s our orror-dotoct|on
notwork. 3tud|os show, tor oxamp|o, that tho ACC |n part|cu|ar bocomos vory act|vo dur|ng tho tamous 3troop task, |n
wh|ch tho namos ot co|ors aro prosontod to subjocts |n o|thor tho samo or a d|ttoront co|or than tho namo donotos. 1ho
task |s to |dont|ty tho co|or ot tho |ottors on|y. Whon tho namo ot tho co|or and tho co|or ot tho |ottors aro tho samo thon
|dont|ty|ng tho co|or ot tho |ottors |s oasy, but whon tho namo ot tho co|or and tho co|or ot tho |ottors aro d|ttoront,
|dont|ty|ng tho co|or ot tho |ottors |s groat|y s|owod by tho cogn|t|vo cont||ct |nhoront |n tho task. 1h|s |s, |n ossonco, an
orror-dotoct|on task.
24
Anothor oxamp|o |s a go/no-go task |n wh|ch subjocts aro to pross a button whon an A appoars
on a scroon |n conjunct|on w|th an X but not |n conjunct|on w|th othor |ottors. Whon a |ottor comb|nat|on s|m||ar to AX |s
usod-such as AK-tho orror-dotoct|on d|tt|cu|ty |ncroasos, and a|ong w|th |t act|v|ty |n tho ACC.
2b
lntorost|ng|y,
rosoarch compar|ng sch|zophron|c pat|onts w|th hoa|thy subjocts on such tasks rovoa|s that tho dotoct|on orrors aro
h|ghor tor tho sch|zophron|cs, who otton (a|though not a|ways) a|so show |oss act|v|ty |n tho|r ACC.
20
|oro a p|aus|b|o oxp|anat|on tor tho ||nk botwoon pattorn|c|ty, croat|v|ty, and madnoss prosonts |tso|t. Wo aro a||
pattorn sookors, but somo poop|o t|nd moro pattorns than othors, dopond|ng on how |nd|scr|m|nato|y thoy connoct tho
dots botwoon random ovonts and how much moan|ng thoy put |nto such pattorns. |or most ot us, most ot tho t|mo, our
orror-dotoct|on notworks (tho ACC and tho l|C) wood out somo but not a|| ot tho ta|so pattorns wo p|ck up through
assoc|at|on |oarn|ng, and wo |oad modorato|y croat|vo (but not wor|d-chang|ng) ||vos, doa||ng w|th our var|ous
suporst|t|ons that como trom ta|so pattorns that s||ppod through our pattorn-dotoct|on t||tors. 3omo poop|o aro
u|traconsorvat|vo |n tho|r pattorn|c|ty, soo vory tow pattorns, and aro not vory croat|vo, wh||o othors aro |nd|scr|m|nato
|n tho|r pattorn|c|ty and t|nd pattorns ovorywhoro thoy |ook, th|s may |oad to croat|vo gon|us or consp|rator|a| parano|a.
1ho Nouroacionco ot Agonticity
1h|s procoss ot oxp|a|n|ng tho m|nd through tho noura| act|v|ty ot tho bra|n makos mo a moolst. Von|sts bo||ovo that
thoro |s just ono substanco |n our hoad-bra|n. Loo|lsts, by contrast, bo||ovo that thoro aro two substancos-bra|n
and m|nd. 1h|s |s a vory o|d prob|om |n ph||osophy dat|ng back to tho sovontoonth contury whon tho |ronch
ph||osophor lono 0oscartos put |t on tho |nto||octua| |andscapo, w|th soo| tho protorrod torm ot tho t|mo (as |n body
and sou|' |nstoad ot bra|n and m|nd'). 3road|y spoak|ng, mon|sts assort that body and sou| aro tho samo, and that tho
doath ot tho body-part|cu|ar|y tho d|s|ntograt|on ot 0lA and nourons that storo tho |ntormat|ona| pattorns ot our
bod|os, our momor|os, and our porsona||t|os-spo||s tho ond ot tho sou|. 0ua||sts contond that body and sou| aro
soparato ont|t|os, and that tho sou| cont|nuos boyond tho ox|stonco ot tho body. Von|sm |s countor|ntu|t|vo. 0ua||sm |s
|ntu|t|vo. lt just sooms ||ko thoro |s somoth|ng o|so |ns|do ot us, and our thoughts roa||y do too| ||ko thoy aro t|oat|ng
around up thoro |n our sku||s soparato trom whatovor |t |s our bra|ns aro do|ng. Why?
Wo aro natura|-born dua||sts, arguod Ya|o Un|vors|ty psycho|og|st lau| 3|oom |n h|s book Loscottos` Boby.
Ch||dron and adu|ts a||ko, tor oxamp|o, spoak ot my body,' as |t my' and body' aro two d|ttoront ont|t|os. Wo rovo| |n
t||ms and books that tako such dua||sms as tho|r thomos. ln Katka's Votomotpbosls a man ta||s as|oop and wakos up
as a cockroach, but h|s porsona||ty |s |ntact |ns|do tho |nsoct. ln tho t||m A|| o Vo, tho sou| ot l||y 1om||n batt|os w|th
tho sou| ot 3tovo Vart|n tor contro| ot h|s body. ln ltooky ltlooy, mothor and daughtor (1am|o loo Curt|s and l|ndsay
lohan) trado bod|os w|th tho|r ossoncos unbrokon. ln Blg and 18 Oolog oo 80, tho charactors' ossoncos |oaptrog
agos w|th, rospoct|vo|y, 1om |anks gott|ng |mmod|ato|y youngor and 1onn|tor Garnor grow|ng |nstant|y o|dor.
ln tact most poop|o around tho wor|d bo||ovo that an ovon moro rad|ca| transtormat|on actua||y takos p|aco,' 3|oom
oxp|a|nod. Vost poop|o bo||ovo that whon tho body |s dostroyod, tho sou| ||vos on. lt m|ght ascond to hoavon, or
doscond to ho||, go ott |nto somo sort ot para||o| wor|d, or occupy somo othor body, human or an|ma|. Evon thoso ot us
who do not ho|d such v|ows havo no prob|oms undorstand|ng thom. 3ut thoy aro on|y cohoront |t wo soo poop|o as
soparato trom tho|r bod|os.'
27
ln ono among many oxpor|monts 3|oom rocountod, tor oxamp|o, young ch||dron aro to|d a story about a mouso that
gots munchod by an a|||gator. 1ho ch||dron agroo that tho mouso's body |s doad-|t doos not nood to go to tho
bathroom, |t can't hoar, and |ts bra|n no |ongor works. |owovor, thoy |ns|st that tho mouso |s st||| hungry, concornod
about tho a|||gator, and wants to go homo. 1h|s |s tho toundat|on tor tho moro art|cu|atod v|ow ot tho attor||to you
usua||y t|nd |n o|dor ch||dron and adu|ts,' 3|oom oxp|a|nod. Onco ch||dron |oarn that tho bra|n |s |nvo|vod |n th|nk|ng,
thoy don't tako |t as show|ng that tho bra|n |s tho sourco ot monta| ||to, thoy don't bocomo mator|a||sts. lathor, thoy
|ntorprot 'th|nk|ng' |n a narrow sonso, and conc|udo that tho bra|n |s a cogn|t|vo prosthos|s, somoth|ng addod to tho
sou| to onhanco |ts comput|ng powor.'
28
65
1ho roason dua||sm |s |ntu|t|vo and mon|sm countor|ntu|t|vo |s that tho bra|n doos not porco|vo tho procoss ot
b|nd|ng a|| tho noura| notworks |nto ono who|o so|t, and so |mputos monta| act|v|ty to a soparato sourco. |a||uc|nat|ons
ot protornatura| bo|ngs such as ghosts, gods, ango|s, and a||ons aro porco|vod as roa| ont|t|os, out-ot-body and noar-
doath oxpor|oncos aro procossod as oxtorna| ovonts, and tho pattorn ot |ntormat|on that |s our momor|os, porsona||ty,
and so|t |s sonsod as a sou|. 1ho ronownod nouro|og|st and author O||vor 3acks, bost known tor h|s romarkab|o work
|n awakon|ng' tho cataton|c bra|ns ot oncopha||t|s v|ct|ms as portrayod |n tho popu|ar 1000 t||m Awokoologs starr|ng
lob|n W||||ams, has wr|tton a numbor ot books doscr|b|ng tho b|zarro ha||uc|nat|ons oxpor|oncod by h|s pat|onts-
such as tho man who m|stook h|s w|to tor a hat-wh|ch aro |nov|tab|y |ntorprotod by tho oxpor|oncors as oxtorna| to
tho|r bra|n.
20
Ono o|dor|y pat|ont who suttorod trom macu|ar dogonorat|on and had comp|oto|y |ost hor v|s|on was d|agnosod by
3acks w|th Char|os 3onnott syndromo (namod tor tho o|ghtoonth-contury 3w|ss natura||st who t|rst doscr|bod |t),
bocauso ot hor su|to ot comp|ox v|sua| ha||uc|nat|ons, |nc|ud|ng and ospoc|a||y tacos w|th d|stortod tooth and oyos.
Anothor pat|ont dovo|opod a tumor |n hor v|sua| cortox and soon attor bogan ha||uc|nat|ng cartoon charactors and
ovon Korm|t tho |rog that woro transparont and covorod on|y ha|t ot hor v|sua| t|o|d. ln tact, sa|d 3acks, about 10
porcont ot v|sua||y |mpa|rod poop|o oxpor|onco v|sua| ha||uc|nat|ons, tacos (ospoc|a||y d|stortod tacos) aro tho most
common, cartoons aro socond, and goomotr|c shapos aro th|rd. What |s go|ng on horo?
ln tho past sovora| yoars |t has boon poss|b|o to scan tho bra|ns ot somo ot thoso pat|onts |ns|do a tunct|ona|
magnot|c rosonanco |mag|ng (tVll) mach|no wh||o thoy aro ha||uc|nat|ng. lot surpr|s|ng, tho v|sua| cortox |s act|vatod
dur|ng thoso phantasms. 0ur|ng goomotr|c ha||uc|nat|ons |t |s tho pr|mary v|sua| cortox that |s most act|vo-tho part ot
tho bra|n that porco|vos pattorns but not |magos. |a||uc|nat|ons that |nc|udo |magos such as tacos aro, not
surpr|s|ng|y, assoc|atod w|th moro act|v|ty |n tho tompora| |obo's tus|torm gyrus, wh|ch as wo saw |s |nvo|vod |n tho
rocogn|t|on ot tacos. ln tact, poop|o w|th damago to th|s aroa cannot rocogn|zo tacos, and st|mu|at|on ot tho tus|torm
gyrus causos poop|o to spontanoous|y soo tacos. 1horo |s ovon a t|ny port|on ot tho tus|torm gyrus dod|catod to
porco|v|ng oyos and tooth, and dur|ng tho ha||uc|nat|ons oxpor|oncod by Char|os 3onnott syndromo pat|onts |t |s th|s
part ot tho bra|n that |s act|vo. ln anothor part ot tho bra|n ca||od tho loototompoto| cottox, tragmonts ot |magos-
thousands and ovon m||||ons ot tragmontary |magos-aro a|| storod |n |nd|v|dua| nourons or sma|| c|ustors ot nourons.
lorma||y, th|s |s part ot tho |ntogratod stroam ot porcopt|on or |mag|nat|on, and ono |s not consc|ous ot thom,'
3acks oxp|a|nod. lt you bocomo v|sua||y |mpa|rod or b||nd, tho procoss |s |ntorruptod and |nstoad ot gott|ng tho
smooth|y organ|zod porcopt|on, you aro gott|ng an anarch|c ro|oaso ot act|v|ty trom |ots ot thoso co||s or co|| c|ustors |n
tho |ntorotompora| cortox and suddon|y you start soo|ng tragmonts. 1ho m|nd doos |ts bost to organ|zo tho tragmonts
and g|vo somo cohoronco to |t.'
80
Why doos tho bra|n bothor to do any ot th|s? As 3acks to|d ono ot h|s pat|onts, who |ns|stod that sho was no|thor
crazy nor domontod, As you |oso v|s|on, as tho v|sua| parts ot tho bra|n aro no |ongor gott|ng any |nputs trom tho
outs|do wor|d, thoy bocomo hyporact|vo and oxc|tab|o and thoy start to t|ro spontanoous|y and you start to soo th|ngs.'
ln tho Char|os 3onnott syndromo, wo t|nd an oxamp|o ot tho toundat|on tor tho noura| corro|atos ot agont|c|ty. As
Char|os 3onnott wondorod two hundrod and t|tty yoars ago,' 3acks conc|udod, how |s tho thoator ot tho m|nd
gonoratod by tho mach|nory ot tho bra|n?'
81
Wo now havo a ta|r|y sound undorstand|ng ot tho mach|nory, thoroby
rondor|ng tho thoator ot tho m|nd an |||us|on. 1horo |s no thoator, and no agont s|tt|ng |ns|do tho thoator watch|ng tho
wor|d go by on tho scroon. Yot our |ntu|t|ons to|| us that thoro |s. 1h|s |s tho toundat|on ot agont|c|ty |n tho bra|n that
turthor ro|ntorcos bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm.
1hoory ot Nind and Agonticity
1horo |s anothor act|v|ty ot tho bra|n that l strong|y suspoct |s |nvo|vod |n agont|c|ty, and that |s a procoss ca||od tbooty
o mloo (1oV), or tho tact that wo aro so|t-awaro ot our own bo||ots, dos|ros, and |ntont|ons, as wo|| as awaro that
othors havo bo||ots, dos|ros, and |ntont|ons. A h|ghor-ordor 1oV a||ows you to roa||zo that othors' |ntont|ons may bo
tho samo as or d|ttoront trom your own. 1h|s |s somot|mos ca||od mloo tooolog, or tho procoss ot |ntorr|ng tho
|ntont|ons ot othors by projoct|ng yourso|t |nto tho|r m|nds and |mag|n|ng how you wou|d too|. A st||| h|ghor-|ovo| 1oV
moans that you undorstand that othors a|so havo a thoory ot m|nd, and that you know that thoy know that you know thoy
havo a thoory ot m|nd. As 1ack|o G|oason usod to grow| to Art Carnoy |n tho c|ass|c 10b0s to|ov|s|on sor|os 7bo
loooymoooots, lorton, you know that l know that you know that l know that..' |ow doos 1oV m|nd road|ng actua||y
oporato |n tho bra|n?
ln a rov|ow ot tho rosoarch on what bra|n scans havo rovoa|od about tho |ocat|on ot such m|nd road|ng, G|asgow
Un|vors|ty nourosc|ont|sts |o|on Ga||aghor and Chr|stophor |r|th conc|udod that thoro aro throo aroas cons|stont|y
act|vatod whonovor 1oV |s noodod-tho t|rst |n tho cortox and tho othor two |n tho tompora| |obos: tho oototlot
66
potoclogo|oto cottox, tho sopotlot tompoto| so|cl, and tho tompoto| po|os b||atora||y. 1ho t|rst two bra|n structuros aro
|nvo|vod |n procoss|ng oxp||c|t bohav|ora| |ntormat|on, such as tho porcopt|on ot |ntont|ona| bohav|or on tho part ot
othor organ|sms: that prodator |ntonds to oat mo.' 1ho tompora| po|os aro ossont|a| tor tho rotr|ova| ot porsona|
oxpor|oncos trom momory, such as tho |ast t|mo l saw a prodator |t tr|od to oat mo.' A|| throo ot thoso structuros aro
nocossary tor 1oV, and Ga||aghor and |r|th go so tar as to pos|t that tho antor|or parac|ngu|ato cortox (|ocatod just
boh|nd your torohoad) |s tho soat ot tho thoory ot m|nd mochan|sm.
82
1hoory ot m|nd |s a h|gh-road automat|c systom that k|cks |n tor spoc|t|od act|v|t|os |nvo|v|ng othor poop|o,
part|cu|ar|y |n soc|a| s|tuat|ons. lt most ||ko|y ovo|vod out ot a numbor ot proox|st|ng noura| notworks usod tor ro|atod
act|v|t|os, such as tho ab|||ty to d|st|ngu|sh botwoon an|mato and |nan|mato objocts, to ho|d tho attont|on ot anothor
bo|ng or agont by to||ow|ng tho|r oyo gazo, tho ab|||ty to d|st|ngu|sh tho act|ons ot so|t and othors, and tho ab|||ty to
roprosont act|ons that aro goa| d|roctod. A|| ot thoso tunct|ons aro bas|c to surv|va| |n any soc|a| mamma|, and thus
thoory ot m|nd |s most ||ko|y an oxoptotloo, an ox-adaptat|on (somot|mos ca||od a proadaptat|on) or a toaturo co-
optod tor a d|ttoront purposo than tho ono tor wh|ch |t or|g|na||y ovo|vod. What m|ght that havo boon tor 1oV? lrobab|y
|m|tat|on, ant|c|pat|on, and ompathy. Entor m|rror nourons-spoc|a||zod nourons that m|rror' tho act|ons ot othors.
ln tho |ato 1080s and oar|y 1000s, lta||an nourosc|ont|st G|acomo l|zzo|att| and h|s co||oaguos at tho Un|vors|ty ot
larma sorond|p|tous|y d|scovorod m|rror nourons whon thoy woro rocord|ng tho act|v|ty ot s|ng|o nourons |n tho
vootto| ptomotot cottox ot macaquo monkoys. lok|ng ha|r-th|n o|octrodos |nto |nd|v|dua| nourons a||ows
nourosc|ont|sts to mon|tor tho rato and pattorn ot s|ng|o-co|| act|v|ty, and |n th|s caso tho act|on trom tho monkoy's |b
nourons sp|kod whonovor tho monkoy roachod tor a poanut p|acod |n tront ot |t. 1ho sorond|p|ty camo whon ono ot tho
oxpor|montors roachod |n and grabbod ono ot tho poanuts, caus|ng tho samo nourons |n tho monkoy's bra|n to t|ro.
Vonkoy do, monkoy soo, monkoy motor nourons t|ro. 1ho motor nourons woro m|rror|ng tho motor act|v|ty ot othors,
and thus thoy bocamo known as m|rror nourons. As l|zzo|att| roca||od, Wo woro |ucky, bocauso thoro was no way to
know such nourons ox|stod. 3ut wo woro |n tho r|ght aroa to t|nd thom.'
88
1hroughout tho 1000s nourosc|ont|sts scramb|od to |oarn moro about m|rror nourons, t|nd|ng thom |n othor parts ot
tho bra|n, such as tho lootlot tooto| and lootlot potloto| rog|ons ot tho bra|n, and not on|y |n monkoys but |n humans
as wo|| through tVll bra|n scans.
84
UClA nourosc|ont|st Varco lacobon| and h|s co||oaguos, tor oxamp|o, |magod tho
bra|ns ot subjocts as thoy watchod poop|o mako t|ngor movomonts and thon |m|tatod thoso samo t|ngor movomonts,
d|scovor|ng that tho samo aroas ot tho tronta| cortox and par|ota| |obo |n both cond|t|ons woro act|vo.
8b
l|zzo|att| suggostod that m|rror nourons aro just motor nourons rospond|ng to soo|ng as wo|| as do|ng. Whon you
soo an act|on |t |s rocordod on your v|sua| cortox, but to moro doop|y undorstand what tho act moans |n torms ot |ts
consoquoncos tho obsorvat|on must bo ||nkod to tho motor systom ot tho bra|n so that thoro |s an |ntorna| chock w|th
tho oxtorna| wor|d. W|th th|s bas|c noura| notwork |n p|aco, h|ghor-ordor tunct|ons can bo |ayorod onto |t, such as
|m|tat|on. ln ordor to |m|tato somoono's act|ons, you nood both a v|sua| momory ot how tho act|on |ookod as wo|| as a
motor momory ot how tho act|on to|t whon |mp|omontod. 1horo |s now cons|dorab|o rosoarch ||nk|ng tho m|rror noura|
notwork to |m|tat|on |oarn|ng.
ln a 1008 tVll oxpor|mont, tor oxamp|o, poop|o woro shown two d|ttoront hand act|ons, ono w|thout a contoxt and
ono w|th a contoxt that rovoa|od tho |ntont|on ot tho act|on. 1ho |attor scono act|vatod tho subjoct's m|rror nouron
notwork, rovoa||ng just whoro |n tho bra|n tho porcopt|on ot anothor |ntont|ona| agont |s |ocatod.
80
A vory c|ovor 200b
oxpor|mont was conductod |n wh|ch monkoys watchod a porson o|thor grasp an objoct and p|aco |t |n a cup or grasp
an app|o and br|ng |t to h|s mouth-s|m||ar act|on, d|ttoront |ntont|on. locord|ng torty-ono |nd|v|dua| m|rror nourons |n
tho lootlot potloto| |obo ot tho monkoys' bra|ns, |t was d|scovorod that tho grasp-to-oat' mot|on tr|ggorod t|ttoon
m|rror nourons to t|ro, but thoso woro s||ont whon obsorv|ng tho grasp-to-p|aco' mot|on. lntorost|ng|y, tho
nourosc|ont|sts conc|udod, tho m|rror nourons |n th|s part ot tho bra|n codo tho samo act (grasp|ng) |n a d|ttoront way
accord|ng to tho t|na| goa| ot tho act|on |n wh|ch tho act |s omboddod.'
87
ln othor words, thoro aro nourons spoc|a||zod
tor d|scr|m|nat|ng botwoon d|ttoront |ntont|ons: grasp|ng |n ordor to p|aco vorsus grasp|ng |n ordor to oat. Voro
gonora||y, th|s |mp||catos m|rror nourons |n both prod|ct|ng othors' act|ons and |ntorr|ng tho|r |ntont|ons, wh|ch |s tho
vory toundat|on ot agont|c|ty.
BoIiot in tho Brain
|ow |s |t that poop|o como to bo||ovo somoth|ng that soom|ng|y dot|os roason? 1ho answor |s |n tho thos|s ot th|s
book: bo||ots como t|rst, roasons tor bo||ot to||ow |n cont|rmat|on ot tho roa||sm dopondont on tho bo||ot. Vost bo||ot
c|a|ms ta|| somowhoro |n tho tuzzy bordor|ands botwoon unquost|onab|y truo and unm|stakab|y ta|so. |ow do our
bra|ns procoss such a broad swath ot bo||ots? 1o t|nd out, |n 2007 nourosc|ont|sts 3am |arr|s, 3amoor A. 3hoth, and
Vark 3. Cohon omp|oyod tVll to scan tho bra|ns ot tourtoon adu|ts at tho UClA 3ra|n Vapp|ng Contor. 1hoy
67
prosontod tho|r subjocts w|th a sor|os ot statomonts dos|gnod to bo p|a|n|y truo, c|oar|y ta|so, or undoc|dab|o at tho
momont. ln rosponso, tho vo|untoors woro to pross a button |nd|cat|ng bo||ot, d|sbo||ot, or uncorta|nty. |or oxamp|o:
VA1|EVA1lCAl
1ruo: (2 + 0) + 8 = 10.
|a|so: 02 coo bo ovoo|y olvlooo by 0.
Uncorta|n: 1.2
b7
= 82008.5158.
|AC1UAl
1ruo: Vost poop|o bovo too logots ooo too toos.
|a|so: Eog|os oto commoo pots.
Uncorta|n: 7bo Low1ooos looosttlo| Avotogo toso 1.2 potcoot |ost 7oosooy.
E1|lCAl
1ruo: lt ls boo to toko p|oosoto ot oootbot`s sootlog.
|a|so: Cbl|otoo sboo|o bovo oo tlgbts ootl| tboy coo voto.
Uncorta|n: lt ls bottot to |lo to o cbl|o tboo to oo ooo|t.
1hoy mado tour |mportant d|scovor|os:
1. 1horo woro s|gn|t|cant roact|on t|mo d|ttoroncos |n ova|uat|ng statomonts. losponsos to truo (bo||ot)
statomonts woro s|gn|t|cant|y shortor than rosponsos to both ta|so (d|sbo||ot) statomonts and uncorta|n
statomonts, but thoro was no d|ttoronco |n roact|on t|mo dotoctod botwoon ta|so (d|sbo||ot) statomonts and
uncorta|n statomonts.
2. Contrast|ng tho roact|on to truo (bo||ot) statomonts and ta|so (d|sbo||ot) statomonts y|o|dod a sp|ko |n noura|
act|v|ty assoc|atod w|th bo||ot |n tho voottomoolo| ptotooto| cottox, an aroa ot tho bra|n assoc|atod w|th so|t-
roprosontat|on, doc|s|on mak|ng, and |oarn|ng |n tho contoxt ot rowards.
8. Contrast|ng tho roact|on to ta|so (d|sbo||ot) statomonts and truo (bo||ot) statomonts showod |ncroasod bra|n
act|v|ty |n tho oototlot loso|o, assoc|atod w|th rosponsos to nogat|vo st|mu||, pa|n porcopt|on, and d|sgust.
4. Contrast|ng tho rosponso to uncorta|nty statomonts w|th both truo (bo||ot) statomonts and ta|so (d|sbo||ot)
statomonts rovoa|od o|ovatod noura| act|on |n tho antor|or c|ngu|ato cortox-yos, tho ACC that |s |nvo|vod |n
orror dotoct|on and cont||ct roso|ut|on.
What do thoso rosu|ts to|| us about bo||ot and tho bra|n? 3ovora| psycho|og|ca| stud|os appoar to support
[sovontoonth-contury 0utch ph||osophor 3aruch| 3p|noza's conjocturo that tho moro comprohons|on ot a statomont
onta||s tho tac|t accoptanco ot |ts bo|ng truo, whoroas d|sbo||ot roqu|ros a subsoquont procoss ot rojoct|on,' |arr|s
and h|s co||aborators ot tho study roportod. Undorstand|ng a propos|t|on may bo ana|ogous to porco|v|ng an objoct |n
phys|ca| spaco: Wo soom to accopt appoarancos as roa||ty unt|| thoy provo othorw|so.' 1hus, subjocts assossod truo
statomonts as bo||ovab|o tastor than thoy judgod ta|so statomonts as unbo||ovab|o or uncorta|n statomonts as
undoc|dab|o. |urthor, bocauso tho bra|n appoars to procoss ta|so or uncorta|n statomonts |n rog|ons ||nkod to pa|n
and d|sgust, ospoc|a||y |n judg|ng tastos and odors, th|s study g|vos now moan|ng to tho phraso that a c|a|m has
passod tho tasto tost' or tho smo|| tost.'
88
Whon you hoar bu||sh|t, you may know |t by |ts smo||.
As tor tho noura| corro|atos ot bo||ot and skopt|c|sm, tho voottomoolo| ptotooto| cottox |s |nstrumonta| |n ||nk|ng
h|ghor-ordor cogn|t|vo tactua| ova|uat|ons w|th |owor-ordor omot|ona| rosponso assoc|at|ons, and |t doos so |n
ova|uat|ng a|| typos ot c|a|ms. 1hus, tho assossmont ot tho oth|ca| statomonts showod a s|m||ar pattorn ot noura|
act|vat|on as d|d tho ova|uat|on ot tho mathomat|ca| and tactua| statomonts. loop|o w|th damago |n th|s aroa havo a
d|tt|cu|t t|mo too||ng an omot|ona| d|ttoronco botwoon good and bad doc|s|ons, and th|s |s why thoy aro suscopt|b|o to
contabu|at|on-m|x|ng truo and ta|so momor|os and cont|at|ng roa||ty w|th tantasy.
1h|s rosoarch supports what l ca|| 5ploozo`s coojoctoto: bo|lo comos qolck|y ooo oototo||y, skoptlclsm ls s|ow
ooo oooototo|, ooo most poop|o bovo o |owto|otooco ot omblgolty. 1ho sc|ont|t|c pr|nc|p|o that a c|a|m |s untruo
un|oss provon othorw|so runs countor to our natura| tondoncy to accopt as truo that wh|ch wo can comprohond qu|ck|y.
1hus |t |s that wo shou|d roward skopt|c|sm and d|sbo||ot, and champ|on thoso w||||ng to chango tho|r m|nd |n tho tooth
ot now ov|donco. lnstoad, most soc|a| |nst|tut|ons-most notab|y thoso |n ro||g|on, po||t|cs, and oconom|cs-roward
bo||ot |n tho doctr|nos ot tho ta|th or party or |doo|ogy, pun|sh thoso who cha||ongo tho author|ty ot tho |oadors, and
d|scourago uncorta|nty and ospoc|a||y skopt|c|sm.
1ho Braina ot BoIiovora and NonboIiovora
68
ln a socond tVll study |n soarch ot tho noura| corro|atos ot ro||g|ous and nonro||g|ous bo||ot, 3am |arr|s and h|s
UClA co||oaguos scannod tho bra|ns ot th|rty subjocts, t|ttoon so|t-roportod Chr|st|ans and t|ttoon so|t-roportod
nonbo||ovors, wh||o thoy ova|uatod tho truth and ta|s|ty ot ro||g|ous and nonro||g|ous propos|t|ons. |or oxamp|o, a
ro||g|ous statomont was 1osus Chr|st roa||y portormod tho m|rac|os attr|butod to h|m |n tho 3|b|o.' A nonro||g|ous
statomont was A|oxandor tho Groat was a vory tamous m|||tary |oador.' 1ho subjocts woro |nstructod to push a button
|nd|cat|ng that thoy thought a statomont was truo (bo||ot) or ta|so (d|sbo||ot). Onco aga|n, rosponso t|mos woro
s|gn|t|cant|y |ongor tor thoso who porco|vod statomonts as ta|so comparod to thoso who |ntorprotod tho samo
statomonts as truo. 1o|||ng|y, wh||o both Chr|st|ans and nonbo||ovors woro tastor |n rospond|ng truo' than ta|so' on
both ro||g|ous (Ango|s roa||y ox|st') and nonro||g|ous (Eag|os roa||y ox|st') st|mu|| (bocauso |t's oas|or tor ovoryono to
agroo than |t |s to d|sagroo), nonbo||ovors woro ospoc|a||y qu|ck on tho draw to rospond to ro||g|ous statomonts.
lns|do tho bra|n, thoso scans rovoa|od that tor both bo||ovors and nonbo||ovors, tor both ro||g|ous and nonro||g|ous
statomonts, tho vontromod|a| protronta| cortox, wh|ch as notod botoro |s assoc|atod w|th so|t-ro|ovanco, doc|s|on
mak|ng, and |oarn|ng |n tho contoxt ot rowards, showod an |ncroasod s|gna|-that |s, moro b|ood do||vor|ng oxygon.
lt's a dopam|norg|c systom'-romombor, dopam|no |s a nourotransm|ttor substanco assoc|atod w|th p|oasuro and |s
|nvo|vod |n tho ro|ntorcomont ot |oarn|ng. 1h|s was tho caso whothor tho subjocts bo||ovod statomonts about God or
statomonts about ord|nary tacts. ln tact, a d|roct compar|son botwoon bo||ot and d|sbo||ot |n both bo||ovors and
nonbo||ovors showod no d|ttoronco, |oad|ng |arr|s and h|s co||oaguos to conc|udo tho d|ttoronco botwoon bo||ot and
d|sbo||ot appoars to bo contont-|ndopondont.' 1hat |s to say, both bo||ovors and nonbo||ovors appoar to ova|uato tho
vorac|ty ot both ro||g|ous and nonro||g|ous c|a|ms |n tho samo aroa ot tho bra|n. ln othor words, thoro |s no bo||ot'
modu|o or d|sbo||ot' modu|o |n tho bra|n, no gu|||b|||ty notwork or skopt|ca| notwork.
3ubtract|ng out tho rosponso to nonro||g|ous st|mu|| trom tho rosponso to ro||g|ous st|mu|| rovoa|od a groator 3Ol0
(b|ood oxygon |ovo|-dopondont) s|gna| tor ro||g|ous st|mu|| |n tho oototlot loso|o (assoc|atod w|th pa|n porcopt|on and
d|sgust) and vootto| sttlotom (assoc|atod w|th roward), as wo|| as our o|d tr|ond tho ACC, tho orror-dotoct|on and
cont||ct-roso|ut|on notwork. 3o ro||g|ous statomonts provokod moro pos|t|vo and nogat|vo ottocts. 3ubtract|ng out tho
rosponso to ro||g|ous st|mu|| trom tho rosponso to nonro||g|ous st|mu|| rovoa|od an |ncroaso |n bra|n act|v|ty |n tho
h|ppocampus, wh|ch |s wo|| known to bo d|roct|y |nvo|vod |n momory rotr|ova|. 1o|||ng|y, th|s was tho caso tor both
bo||ovors and nonbo||ovors, |oad|ng |arr|s and h|s co||oaguos to spocu|ato that both groups oxpor|oncod groator
cogn|t|vo cont||ct and uncorta|nty wh||o ova|uat|ng ro||g|ous statomonts,' and that judgmonts about tho nonro||g|ous
st|mu|| prosontod |n our study soomod moro dopondont upon thoso bra|n systoms |nvo|vod |n accoss|ng storod
know|odgo.'
80
Why |s th|s a surpr|s|ng t|nd|ng and what's so to|||ng about |t? l put tho quost|on to |arr|s, who rospondod: l th|nk,
g|von tho subjoct mattor, both groups woro |oss corta|n ot tho|r answors. 1ho surpr|so, ot courso, |s that |t was botb
groups. Ono m|ght havo oxpoctod Chr|st|ans to bo |oss corta|n that 'tho 3|b||ca| God roa||y ox|sts' than that 'V|chao|
1ordan was a baskotba|| p|ayor.' 3ut atho|sts soom to show tho samo ottoct whon ova|uat|ng a statomont ||ko '1ho
3|b||ca| God |s a myth.''
l a|so askod |arr|s about tho doopor |mp||cat|ons tor bo||ots and how bo||ot systoms work |n h|s d|scovory that such
bo||ots appoar to bo contont-|ndopondont.' 1hat |s, why doos |t mattor that thoro |s on|y ono noura| notwork tor bo||ot
and d|sbo||ot rathor than a bo||ov|ng noura| notwork and a skopt|ca| noura| notwork? lt suggosts that bo||ot |s bo||ot |s
bo||ot,' |arr|s notod w|thout |rony. ln my op|n|on, th|s has at |oast two consoquoncos: (1) lt turthor orodos tho spur|ous
d|st|nct|on botwoon tacts and va|uos. lt bo||ov|ng that 'torturo |s wrong' and bo||ov|ng that '2 p|us 2 makos 4' aro
|mportant|y s|m||ar, thon oth|cs and sc|onco aro |mportant|y s|m||ar at tho |ovo| ot tho bra|n. (2) lt suggosts that tho
va||d|ty ot a bo||ot doponds on how |t camo to bo-on tho cha|ns ot ov|donco and roason|ng that ||nk |t to tho wor|d-
not moro|y upon a too||ng ot conv|ct|on.' 3o what? 3o p|onty, |arr|s cont|nuod |n h|s rosponso to my quory, bocauso
tho too||ng ot conv|ct|on |s what wo ro|y upon as consumors ot bo||ots-but c|oar|y th|s too||ng can bocomo uncoup|od
trom good roasons and good ov|donco |n any doma|n (mathomat|ca|, oth|ca|, otc.).'
40
|opotu||y, what can bo docoup|od trom good roasons and good ov|donco can bo rocoup|od through
countorargumonts w|th ovon bottor roasons and bottor ov|donco. 1hat |s, |n any caso, what a|| producors ot sc|ont|t|c
know|odgo hopo, wh|ch doos, attor a||, spr|ng otorna|.
41
69

PAR1 |||
BEL|EF |N 1E|NC5 uN5EEN

l worry that . psoudosc|onco and suporst|t|on w||| soom yoar by yoar moro tompt|ng, tho s|ron song ot
unroason moro sonorous and attract|vo. Whoro havo wo hoard |t botoro? Whonovor our othn|c or nat|ona|
projud|cos aro arousod, |n t|mos ot scarc|ty, dur|ng cha||ongos to nat|ona| so|t-ostoom or norvo, whon wo
agon|zo about our d|m|n|shod cosm|c p|aco and purposo, or whon tanat|c|sm |s bubb||ng up around us-
thon, hab|ts ot thought tam|||ar trom agos past roach tor tho contro|s. 1ho cand|o t|amo guttors. lts ||tt|o
poo| ot ||ght tromb|os. 0arknoss gathors. 1ho domons bog|n to st|r.
-CAll 3AGAl, 7lE LEVON-lAUN7EL ORLL
70

7

BoIiot in tho AttorIito
ln 1uno 2002, basoba|| |ogond 1od W||||ams d|od, a nowsworthy onough story that thon got |ogs whon h|s son wh|skod
tho body away to 3cottsda|o, Ar|zona, whoro |t was cryogon|ca||y trozon at m|nus 820 dogroos, w|th tho hopo that
somoday 1oddy 3a||gamo' wou|d bo rosurroctod to p|ay aga|n. lt W||||ams's body woro ono day roan|matod wou|d |t
st||| bo tho cranky portoct|on|st who was tho |ast porson |n basoba|| to h|t .400? ln othor words, |t tuturo cryon|cs
sc|ont|sts cou|d br|ng h|m back to ||to, wou|d |t st||| bo h|m'? ls tho sou|' ot 1od W||||ams a|so |n doop troozo a|ong
w|th h|s bra|n and body? 1ho answor doponds on how soo| |s dot|nod. lt by soo| wo moan tho pattorn ot 1od
W||||ams's momor|os, porsona||ty, and porsonhood, and |t tho trooz|ng procoss d|d not dostroy tho noura| notwork |n
tho bra|n whoro such ont|t|os aro storod, thon yos, tho sou| ot 1od W||||ams wou|d bo rosurroctod a|ong w|th h|s body.
ln th|s sonso, tho sou| |s tho un|quo pattorn ot |ntormat|on that roprosonts a porson, and un|oss thoro |s somo
mod|um to rota|n tho pattorn ot our porsona| |ntormat|on attor wo d|o, our sou| d|os w|th us. Our bod|os aro mado ot
proto|ns, codod by our 0lA, so w|th tho d|s|ntograt|on ot 0lA our proto|n pattorns aro |ost torovor. Our momor|os and
porsona||ty aro storod |n tho pattorns ot nourons t|r|ng |n our bra|ns and tho synapt|c connoct|ons botwoon thom, so
whon thoso nourons d|o and thoso synapt|c connoct|ons aro brokon, |t spo||s tho doath ot our momor|os and
porsona||ty. 1ho ottoct |s s|m||ar to tho ravagos ot stroko, domont|a, and A|zho|mor's d|soaso, but abso|uto and t|na|.
lo bra|n, no m|nd, no body, no sou|. Unt|| a tochno|ogy |s dovo|opod to down|oad our pattorns |nto a moro durab|o
mod|um than tho o|octr|c moat ot our carbon-basod proto|n, tho sc|ont|t|c ov|donco to||s us that whon wo d|o our
pattorn ot |ntormat|on-our sou|-d|os w|th us.
1hat |s tho mon|st pos|t|on anyway-that thoro |s on|y ono substanco. 0ua||sts bo||ovo that thoro |s a consc|ous
othoroa| substanco that |s tho un|quo ossonco ot a ||v|ng bo|ng that surv|vos |ts |ncarnat|on |n t|osh. 1ho anc|ont
|obrow word tor sou| |s oopbosb, or ||to' or v|ta| broath', tho Grook word tor sou| |s psycbo, or m|nd', and tho lat|n
word tor sou| |s oolmo, or sp|r|t' or broath.' 1ho sou| |s tho ossonco that broathos ||to |nto t|osh, an|matos us, g|vos
us our v|ta| sp|r|t. G|von tho |ack ot know|odgo about tho natura| wor|d at tho t|mo thoso concopts woro t|rst tormod, |t |s
not surpr|s|ng that anc|ont poop|os roachod tor such ophomora| motaphors as m|nd, broath, and sp|r|t. Ono momont a
||tt|o dog |s bark|ng, pranc|ng, and wagg|ng |ts ta||, and |n tho noxt momont |t |s a |ump ot |nort t|osh. What happonod |n
that momont?
ln 1007, a Vassachusotts phys|c|an namod 0uncan Vac0ouga|| tr|od to t|nd out by wo|gh|ng s|x dy|ng pat|onts
botoro and attor tho|r doath. |o roportod |n tho mod|ca| journa| Amotlcoo Voolcloo that thoro was a twonty-ono-gram
d|ttoronco. Evon though h|s moasuromonts woro crudo and tho wo|ghts var|od, and no ono has boon ab|o to rop||cato
h|s t|nd|ngs, twonty-ono grams' has nonotho|oss grown to urban |ogondary status as tho wo|ght ot tho sou|, spawn|ng
art|c|os, books, and ovon a toaturo t||m ot that t|t|o.
0oath, and tho poss|b|||ty ot ||to cont|nu|ng boyond |t, has spawnod count|oss sor|ous troat|sos and not a tow
comod|c commontar|os. 1ho porpotua||y anx|ous Woody A||on has th|s workaround: lt's not that l'm atra|d to d|o. l just
don't want to bo thoro whon |t happons.'
1
3tovon Wr|ght th|nks ho's t|gurod out a so|ut|on: l |ntond to ||vo torovor-so
tar, so good.'
2
|umor as|do, s|nco l am a sc|ont|st and c|a|ms aro mado that thoro |s sc|ont|t|c ov|donco tor ||to attor
doath, |ot us ana|yzo, t|rst, a sc|ont|t|c oxp|anat|on tor why poop|o bo||ovo |n an attor||to, and, socond, what tho
ov|donco |s tor that doubttu| tuturo dato, and cons|dor what |ts poss|b|||ty moans tor our prosont stato.
NaturaI-Born |mmortaIiata: AttorIito aa Agonticity
ln tho 2000 |arr|s lo|| ot ro||g|ous bo||ots among Amor|cans, rospondonts woro askod to |nd|cato whothor thoy
bo||ovod |n tho to||ow|ng:
8
71
Why do so many poop|o bo||ovo |n tho attor||to? 1ho quost|on can bo troatod ||ko any othor bo||ot quost|on, and
sc|onco can ho|p |||um|nato tho darknoss. l suggost thoro aro at |oast s|x so||d roasons that |oad poop|o to bo||ovo
thoro |s ||to attor doath, basod on tho causa| oxp|anat|ons l proposod tor tho sonsod-prosonco oxpor|onco, agont|c|ty,
dua||sm, and ospoc|a||y out-ot-body oxpor|oncos, a|| ot wh|ch tactor |nto attor||to accounts.
1. Bo|lo lo tbo otot|lo ls o otm o ogootlclty. ln our tondoncy to |ntuso tho pattorns wo t|nd |n ||to w|th moan|ng,
agoncy, and |ntont|on, tho concopt ot ||to attor doath |s an oxtons|on ot ourso|vos as |ntont|ona| agonts cont|nu|ng
|ndot|n|to|y |nto tho tuturo.
2. Bo|lo lo tbo otot|lo ls o typo o ooo|lsm. 3ocauso wo aro natura|-born dua||sts who |ntu|t|vo|y bo||ovo that our
m|nds aro soparato trom our bra|ns and bod|os, tho attor||to |s tho |og|ca| stop |n projoct|ng our own m|nd-agoncy |nto
tho tuturo w|thout our bod|os. lt may ovon bo a typo ot sonsod-prosonco ottoct or th|rd-man tactor, w|th ourso|vos as
that prosonco cont|nu|ng on |nto an |mag|nod othoroa| ompyroan.
8. Bo|lo lo tbo otot|lo ls o ootlvotlvo o oot tbooty o mloo. Wo havo tho ab|||ty to undorstand that othors havo
bo||ots, dos|ros, and |ntont|ons (wo road tho|r m|nds') by projoct|ng ourso|vos |nto tho m|nds ot othors and |mag|n|ng
how wo wou|d too|. 1h|s 1oV projoct|on |s anothor torm ot agont|c|ty and dua||sm by wh|ch wo can |mag|no tho
|ntont|ona| m|nds ot both ourso|vos and othors as cont|nu|ng |ndot|n|to|y |nto tho tuturo. 3|nco thoro |s good ov|donco
that 1oV occurs |n tho antor|or parac|ngu|ato cortox just boh|nd tho torohoad, wo m|ght ovon conjocturo that th|s noura|
notwork |s |ntogra| tor bo||ot |n tho attor||to.
4
4. Bo|lo lo tbo otot|lo ls oo oxtoosloo o oot booy scbomo. Our bra|ns construct a body |mago out ot tho myr|ad
|nputs trom ovory nook and cranny ot our bod|os. Whon th|s s|ng|o |nd|v|dua| so| |s coup|od w|th our capac|ty tor
agont|c|ty, dua||sm, and thoory ot m|nd, wo can projoct that ossonco |nto tho tuturo, ovon w|thout a body.
b. Bo|lo lo tbo otot|lo ls ptobob|y moolotoo by oot |ot-bomlspboto lototptotot. A socond noura| notwork that |s
||ko|y |ntogra| tor attor||to bo||ots |s tho |ott-hom|sphoro |ntorprotor, wh|ch |ntogratos |nputs trom a|| tho sonsos |nto a
moan|ngtu| narrat|vo arc that makos sonso ot both sonsotu| and sonso|oss data. 1|o th|s procoss |nto our body
schoma, thoory ot m|nd, and dua||st|c agont|c|ty and |t bocomos c|oar how oasy |t |s to dovo|op a p|ot |n wh|ch wo aro
tho |oad charactor whoso moan|ng and |mportanco |s contra| to tho story and whoso tuturo |s otorna|.
0. Bo|lo lo tbo otot|lo ls oo oxtoosloo o oot ootmo| obl|lty to lmogloo ootso|vos somowboto o|so botb lo spoco
ooo tlmo, loc|oolog tlmo lmmomotlo|. C|oso your oyos and |mag|no yourso|t on tho warm sands ot a trop|ca| boach
on a boaut|tu| sunny day. Whoro aro you |n th|s p|cturo? Aro you |ns|do your sk|n |ook|ng out trom your oyos at tho
crash|ng wavos |n tho d|stanco and ch||dron p|ay|ng |n tho sand? Or aro you abovo yourso|t |ook|ng down on your
ont|ro body as |t thoro woro a socond you hovor|ng ovorhoad? |or most poop|o th|s thought oxpor|mont rosu|ts |n tho
socond obsorvat|ona| p|attorm. 1h|s |s ca||od oocoototlog, or |mag|n|ng ourso|vos somowhoro o|so trom an
Arch|modoan po|nt boyond our body. ln th|s samo mannor wo onv|s|on ourso|vos |n tho attor||to as a docontorod
|mago romovod trom th|s t|mo and spaco |nto an ompyroa| roa|m, tho ||tora| (and ||torary) dwo|||ng p|aco ot God, tho
u|t|mato |mmorta| and otorna| agont.

ln sum, bocauso wo so road||y |mpart agoncy and |ntont|on to |nan|mato objocts such as rocks and troos and c|ouds,
and to an|mato objocts such as prodators, proy, and our to||ow human bo|ngs, bocauso wo aro natura|-born dua||sts
who bo||ovo |n m|nd boyond body, bocauso wo aro awaro ot our own m|nds and tho m|nds ot othors, bocauso wo aro
awaro ot our own bod|os as soparato trom a|| othor bod|os, bocauso our bra|ns aro natura||y |nc||nod to woavo a||
sonsory |nputs and cogn|t|vo thoughts |nto a moan|ngtu| story w|th ourso|vos as tho contra| charactor, and, t|na||y,
bocauso wo aro ab|o to docontor ourso|vos trom our t|mo and spaco |nto anothor t|mo and spaco, |t |s natura| tor us to
bo||ovo that wo havo a t|mo|oss and otorna| ossonco. o oto oototo|-boto lmmotto|lsts.
1ho Diaombodiod Nind and tho EtornaI 5ouI
3o||ovors |n tho attor||to, ot courso, w||| o|thor rojoct thoso ||nos ot ov|donco that bo||ot |n ||to attor doath |s a product ot
tho bra|n, or thoy w||| arguo that tho|r ro||g|on |s s|mp|y rot|oct|ng an onto|og|ca| roa||ty about tho un|vorso. 1hoy bo||ovo
72
|n ||to attor doath bocauso thoro roa||y |s an attor||to, thoy w||| say, and thoy w||| ottor ov|donco |n support ot th|s c|a|m.
3ut as l havo boon argu|ng throughout th|s book, such rat|ona||zat|on ot bo||ot |s proc|so|y backward. 3o||ot |n tho
attor||to comos t|rst, rat|ona| roasons tor tho bo||ot como socond. lovortho|oss, tho caso tor tho ox|stonco ot tho
attor||to |s bu||t around tour ||nos ot ov|donco that may bo summar|zod as to||ows (trom woakost to strongost |n
ov|dont|ary strongth).
b
1. lootmotloo lo|os ooo tbo oolvotso| |lo otco. Accord|ng to tho thoory ot morph|c rosonanco, naturo prosorvos
data |n tho torm ot |ntormat|on t|o|ds that ox|st soparato|y trom |nd|v|dua| organ|sms, as ov|doncod by poop|o who can
sonso whon somoono |s star|ng at tho|r backs, by dogs that know whon tho|r ownors aro com|ng homo, and that |t |s
oas|or to comp|oto tho 3unday crossword puzz|o |ator |n tho day bocauso othors havo a|roady so|vod |t. 1hoso, and
many othor mystor|ous psych|c phonomona, can bo oxp|a|nod by morph|c rosonanco t|o|ds' that connoct a|| ||v|ng
organ|sms to ono anothor. lntormat|on cannot bo croatod or dostroyod, on|y rocomb|nod |nto now pattorns, so our
porsona| pattorns-our sou|s' by my dot|n|t|on-aro packagos ot |ntormat|on that procodo b|rth and surv|vo doath.
2. E5P ooo ovloooco o mloo. Expor|monta| rosoarch on psl (psych|c powor) and to|opathy, |n wh|ch subjocts
undor contro||od cond|t|ons can apparont|y roco|vo |magos trom sondors w|thout tho uso ot tho t|vo sonsos, |t truo
wou|d stand as ov|donco tor a d|sombod|od m|nd that tunct|ons |ndopondont|y ot tho bra|n and yot can |ntoract w|th
norma| mattor.
8. Ooootom cooscloosooss. 1ho study ot tho act|ons ot subatom|c part|c|os through quantum mochan|cs producos
what E|nsto|n ca||od spooky octloo ot o olstooco, whoro tho obsorvat|on ot a part|c|o |n ono |ocat|on |nstantanoous|y
attocts a ro|atod part|c|o at anothor |ocat|on (wh|ch cou|d thoorot|ca||y bo |n anothor ga|axy), |n apparont v|o|at|on ot
E|nsto|n's uppor ||m|t ot tho spood ot ||ght. 3omo sc|ont|sts tako th|s to moan that tho un|vorso |s ono g|ant quantum
t|o|d |n wh|ch ovoryth|ng (and ovoryono) |s |ntorconnoctod and can |nt|uonco ono anothor d|roct|y and |nstant|y. |or
bo||ovors |n an attor||to, quantum mochan|cs oxp|a|n how consc|ousnoss ar|sos out ot b|ochom|ca| s|gna|s and how
our m|nds may oxtond |nto tho quantum roa|m that ox|sts outs|do tho bra|n.
4. Noot-oootb oxpotloocos. 1horo aro thousands ot poop|o who havo suttorod traumat|c acc|donts, noar-
drown|ngs, omorgoncy-room co||apso, and ospoc|a||y hoart attacks who aro subsoquont|y rosusc|tatod and roport
oxpor|onc|ng somo aspoct ot tho attor||to-t|oat|ng out ot tho|r bod|os, pass|ng through a tunno| or wh|to ||ght, and
soo|ng |ovod onos or w|tnoss|ng God, 1osus, or somo man|tostat|on ot tho d|v|no on tho othor s|do. lt thoso poop|o
woro tru|y doad, thon tho|r consc|ous so|t'-tho|r sou| or ossonco-somohow surv|vod tho doath ot tho body.
lot's oxam|no oach ot thoso carotu||y.
|ntormation FioIda and tho univoraaI Lito Forco
|avo you ovor not|cod how much oas|or |t |s to do a nowspapor crossword puzz|o |ator |n tho day than |t |s to do |t |n
tho morn|ng? Vo no|thor. 3ut accord|ng to 3r|t|sh b|o|og|st luport 3ho|drako, |t |s bocauso tho co||oct|vo w|sdom ot
morn|ng succossos rosonatos throughout tho cu|tura| morph|c t|o|d.' ln 3ho|drako's thoory ot morph|c rosonanco,
s|m||ar torms (morphs, or t|o|ds ot |ntormat|on') rovorborato and oxchango |ntormat|on as oxtondod m|nds w|th|n a
un|vorsa| ||to torco. As t|mo goos on, oach typo ot organ|sm torms a spoc|a| k|nd ot cumu|at|vo co||oct|vo momory,'
3ho|drako wroto |n h|s 1081 book A Now5clooco o Llo. 1ho rogu|ar|t|os ot naturo aro thorotoro hab|tua|. 1h|ngs aro
as thoy aro bocauso thoy woro as thoy woro.' ln th|s and h|s most popu|ar book, 7bo Ptosooco o tbo Post,
3ho|drako, a Un|vors|ty ot Cambr|dgo tra|nod b|o|og|st and onot|mo rosoarch to||ow ot tho loya| 3oc|oty, oxp|a|nod
that morph|c rosonanco |s tho |doa ot mystor|ous to|opathy-typo |ntorconnoct|ons botwoon organ|sms and ot
co||oct|vo momor|os w|th|n spoc|os.'
0
3ho|drako bo||ovos that thoso |ntormat|on t|o|ds torm a un|vorsa| ||to torco connoct|ng a|| organ|sms and that
morph|c rosonanco oxp|a|ns phantom ||mbs, hom|ng p|goons, how dogs know whon tho|r ownors aro com|ng homo,
and how poop|o know whon somoono |s star|ng at thom. v|s|on may |nvo|vo a two-way procoss, an |nward movomont
ot ||ght and an outward projoct|on ot monta| |magos,' 3ho|drako wroto.
7
1housands ot tr|a|s conductod by anyono who
down|oadod tho oxpor|monta| protoco| trom 3ho|drako's Wob pago havo g|von pos|t|vo, ropoatab|o, and h|gh|y
s|gn|t|cant rosu|ts, |mp|y|ng that thoro |s |ndood a w|dosproad sons|t|v|ty to bo|ng starod at trom boh|nd.'
8
Whon
somoono staros at you |t apparont|y croatos somoth|ng ||ko a r|pp|o |n tho morph|c t|o|d that you sonso, caus|ng you to
turn and |ook.
lot's oxam|no th|s c|a|m moro c|oso|y. ||rst, sc|onco |s not norma||y conductod by strangors who happon upon a
Wob pago protoco|, so wo havo no way ot know|ng |t thoso amatours contro||od tor |ntorvon|ng var|ab|os and
oxpor|montor b|asos. 3ocond, psycho|og|sts d|sm|ss anocdota| accounts ot th|s sonso to a rovorso so|t-tu|t||||ng ottoct:
a porson suspocts bo|ng starod at and turns to chock, such hoad movomont catchos tho oyos ot wou|d-bo starors,
who thon turn to |ook at tho staroo, who thoroby cont|rms tho too||ng ot bo|ng starod at. 1h|rd, |n 2000, 1ohn Co|wo||
trom V|dd|osox Un|vors|ty, london, conductod a torma| tost us|ng 3ho|drako's suggostod oxpor|monta| protoco|, w|th
73
two|vo vo|untoors who part|c|patod |n two|vo soquoncos ot twonty staro or no-staro tr|a|s oach, w|th accuracy toodback
prov|dod tor tho t|na| n|no soss|ons. losu|ts: subjocts woro ab|o to dotoct bo|ng starod at on|y whon accuracy
toodback was prov|dod, wh|ch Co|wo|| attr|butod to tho subjocts |oarn|ng what was, |n tact, a nonrandom prosontat|on
ot tho oxpor|monta| tr|a|s.
0
Whon Un|vors|ty ot |orttordsh|ro psycho|og|st l|chard W|soman a|so attomptod to
rop||cato 3ho|drako's rosoarch, ho tound that subjocts dotoctod staros at ratos no bottor than chanco. |ourth, thoro |s
an oxpor|montor b|as prob|om. lnst|tuto ot loot|c 3c|oncos rosoarchor Var||yn 3ch||tz (a bo||ovor |n ps|) co||aboratod
w|th W|soman (a skopt|c ot ps|) |n rop||cat|ng 3ho|drako's rosoarch, and d|scovorod that whon tboy d|d tho star|ng
3ch||tz tound stat|st|ca||y s|gn|t|cant rosu|ts, whoroas W|soman tound chanco rosu|ts.
10
||tth, tho cooltmotloo blos may bo at work horo. ln a 200b spoc|a| |ssuo ot tho 1ootoo| o Cooscloosooss 5toolos
dovotod to 3ho|drako and ||s Cr|t|cs,' l ratod tho tourtoon opon-poor commontar|os on 3ho|drako's targot art|c|o (on
tho sonso ot bo|ng starod at) on a sca|o ot 1 to b (cr|t|ca|, m||d|y cr|t|ca|, noutra|, m||d|y support|vo, support|vo). W|thout
oxcopt|on, tho 1s, 2s, and 8s woro a|| trad|t|ona| sc|ont|sts trom ma|nstroam |nst|tut|ons, whoroas tho 4s and bs woro
a|| att|||atod w|th tr|ngo and pro-paranorma| |nst|tut|ons.
11
3ho|drako rospondod that skopt|cs dampon tho morph|c
t|o|d's subt|o powor, whoroas bo||ovors onhanco |t. Ot W|soman, 3ho|drako romarkod: lorhaps h|s nogat|vo
oxpoctat|ons consc|ous|y or unconsc|ous|y |nt|uoncod tho way ho |ookod at tho subjocts.'
12
lorhaps, but how can wo
to|| tho d|ttoronco botwoon nogat|vo ps| and non-ps|? 1ho |nv|s|b|o and tho nonox|stont |ook tho samo.
E5P and Evidonco ot Nind
|or moro than a contury thoro havo boon a numbor ot sor|ous sc|ont|sts who bo||ovod that such op|phonomona woro
not tho products ot our tondoncy to |ntuso pattorns w|th |ntont|ona| agonts and supornatura| torcos. 1hoy strong|y
suspoctod that tho bra|n was tapp|ng |nto gonu|no torcos not yot moasurab|o through tho trad|t|ona| too|s ot sc|onco. ln
tho |ato n|notoonth contury, organ|zat|ons such as tho 3oc|oty tor lsych|ca| losoarch woro toundod to omp|oy
r|gorous sc|ont|t|c mothods |n tho study ot ps|, and many wor|d-c|ass sc|ont|sts supportod tho|r ottorts. ln tho twont|oth
contury, ps| por|od|ca||y tound |ts way |nto sor|ous acadom|c rosoarch programs, trom 1osoph lh|no's 0uko
Un|vors|ty oxpor|monts |n tho 1020s to 0ary| 3om's Corno|| Un|vors|ty rosoarch |n tho 1000s. lot's |ook at th|s most
rocont c|a|m ot oxpor|monta| proot moro c|oso|y, as |t |s tho bost argumont to dato tor oxtrasonsory porcopt|on.
ln 1anuary 1004, 3om and h|s Un|vors|ty ot Ed|nburgh parapsycho|og|st co||oaguo Char|os |onorton pub||shod a
papor |n tho prost|g|ous rov|ow journa| Psycbo|oglco| Bo||otlo ont|t|od 0oos ls| Ex|st? lop||cab|o Ev|donco tor an
Anoma|ous lrocoss ot lntormat|on 1ranstor.' Conduct|ng a mota-ana|ys|s ot torty pub||shod oxpor|monts, tho authors
conc|udod: 1ho rop||cat|on ratos and ottoct s|zos ach|ovod by ono part|cu|ar oxpor|monta| mothod, tho ganzto|d
procoduro, aro now sutt|c|ont to warrant br|ng|ng th|s body ot data to tho attont|on ot tho w|dor psycho|og|ca|
commun|ty.' A mota-ana|ys|s |s a stat|st|ca| tochn|quo that comb|nos tho rosu|ts trom many stud|os to |ook tor an
ovora|| ottoct, ovon |t tho rosu|ts trom tho |nd|v|dua| stud|os woro not s|gn|t|cant (that |s, thoy woro unab|o to rojoct tho
nu|| hypothos|s at tho 0b porcont cont|donco |ovo|). 1ho ganzto|d procoduro p|acos tho roco|vor' |n a sonsory |so|at|on
room w|th l|ng-long ba|| ha|vos covor|ng tho oyos, hoadphonos p|ay|ng wh|to no|so ovor tho oars, and tho sondor' |n
anothor room psych|ca||y transm|tt|ng photograph|c or v|doo |magos.
0osp|to t|nd|ng ov|donco tor ps|-subjocts had a h|t rato ot 8b porcont whon 2b porcont was oxpoctod by chanco-
3om and |onorton |amontod: Vost acadom|c psycho|og|sts do not yot accopt tho ox|stonco ot ps|, anoma|ous
procossos ot |ntormat|on or onorgy transtor (such as to|opathy or othor torms ot oxtrasonsory porcopt|on) that aro
curront|y unoxp|a|nod |n torms ot known phys|ca| or b|o|og|ca| mochan|sms.'
18
Why don't sc|ont|sts accopt ps|? 0ary| 3om has a sto||ar roputat|on as a r|gorous oxpor|monta||st and ho has
prosontod us w|th stat|st|ca||y s|gn|t|cant rosu|ts. Aron't sc|ont|sts supposod to bo opon to chang|ng tho|r m|nds whon
prosontod w|th now data and ov|donco? 1ho roason tor skopt|c|sm |s that wo nood both rop||cab|o ooto and a v|ab|o
tbooty, both ot wh|ch aro m|ss|ng |n ps| rosoarch.
Loto. 3oth tho mota-ana|ys|s and ganzto|d tochn|quos havo boon cha||ongod by sc|ont|sts. lay |yman trom tho
Un|vors|ty ot Orogon tound |ncons|stonc|os |n tho oxpor|monta| procoduros usod |n d|ttoront ganzto|d oxpor|monts,
wh|ch woro |umpod togothor |n 3om's mota-ana|ys|s as |t thoy usod tho samo procoduros. |o arguod tho stat|st|ca|
tost omp|oyod (3touttor's Z) was |nappropr|ato tor such a d|vorso data sot, and ho a|so tound t|aws |n tho targot
random|zat|on procoss (tho soquonco tho v|sua| targots woro sont to tho roco|vor), rosu|t|ng |n a targot so|oct|on b|as.
A|| ot tho s|gn|t|cant h|tt|ng was dono on tho socond or |ator appoaranco ot a targot. lt wo oxam|nod tho guossos
aga|nst just tho t|rst occurroncos ot targots, tho rosu|t |s cons|stont w|th chanco.'
14
1u||o V||ton and l|chard W|soman
conductod a mota-ana|ys|s ot th|rty moro ganzto|d oxpor|monts and tound no ov|donco tor ps|, conc|ud|ng that ps| data
aro nonrop||cab|o.
1b
3om countorod w|th ton add|t|ona| ganzto|d oxpor|monts ho c|a|ms aro s|gn|t|cant, and ho has
add|t|ona| rosoarch ho p|ans to pub||sh.
10
And so |t goos . w|th moro to como |n tho data dobato. ln gonora|, ovor tho
courso ot a contury ot rosoarch on ps|, tho t|ghtor tho contro|s on tho oxpor|monta| cond|t|ons tho woakor tho ps|
74
ottocts soom to bocomo unt|| thoy d|sappoar ont|ro|y.
7booty. 1ho doopor roason sc|ont|sts roma|n skopt|ca| ot ps|-and w||| ovon |t moro s|gn|t|cant data aro pub||shod
-|s that thoro |s no oxp|anatory thoory tor how ps| works. Unt|| ps| propononts can oxp|a|n how thoughts gonoratod by
nourons |n tho sondor's bra|n can pass through tho sku|| and |nto tho bra|n ot tho roco|vor, skopt|c|sm |s tho
appropr|ato rosponso. lt tho ov|donco shows that thoro |s such a phonomonon as ps| that noods oxp|a|n|ng (and l am
not conv|ncod that tho ov|donco doos support such a conc|us|on), thon wo st||| nood a causa| mochan|sm.
Ouantum Conaciouanoaa
Ono p|aus|b|o thoory ot just such a causa| mochan|sm has boon prottorod by tho Amor|can phys|c|an 3tuart |amorott
and tho 3r|t|sh phys|c|st logor lonroso |n both tochn|ca| wr|t|ngs
17
and a popu|ar t||m |mprobab|y t|t|od bot tbo #$!
Lo o Koow!
18
1ho t||m vors|on |s arttu||y od|tod and toaturos actross Var|oo Vat||n as a droamy-oyod photographor
try|ng to mako sonso ot an apparont|y sonso|oss un|vorso. 1ho t||m's contra| tonot |s that wo croato our own roa||ty
through consc|ousnoss and quantum mochan|cs. l mot tho producors ot tho t||m tho wookond |t oponod whon wo woro
both on a lort|and, Orogon, to|ov|s|on show, so l got an oar|y scroon|ng. l novor |mag|nod that a t||m groundod |n an
osotor|c branch ot phys|cs-quantum mochan|cs-wou|d succood |n tho crowdod markot ot popu|ar mov|os, but |t has
grossod m||||ons and croatod a cu|t to||ow|ng.
1ho t||m's avatars aro sc|ont|sts w|th strong low Ago |oan|ngs, whoso jargon-|adon sound b|tos amount to ||tt|o
moro than what Ca|toch phys|c|st and lobo| |auroato Vurray Go||-Vann onco doscr|bod as quantum t|apdood|o.'
10
Un|vors|ty ot Orogon quantum phys|c|st Am|t Goswam|, tor oxamp|o, proc|a|ms w|th groat protund|ty: 1ho mator|a|
wor|d around us |s noth|ng but poss|b|o movomonts ot consc|ousnoss. l am choos|ng momont by momont my
oxpor|onco. |o|sonborg sa|d atoms aro not th|ngs, on|y tondonc|os.' lt m|ght provo an |ntorost|ng oxpor|monta| tost ot
h|s thoory tor Goswam| to |oap out ot a twonty-story bu||d|ng and consc|ous|y chooso tho oxpor|onco ot pass|ng sato|y
through tho ground's tondonc|os.
1ho work ot 1apanoso rosoarchor Vasaru Emoto, author ot 7bo lloooo Vossogos o otot, |s toaturod to show
how thoughts chango tho structuro ot |co crysta|s-boaut|tu| crysta|s torm |n a g|ass ot wator w|th tho word |ovo' tapod
to |t, whoroas p|ay|ng E|v|s's |oartbroak |oto|' causos a crysta| to sp||t |nto two. Ono can't ho|p but wondor |t E|v|s's
3urn|n' lovo' wou|d bo|| wator.
1ho t||m's nad|r |s an |ntorv|ow w|th lamtha,' a th|rty-t|vo-thousand-yoar-o|d sp|r|t channo|od by a t|tty-o|ght-yoar-
o|d woman namod 1. Z. Kn|ght. ln tact, |t turns out that many ot tho t||m's producors, wr|tors, and actors aro mombors
ot lamtha's 3choo| ot En||ghtonmont,' whoro low Ago pabu|um |s d|sponsod |n cost|y wookond rotroats.
1ho attompt to ||nk tho wo|rdnoss ot tho quantum wor|d (such as |o|sonborg's uncorta|nty pr|nc|p|o, wh|ch statos
that tho moro proc|so|y you know a part|c|o's pos|t|on, tho |oss proc|so|y you know |ts spood, and v|co vorsa) to
mystor|os ot tho macro wor|d (such as consc|ousnoss) |s basod on lonroso and |amorott's thoory ot quantum
consc|ousnoss, wh|ch has gonoratod much hoat but ||tt|o ||ght |n sc|ont|t|c c|rc|os.
lns|do our nourons aro t|ny ho||ow m|crotubu|os that act ||ko structura| scatto|d|ng. 1ho conjocturo (and that's a|| |t |s)
|s that somoth|ng |ns|do tho m|crotubu|os may |n|t|ato a wavo-tunct|on co||apso that |oads to tho quantum cohoronco ot
atoms, caus|ng nourotransm|ttors to bo ro|oasod |nto tho synapsos botwoon nourons and thus tr|ggor|ng thom to t|ro |n
a un|torm pattorn, thoroby croat|ng thought and consc|ousnoss. 3|nco a wavo-tunct|on co||apso can como about on|y
whon an atom |s obsorvod' (that |s, attoctod |n any way by somoth|ng o|so), nourosc|ont|st 3|r 1ohn Ecc|os, anothor
proponont ot tho |doa, ovon suggosts that m|nd' may bo tho obsorvor |n a rocurs|vo |oop trom atoms to mo|ocu|os to
nourons to thought to consc|ousnoss to m|nd to atoms to mo|ocu|os to nourons to .
20
ln roa||ty, tho gap botwoon subatom|c quantum ottocts and |argo-sca|o macro systoms |s too |argo to br|dgo. ln h|s
book 7bo Uocooscloos Ooootom,
21
Un|vors|ty ot Co|orado part|c|o phys|c|st v|ctor 3tongor domonstratos that tor a
systom to bo doscr|bod quantum mochan|ca||y tho systom's typ|ca| mass m, spood v, and d|stanco o must bo on tho
ordor ot l|anck's constant b. lt mvo |s much groator than b, thon tho systom probab|y can bo troatod c|ass|ca||y.'
3tongor computos that tho mass ot noura| transm|ttor mo|ocu|os, and tho|r spood across tho d|stanco ot tho synapso,
aro about throo ordors ot magn|tudo too |argo tor quantum ottocts to bo |nt|uont|a|. 1horo |s no m|cro-macro
connoct|on. 3ubatom|c part|c|os may bo a|torod whon thoy aro obsorvod, but tho moon |s thoro ovon |t no ono |ooks at
|t. 3o what tho #$! |s go|ng on horo?
lhys|cs onvy. 1ho h|story ot sc|onco |s ||ttorod w|th tho ta||od p|po droams ot ovor-a||ur|ng roduct|on|st schomos to
oxp|a|n tho |nnor work|ngs ot tho m|nd-schomos |ncroas|ng|y sot torth |n tho amb|t|ous wako ot 0oscartos's own
tamous attompt, somo tour contur|os ago, to roduco a|| monta| tunct|on|ng to tho act|ons ot sw|r||ng vort|cos ot atoms,
supposod|y danc|ng tho|r way to consc|ousnoss. 3uch Cartos|an droams prov|do a sonso ot corta|nty, but thoy qu|ck|y
tado |n tho taco ot tho comp|ox|t|os ot b|o|ogy. Wo shou|d bo oxp|or|ng consc|ousnoss at tho noura| |ovo| and h|ghor,
whoro tho arrow ot causa| ana|ys|s po|nts up toward such pr|nc|p|os as omorgonco and so|t-organ|zat|on.
75
Noar-Doath Exorioncoa
3|nco tho advont ot powortu| jot p|anos capab|o ot such g-torco acco|orat|on that p||ots can |oso consc|ousnoss dur|ng
aor|a| combat manouvor|ng, tho U.3. A|r |orco and lavy havo undortakon a numbor ot stud|os on how to t|ght what |s
ca||od O-LOC, or g-torco-|nducod |oss ot consc|ousnoss, |nc|ud|ng spoc|a| t||ght su|ts and tra|n|ng |n contr|tugos. 0r.
1amos Wh|nnory was h|rod by tho m|||tary to d|roct tho tra|n|ng and study ot p||ots at tho lava| A|r Wartaro Contor
contr|tugo |n Warm|nstor, lonnsy|van|a. |o d|scovorod a romarkab|o phonomonon: tho major|ty ot p||ots oxpor|oncod
what Wh|nnory ca||od droam|ots,' or br|ot op|sodos ot tunno| v|s|on, somot|mos w|th a br|ght ||ght at tho ond ot tho
tunno|, as wo|| as a sonso ot t|oat|ng, somot|mos para|ys|s, and otton ouphor|a and a too||ng ot poaco and soron|ty
whon thoy camo back to consc|ousnoss.
22
3ound tam|||ar? 1hoso aro a|so tho charactor|st|cs ot a noar-doath oxpor|onco (l0E), t|rst popu|ar|zod |n 107b by
laymond Voody |n h|s book Llo Atot Llo, and now tam|||ar to ovoryono by tho un|quo sot ot s|gns that |nc|udo: (1) a
t|oat|ng or t|y|ng too||ng |n wh|ch you can |ook down and soo your body, common|y ca||od an out-ot-body oxpor|onco
(O3E), (2) pass|ng through a tunno|, ha||way, or sp|ra| chambor, somot|mos w|th a br|ght ||ght at tho ond ot |t, and (8)
porhaps soo|ng |ovod onos who havo a|roady passod away, and/or a God||ko |mago or d|v|no t|guro.
28
Wh|nnory was
ab|o to |nduco tho t|rst two ot thoso throo moro than a thousand t|mos |n s|xtoon yoars ot study |n tho contro||od
cond|t|ons ot tho contr|tugo, ovon v|dootap|ng tho p||ots whon thoy passod out and not|ng that th|s |s whon thoy had tho
oxpor|onco, |oav|ng no doubt as to tho causo: hypox|a, or oxygon dopr|vat|on to tho cortox.
24
Undor h|gh g-torcos, tho b|ood dra|ns out ot tho hoad and poo|s toward tho contor ot tho torso, rondor|ng thoso
p||ots |nto a gray-out phaso to||owod by a b|ackout stato, a|| w|th|n a mattor ot t|ttoon to th|rty soconds. Whon G-lOC
was |nducod |n a gradua| tash|on by acco|orat|ng tho contr|tugo |n a systomat|c mannor, tho subjocts t|rst oxpor|oncod
tunno| v|s|on, thon b||ndnoss, thon b|ackout, wh|ch |s ||ko|y causod by tho |oss ot oxygon t|rst to tho rot|na thon to tho
v|sua| cortox (produc|ng tunno| v|s|on as tho nourons shut down trom tho outs|do to tho |ns|do), |oad|ng to tota| b|ackout
whon tho major|ty ot tho cortox powors down.
2b
0r. 0av|d Com|ngs, a mod|ca| doctor and nourosc|ont|st spoc|a||z|ng
|n a|torod statos ot consc|ousnoss, notos, 1ho too||ngs ot soron|ty and poaco aro ||ko|y to havo boon producod by tho
|ncroasod ro|oaso ot var|ous nourotransm|ttors such as ondorph|ns, soroton|n, and dopam|no,' and that tho l0E
provos that whon tho bra|n |s dopr|vod ot oxygon tor pro|ongod por|ods ot t|mo, |mmod|ato|y pr|or to bra|n damago a
rango ot phys|o|og|ca| ovonts occur that charactor|zo l0E.'
20
Evon moro d|roct|y support|vo ot my thos|s that a|| such d|sombod|od monta| phonomona aro tho rosu|t ot bra|n
act|v|ty may bo tound |n a 2002 study pub||shod |n Nototo, |n wh|ch 3w|ss nourosc|ont|st O|at 3|anko and h|s
co||oaguos roportod that thoy cou|d w|||tu||y produco out-ot-body oxpor|oncos through o|octr|ca| st|mu|at|on ot tho tlgbt
oogo|ot gytos |n tho tompora| |obo ot a torty-throo-yoar-o|d woman suttor|ng trom sovoro op||opt|c so|zuros.
W|th |n|t|a| m||d o|octr|ca| st|mu|at|ons ot th|s aroa ot tho bra|n tho pat|ont roportod s|nk|ng |nto tho bod' or ta|||ng
trom a ho|ght.' Voro |ntonso st|mu|at|on |od hor to soo myso|t |y|ng |n bod, trom abovo, but l on|y soo my |ogs and
|owor trunk.' Anothor st|mu|at|on |nducod an |nstantanoous too||ng ot '||ghtnoss' and 't|oat|ng' about two motors abovo
tho bod, c|oso to tho co|||ng.' 1ho sc|ont|sts d|scovorod that thoy cou|d ovon contro| tho ho|ght abovo tho bod that th|s
woman roportod by tho |ovo| ot o|octr|c|ty do||vorod to tho tompora| |obo. 1hoy thon askod tho pat|ont to staro at hor
outstrotchod |ogs wh||o thoy st|mu|atod hor bra|n. 3ho roportod that sho saw hor |ogs bocom|ng shortor.' Whon thoy
had hor bond hor |ogs pr|or to o|octr|ca| st|mu|at|on, sho roportod that hor |ogs appoarod to bo mov|ng qu|ck|y
towards hor taco, and took ovas|vo act|on.' 1ho samo th|ng happonod w|th hor arms whon tho oxpor|mont was
dup||catod.
3|anko's toam conc|udod: 1hoso obsorvat|ons |nd|cato that O3Es and comp|ox somatosonsory |||us|ons can bo
art|t|c|a||y |nducod by o|octr|ca| st|mu|at|on ot tho cortox. 1ho assoc|at|on ot thoso phonomona and tho|r anatom|ca|
so|oct|v|ty suggost that thoy havo a common or|g|n |n body-ro|atod procoss|ng, an |doa that |s supportod by tho
rostr|ct|on ot thoso v|sua| oxpor|oncos to tho pat|ont's own body.' 3|nco tho pr|mary tunct|on ot tho bra|n |s to run tho
body, a d|sp|acod body schoma may not on|y ho|p oxp|a|n tho sonsod-prosonco ottoct, |t may gonorato a sonso ot tho
body schoma bo|ng outs|do ot |tso|t. 3|anko and h|s co||oaguos conjocturod: lt |s poss|b|o that tho oxpor|onco ot
d|ssoc|at|on ot so|t trom tho body |s a rosu|t ot ta||uro to |ntograto comp|ox somatosonsory and vost|bu|ar
|ntormat|on.'
27
ln a ro|atod study roportod |n tho 2001 book by Ooo oo`t Oo Awoy, nourosc|ont|st Androw lowborg and h|s
co||oaguo Eugono 0'Aqu||| tound that bra|n scans mado whon 3uddh|st monks mod|tatod and |ranc|scan nuns
prayod |nd|catod str|k|ng|y |ow act|v|ty |n tho postor|or supor|or par|ota| |obo, a rog|on ot tho bra|n tho authors havo
dubbod tho or|ontat|on assoc|at|on aroa (OAA).
28
1ho OAA's job |s to or|ont tho body |n phys|ca| spaco, and poop|o
w|th damago to th|s aroa havo a d|tt|cu|t t|mo nogot|at|ng tho|r way around a houso, somot|mos ovon bump|ng |nto
objocts. Evon though thoy can soo tho obtrus|vo objoct, tho|r bra|n doos not procoss |t as somoth|ng soparato trom
76
tho|r body. Whon tho OAA |s bootod up and runn|ng smooth|y thoro |s a sharp d|st|nct|on botwoon so|t and nonso|t.
Whon OAA |s |n s|oop modo-as |n doop mod|tat|on and prayor-that d|v|s|on broaks down, |oad|ng to a b|urr|ng ot
tho ||nos botwoon roa||ty and tantasy, botwoon too||ng |n body and out ot body. lorhaps th|s |s what happons to monks
who oxpor|onco a sonso ot ononoss w|th tho un|vorso, or w|th nuns who too| tho prosonco ot God, or w|th a||on
abductoos t|oat|ng out ot tho|r bods up to tho mothor sh|p.
1h|s hypothos|s was turthor supportod |n a 2010 d|scovory that damago to tho postor|or supor|or par|ota| |obo
through tumorous |os|ons can causo pat|onts to suddon|y oxpor|onco too||ngs ot sp|r|tua| transcondonco. lta||an
nourosc|ont|st Cos|mo Urgos| and h|s co||oaguos at tho Un|vors|ty ot Ud|no |n lta|y moasurod tho porsona||t|os ot
o|ghty-o|ght pat|onts botoro and attor bra|n surgory to romovo tumors |n both tho |ott and r|ght par|ota| cortox. 1hoy
spoc|t|ca||y notod tho chango |n a ro|at|vo|y stab|o porsona||ty tra|t ca||od so|-ttooscoooooco,' wh|ch tracks tho
tondoncy (or not) to bocomo absorbod |n an act|v|ty to tho po|nt ot |os|ng track ot t|mo and p|aco, as wo|| as tho sonso
ot hav|ng a strong sp|r|tua| connoct|on w|th naturo. 0amago to postor|or par|ota| aroas |nducod unusua||y tast
changos ot a stab|o porsona||ty d|mons|on ro|atod to transcondonta| so|t-rotoront|a| awaronoss,' Urgos| oxp|a|nod.
1hus, dystunct|ona| par|ota| noura| act|v|ty may undorp|n a|torod sp|r|tua| and ro||g|ous att|tudos and bohav|ors.'
20
3omot|mos trauma can tr|ggor such oxpor|oncos. ln a 2001 study pub||shod |n tho 3r|t|sh mod|ca| journa| Loocot,
0utch sc|ont|st l|m van lommo| and h|s co||oaguos roportod that ot 844 card|ac pat|onts rosusc|tatod trom c||n|ca|
doath, 12 porcont roportod noar-doath oxpor|oncos. 1hoso |nc|udod tho tu||-on out-ot-body oxpor|onco, a ||ght at tho
ond ot a tunno|, and so torth. 3omo ot thoso noar-doath card|ac pat|onts ovon doscr|bod spoak|ng to doad ro|at|vos.
80
0r. Vark Cr|sp||n, a lort|and, Orogon, El doctor, rov|owod tho or|g|na| EEG road|ngs ot a numbor ot pat|onts
c|a|mod by tho sc|ont|sts as bo|ng t|at||nod or doad' and d|scovorod that th|s was not at a|| tho caso. What thoy
showod was s|ow|ng, attonuat|on, and othor changos, but on|y a m|nor|ty ot pat|onts had a t|at ||no, and |t [dy|ng| took
|ongor than 10 soconds. 1ho cur|ous th|ng was that ovon a ||tt|o b|ood t|ow |n somo pat|onts was onough to koop
EEGs norma|.' ln tact, most card|ac pat|onts woro g|von Cll, wh|ch by dot|n|t|on do||vors somo oxygon to tho bra|n
(that's tho who|o po|nt ot do|ng |t). Cr|sp||n conc|udod: 3y tho dot|n|t|ons prosontod |n tho Loocot papor, nobody
oxpor|oncod c||n|ca| doath. lo doctor wou|d ovor doc|aro a pat|ont |n tho m|dd|o ot a codo 00 doad, much |oss bra|n
doad. |av|ng your hoart stop tor 2 to 10 m|nutos and bo|ng prompt|y rosusc|tatod doosn't mako you 'c||n|ca||y doad.' lt
on|y moans your hoart |sn't boat|ng and you may not bo consc|ous.'
81
Aga|n, s|nco our norma| oxpor|onco |s ot st|mu||
com|ng |nto tho bra|n trom tho outs|do, whon ono part ot tho bra|n abnorma||y gonoratos thoso |||us|ons, anothor part ot
tho bra|n-qu|to poss|b|y tho |ott-hom|sphoro |ntorprotor doscr|bod by nourosc|ont|st V|chao| Gazzan|ga-|ntorprots
thom as oxtorna| ovonts. |onco, tho abnorma| |s |ntorprotod as supornorma| or paranorma|.
ln add|t|on to |oca||zod noura| notworks, ha||uc|nogon|c drugs havo boon documontod to tr|ggor such protornatura|
oxpor|oncos, such as tho sonso ot t|oat|ng and t|y|ng st|mu|atod by atrop|no and othor bo||adonna a|ka|o|ds. 1hoso can
bo tound |n mandrako and j|msonwood and woro usod by Europoan w|tchos and Amor|can lnd|an shamans, probab|y
tor th|s vory purposo.
82
0|ssoc|at|vo anosthot|cs such as tho kotam|nos aro a|so known to |nduco out-ot-body
oxpor|oncos. lngost|on ot mothy|onod|oxyamphotam|no (V0A) may br|ng back |ong-torgotton momor|os and produco
tho too||ng ot ago rogross|on, wh||o d|mothy|tryptam|no (0V1)-a|so known as tho sp|r|t mo|ocu|o'-causos tho
d|ssoc|at|on ot tho m|nd trom tho body and |s tho ha||uc|nogon|c substanco |n oyoboosco, a drug takon by 3outh
Amor|can shamans. loop|o who havo takon 0V1 roport l no |ongor havo a body,' and l am ta|||ng,' t|y|ng,' or ||tt|ng
up.'
88
lourosc|ont|st 0av|d Com|ngs drow out tho |argor |mp||cat|ons ot such ha||uc|nat|ons tor tho ro|at|onsh|p
botwoon our rat|ona| and sp|r|tua| bra|ns:
1ho psychodo||c drugs ||ko 0V1 otton produco a sonsat|on ot contact,' ot bo|ng |n tho prosonco ot and |ntoract|on w|th a non-human
bo|ng. ||gh|y |nto|||gont and soph|st|catod tost subjocts who know thoso too||ngs woro drug-|nducod novortho|oss |ns|stod tho contact
had roa||y happonod. 1ho tompora| |obo-||mb|c systom's omot|ona| tapo rocordor somot|mos cannot d|st|ngu|sh botwoon oxtorna||y
gonoratod roa| ovonts and |ntorna||y gonoratod non-roa| oxpor|onco thus prov|d|ng a systom |n wh|ch tho rat|ona| bra|n and tho
sp|r|tua| bra|n aro not nocossar||y |n cont||ct.
84
1hoso stud|os, and count|oss othors, cont|nuo to ra|n b|ows down upon tho dua||st hoad that bra|n and m|nd aro
soparato. 1hoy aro not. 1hoy aro ono and tho samo.
8b
1ho bra|n, and tho bra|n a|ono, |s tho sourco ot our bo||ots, and
thus tho tomp|ato tor our undorstand|ng ot roa||ty. 1ho noura| corro|atos ot consc|ousnoss and subconsc|ousnoss
o|udo us porsona||y and can bo g|oanod on|y through carotu| sc|ont|t|c rosoarch us|ng soph|st|catod too|s such as
bra|n scans and o|octr|ca| st|mu|at|on ot bra|n rog|ons. As sc|onco marchos onward |t |s |nov|tab|o that tho paranorma|
and tho supornatura| o|thor w||| bo subsumod |nto tho norma| and tho natura|, or w||| s|mp|y d|sappoar as a prob|om to
bo so|vod.
An AttorIito |ntorIudo on Larry KIng LIve
77
On 1hursday, 0ocombor 17, 2000, l t||mod an op|sodo ot Lotty Klog Llvo, wh|ch d|d not toaturo larry K|ng and was
not ||vo. lo mattor, |t was a rock|n' good t|mo w|th a room tu|| ot guosts, wh|ch larry's show |s wont to bo.
80
|oaturod
guosts on th|s day |nc|udod Cll's mod|ca| corrospondont 0r. 3anjay Gupta (author ot Cbootlog Lootb. 7bo Loctots
ooo Voolco| Vltoc|os 7bot Ato 5ovlog Llvos Agolost A|| Ooos), tho low Ago a|t-mod quantum guru 0r. 0oopak
Chopra (author ot Llo Atot Lootb. 7bo Botooo o Ptoo), tho soc|a| commontator cum Chr|st|an apo|og|st 0|nosh
0'3ouza (who was tour|ng tor h|s now book Llo Atot Lootb. 7bo Evloooco), a tootba|| rotoroo namod 3ob 3chr|ovor
who d|od' on tho p|ay|ng t|o|d and saw tho ||ght, a ro|ncarnat|on rosoarchor who c|a|ms that b|rthmarks and b|zarro
droam |magos roprosont ro|ncarnatod doad poop|o, and a young boy namod 1amos lo|n|ngor who bo||ovos ho |s tho
ro|ncarnat|on ot a Wor|d War ll t|ghtor p||ot (accompan|od by h|s paronts thoro to promoto tho|r book, 5oo| 5otvlvot).
1ho guost host who arttu||y jugg|od a|| thoso guosts was 1ott lrobst, star ot tho to|ov|s|on sor|os 5otvlvot (a t|t|o l
thought |ron|ca||y appropr|ato tor tho top|c ot tho show). A|| tho guosts oxcopt mo woro |n tho low York Cll stud|o. l
sat a|ono |n tho |o||ywood Cll stud|o sot star|ng |nto a camora w|th a v|doo tood stroam|ng |n about throo soconds
ahoad ot tho aud|o tood |n my oarp|oco, wh|ch mado mo too| ||ko l was bo|ng channo|od trom somo othor p|ano ot
ox|stonco. 1h|s was t|tt|ng bocauso tho subjoct ot tho show was ||to attor doath.
87
3anjay Gupta startod us ott w|th what turns out to bo tho t|rst ||no ot oxp|anat|on tor l0Es: tho poop|o who
oxpor|onco thom aro not actua||y doad! 1h|s |s, |n tact, why thoy'ro ca||od ooot-doath oxpor|oncos. Gupta roca||od that
whon ho was |n mod|ca| schoo| tho ros|donts woro taught to mark tho t|mo ot doath to tho m|nuto, as |t ono momont
somoono |s a||vo and |n tho noxt momont . doad. l moan, |t just soomod so arb|trary ovon back thon. And l th|nk, |n
many ways, you know, that's boon tho hunt tor mo. 1hat's what l'vo boon soarch|ng tor.' What Gupta has d|scovorod |s
that doath can otton tako anywhoro trom a coup|o ot m|nutos to a coup|o ot hours to occur, dopond|ng on tho
cond|t|ons. As ho domonstratos |n h|s book (and Cll spoc|a|s basod on tho book), poop|o who havo ta||on |nto noar-
trooz|ng |akos and r|vors and d|od' woro actua||y not qu|to doad. 1ho|r coro body tomporaturos woro roducod so
rap|d|y and dramat|ca||y that tho|r v|ta| bra|n and body t|ssuos woro prosorvod |ong onough tor subsoquont
rosusc|tat|on. What appoars to bo somoth|ng as m|racu|ous as tho rosurroct|on ot an actua| doad porson |n tact has a
nonm|racu|ous oxp|anat|on |n mod|ca| sc|onco.
3o much ot th|s dobato on ||to attor doath turns on what |s moant by oootb. loop|o who bo||ovo |n tho attor||to and
soarch tor omp|r|ca| ov|donco through l0Es, tor oxamp|o, w||| uso such phrasos as ho was doad and camo back to
||to,' or sho d|od and saw what was on tho othor s|do.' Whon lrobst |ntroducod tho tootba|| rotoroo, tor oxamp|o, ho
sa|d, A man d|od on a tootba|| t|o|d sovon yoars ago and camo back to ||to.' Gupta ro|ntorcod tho po|nt by oxp|a|n|ng
that 3chr|ovor was doad tor two m|nutos and torty soconds' (botwoon co||apso and rov|va|). 3chr|ovor doscr|bod what
happonod noxt: lt's vory poacotu|. lt's vory sorono. And |t's oxtromo|y, oxtromo|y br|ght. l moan, |t |s br|ght. And l was-
l saw a p|aco that l was supposod to go. l saw that ha|o, and somoth|ng was say|ng, go toward tho ha|o.'
Whon l was askod tor a sc|ont|t|c oxp|anat|on tor th|s apparont m|rac|o, l gavo tho obv|ous answor that Gupta had
oar||or prov|dod: |o wasn't doad. You startod th|s hour ott w|th 3anjay Gupta oxp|a|n|ng wo can't say somobody's
doad at ono g|von momont at a part|cu|ar t|mo on tho c|ock. 1hat's not how |t works. lt takos two, throo, t|vo, ton
m|nutos to go through a dy|ng procoss. 1ho rot wasn't doad. |o was |n a noar-doath stato.' ln tact, as tho rost ot tho
story rovoa|od, tho man had h|s hoart rostartod r|ght thoro on tho t|o|d by a portab|o automatod oxtorna| dot|br|||ator
ava||ab|o on tho s|do||nos, and tho ont|ro ovont trom co||apso to rov|va| was |oss than two m|nutos |ong. ln th|s caso, as
|n so many othors, thoro |s noth|ng m|racu|ous to oxp|a|n. 1ho man was not brought back to ||to bocauso ho was novor
actua||y doad.
Whonovor l appoar on such shows l try to como up w|th a s|ng|o mossago to |oavo v|owors w|th, bocauso |n tho
chaos that |s ta|k to|ov|s|on a cacophony ot vo|cos otton |oads to contus|on and obtuscat|on. |or th|s show, tho
mossago l tr|od to convoy basod on what tho othor guosts woro say|ng |s, |n tact, a po|nt that shou|d bo ropoatod ||ko
a mantra ovory t|mo wo oncountor any mystor|os: tbo oct tbot wo coooot o||y oxp|olo o mystoty wltb oototo| mooos
ooos oot mooo lt toqoltos o sopotoototo| oxp|oootloo.
0oopak Chopra mado th|s orror dur|ng tho show whon ho rospondod to my argumont that w|thout tho bra|n thoro |s
no m|nd bocauso poop|o who |oso bra|n t|ssuo duo to |njury, stroko, or surgory a|so |oso tho m|nd tunct|on assoc|atod
w|th that bra|n t|ssuo-no bra|n, no m|nd. Chopra cha||ongod mo w|th obv|ous|y |ntont|ona| |rony: Wo||, l havo to say ot
V|chao| that ho |s vory suporst|t|ous. |o's add|ctod to tho suporst|t|on ot mator|a||sm. 1ho t|rst th|ng ho sa|d about tho
bra|n, you know, that you dostroy a corta|n part ot tho bra|n and that tunct|on w||| not como back-ho hasn't kopt up
w|th tho ||toraturo. 1horo's a who|o phonomonon ca||od noura| p|ast|c|ty.' Yos, |ndood, l rojo|nod, and that makos my
po|nt ovon strongor: lt`s tbo oooto| towltlog o tbo btolo tbot sovos tbo mloo ooctloo. Onco aga|n-no bra|n, no m|nd.
Chopra t|rod back that l had rovorsod tho causa| arrow: |t |s tho othoroa| nonphys|ca| m|nd that causos tho phys|ca|
bra|n to row|ro |tso|t-no m|nd, no bra|n. ln h|s book, Chopra dot|nos oootop|ostlclty as tho not|on that bra|n co||s aro
78
opon to chango, t|ox|b|y rospond|ng to w||| and |ntont|on' and that m|nd |s tho contro||or ot tho bra|n.' Chopra |s
ospoc|a||y tond ot quantum phys|cs, and on such shows as th|s ho |ovos to dazz|o aud|oncos w|th quantum
psoudosc|onco, wh|ch |s whon you str|ng togothor a sor|os ot torms and phrasos trom quantum phys|cs and assumo
that oxp|a|ns somoth|ng |n tho rogu|ar macro wor|d |n wh|ch wo ||vo. 1ho m|nd |s ||ko an o|octron c|oud surround|ng tho
nuc|ous ot an atom,' Chopra wroto |n Llo Atot Lootb. Unt|| an obsorvor appoars, o|octrons havo no phys|ca| |dont|ty
|n tho wor|d, thoro |s on|y tho amorphous c|oud. ln tho samo way, |mag|no that thoro |s a c|oud ot poss|b|||t|os opon to
tho bra|n at ovory momont (cons|st|ng ot words, momor|os, |doas, and |magos l cou|d chooso trom). Whon tho m|nd
g|vos a s|gna|, ono ot thoso poss|b|||t|os coa|oscos trom tho c|oud and bocomos a thought |n tho bra|n, just as an
onorgy wavo co||apsos |nto an o|octron.'
88
Bo|oooy. 1ho m|croscop|c wor|d ot subatom|c part|c|os as doscr|bod by tho mathomat|cs ot quantum mochan|cs
has no corrospondonco w|th tho macroscop|c wor|d |n wh|ch wo ||vo as doscr|bod by tho mathomat|cs ot lowton|an
mochan|cs. 1hoso aro two d|ttoront phys|ca| systoms at two d|ttoront sca|os doscr|bod by two d|ttoront typos ot
mathomat|cs. 1ho hydrogon atoms |n tho sun aro not s|tt|ng around |n a c|oud ot poss|b|||t|os wa|t|ng tor a cosm|c
m|nd to s|gna| thom to tuso |nto ho||um atoms and thoroby throw ott hoat gonoratod by nuc|oar tus|on. 3y tho |aws ot
phys|cs ot th|s un|vorso, a grav|tat|ona||y co||aps|ng c|oud ot hydrogon gas w|||, |t |argo onough, roach a cr|t|ca| po|nt ot
prossuro to causo thoso hydrogon atoms to tuso |nto ho||um atoms and g|vo ott hoat and ||ght |n tho procoss, and |t
wou|d do so ovon |t thoro woro not a s|ng|o m|nd |n tho ont|ro cosmos to obsorvo |t.
Whon wo aro doa||ng w|th such top|cs as tho attor||to, thoro |s tho prob|om ot tuzzy |anguago |n us|ng words such as
mloo, wl||, lotootloo, and potposo. Chopra wr|tos, tor oxamp|o, louro|og|sts havo vor|t|od that a moro |ntont|on ot
purposotu| act ot w||| a|tors tho bra|n. 3troko v|ct|ms, tor oxamp|o, can torco thomso|vos, w|th tho a|d ot a thorap|st, to
uso on|y tho|r r|ght hand |t para|ys|s has occurrod on that s|do ot tho body. W||||ng thomso|vos day attor day to tavor tho
attoctod part, thoy can gradua||y causo tho damagod s|tos |n tho bra|n to hoa|.' Chopra a|so c|tos tho work ot UClA
nourosc|ont|st 1ottroy 3chwartz, an oxport on OC0 (obsoss|vo-compu|s|vo d|sordor), who has apparont|y had as
much succoss contro|||ng tho obsoss|vo thoughts and compu|s|vo bohav|ors ot pat|onts us|ng ta|k thorapy as othors
havo us|ng lrozac, and that bra|n scans a||ogod|y show that tho samo |mpa|rod rog|ons that bocomo moro norma|
w|th lrozac a|so bocomo moro norma| w|th ta|k thorapy.'
80
3ut what doos |t moan to w|||' somoth|ng, or to |ntond' |t, or to havo purposo'? l|ko mloo, thoso aro just words
usod to doscr|bo thoughts and bohav|ors, wh|ch aro a|| dr|von by noura| act|v|ty-ovory s|ng|o ono ot thom. 1horo |s not
a bohav|or you portorm or a thought you th|nk that doos not havo a noura| corro|ato to |t. lo nourons or noura| act|v|ty,
no thoughts or bohav|ors. lor|od. Ca|||ng a sor|os ot noura| t|r|ngs by a notwork ot nourons w|||' or |ntont|on' or
purposo' doos noth|ng to oxp|a|n tho procoss. You m|ght as wo|| say ho z|ottod h|s |og to ||tt,' or sho xokonod hor
hand to movo.' 1o doscr|bo noura| act|v|ty as z|ottod' or xokonod' |s as moan|ng|oss as say|ng that |t was w|||od' or
|ntondod.' 3ay|ng that pat|onts ta|kod' about tho|r obsoss|ons and compu|s|ons and |n tho procoss |mprovod doos
not oxp|a|n how or why thoy |mprovod. What wo nood to know |s what noura| act|v|ty |nvo|vod |n ta|k|ng |ntoractod w|th
tho noura| act|v|ty assoc|atod w|th tho obsoss|vo thoughts or compu|s|vo acts. 3uch torms aro just ||ngu|st|c
p|acoho|dors tor our |gnoranco, and on|y sorvo to push ott tho causa| oxp|anat|on to anothor day.
Vost ||ko|y what wo aro obsorv|ng |n nourop|ast|c|ty |s a noura| notwork toodback |oop whoroby ono c|ustor or
sor|os ot nourons t|ros |n a part|cu|ar pattorn that wo doscr|bo as w|||' or |ntont|on' or purposo,' and thoso |n turn
|ntoract w|th anothor c|ustor or sor|os ot nourons that aro assoc|atod w|th tho act|v|ty |ost duo to bra|n damago |n that
aroa. 1h|s s|gna|s dondr|tos to dovo|op now synapt|c connoct|ons, and tho bra|n |s thorotoro row|rod.' Wo know trom
b|otoodback rosoarch that ta|k|ng or th|nk|ng about a part|cu|ar prob|om sots up a toodback |oop (o|thor pos|t|vo|y or
nogat|vo|y) that a|tors tho nourophys|o|ogy ot tho bra|n. 1horo |s noth|ng myst|ca|, paranorma|, or woo-woo about any
ot th|s, but us|ng such tuzzy |anguago |s unho|ptu| whon wo want to undorstand tho undor|y|ng causa| mochan|sms ot
bo||ot.
lo ono usos tuzzy |anguago moro adro|t|y than 0oopak Chopra, who has an uncanny knack tor str|ng|ng togothor
words and phrasos so that |t actua||y sounds ||ko somoth|ng |nto|||g|b|o |s bo|ng sa|d. |or oxamp|o, what do you mako
ot th|s oxp|anat|on tor noar-doath oxpor|oncos? 1horo aro trad|t|ons that say tho |n-body oxpor|onco |s a soc|a||y
|nducod co||oct|vo ha||uc|nat|on. Wo do not ox|st |n tho body. 1ho body ox|sts |n us. Wo do not ox|st |n tho wor|d. 1ho
wor|d ox|sts |n us.' Or th|s nuggot on ||to and doath: 3|rth and doath aro spaco-t|mo ovonts |n tho cont|nuum ot ||to. 3o
tho oppos|to ot ||to |s not doath. 1ho oppos|to ot doath |s b|rth. And tho oppos|to ot b|rth |s doath. And ||to |s tho
cont|nuum ot b|rth and doath, wh|ch goos on and on.' Uh? load |t aga|n . and aga|n . |t doosn't bocomo any
c|oaror. Whon l askod what happonod to ||tt|o 1amos lo|n|ngor's sou| |t h|s body was now occup|od by tho sou| ot a
Wor|d War ll t|ghtor p||ot, Chopra ottorod th|s jowo| ot 0oopakoso: lmag|no that you'ro |ook|ng at an ocoan and you
soo |ots ot wavos today. And tomorrow you soo a towor numbor ot wavos. lt's not so turbu|ont. What you ca|| a porson
actua||y |s a pattorn ot bohav|or ot a un|vorsa| consc|ousnoss.' |o gosturod toward our host. 1horo |s no such th|ng as
79
1ott, bocauso what wo ca|| 1ott |s a constant|y transtorm|ng consc|ousnoss that appoars as a corta|n porsona||ty, a
corta|n m|nd, a corta|n ogo, a corta|n body. 3ut, you know, wo had a d|ttoront 1ott whon you woro a toonagor. Wo had
a d|ttoront 1ott whon you woro a baby. Wh|ch ono ot you |s tho roa| 1ott?' 1ott lrobst |ookod as contusod as l to|t.
At ono po|nt |n tho show, whon askod how ho as a mod|ca| doctor and man ot sc|onco doa|s w|th mod|ca| m|rac|os
that soom to bordor on ro||g|ous and sp|r|tua| doma|ns, 3anjay Gupta bogan by ottor|ng natura| oxp|anat|ons, such as
th|s ono tor tho noar-doath oxpor|onco: 1ho tunno|, tor oxamp|o, that potont|a||y can bo oxp|a|nod away by a |ack ot
b|ood t|ow to tho back ot tho oyo. You start to |oso your por|phora| v|s|on, soo a tunno|. 3r|ght ||ghts, sort ot tho samo
th|ng. Evon tho soo|ng ot docoasod ro|at|vos, porhaps, that |s a vory cu|tura| th|ng, tor oxamp|o, |n Wostorn cu|turos. ln
oastorn Atr|ca, poop|o who aro hav|ng noar-doath oxpor|oncos tond to soo th|ngs that thoy w|sh thoy had dono |n ||to.
1hat tonds to bo tho|r cu|tura| th|ng thoy havo.' 3ut thon Gupta to|| |nto tho trap ot tho argumont trom |gnoranco (|t thoro
|sn't an oxp|anat|on thon thoro cannot bo an oxp|anat|on') whon ho sa|d, Whon l was rosoarch|ng th|s tor a |ong t|mo, l
thought l was go|ng to oxp|a|n |t a|| away phys|o|og|ca||y. 3ut th|ngs that l hoard and va||datod and subsoquont|y
bo||ovod conv|ncod mo that thoro woro th|ngs that l cou|d not oxp|a|n. 1horo woro th|ngs that woro happon|ng at that
momont, that noar-doath oxpor|onco momont, that s|mp|y cou|d not bo oxp|a|nod w|th ox|st|ng sc|ont|t|c know|odgo.'
3o what? lgnoranco or |ncrodu||ty s|mp|y moans that wo cannot oxp|a|n ovory mystory wo oncountor. 1hat's norma|.
lo sc|onco can throw a comprohons|vo oxp|anatory not ovor ovory mystory |n tho cosmos. 1ho tact that wo can on|y'
oxp|a|n about 00 porcont ot a|| U|O s|ght|ngs and crop c|rc|os doos not moan that tho othor 10 porcont roprosont
actua| v|s|tat|ons by oxtratorrostr|a| |nto|||goncos. 1ho m|ss|ng 10 porcont-what |s somot|mos ca||od tho ros|dua|
prob|om' |n sc|onco bocauso tor any g|von thoory thoro w||| a|ways bo a ros|dua| ot unoxp|a|nod anoma||os-just
moans that wo can't oxp|a|n ovotytblog. 1ho tact that wo cannot oxp|a|n ovory cancorous tumor that has gono |nto
rom|ss|on doos not moan that m|racu|ous supornatura| torcos occas|ona||y o||m|nato cancor. lt just moans that modorn
mod|c|no has yot to catch up w|th tho wondors and mystor|os ot tho human body.
ln tho caso ot tho attor||to, just bocauso wo do not havo a 100 porcont comp|oto|y natura| oxp|anat|on tor a|| ot tho
oxpor|oncos that poop|o havo noar doath doos not moan that wo w||| novor undorstand doath, or that thoro |s somo
othor mystor|ous torco at work. lt corta|n|y doos not moan that thoro |s ||to attor doath. lt just moans that wo don't know
ovoryth|ng. 3uch uncorta|nty |s at tho vory hoart ot sc|onco and |s what makos |t such a cha||ong|ng ontorpr|so.
Eoing and Knowing
l am, by tomporamont, a sangu|no porson, so l roa||y hato to douso tho t|amo ot hopo w|th tho co|d wator ot
skopt|c|sm. 3ut l caro about what |s octoo||y truo ovon moro than what l bopo |s truo, and thoso aro tho tacts as l
undorstand thom.
l am occas|ona||y accusod ot bo|ng skopt|ca| ot tho wrong th|ngs, or ot bo|ng too skopt|ca| tor my own good.
3omot|mos l'm ovon chargod w|th don|a||sm-l don't want X to bo truo, thorotoro l unta|r|y t|nd roasons to rojoct X.
1hat |s undoubtod|y somot|mos tho caso. ln tact, bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm and tho cont|rmat|on ot bo||ots attor thoy
aro tormod nocossar||y must app|y to mo as wo|| as othors.
On th|s part|cu|ar |ssuo ot agont|c|ty and |ts man|tostat|on |n dua||sm, m|nd, tho supornatura|, and tho attor||to,
howovor, l ontorta|n no such don|a||st tondonc|os. ln tact, l pass|vo|y w|sh tor tho|r man|tostat|on |n roa||ty. 7bo
otot|lo l`m ot lt! 3ut tho tact that l w|sh |t woro so doos not mako |t so. And horo|n ||os tho prob|om ot undorstand|ng
tho m|nd |n ordor to know human|ty: our bo||ot systoms aro structurod such that wo w||| a|most a|ways t|nd a way to
support what wo want to bo||ovo. 1hus, tho ovorwho|m|ng dos|ro to bo||ovo |n somoth|ng othorwor|d|y-bo |t m|nd,
sp|r|t, or God-moans that wo shou|d bo ospoc|a||y v|g||ant |n our skopt|c|sm ot c|a|ms mado |n thoso aronas ot bo||ot.
ls sc|ont|t|c mon|sm |n cont||ct w|th ro||g|ous dua||sm? Yos, |t |s. E|thor tho sou| surv|vos doath or |t doos not, and
thoro |s no sc|ont|t|c ov|donco that |t doos or ovor w|||. 0oos sc|onco and skopt|c|sm oxt|rpato a|| moan|ng |n ||to? l
th|nk not, qu|to tho oppos|to, |n tact. lt th|s |s a|| thoro |s, thon how moan|ngtu| bocomo our ||vos, our tam|||os, our
tr|onds, our commun|t|os-and how wo troat othors-whon ovory day, ovory momont, ovory ro|at|onsh|p, and ovory
porson counts, not as props |n a tomporary stag|ng botoro an otorna| tomorrow whoro u|t|mato purposo w||| bo
rovoa|od to us but as va|uod ossoncos |n tho horo and now whoro wo croato prov|s|ona| purposo.
Awaronoss ot th|s roa||ty o|ovatos us a|| to a h|ghor p|ano ot human|ty and hum|||ty, as wo courso through ||to
togothor |n th|s ||m|tod t|mo and spaco-a momontary proscon|um |n tho drama ot tho cosmos.
80

8

BoIiot in Cod
Among tho many b|nom|a| dos|gnat|ons grantod our spoc|os-lomo soploos, lomo |oooos, lomo ocooomlcos-a
strong caso cou|d bo mado tor lomo to|lglosos.
Accord|ng to Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross's ot|o Cbtlstloo Eocyc|opoolo, 84 porcont ot tho wor|d's popu|at|on
bo|ongs to somo torm ot organ|zod ro||g|on, wh|ch at tho ond ot 2000 oqua|s b.7 b||||on poop|o. 1hat's a |ot ot sou|s.
Chr|st|ans dom|nato at around 2 b||||on adhoronts (w|th Catho||cs account|ng tor ha|t ot thoso), Vus||ms como |n at a
||tt|o moro than a b||||on, ||ndus at around 8b0 m||||on, 3uddh|sts at a|most 400 m||||on, and othnoro||g|on|sts (an|m|sts
and othors |n As|a and Atr|ca pr|mar||y) mako up most ot tho roma|n|ng sovora| hundrod m||||on bo||ovors. Wor|dw|do,
thoro aro about 10,000 d|st|nct ro||g|ons, oach ono ot wh|ch may bo turthor subd|v|dod and c|ass|t|od. Chr|st|ans, tor
oxamp|o, may bo apport|onod among about 84,000 d|ttoront donom|nat|ons.
1
3omowhat surpr|s|ng|y-g|von that wo aro tho most tochno|og|ca||y advancod and sc|ont|t|ca||y soph|st|catod nat|on
|n h|story-Amor|ca |s among tho most ro||g|ous tr|bos ot tho spoc|os. A 2007 low |orum survoy tound tho to||ow|ng
porcontagos ot bo||ot:
God or a un|vorsa| sp|r|t 02 %
|oavon 74 %
|o|| b0 %
3cr|pturo |s tho word ot God 08 %
lray onco a day b8 %
V|rac|os 70 %

Who or what God roprosonts var|os dopond|ng on ro||g|ous ta|th. ls God a porson w|th whom bo||ovors can havo a
ro|at|onsh|p, or |s ho an |mporsona| torco? Accord|ng to tho low survoy, 01 porcont ot Vormons bo||ovo |n a porsona|
God, but on|y 82 porcont ot 1ohovah's W|tnossos, 70 porcont ot ovango||ca|s, 02 porcont ot lrotostants, and 00
porcont ot Catho||cs do. 3y contrast, b8 porcont ot ||ndus, b0 porcont ot 1ows, 4b porcont ot 3uddh|sts, and 8b
porcont ot unatt|||atod bo||ovors bo||ovo |n God as an |mporsona| torco. Vost str|k|ng to mo and support|ng ono ot tho
contra| thomos ot th|s book-agont|c|ty-tho dua||st|c bo||ot that thoro must bo somoth|ng o|so out thoro |s so
porvas|vo that ovon 21 porcont ot thoso who |dont|t|od thomso|vos as atho|sts, and bb porcont who |dont|ty
thomso|vos as agnost|cs, oxprossod a bo||ot |n somo sort ot God or un|vorsa| sp|r|t.
2
Why Cod |a Eardwirod into Our Braina
3uch stat|st|cs staggor tho |mag|nat|on. Any charactor|st|c that |s th|s common |n a spoc|os cr|os out tor an
oxp|anat|on. Why do so many poop|o bo||ovo |n God?
On ono |ovo|, l havo a|roady answorod th|s quost|on |n tho chaptors on pattorn|c|ty and agont|c|ty. God |s tho
u|t|mato pottoto that oxp|a|ns ovoryth|ng that happons, trom tho bog|nn|ng ot tho un|vorso to tho ond ot t|mo and
ovoryth|ng |n botwoon, |nc|ud|ng and ospoc|a||y tho tatos ot human ||vos. God |s tho u|t|mato |ntont|ona| ogoot who
g|vos tho un|vorso moan|ng and our ||vos purposo. As an u|t|mato ama|gam, pattorn|c|ty and agont|c|ty torm tho
cogn|t|vo bas|s ot shaman|sm, pagan|sm, an|m|sm, po|ytho|sm, monotho|sm, and a|| othor torms ot tho|sms and
sp|r|tua||sms dov|sod by humans.
A|though thoro |s much cu|tura| var|at|on among d|ttoront ro||g|ous ta|ths, a|| havo |n common tho bo||ot |n
supornatura| agonts |n tho torm ot a godhoad or sp|r|ts who havo |ntont|on and |ntoract w|th us |n tho wor|d. 1horo aro
throo ||nos ot ov|donco po|nt|ng to tho conc|us|on that such bo||ots aro hardw|rod |nto our bra|ns and bohav|ora||y
oxprossod |n cons|stont pattorns throughout h|story and cu|turo. 1hoso ov|dont|ary ||nos como trom ovo|ut|onary thoory,
bohav|or gonot|cs, and comparat|vo wor|d ro||g|ons, a|| ot wh|ch support tho |argor thos|s ot th|s book that tho bo||ot
comos t|rst and tho roasons tor tho bo||ot to||ow. Attor rov|ow|ng th|s ov|donco, l w||| domonstrato why |t |s not poss|b|o
to know tor corta|n whothor God ox|sts, and why any sc|ont|t|c or rat|ona| attompt to provo God's ox|stonco can rosu|t
on|y |n our awaronoss ot an |nto|||gonco groator than our own but cons|dorab|y |oss than tho omn|sc|onco trad|t|ona||y
81
assoc|atod w|th God.
EvoIutionary 1hoory and Cod
ln h|s 1871 book 7bo Loscoot o Voo, Char|os 0arw|n notod that anthropo|og|sts conc|udo that a bo||ot |n a||-
porvad|ng sp|r|tua| agonc|os sooms to bo un|vorsa|, and apparont|y to||ows trom a cons|dorab|o advanco |n tho
roason|ng powors ot man, and trom a st||| groator advanco |n h|s tacu|t|os ot |mag|nat|on, cur|os|ty and wondor.'
8
What
t|ummoxod 0arw|n about tho un|vorsa| naturo ot ro||g|ous bo||ots was how natura| so|oct|on cou|d account tor thom. On
tho ono hand, ho notod, lt |s oxtromo|y doubttu| whothor tho ottspr|ng ot tho moro sympathot|c and bonovo|ont paronts,
or ot thoso who woro tho most ta|thtu| to tho|r comrados, wou|d bo roarod |n groator numbor than tho ch||dron ot so|t|sh
and troachorous paronts ot tho samo tr|bo. |o who was roady to sacr|t|co h|s ||to, as many a savago has boon, rathor
than botray h|s comrados, wou|d otton |oavo no ottspr|ng to |nhor|t h|s nob|o naturo.'
4
On tho othor hand, a|though
0arw|n was a str|dont proponont ot rostr|ct|ng tho rango and powor ot natura| so|oct|on to oporato str|ct|y at tho |ovo| ot
tho |nd|v|dua| organ|sm, ho concodod that so|oct|on m|ght a|so oporato at tho group |ovo| whon |t camo to ro||g|on and
botwoon-group compot|t|on: 1horo can bo no doubt that a tr|bo |nc|ud|ng many mombors who, trom possoss|ng |n a
h|gh dogroo tho sp|r|t ot patr|ot|sm, t|do||ty, obod|onco, courago and sympathy, woro a|ways roady to a|d ono anothor,
and to sacr|t|co thomso|vos tor tho common good, wou|d bo v|ctor|ous ovor most othor tr|bos, and th|s wou|d bo
natura| so|oct|on [ot tho group|.'
b
l|ck|ng up whoro 0arw|n |ott ott, |n my book lowo Bo|lovo l dovo|opod an ovo|ut|onary modo| ot bo||ot |n God as
ono ot a su|to ot mochan|sms usod by ro||g|on, wh|ch l dot|no as o soclo| lostltotloo to ctooto ooo ptomoto mytbs, to
oocootogo coootmlty ooo o|ttolsm, ooo to slgoo| tbo |ovo| o commltmoot to coopototo ooo toclptocoto omoog
mombots o o commoolty. Around t|vo thousand to sovon thousand yoars ago, as bands and tr|bos bogan to
coa|osco |nto ch|otdoms and statos, govornmont and ro||g|on co-ovo|vod as soc|a| |nst|tut|ons to cod|ty mora|
bohav|ors |nto oth|ca| pr|nc|p|os and |oga| ru|os, and God bocamo tho u|t|mato ontorcor ot tho ru|os.
0
ln tho sma||
popu|at|ons ot huntor-gathoror bands and tr|bos w|th a tow dozon to a coup|o ot hundrod mombors, |ntorma| moans ot
bohav|or contro| and soc|a| cohos|on cou|d bo omp|oyod by cap|ta||z|ng on tho mora| omot|ons, such as sham|ng
somoono through gu||t tor v|o|at|ng a soc|a| norm, or ovon oxcommun|cat|ng v|o|ators trom tho group. 3ut whon
popu|at|ons grow |nto tho tons and hundrods ot thousands, and ovontua||y |nto m||||ons ot poop|o, such |ntorma| moans
ot ontorc|ng tho ru|os ot soc|oty broko down bocauso troo r|dors and norm v|o|ators cou|d moro road||y got away w|th
choat|ng |n |argo groups, somoth|ng moro torma| was noodod. 1h|s |s ono v|ta| ro|o that ro||g|on p|ays, such that ovon |t
v|o|ators th|nk that thoy got away w|th a v|o|at|on, bo||ov|ng that thoro |s an |nv|s|b|o |ntont|ona| agont who soos a|| and
knows a|| and judgos a|| can bo a powortu| dotorront ot s|n.
Ono ||no ot ov|donco tor th|s thoory ot ro||g|on can bo tound |n human un|vorsa|s, or tra|ts that aro sharod by a||
poop|os. 1horo aro gonora| un|vorsa|s, such as too| uso, myths, sox ro|os, soc|a| groups, aggross|on, gosturos,
omot|ons, grammar, and phonomos, and thoro aro spoc|t|c un|vorsa|s, such as k|nsh|p c|ass|t|cat|ons and spoc|t|c
tac|a| oxpross|ons such as tho sm||o, trown, or oyobrow t|ash. 1horo aro a|so spoc|t|c un|vorsa|s d|roct|y ro|atod to
ro||g|on and bo||ot |n God, |nc|ud|ng ootbtopomotpblzlog oolmo|s ooo objocts, goooto| bo|lo lo tbo sopotoototo|,
spocllc sopotoototo| bo|los ooo tltoo|s oboot oootb, sopotoototo| bo|los oboot ottooo ooo mlsottooo, ooo
ospoclo||y olvlootloo, o|k|oto, moglc, mytbs, and tltoo|s.
7
A|though such un|vorsa|s aro not tota||y contro||od by gonos
a|ono (a|most noth|ng |s), wo can prosumo that thoro |s a gonot|c prod|spos|t|on tor thoso tra|ts to bo oxprossod w|th|n
tho|r rospoct|vo cu|turos, and that thoso cu|turos, dosp|to tho|r cons|dorab|o d|vors|ty and var|anco, nurturo thoso
gonot|ca||y prod|sposod naturos |n a cons|stont tash|on.
A socond ||no ot ov|donco tor tho ovo|ut|onary or|g|ns ot ro||g|on and bo||ot |n God can bo tound |n anthropo|og|ca|
stud|os ot moat shar|ng pract|cod by a|| modorn huntor-gathoror soc|ot|os around tho wor|d. lt turns out that thoso sma||
commun|t|os-wh|ch can caut|ous|y bo usod as a modo| tor our own la|oo||th|c ancostors-aro romarkab|y
oga||tar|an. Us|ng portab|o sca|os to moasuro proc|so|y how much moat oach tam||y w|th|n tho group roco|vod attor a
succosstu| hunt, rosoarchors tound that tho |mmod|ato tam|||os ot succosstu| huntors got no moro moat than tho rost ot
tho tam|||os |n tho group, ovon whon thoso rosu|ts woro avoragod ovor sovora| wooks ot rogu|ar hunt|ng oxcurs|ons.
|untor-gathorors aro oga||tar|an bocauso |nd|v|dua| so|t|sh acts aro ottoct|vo|y countorba|ancod by tho comb|nod w|||
ot tho rost ot tho group through tho uso ot goss|p to r|d|cu|o, shun, and ovon ostrac|zo |nd|v|dua|s whoso compot|t|vo
dr|vos and so|t|sh mot|vos |ntortoro w|th tho ovora|| noods ot tho group.
8
1hus, a human group |s a|so a mora| group |n
wh|ch r|ght' and wrong' co|nc|do w|th group wo|taro and so|t-sorv|ng acts, rospoct|vo|y.
Othor huntor-gathoror groups omp|oy supornatura| bo|ngs and suporst|t|ous r|tua|s to ontorco ta|rnoss, such as tho
Chowong poop|o ot tho Va|ays|an ra|n torost and tho r|tua| poooo, wh|ch |s ro|atod to tho ca|am|t|os and m|stortuno
that ar|so whon you act too so|t|sh|y. ln tho Chowong wor|d, tho myth about Y|n|ugon 3ud-a god who brought tho
Chowong out ot a moro pr|m|t|vo stato by |ns|st|ng that oat|ng a|ono was |mpropor human bohav|or-sorvos to onsuro
82
tho shar|ng ot tood. Whon tood |s caught away trom tho v|||ago, |t |s prompt|y roturnod, pub||c|y d|sp|ayod, and
oqu|tab|y d|str|butod among a|| housoho|ds and ovon among a|| |nd|v|dua|s w|th|n oach homo. 3omoono trom tho
huntor's tam||y touchos tho catch thon procoods to touch ovoryono prosont, ropoat|ng tho word poooo. 1hus, both
suporst|t|ous r|tua|s and tho bo||ot |n supornatura| agonts ovorsoo tho oxchango procoss that ro|ntorcos group
cohos|vonoss.
Your cu|turo may d|ctato wh|ch god to bo||ovo |n and wh|ch ro||g|on to adhoro to, but tho bo||ot |n a supornatura|
agont who oporatos |n tho wor|d as an |nd|sponsab|o part ot a soc|a| group |s un|vorsa| to a|| cu|turos bocauso |t |s
hardw|rod |n tho bra|n, a conc|us|on onhancod by stud|os on |dont|ca| tw|ns soparatod at b|rth and ra|sod |n d|ttoront
onv|ronmonts.
Bohavior Conotica and Cod
3ohav|or gonot|c|sts attompt to toaso apart tho ro|at|vo ro|os ot horod|ty and onv|ronmont on any g|von tra|t. 3|nco
thoro |s var|at|on |n tho oxpross|on ot a|| tra|ts, wo aro |ook|ng tor a porcontago ot tho var|at|on accountod tor by gonos
and onv|ronmont, and ono ot tho bost natura| oxpor|monts ava||ab|o tor rosoarch aro |dont|ca| tw|ns soparatod at b|rth
and roarod |n d|ttoront onv|ronmonts. ln ono study ot t|tty-throo pa|rs ot |dont|ca| tw|ns roarod apart and th|rty-ono pa|rs
ot tratorna| tw|ns roarod apart, l|o|s Wa||or, 1homas 3ouchard, and tho|r co||oaguos |n tho V|nnosota tw|ns projoct
|ookod at t|vo d|ttoront moasuros ot ro||g|os|ty. 1hoy tound that tho corro|at|ons botwoon |dont|ca| tw|ns woro typ|ca||y
doub|o thoso tor tratorna| tw|ns, and subsoquont ana|ys|s |od thom to conc|udo that gonot|c tactors account tor 41 to
47 porcont ot tho obsorvod var|anco |n tho|r moasuros ot ro||g|ous bo||ots.
0
1wo much |argor tw|n stud|os out ot Austra||a (8,810 pa|rs ot tw|ns) and Eng|and (82b pa|rs ot tw|ns) tound s|m||ar
porcontagos ot gonot|c |nt|uonco on ro||g|ous bo||ots, compar|ng |dont|ca| and tratorna| tw|ns on numorous moasuros
ot bo||ots and soc|a| att|tudos. 1hoy |n|t|a||y conc|udod that approx|mato|y 40 porcont ot tho var|anco |n ro||g|ous
att|tudos was gonot|c.
10
1hoso rosoarchors a|so documontod substant|a| corro|at|ons botwoon tho soc|a| att|tudos ot
spousos. 3ocauso paronts mato assortat|vo|y (||ko marr|os ||ko bocauso b|rds ot a toathor t|ock togothor') tor soc|a|
att|tudos, ottspr|ng tond to roco|vo a doub|o doso ot whatovor gonot|c propons|t|os may undor||o tho oxpross|on ot
such att|tudos. Whon thoso rosoarchors |nc|udod a var|ab|o tor assortat|vo mat|ng |n tho|r bohav|ora| gonot|cs modo|s,
thoy tound that approx|mato|y bb porcont ot tho var|anco |n ro||g|ous att|tudos |s gonot|c, approx|mato|y 80 porcont can
bo attr|butod to tho nonsharod onv|ronmont, approx|mato|y b porcont |s unass|gnod, and on|y about 8 porcont |s
attr|butab|o to tho sharod tam||y onv|ronmont (and honco to cu|tura| transm|ss|on v|a paronts).
11
3asod on thoso
rosu|ts, |t wou|d appoar that poop|o who grow up |n ro||g|ous tam|||os who thomso|vos |ator bocomo ro||g|ous do so
most|y bocauso thoy havo |nhor|tod a d|spos|t|on, trom ono or both paronts, to rosonato pos|t|vo|y w|th ro||g|ous
sont|monts. W|thout such a gonot|c d|spos|t|on, tho ro||g|ous toach|ngs ot paronts appoar to havo tow |ast|ng ottocts.
Ot courso, gonos do not dotorm|no whothor ono choosos 1uda|sm, Catho||c|sm, ls|am, or any othor ro||g|on. lathor,
bo||ot |n supornatura| agonts (God, ango|s, and domons) and comm|tmont to corta|n ro||g|ous pract|cos (church
attondanco, prayor, r|tua|s) appoar to rot|oct gonot|ca||y basod cogn|t|vo procossos (|ntorr|ng tho ox|stonco ot |nv|s|b|o
agonts) and porsona||ty tra|ts (rospoct tor author|ty, trad|t|ona||sm). Why d|d wo |nhor|t th|s tondoncy?
Ono ||no ot rosoarch that may ho|p answor th|s quost|on |s ro|atod to dopam|no, wh|ch as wo saw |n chaptor 0 |s
d|roct|y connoctod to |oarn|ng, mot|vat|on, and roward. 1horo may bo a gonot|c bas|s to how much dopam|no oach ot
our bra|ns producos. 1ho gono that codos tor tho product|on ot dopam|no |s ca||od LRL4 (dopam|no rocoptor 04)
and |s |ocatod on tho short arm ot tho o|ovonth chromosomo. Whon dopam|no |s ro|oasod by corta|n nourons |n tho
bra|n |t |s p|ckod up by othor nourons that aro rocopt|vo to |ts chom|ca| structuro, thoroby ostab||sh|ng dopam|no
pathways that st|mu|ato organ|sms to bocomo moro act|vo and roward corta|n bohav|ors that thon got ropoatod. lt you
knock out dopam|no trom o|thor a rat or a human, tor oxamp|o, thoy w||| bocomo cataton|c. lt you ovorst|mu|ato tho
product|on ot dopam|no, you got tronot|c bohav|or |n rats and sch|zophron|c bohav|or |n humans.
1ho t|rst poop|o to assoc|ato tho LRL4 gono w|th sp|r|tua||ty woro mod|ca| rosoarchor 0av|d Com|ngs and h|s
co||oaguos, whon thoy wont |ook|ng tor gonos assoc|atod w|th novo|ty sook|ng.
12
1ho|r rosoarch was subsoquont|y
p|ckod up and ||nkod to r|sk-tak|ng bohav|or by lat|ona| Cancor lnst|tuto gonot|c|st 0oan |amor. Vost ot us havo tour
to sovon cop|os ot tho LRL4 gono on chromosomo o|ovon. 3omo poop|o, howovor, havo two or throo cop|os, wh||o
othors havo o|ght to o|ovon cop|os. Voro cop|os ot tho LRL4 gono trans|ato |nto |owor |ovo|s ot dopam|no, wh|ch
st|mu|atos poop|o to sook groator r|sks |n ordor to art|t|c|a||y got tho|r dopam|no t|x. loap|ng ott ot bu||d|ngs, antonnao,
spans, or oarth (so-ca||od 3A3E jump|ng) |s ono way to do |t, a|though h|gh-r|sk gamb||ng |n las vogas or Wa|| 3troot
may a|so do tho tr|ck. As a tost ot th|s hypothos|s, |amor t|rst had subjocts tako a survoy that moasuros dos|ro to
sook novo|ty and thr|||s. (3A3E jumpors scoro vory h|gh on th|s tost.) |o thon took a samp|o ot tho|r 0lA trom
chromosomo o|ovon and d|scovorod that poop|o w|th h|gh numbors on tho r|sk-tak|ng survoy had moro cop|os than
norma| ot tho LRL4 gono.
18
83
|rom r|sk-tak|ng bohav|or to ro||g|ous bo||ot, |amor cons|dorod tho poss|b|||ty that dopam|no m|ght bo |mp||catod
|n ta|th, and ho pub||shod h|s rosu|ts |n a controvors|a| book ont|t|od 7bo Ooo Oooo. 1o h|s crod|t, |amor d|sc|a|ms
tho book's t|t|o (thoy aro a|most a|ways dotorm|nod by tho sa|os and markot|ng dopartmonts ot pub||sh|ng
compan|os), oxp|a|n|ng that thoro |s, ot courso, no s|ng|o gono that cou|d poss|b|y roprosont somoth|ng as comp|ox
and var|ogatod as bo||ot |n God, much |oss tho r|ch tapostry that |s ro||g|ous ta|th. 3ut ho doos arguo that somo ot us
aro born w|th gonos that mako us moro or |oss sp|r|tua|,' wh|ch |s a componont |n both bo||ot |n God and ro||g|ous
ta|th.
14
1h|s t|mo |amor taggod anothor dopam|no-ro|atod gono ca||od VVA72 (vos|cu|ar monoam|no transportor 2),
wh|ch rogu|atos tho t|ow ot soroton|n, adrona||no, norop|nophr|no, and our tr|ond dopam|no. 3tart|ng w|th a databaso
ot s|b||ngs w|th c|garotto add|ct|on, |amor wantod to know |t thoro was a tam||y gonot|c connoct|on to an add|ct|vo
porsona||ty, and so gavo h|s subjocts a battory ot psycho|og|ca| quost|onna|ros, ono ot wh|ch |nc|udod tho porsona||ty
tra|t so|t-transcondonco.
||rst |dont|t|od by Wash|ngton Un|vors|ty psych|atr|st lobort C|on|ngor, poop|o scor|ng h|gh |n so|t-transcondonco
tond toward so|t-torgottu|noss' (bocom|ng tota||y absorbod |n an act|v|ty), transporsona| |dont|t|cat|on' (too||ng
connoctod to tho |argor wor|d), and myst|c|sm' (a w||||ngnoss to bo||ovo |n th|ngs unprovab|o, such as E3l). 1ogothor,
C|on|ngor bo||ovos, thoso moasuros add up to somoth|ng ||ko what wo th|nk ot as sp|r|tua||ty. ln tw|n stud|os conductod
by l|ndon Eavos and l|cho|as Vart|n, so|t-transcondonco was tound to bo hor|tab|o (as a|| porsona||ty charactor|st|cs
aro), so |amor ana|yzod tho 0lA and tho porsona||ty moasuros ot moro than a thousand poop|o and tound that thoso
poop|o |n tho study who scorod h|gh |n so|t-transcondonco had a dopam|no-boost|ng vors|on ot tho VVA72 gono.
|ow doos th|s gono |oad to so|t-transcondonco and sp|r|tua||ty?
VVA72 |s an |ntogra| mombrano proto|n that acts to transport monoam|nos-an am|no conta|n|ng ono am|no
group, such as tho nourotransm|ttors dopam|no, norop|nophr|no, and soroton|n-trom tho t|u|d |ns|do tho nouron co||
body to tho synapt|c vos|c|os at tho onds ot nourona| dondr|tos. 1hoso dondr|tos roach out to a|most (but not qu|to)
touch ono anothor. |amor th|nks that tho ono var|ant ot tho VVA72 gono that |s assoc|atod w|th |ncroasod so|t-
transcondonco |oads to tho product|on ot moro ot thoso ||tt|o transportors, and thus moro nourotransm|ttor substancos
such as dopam|no aro do||vorod |nto thoso narrow synapsos, thoroby boost|ng such pos|t|vo too||ngs as so|t-
transcondonco.
|amor's stud|os havo boon strong|y cr|t|c|zod by h|s to||ow sc|ont|sts-wh|ch |s tho norm |n th|s protoss|on-and
adm|ttod|y |dont|ty|ng gonos tor th|s or that bohav|or or bo||ot can bo prob|omat|c. lovortho|oss, tho tact that
dopam|no |s |nvo|vod |n th|s bo||ot, as |n so many bo||ots, supports th|s book's thos|s that thoro |s a bo||ot ong|no |n tho
bra|n assoc|atod w|th spoc|t|c aroas that gonorato and ova|uato bo||ots across a w|do var|oty ot contoxts. Ono ro|o ot
th|s ong|no |s to roward bo||ot ot a|| putat|vo c|a|ms, |nc|ud|ng and ospoc|a||y bo||ot |n God. ln othor words, |t too|s good
and |s roward|ng to bo||ovo |n God.
Comarativo WorId RoIigiona and Cod
1ho comparat|vo study ot why poop|o bo||ovo |n God and adhoro to a ro||g|on has gonoratod a w|do var|oty ot thoor|os
ovor tho past contury.
1b
A|though thoso thoor|os vary cons|dorab|y |n tho|r dota||s about tho or|g|ns and purposo ot
ro||g|on, a|| havo |n common tho bo||ot |n supornatura| agonts |n tho torm ot God, gods, or sp|r|ts as |ntogra| to ro||g|on,
and |t |s th|s aspoct ot bo||ot that wo aro oxp|or|ng horo. 1hat |s, l am |oss |ntorostod |n why poop|o bo||ovo |n th|s or
that god or jo|n th|s or that ro||g|on, and moro |ntorostod |n why poop|o bo||ovo |n any gods or jo|n any ro||g|on. 1o that
ond, l want to pu|| back and |ook at tho b|ggor p|cturo ot h|story. As a back-ot-tho-onvo|opo ca|cu|at|on w|th|n an ordor-
ot-magn|tudo accuracy, wo can sato|y say that ovor tho past ton thousand yoars ot h|story humans havo croatod about
ton thousand d|ttoront ro||g|ons and about ono thousand gods. What |s tho probab|||ty that Yahwoh |s tho ono truo god,
and Amon la, Aphrod|to, Apo||o, 3aa|, 3rahma, Ganosha, ls|s, V|thra, Os|r|s, 3h|va, 1hor, v|shnu, Wotan, Zous, and
tho othor 080 gods aro ta|so gods? As skopt|cs ||ko to say, ovoryono |s an atho|st about thoso gods, somo ot us just
go ono god turthor.
1horo |s, l bo||ovo, compo|||ng ov|donco that humans croatod God and not v|co vorsa. lt you happonod to bo born |n
tho Un|tod 3tatos |n tho twont|oth contury, tor oxamp|o, thoro |s a vory good chanco that you aro a Chr|st|an who
bo||ovos that Yahwoh |s tho a||-powortu| and a||-know|ng croator ot tho un|vorso who man|tostod |nto t|osh through
1osus ot lazaroth. lt you happonod to bo born |n lnd|a |n tho twont|oth contury, thoro |s a vory good chanco that you
aro a ||ndu who bo||ovos that 3rahma |s tho unchang|ng, |nt|n|to, transcondont croator ot a|| mattor, onorgy, t|mo, and
spaco and who man|tosts |nto t|osh through Ganosha, tho b|uo o|ophant god who |s tho most worsh|ppod d|v|n|ty |n
lnd|a. 1o an anthropo|og|st trom Vars, a|| oarth|y ro||g|ons wou|d bo |nd|st|ngu|shab|o at th|s |ovo| ot ana|ys|s.
Evon w|th|n tho throo groat Abraham|c ro||g|ons, who can say wh|ch ono |s r|ght? Chr|st|ans bo||ovo 1osus |s tho
sav|or and that you must accopt h|m to roco|vo otorna| ||to |n hoavon. 1ows do not accopt 1osus as tho sav|or, and
no|thor do Vus||ms. ln tact, on|y rough|y two b||||on ot tho wor|d's b.7 b||||on bo||ovors accopt 1osus as tho|r porsona|
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sav|or. Whoro Chr|st|ans bo||ovo that tho 3|b|o |s tho |norrant gospo| handod down trom tho do|ty, Vus||ms bo||ovo that
tho Koran |s tho portoct word ot God. Chr|st|ans bo||ovo that Chr|st was tho |atost prophot. Vus||ms bo||ovo that
Vuhammad |s tho |atost prophot. Vormons bo||ovo that 1osoph 3m|th |s tho |atost prophot. And, strotch|ng th|s track
ot thought just a b|t, 3c|onto|og|sts bo||ovo that l. lon |ubbard |s tho |atost prophot. 3o many prophots, so ||tt|o t|mo.
||ood myths show s|m||ar cu|tura| |nt|uonco. lrodat|ng tho b|b||ca| loach|an t|ood story by contur|os, tho Ep|c ot
G||gamosh was wr|tton around 1800 3CE. Warnod by tho 3aby|on|an Earth-god Ea that othor gods woro about to
dostroy a|| ||to by a t|ood, Utnap|sht|m was |nstructod to bu||d an ark |n tho torm ot a cubo that was 120 cub|ts (180
toot) |n |ongth, broadth, and dopth, w|th sovon t|oors, oach d|v|dod |nto n|no compartmonts, and to tako aboard ono
pa|r ot oach ||v|ng croaturo.
v|rg|n b|rth myths ||kow|so spr|ng up throughout t|mo and goography. Among thoso a||ogod to havo boon conco|vod
w|thout tho usua| ass|stanco trom a ma|o woro 0|onysus, lorsous, 3uddha, Att|s, Kr|shna, |orus, Vorcury, lomu|us,
and, ot courso, 1osus. Cons|dor tho para||o|s botwoon 0|onysus, tho anc|ont Grook god ot w|no, and 1osus ot
lazaroth. 3oth woro sa|d to havo boon born trom a v|rg|n mothor, who was a morta| woman, but woro tathorod by tho
k|ng ot hoavon, both a||ogod|y roturnod trom tho doad, transtormod wator |nto w|no, and |ntroducod tho |doa ot oat|ng
and dr|nk|ng tho t|osh and b|ood ot tho croator, and both woro sa|d to havo boon ||borator ot mank|nd.
losurroct|on myths aro no |oss cu|tura||y constructod. Os|r|s |s tho Egypt|an god ot ||to, doath, and tort|||ty, and |s
ono ot tho o|dost gods tor whom rocords havo surv|vod. Os|r|s t|rst appoars |n tho pyram|d toxts around 2400 3CE, by
wh|ch t|mo h|s to||ow|ng was a|roady wo|| ostab||shod. W|do|y worsh|ppod unt|| tho compu|sory ropross|on ot pagan
ro||g|ons |n tho oar|y Chr|st|an ora, Os|r|s was not on|y tho rodoomor and morc|tu| judgo ot tho doad |n tho attor||to, ho
was a|so ||nkod to tort|||ty and, most notab|y (and appropr|ato|y tor tho goography), tho t|ood|ng ot tho l||o and growth
ot crops. 1ho k|ngs ot Egypt thomso|vos woro |noxtr|cab|y connoctod w|th Os|r|s |n doath. Whon Os|r|s roso trom tho
doad, thoy wou|d r|so a|so |n un|on w|th h|m. 3y tho t|mo ot tho low K|ngdom, not on|y pharaohs but morta| mon
bo||ovod that thoy cou|d bo rosurroctod by and w|th Os|r|s at doath |t, ot courso, thoy pract|cod tho corroct ro||g|ous
r|tua|s. 3ound tam|||ar? Os|r|s prodatos tho 1osus moss|ah story by at |oast two and a ha|t m|||onn|a.
3hort|y attor tho cruc|t|x|on ot 1osus thoro aroso anothor moss|ah, Apo||on|us ot As|a V|nor. ||s to||owors c|a|mod
ho was tho son ot God, that ho was ab|o to wa|k through c|osod doors, hoa| tho s|ck, and cast out domons, and that ho
ra|sod a doad g|r| back to ||to. |o was accusod ot w|tchcratt, sont to lomo botoro tho court, and was ja||od but
oscapod. Attor ho d|od h|s to||owors c|a|mod ho appoarod to thom and thon ascondod |nto hoavon. Evon as |ato as
tho 1800s, tho lat|vo Amor|can ghost danco' contorod on a la|uto lnd|an namod Wovoka, who dur|ng a so|ar
oc||pso and tovor-|nducod ha||uc|nat|on roco|vod a v|s|on trom God w|th a|| tho poop|o who had d|od |ong ago
ongagod |n tho|r o|d-t|mo sports and occupat|ons, a|| happy and torovor young. lt was a p|oasant |and and tu|| ot
gamo.' Wovoka's to||owors bo||ovod that |n ordor to rosurroct tho|r ancostors, br|ng back tho butta|o, and dr|vo tho
wh|to man out ot lnd|an torr|tory, thoy noodod to portorm a coromon|a| danco that wont on tor hours and days at a t|mo.
1ho ghost danco un|tod tho opprossod lnd|ans but a|armod govornmont agonts, and th|s tons|on |od to tho massacro
at Woundod Knoo. 1h|s |s what l ca|| tho oppross|on-rodompt|on' myth, a c|ass|c ta|o ot choat|ng doath, ovorcom|ng
advors|ty, and throw|ng ott tho cha|ns ot bondago. You just can't koop a good story down. Why? 3ocauso tho
propons|ty to to|| such stor|os |s hardw|rod |nto our bra|ns.
Dooa Cod ActuaIIy Exiat?
0osp|to tho ovorwho|m|ng ov|donco that God |s hardw|rod |nto our bra|ns, bo||ovors cou|d roasonab|y arguo (1) that
tho quost|on Why do poop|o bo||ovo |n God?' |s a soparato quost|on trom 0oos God ox|st?' and (2) that tho do|ty
hardw|rod h|mso|t |nto our bra|ns so that wo may know h|m. ln othor words, tho b|o|ogy ot bo||ot |s a soparato mattor
trom tho targot ot bo||ot. Whothor or not bo||ot |n God |s hardw|rod |nto our bra|ns, tho quost|on roma|ns: doos God
actua||y ox|st?
What |a Cod?
3tud|os by ro||g|ous scho|ars rovoa| that tho vast major|ty ot poop|o |n tho |ndustr|a| Wost who bo||ovo |n God
assoc|ato thomso|vos w|th somo torm ot monotho|sm, |n wh|ch God |s undorstood to bo a bo|ng who |s: o|| powoto|
(omolpotoot), o|| koowlog (omolscloot), ooo o|| gooo (omolbooovo|oot), wbo ctootoo oot o ootblog tbo oolvotso ooo
ovotytblog lo lt, wbo ls ooctootoo ooo ototoo|, o ooocotpotoo| spltlt wbo ctootoo, |ovos, ooo coo gtoot ototoo| |lo to
bomoos. 3ynonyms |nc|udo tho A|m|ghty, 3upromo 3o|ng, 3upromo Goodnoss, Vost ||gh, 0|v|no 3o|ng, 0o|ty,
0|v|n|ty, God tho |athor, 0|v|no |athor, K|ng ot K|ngs, lord ot lords, Croator, Author ot A|| 1h|ngs, Vakor ot |oavon
and Earth, ||rst Causo, lr|mo Vovor, l|ght ot tho Wor|d, and 3ovoro|gn ot tho Un|vorso.
0o you bo||ovo th|s God ox|sts? 0o you dony that th|s God ox|sts? Or do you w|thho|d judgmont on th|s God's
85
ox|stonco? 1hoso aro tho throo quost|ons tho thoo|og|an 0oug Go|vott, a protossor at tho 1a|bot 3choo| ot 1hoo|ogy
at 3|o|a Un|vors|ty |n los Ango|os, ottors |n our pub||c dobatos on God's ox|stonco, domand|ng that l and aud|onco
mombors chooso ono. Vy rosponso |s twoto|d:
1. 1ho burdon ot proot |s on tho bo||ovor to provo God's ox|stonco, not on tho nonbo||ovor to d|sprovo God's
ox|stonco. A|though wo cannot provo a nogat|vo, l can just as oas||y arguo that l cannot provo that thoro |s no
ls|s, Zous, Apo||o, 3rahma, Ganosha, V|thra, A||ah, Yahwoh, or ovon tho ||y|ng 3paghott| Vonstor. 3ut tho
|nab|||ty to d|sprovo thoso gods |n no way makos thom |og|t|mato objocts ot bo||ot (|ot a|ono worsh|p).
2. 1horo |s ov|donco that God and ro||g|on aro human and soc|a| construct|ons basod on rosoarch trom
psycho|ogy, anthropo|ogy, h|story, comparat|vo mytho|ogy, and soc|o|ogy.
lot's |ook at thoso two mattors moro c|oso|y.
1hoiat, Athoiat, Agnoatic, and tho Burdon ot Proot
l onco saw a bumpor st|ckor that road V|||tant Agnost|c: l 0on't Know and You 0on't E|thor.' 1h|s |s my pos|t|on on
God's ox|stonco: l don't know and you don't o|thor. 3ut what doos |t moan to bo an agnost|c? lsn't that somoono who
|s w|thho|d|ng judgmont unt|| moro ov|donco |s gathorod? Ear||or |n tho book l sa|d that l don't bo||ovo |n God, so
doosn't that mako mo an atho|st? lt a|| doponds on how thoso torms aro dot|nod, and tor that wo shou|d turn to tho
Oxtord Eng||sh 0|ct|onary, our t|nost sourco tor tho h|story ot word usago: 7bolsm |s bo||ot |n a do|ty, or do|t|os' and
bo||ot |n ono God as croator and supromo ru|or ot tho un|vorso.' Atbolsm |s 0|sbo||ot |n, or don|a| ot, tho ox|stonco ot
a God.' Agoostlclsm |s unknow|ng, unknown, unknowab|o.'
Agnost|c|sm was co|nod |n 1800 by 1homas |onry |ux|oy-0arw|n's tr|ond and most onthus|ast|c pub||c oxp|a|nor
ot ovo|ut|on-to doscr|bo h|s own bo||ots: Whon l roachod |nto||octua| matur|ty and bogan to ask myso|t whothor l was
an atho|st, a tho|st, or a pantho|st . l tound that tho moro l |oarnod and rot|octod, tho |oss roady was tho answor. 1hoy
[bo||ovors| woro qu|to suro thoy had atta|nod a corta|n 'gnos|s,'-had, moro or |oss succosstu||y, so|vod tho prob|om ot
ox|stonco, wh||o l was qu|to suro l had not, and had a protty strong conv|ct|on that tho prob|om was |nso|ub|o.'
10
l, too,
am conv|ncod that tho God quost|on |s |nso|ub|o.
Ot courso, no ono |s agnost|c bohav|ora||y. Whon wo act |n tho wor|d, wo act as |t thoro |s a God or as |t thoro |s no
God, so by dotau|t wo must mako a cho|co, |t not |nto||octua||y thon at |oast bohav|ora||y. 1o th|s oxtont, l assumo that
thoro |s no God and l ||vo my ||to accord|ng|y, wh|ch makos mo an atho|st. ln othor words, agnost|c|sm |s an |nto||octua|
pos|t|on, a statomont about tho ox|stonco or nonox|stonco ot tho do|ty and our ab|||ty to know |t w|th corta|nty, whoroas
atho|sm |s a bohav|ora| pos|t|on, a statomont about what assumpt|ons wo mako about tho wor|d |n wh|ch wo bohavo.
0osp|to tho tact that v|rtua||y ovoryono |abo|s mo an atho|st, l protor to ca|| myso|t a skopt|c. Why? Words mattor
and |abo|s carry baggago. Whon most poop|o omp|oy tho word otbolst, thoy aro th|nk|ng ot sttoog otbolsm that
assorts that God doos not ox|st, wh|ch |s not a tonab|o pos|t|on (you cannot provo a nogat|vo). ook otbolsm s|mp|y
w|thho|ds bo||ot |n God tor |ack ot ov|donco, wh|ch wo a|| pract|co tor noar|y a|| tho gods ovor bo||ovod |n h|story. As
wo||, poop|o tond to oquato atho|sm w|th corta|n po||t|ca|, oconom|c, and soc|a| |doo|og|os, such as commun|sm,
soc|a||sm, oxtromo ||bora||sm, mora| ro|at|v|sm, and tho ||ko. 3|nco l am a t|sca||y consorvat|vo c|v|| ||bortar|an, and
most dot|n|to|y not a mora| ro|at|v|st, th|s assoc|at|on doos not t|t. Yos, wo can try rodot|n|ng atho|sm |n a moro pos|t|vo
d|roct|on-wh|ch l do rogu|ar|y-but s|nco l pub||sh a magaz|no ca||od 5koptlc and wr|to a month|y co|umn tor
5clootllc Amotlcoo ca||od 3kopt|c,' l protor that as my |abo|. A skopt|c s|mp|y doos not bo||ovo a know|odgo c|a|m
unt|| sutt|c|ont ov|donco |s prosontod to rojoct tho nu|| hypothos|s (that a know|odgo c|a|m |s not truo unt|| provon
othorw|so). l do not know that thoro |s no God, but l do not bo||ovo |n God, and havo good roasons to th|nk that tho
concopt ot God |s soc|a||y and psycho|og|ca||y constructod.
1ho prob|om wo taco w|th tho God quost|on |s that corta|nty |s not poss|b|o whon wo bump up aga|nst such u|t|mato
quost|ons as What was thoro botoro t|mo bogan?' or lt tho b|g bang markod tho bog|nn|ng ot a|| t|mo, spaco, and
mattor, what tr|ggorod th|s t|rst act ot croat|on?' 1ho tact that sc|onco prosonts us w|th a quost|on mark on such
quost|ons doosn't tazo sc|ont|sts bocauso thoo|og|ans h|t tho samo op|stomo|og|ca| wa||. You just havo to push thom
ono moro stop. ln my dobatos and d|a|oguos w|th thoo|og|ans, tho|sts, and bo||ovors, tho oxchango usua||y goos
somoth|ng ||ko th|s tor tho quost|on ot what tr|ggorod tho b|g bang, or tho t|rst act ot croat|on:
Ooo olo lt.
Who croatod God?
Ooo ls bo wbo oooos oot bo ctootoo.
Why can't tho un|vorso bo that wh|ch noods not bo croatod'?
7bo oolvotso ls o tblog ot oo ovoot, wbotoos Ooo ls oo ogoot ot bolog, ooo tblogs ooo ovoots bovo to bo ctootoo
86
by somotblog, bot oo ogoot ot bolog ooos oot.
lsn't God a th|ng |t ho |s part ot tho un|vorso?
Ooo ls oot o tblog. Ooo ls oo ogoot ot bolog.
0on't agonts and bo|ngs havo to bo croatod as wo||? Wo'ro an agont, a bo|ng-a human bo|ng |n tact. Wo agroo
that human bo|ngs nood an oxp|anat|on tor our or|g|n. 3o why doos th|s causa| roason|ng not app|y to God as agont
and bo|ng?
Ooo ls ootsloo o tlmo, spoco, ooo mottot, ooo tbos oooos oo oxp|oootloo.
lt that |s tho caso, thon |t |s not poss|b|o tor any ot us to know |t thoro |s a God or not bocauso, by dot|n|t|on, as t|n|to
bo|ngs oporat|ng oxc|us|vo|y w|th|n tho wor|d wo can on|y know othor natura| and t|n|to bo|ngs and objocts. lt |s not
poss|b|o tor a natura| t|n|to bo|ng to know a supornatura| |nt|n|to bo|ng.
At th|s po|nt |n tho dobato my orstwh||o thoo|og|ca| oppononts typ|ca||y turn to anc|||ary argumonts tor God's
ox|stonco, such as porsona| rovo|at|on, wh|ch by dot|n|t|on |s porsona| and thus cannot sorvo as ov|donco to othors
who havo not sharod that rovo|atory oxpor|onco. Or, tho|sts w||| |nvoko tacts and m|rac|os pocu||ar to tho|r part|cu|ar
ta|th, such as Vus||ms as tho tastost grow|ng ro||g|on, or 1uda|sm as tho o|dost ro||g|on that has surv|vod m|||onn|a ot
attompts to orad|cato |t, or Chr|st|ans who bo||ovo that tho d|sc|p|os wou|d novor havo gono to tho|r doaths dotond|ng
tho|r ta|th woro such m|rac|os as tho rosurroct|on not truo. ln a|| throo casos tho assumpt|on |s that m||||ons ot to||owors
cannot bo wrong.
Wo||, l countor, m||||ons ot Vormons bo||ovo that tho|r sacrod toxt was d|ctatod |n an anc|ont |anguago onto go|d
p|atos by tho ango| Voron| and bur|od and subsoquont|y dug up noar la|myra, low York, by 1osoph 3m|th, who thon
trans|atod thom |nto Eng||sh by bury|ng h|s taco |n a hat conta|n|ng mag|c stonos. V||||ons ot 3c|onto|og|sts bo||ovo
that oons ago a ga|act|c war|ord namod Xonu brought a||on bo|ngs trom anothor so|ar systom to Earth, p|acod thom |n
so|oct vo|canoos around tho wor|d, and thon vapor|zod thom w|th hydrogon bombs, scattor|ng to tho w|nds tho|r
thotans (sou|s), wh|ch attach thomso|vos to poop|o today, |oad|ng to drug and a|coho| abuso, add|ct|on, dopross|on,
and othor psycho|og|ca| and soc|a| a||monts that on|y 3c|onto|ogy can curo. C|oar|y tho vorac|ty ot a propos|t|on |s
|ndopondont ot tho numbor ot poop|o who bo||ovo |t.
1ho burdon ot proot |s on bo||ovors to provo God's ox|stonco-not on nonbo||ovors to d|sprovo |t-and to dato
tho|sts havo ta||od to provo God's ox|stonco, at |oast by tho h|gh ov|dont|ary standards ot sc|onco and roason. 3o wo
roturn aga|n to tho naturo ot bo||ot and tho or|g|n ot bo||ot |n God. l havo bu||t a strong caso that bo||ot |n a supornatura|
agont w|th |ntont|on |s hardw|rod |n our bra|ns, and that tho agont as God was croatod by humans and not v|co vorsa.
5hormor'a Laat Law and tho 5ciontitic 5oarch tor Cod
|or most tho|sts, God's ox|stonco |s not a mattor ot b||nd ta|th, c|rcumstant|a| goography, or cu|tura| construct|on. 1hoy
know that God |s roa|, and thoy havo as much cont|donco |n that know|odgo-and otton much moro-as thoy havo |n
many othor c|a|ms to know|odgo. Atho|sts a|so att|rm tho bo||ot that God's ox|stonco |s knowab|o. 3y mak|ng tho
argumont that thoro |s |nsutt|c|ont ov|donco tor God's ox|stonco, thoy aro |nc|ud|ng God |n tho op|stomo|og|ca| arona
ot tho omp|r|ca| sc|oncos. lt sutt|c|ont ov|donco d|d omorgo that God |s roa|, atho|sts shou|d-at |oast |n pr|nc|p|o-
assont to h|s ox|stonco. Wou|d thoy? What ov|donco wou|d bo sutt|c|ont that both tho|sts and atho|sts wou|d agroo to
sott|o tho |ssuo onco and tor a||? l contond that thoro |s nono. (1h|s |s anothor roason why l protor to ca|| myso|t an
agnost|c or a skopt|c.) |oro's why.
Vost tho|sts bo||ovo that God croatod tho un|vorso and ovoryth|ng |n |t, |nc|ud|ng stars, p|anots, and ||to. Vy
quost|on |s th|s: how cou|d wo d|st|ngu|sh an omn|potont and omn|sc|ont God or lnto|||gont 0os|gnor (l0) trom an
oxtromo|y powortu| and roa||y smart oxtratorrostr|a| |nto|||gonco (E1l)? 1hat |s, |t wo go |n soarch ot such a bo|ng-as
both tho|sts and atho|sts c|a|m to bo do|ng-wo oncountor a prob|om that l ca|| (paco Arthur C. C|arko
17
) 3hormor's
|ast |aw: ooy solcloot|y oovoocoo oxtto-tottosttlo| loto||lgooco ls loolstlogolsbob|o tom Ooo.
18
Vy gamb|t (E1 = l0 = God) ar|sos trom an |ntograt|on ot ovo|ut|onary thoory, |nto|||gont dos|gn croat|on|sm, and tho
3E1l (3oarch tor Extratorrostr|a| lnto|||gonco) program, and can bo dor|vod trom tho to||ow|ng obsorvat|ons and
doduct|ons.
Obsotvotloo l. 3|o|og|ca| ovo|ut|on |s g|ac|a||y s|ow comparod to tochno|og|ca| ovo|ut|on. 1ho roason |s that
b|o|og|ca| ovo|ut|on |s 0arw|n|an and roqu|ros gonorat|ons ot d|ttoront|a| roproduct|vo succoss, whoroas tochno|og|ca|
ovo|ut|on |s lamarck|an and can bo |mp|omontod w|th|n a s|ng|o gonorat|on.
Obsotvotloo ll. 1ho cosmos |s vory b|g and spaco |s vory ompty, so tho probab|||ty ot mak|ng contact w|th an E1l |s
romoto. 3y oxamp|o, tho spood ot our most d|stant spacocratt, Voyogot l, ro|at|vo to tho sun |s 17.240 k||omotors por
socond, or 88,b78 m||os por hour. lt Voyogot l was hoad|ng toward tho c|osost star systom to us (wh|ch |t |sn't)-tho
A|pha Contaur| systom at 4.8 ||ght-yoars away-|t wou|d tako an a|most untathomab|o 74,012 yoars to got thoro.
87
Loooctloo l. 1ho probab|||ty ot mak|ng contact w|th an E1l who |s on|y s||ght|y moro advancod than us |s v|rtua||y n||.
Any E1ls wo wou|d oncountor w||| o|thor bo way boh|nd us (|n wh|ch caso wo cou|d on|y oncountor thom by |and|ng on
tho|r p|anot) or way ahoad ot us (|n wh|ch caso wo wou|d oncountor thom o|thor through to|ocommun|cat|ons or by tho|r
|and|ng on our p|anot). |ow tar ahoad ot us |s an E1l ||ko|y to bo?
Obsotvotloo lll. 3c|onco and tochno|ogy havo changod our wor|d moro |n tho past contury than |t changod |n tho
prov|ous hundrod contur|os-|t took ton thousand yoars to got trom tho cart to tho a|rp|ano, but on|y s|xty-s|x yoars to
got trom poworod t||ght to a |unar |and|ng. Vooro's |aw ot computor powor doub||ng ovory o|ghtoon months cont|nuos
unabatod and |s now down to about a yoar. Computor sc|ont|sts ca|cu|ato that thoro havo boon th|rty-two doub||ngs
s|nco Wor|d War ll, and that as oar|y as 2080 wo may oncountor tho s|ngu|ar|ty-tho po|nt at wh|ch tota| computat|ona|
powor w||| r|so to |ovo|s that aro so tar boyond anyth|ng wo can |mag|no that thoy w||| appoar noar|y |nt|n|to and thus,
ro|at|vo|y spoak|ng, bo |nd|st|ngu|shab|o trom omn|sc|onco. Whon th|s happons tho wor|d w||| chango moro |n a
docado than |t d|d |n tho prov|ous thousand docados.
10
Loooctloo ll. Extrapo|ato thoso trond ||nos out tons ot thousands, hundrods ot thousands, or ovon m||||ons ot yoars
-moro oyo b||nks on an ovo|ut|onary t|mo sca|o-and wo arr|vo at a roa||st|c ost|mato ot how tar advancod an E1l w|||
bo. Cons|dor somoth|ng as ro|at|vo|y s|mp|o as 0lA. Wo can a|roady ong|noor gonos attor on|y t|tty yoars ot gonot|c
sc|onco. An E1l that was t|tty thousand yoars ahoad ot us wou|d suro|y bo ab|o to construct ont|ro gonomos, co||s,
mu|t|co||u|ar ||to, and comp|ox ocosystoms. (At tho t|mo ot th|s wr|t|ng tho gonot|c|st 1. Cra|g vontor producod tho t|rst
art|t|c|a| gonomo and constructod synthot|c bactor|a that woro chom|ca||y contro||od by tho art|t|c|a| gonomo.
20
) 1ho
dos|gn ot ||to |s, attor a||, just a tochn|ca| prob|om |n mo|ocu|ar man|pu|at|on. 1o our not-so-d|stant doscondants, or to
an E1l wo m|ght oncountor, tho ab|||ty to croato ||to w||| bo s|mp|y a mattor ot tochno|og|ca| sk|||.
Loooctloo lll. lt today wo can ong|noor gonos, c|ono mamma|s, and man|pu|ato stom co||s w|th sc|onco and
tochno|og|os dovo|opod |n on|y tho past ha|t contury, th|nk ot what an E1l cou|d do w|th t|tty thousand yoars ot
oqu|va|ont powors ot progross |n sc|onco and tochno|ogy. |or an E1l who |s a m||||on yoars moro advancod than wo
aro, ong|noor|ng tho croat|on ot p|anots and stars may bo ont|ro|y poss|b|o.
21
And |t un|vorsos aro croatod out ot
co||aps|ng b|ack ho|os-wh|ch somo cosmo|og|sts th|nk |s probab|o-|t |s not |nconco|vab|o that a sutt|c|ont|y
advancod E1l cou|d ovon croato a un|vorso by tr|ggor|ng tho co||apso ot a star |nto a b|ack ho|o.
22
What wou|d wo ca|| an |nto|||gont bo|ng capab|o ot ong|noor|ng ||to, p|anots, stars, and ovon un|vorsos? lt wo know
tho undor|y|ng sc|onco and tochno|ogy usod to do tho ong|noor|ng, wo wou|d ca|| |t an oxtratorrostr|a| |nto|||gonco, |t wo
d|d not know tho undor|y|ng sc|onco and tochno|ogy, wo wou|d ca|| |t God.
Einatoin'a Cod
lnov|tab|y |n d|scuss|ons about sc|onco and God, tho mattor ot A|bort E|nsto|n's ro||g|ous bo||ots ar|sos, w|th tho|sts
and low Ago sp|r|tua||sts ot var|ous str|pos c|amor|ng to c|a|m tho groat phys|c|st as ono ot tho|r own. W|th carotu|
quoto m|n|ng ono can t|nd support tor E|nsto|n as a bo||ovor ot somo sort. 1o w|t: God |s cunn|ng but |o |s not
ma||c|ous,' God doos not p|ay d|co,' and l want to know how God croatod tho wor|d. l am not |ntorostod |n th|s or that
phonomonon, |n tho spoctrum ot th|s or that o|omont. l want to know ||s thoughts, tho rost aro dota||s.' ln tho t|na|
wooks ot h|s ||to, whon E|nsto|n |oarnod ot tho doath ot h|s o|d phys|c|st tr|ond V|cho|o 3osso, ho wroto tho 3osso
tam||y: |o has dopartod trom th|s strango wor|d a ||tt|o ahoad ot mo. 1hat moans noth|ng. |or us bo||ov|ng phys|c|sts,
tho d|st|nct|on botwoon past, prosont and tuturo |s on|y a stubborn |||us|on.'
What d|d E|nsto|n moan by God' p|ay|ng d|co, or us bo||ov|ng phys|c|sts'? Was ho spoak|ng ||tora||y or
motaphor|ca||y about tho do|ty? 0|d ho moan bo||ot |n tho modo|s ot thoorot|ca| phys|cs that mako no d|st|nct|on
botwoon past, prosont, and tuturo? 0|d ho moan bo||ot |n somo |mporsona| torco that ox|sts abovo such t|mo
constra|nts? Was ho just bo|ng po||to and conso||ng to 3osso's tam||y? 3uch |s tho on|gma ot tho most wo||-known
sc|ont|st |n h|story whoso tamo was such that noar|y ovoryth|ng ho wroto or sa|d was scrut|n|zod tor |ts moan|ng and
|mport. lt |s oasy to yank such quotos out ot contoxt and sp|n thom |n any d|roct|on ono dos|ros. Vuch has boon wr|tton
about E|nsto|n, but unt|| rocont|y h|s ||torary oxocutors protoctod h|s convo|utod and controvors|a| porsona| ||to so
carotu||y that wo know on|y sn|ppots ot what was go|ng on outs|do E|nsto|n's sc|ont|t|c m|nd and soc|a| c|rc|o. Unt||
now. 1hanks to tho E|nsto|n lapors lrojoct undor tho d|roct|on ot 0|ana Kormos-3uchwa|d at tho Ca||torn|a lnst|tuto ot
1ochno|ogy |n lasadona, Ca||torn|a, tho arch|va| mator|a|s aro now ava||ab|o to to|| tho tu|| story, wh|ch Wa|tor
lsaacson d|d |n h|s mag|stor|a| b|ography ot E|nsto|n.
28
E|nsto|n's 1ow|sh |dont|ty was undon|ab|y |mportant to a|| aspocts ot h|s ||to, ospoc|a||y and |nc|ud|ng h|s po||t|cs.
Attor doc||n|ng tho pros|doncy ot lsrao|, E|nsto|n wroto: Vy ro|at|onsh|p to tho 1ow|sh poop|o has bocomo my
strongost human t|o.'
24
1ho ro||g|os|ty ot h|s ch||dhood st||| compo||od h|m |n m|d||to: 1ry and ponotrato w|th our ||m|tod
moans tho socrots ot naturo and you w||| t|nd that, boh|nd a|| tho d|scorn|b|o |aws and connoct|ons, thoro roma|ns
88
somoth|ng subt|o, |ntang|b|o and |noxp||cab|o. vonorat|on tor th|s torco boyond anyth|ng that wo can comprohond |s
my ro||g|on. 1o that oxtont l am, |n tact, ro||g|ous.'
2b
3o|ng ro||g|ous |n somo osotor|c sonso ot tho awo and wondor ovor tho cosmos |s ono th|ng, but what about God,
part|cu|ar|y Yahwoh, tho God ot Abraham, E|nsto|n's own patr|arch? Whon ho turnod t|tty, E|nsto|n grantod an |ntorv|ow
|n wh|ch ho was askod po|nt-b|ank, do you bo||ovo |n God? l am not an atho|st,' ho bogan.
1ho prob|om |nvo|vod |s too vast tor our ||m|tod m|nds. Wo aro |n tho pos|t|on ot a ||tt|o ch||d ontor|ng a hugo ||brary t|||od w|th books |n
many |anguagos. 1ho ch||d knows somoono must havo wr|tton thoso books. lt doos not know how. lt doos not undorstand tho
|anguagos |n wh|ch thoy aro wr|tton. 1ho ch||d d|m|y suspocts a mystor|ous ordor |n tho arrangomont ot tho books but doosn't know
what |t |s. 1hat, |t sooms to mo, |s tho att|tudo ot ovon tho most |nto|||gont human bo|ng toward God. Wo soo tho un|vorso marvo|ous|y
arrangod and oboy|ng corta|n |aws but on|y d|m|y undorstand thoso |aws.
20
1hat a|most sounds ||ko E|nsto|n |s attr|but|ng tho |aws ot tho un|vorso to a God ot somo sort. 3ut what typo ot God,
a porsona| do|ty or somo amorphous torco? 1o a Co|orado bankor who wroto and askod h|m tho God quost|on,
E|nsto|n rospondod:
l cannot conco|vo ot a porsona| God who wou|d d|roct|y |nt|uonco tho act|ons ot |nd|v|dua|s or wou|d s|t |n judgmont on croaturos ot h|s
own croat|on. Vy ro||g|os|ty cons|sts ot a humb|o adm|rat|on ot tho |nt|n|to|y supor|or sp|r|t that rovoa|s |tso|t |n tho ||tt|o that wo can
comprohond about tho knowab|o wor|d. 1hat doop|y omot|ona| conv|ct|on ot tho prosonco ot a supor|or roason|ng powor, wh|ch |s
rovoa|od |n tho |ncomprohons|b|o un|vorso, torms my |doa ot God.
27
1ho most tamous E|nsto|n pronouncomont on God camo |n tho torm ot a to|ogram, |n wh|ch ho was askod to
answor tho quost|on |n t|tty words or |oss. |o d|d |t |n th|rty-two: l bo||ovo |n 3p|noza's God, who rovoa|s h|mso|t |n tho
|awtu| harmony ot a|| that ox|sts, but not |n a God who concorns h|mso|t w|th tho tato and tho do|ngs ot mank|nd.'
28
||na||y, |t any doubt roma|ns, |n a 1007 |ssuo ot 5koptlc magaz|no wo pub||shod an art|c|o by ono ot our od|tors,
V|chao| G||moro, who had rocont|y mot a Wor|d War ll U.3. lavy votoran namod Guy |. lanor, who corrospondod
w|th E|nsto|n on th|s vory quost|on. Wo ropub||shod thoso |ottors |n tho|r ont|roty tor tho t|rst t|mo anywhoro.
20
ln tho t|rst
|ottor, datod 1uno 14, 104b, sont trom tho U33 Boogolovl||o |n tho lac|t|c Ocoan, lanor rocounts a convorsat|on ho
had on tho sh|p w|th a 1osu|t-oducatod Catho||c ott|cor who c|a|mod that E|nsto|n convortod trom atho|sm to tho|sm
whon ho was controntod by a 1osu|t pr|ost w|th throo |rrotutab|o sy||og|sms. 1ho sy||og|sms woro: A dos|gn domands
a dos|gnor, tho un|vorso |s a dos|gn, thorotoro thoro must havo boon a dos|gnor.' lanor countorod tho Catho||c by
not|ng that cosmo|ogy and ovo|ut|onary thoory adoquato|y oxp|a|n most apparont dos|gn |n tho wor|d, but ovon |t thoro
was a 'dos|gnor,' that wou|d g|vo on|y a ro-arrangor, not a croator, and aga|n assum|ng a dos|gnor, you aro back
whoro you startod by bo|ng torcod to adm|t a dos|gnor ot tho dos|gnor otc. otc. 3amo as tho account ot tho oarth
rost|ng on an o|ophant's back-o|ophant stand|ng on a g|ant turt|o, turt|o on turt|o on turt|o, otc.'
At th|s po|nt |n h|s ||to E|nsto|n was wor|d tamous and rout|no|y roco|vod hundrods ot such |ottors, many trom
prom|nont scho|ars and sc|ont|sts, so tor h|m to wr|to a |ow|y ons|gn aboard a sh|p |n tho m|dd|o ot tho lac|t|c Ocoan
rovoa|s how much th|s story got h|s goat. On 1u|y 2, 104b, E|nsto|n t|rod back:
l roco|vod your |ottor ot 1uno 10th. l havo novor ta|kod to a 1osu|t pr|ost |n my ||to and l am aston|shod by tho audac|ty to to|| such ||os
about mo. |rom tho v|owpo|nt ot a 1osu|t pr|ost l am, ot courso, and havo a|ways boon an atho|st. Your countor-argumonts soom to
mo vory corroct and cou|d hard|y bo bottor tormu|atod. lt |s a|ways m|s|oad|ng to uso anthropomorph|ca| concopts |n doa||ng w|th
th|ngs outs|do tho human sphoro-ch||d|sh ana|og|os. Wo havo to adm|ro |n hum|||ty and boaut|tu| harmony ot tho structuro ot th|s
wor|d-as tar as wo can grasp |t. And that |s a||.
|our yoars |ator, |n 1040, lanor wroto E|nsto|n aga|n, ask|ng tor c|ar|t|cat|on: 3omo poop|o m|ght |ntorprot (your
|ottor) to moan that to a 1osu|t pr|ost, anyono not a loman Catho||c |s an atho|st, and that you aro |n tact an orthodox
1ow, or a 0o|st, or somoth|ng o|so. 0|d you moan to |oavo room tor such an |ntorprotat|on, or aro you trom tho
v|owpo|nt ot tho d|ct|onary an atho|st, |.o., 'ono who d|sbo||ovos |n tho ox|stonco ot a God, or a 3upromo 3o|ng'?'
E|nsto|n rospondod on 3optombor 28, 1040:
l havo ropoatod|y sa|d that |n my op|n|on tho |doa ot a porsona| God |s a ch||d||ko ono. You may ca|| mo an agnost|c, but l do not sharo
tho crusad|ng sp|r|t ot tho protoss|ona| atho|st whoso torvor |s most|y duo to a pa|ntu| act ot ||borat|on trom tho tottors ot ro||g|ous
|ndoctr|nat|on roco|vod |n youth. l protor an att|tudo ot hum|||ty corrospond|ng to tho woaknoss ot our |nto||octua| undorstand|ng ot
naturo and ot our own bo|ng.
|as thoro ovor boon a prom|nont t|guro who was so c|oar about what ho bo||ovos as E|nsto|n, and yot so
ogrog|ous|y m|sundorstood? 1h|s |s yot anothor oxamp|o ot bo||ot b||ndnoss.
1ho NaturaI and tho 5uornaturaI
3c|onco oporatos |n tho natura|, not tho supornatura|. ln tact, thoro |s no such th|ng as tho supornatura| or tho
89
paranorma|. 1horo |s just tho natura|, tho norma|, and mystor|os wo havo yot to oxp|a|n by natura| causos. lnvok|ng
such words as sopotoototo| and potoootmo| just prov|dos a ||ngu|st|c p|acoho|dor unt|| wo t|nd natura| and norma|
causos, or wo do not t|nd thom and d|scont|nuo tho soarch out ot |ack ot |ntorost. 1h|s |s what usua||y happons |n
sc|onco. Vystor|os onco thought to bo supornatura| or paranorma| happon|ngs-such as astronom|ca| or
motooro|og|ca| ovonts-aro |ncorporatod |nto sc|onco onco tho|r causos aro undorstood. |or oxamp|o, whon
cosmo|og|sts rotoronco dark onorgy' and dark mattor' to tho so-ca||od m|ss|ng onorgy and mass noodod to oxp|a|n
tho structuro and mot|on ot ga|ax|os and ga|axy c|ustors, thoy do not |ntond thoso doscr|ptors to bo causa|
oxp|anat|ons. 0ark onorgy and dark mattor aro moro|y cogn|t|vo convon|oncos unt|| tho actua| sourcos ot tho onorgy
and mattor aro d|scovorod. Whon tho|sts, croat|on|sts, and |nto|||gont dos|gn thoor|sts |nvoko m|rac|os and acts ot
croat|on ox n|h||o, that |s tho ond ot tho soarch tor thom, whoroas tor sc|ont|sts tho |dont|t|cat|on ot such mystor|os |s
on|y tho bog|nn|ng. 3c|onco p|cks up whoro thoo|ogy |oavos ott. Whon a tho|st says and thon a m|rac|o happons,' as
w|tt||y portrayod |n my tavor|to 3ydnoy |arr|s cartoon ot tho two mathomat|c|ans at tho cha|kboard w|th tho |nvocat|on
tuckod |n tho m|dd|o ot a str|ng ot oquat|ons, l quoto trom tho cartoon's capt|on: l th|nk you nood to bo moro oxp||c|t
horo |n stop two.'
1o our 3ronzo Ago ancostors who croatod tho groat monotho|st|c ro||g|ons, tho ab|||ty to croato tho wor|d and ||to
was god||ko. Onco wo know tho tochno|ogy ot croat|on, howovor, tho supornatura| bocomos tho natura|. 1hus my
gamb|t: tho on|y God that sc|onco cou|d d|scovor wou|d bo a natura| bo|ng, an ont|ty that ox|sts |n spaco and t|mo and
|s constra|nod by tho |aws ot naturo. A supornatura| God who ox|sts outs|do ot spaco and t|mo |s not knowab|o to
sc|onco bocauso ho |s not part ot tho natura| wor|d, and thorotoro sc|onco cannot know God.
1h|s was tho argumont l mado |n a 1omp|oton |oundat|on-sponsorod pr|nt dobato w|th tho|st and |arvard
protossor ot mod|c|no 1oromo Groopman, who |n h|s commonts arguod that God |s w|thout torm, |mmoasurab|o,' that
ho ox|sts |n a d|mons|on that cannot bo quant|tatod or dop|ctod by sc|onco,' that wo aro unab|o to grasp tu||y God's
naturo and d|mons|ons,' and that God ox|sts outs|do ot t|mo and cannot bo bound by spaco.' |ow thon, l askod, do
you know th|s God ox|sts? As corporoa| bo|ngs who torm bo||ots about tho wor|d basod on porcopts (trom our sonsos)
and concopts (trom our m|nds), how can wo poss|b|y know a bo|ng who by dot|n|t|on ||os outs|do ot both our porcopts
and our concopts? At somo po|nt doosn't God nood to stop |nto our spaco-t|mo to mako h|mso|t known |n somo
mannor-say through prayor, prov|donco, or m|rac|os? And |t so, why can't sc|onco moasuro such d|v|no act|on? lt
thoro |s somo othor way ot know|ng, say that ot tho myst|cs or tho ta|thtu| through doop mod|tat|on or prayor, why
cou|dn't nourosc|onco say somoth|ng moan|ngtu| about that procoss ot know|ng? lt wo camo to undorstand-as
stud|os w|th mod|tat|ng monks and pray|ng pr|osts havo shown-that a part ot tho par|ota| |obo ot tho bra|n assoc|atod
w|th tho or|ontat|on ot tho body |n spaco |s qu|oscont dur|ng such mod|tat|vo statos (broak|ng down tho norma|
d|st|nct|on ono too|s botwoon so|t and nonso|t and thus mak|ng ono too| at ono' w|th tho onv|ronmont), wou|dn't th|s
|mp|y that rathor than bo|ng |n touch w|th a bo|ng outs|do ot spaco and t|mo, |t |s actua||y just a chango |n
nourochom|stry?
ln tho ond, |n ono ot tho most nakod|y honost statomonts ot bo||ot that l havo ovor oncountorod, Groopman had to
adm|t: Why bo||ovo? l havo no rat|ona| answor. 1ho quost|on sooms to bo |n tho doma|n ot why do wo |ovo somoono?
You cou|d roduco |t to corta|n compononts, porhaps rotor to nourotransm|ttors, but somohow tho answor sooms to
transcond tho tru|y knowab|o. 1h|s |s tho cogn|t|vo d|ssonanco that poop|o ||ko mo ||vo w|th, and w|th wh|ch wo otton
strugg|o.'
80
On ono |ovo| l havo no robutta| to th|s bo||ot statomont bocauso nono |s nocossary. lt no omp|r|ca| c|a|m |s mado,
thon thoro |s ||tt|o moro that sc|onco can say on tho mattor. l|to can bo a pa|ntu| strugg|o and t|||od w|th mystor|os, so
whatovor ono noods to do to got through tho day to t|nd happ|noss and to br|ng somo roso|ut|on to thoso nagg|ng
mystor|os . wo|| . who am l to arguo? As doc|arod |n lsa|ms 40:1: God |s our rotugo and strongth, a vory prosont
ho|p |n troub|o.' On anothor |ovo|, howovor, l can't ho|p but th|nk that had Groopman boon born to ||ndu paronts |n
lnd|a rathor than 1ow|sh paronts |n tho Wost, ho wou|d bo||ovo somoth|ng ont|ro|y d|ttoront about tho u|t|mato naturo ot
tho un|vorso that wou|d bo oqua||y subjoct to just|t|cat|on through rat|ona| argumonts.
What sc|onco ottors tor oxp|a|n|ng tho too||ngs wo oxpor|onco whon bo||ov|ng |n God or ta|||ng |n |ovo |s
comp|omontary, not cont||ct|ng, add|t|vo, not dotract|vo. l t|nd |t doop|y |ntorost|ng to know that whon l ta|| |n |ovo w|th
somoono my |n|t|a| |usttu| too||ngs aro onhancod by dopam|no, a nourohormono producod by tho hypotha|amus that
tr|ggors tho ro|oaso ot tostostorono, tho hormono that dr|vos soxua| dos|ro, and that my doopor too||ngs ot attachmont
aro ro|ntorcod by oxytoc|n, a hormono synthos|zod |n tho hypotha|amus and socrotod |nto tho b|ood by tho p|tu|tary.
|urthor, |t |s |nstruct|vo to know that such hormono-|nducod noura| pathways aro oxc|us|vo to monogamous pa|r-
bondod spoc|os as an ovo|ut|onary adaptat|on tor tho |ong-torm caro ot ho|p|oss |ntants. Wo ta|| |n |ovo bocauso our
ch||dron nood us! 0oos th|s |n any way |osson tho qua||tat|vo oxpor|onco ot ta|||ng |n |ovo and dot|ng on ono's ch||dron?
Ot courso not, any moro than unwoav|ng a ra|nbow |nto |ts const|tuont parts roducos tho aosthot|c approc|at|on ot tho
90
ra|nbow.
lo||g|ous ta|th and bo||ot |n God havo oqua||y adapt|vo ovo|ut|onary oxp|anat|ons. lo||g|on |s a soc|a| |nst|tut|on that
ovo|vod to ro|ntorco group cohos|on and mora| bohav|or. lt |s an |ntogra| mochan|sm ot human cu|turo to oncourago
a|tru|sm, roc|proca| a|tru|sm, and |nd|roct a|tru|sm, and to rovoa| tho |ovo| ot comm|tmont to cooporato and roc|procato
among mombors ot a soc|a| commun|ty. 3o||ov|ng |n God prov|dos an oxp|anat|on tor our un|vorso, our wor|d, and
ourso|vos, |t oxp|a|ns whoro wo camo trom, why wo aro horo, and whoro wo aro go|ng. God |s a|so tho u|t|mato
ontorcor ot tho ru|os, tho t|na| arb|tor ot mora| d||ommas, and tho p|nnac|o objoct ot comm|tmont.
lt |s t|mo to stop out ot our ovo|ut|onary hor|tago and our h|stor|ca| trad|t|ons and ombraco sc|onco as tho bost too|
ovor dov|sod tor oxp|a|n|ng how tho wor|d works. lt |s t|mo to work togothor to croato a soc|a| and po||t|ca| wor|d that
ombracos mora| pr|nc|p|os and yot a||ows tor natura| human d|vors|ty to t|our|sh. lo||g|on cannot got us thoro bocauso
|t has no systomat|c mothods ot oxp|anat|on ot tho natura| wor|d, and no moans ot cont||ct roso|ut|on on mora| |ssuos
whon mombors ot compot|ng socts ho|d abso|uto bo||ots that aro mutua||y oxc|us|vo. ||awod as thoy may bo, sc|onco
and tho socu|ar En||ghtonmont va|uos oxprossod |n Wostorn domocrac|os aro our bost hopo tor surv|va|.
91

0

BoIiot in AIiona
ln tho spr|ng ot 1000, l appoarod on tho 3outhorn Ca||torn|a lll att|||ato rad|o stat|on KlCC w|th 1oo ||rmago,
authorottho|mmodost|yt|t|odbook7bo 7totb.||rmago|sayoungmanbostknownasthotoundorandor|g|na|CEO
ottholntornotg|antU3Wob,acompanythonva|uodataround$8b||||on.Un||komostCEOauthors,howovor,||rmago
was not on a book tour to tout h|s poar|s ot w|sdom tor construct|ng a 3|||con va||oy poworhouso, rathor, ||rmago
wantodtota|kaboutbu||d|ngapoworhousootad|ttorontsort,onothatcancarryhumanstothostars.andboyond.
1
Whorodoosa3|||conva||oylntornotphonomgot|nsp|rat|ontorsuchanundortak|ng?ltbogan|nthooar|ymorn|ng
hoursotata||day|n1007,whon||rmagowasawakonodtosoo,|nh|swords,aromarkab|obo|ng,c|othod|nbr||||ant
wh|to||ghthovor|ngovormybod.'1h|sa||onbo|ngspokoto||rmago,ask|ngh|mWhyhavoyouca||odmohoro?'
||rmagorop||od,lwanttotravo||nspaco.'1hoa||onwondorodwhysuchaw|shshou|dbograntod.3ocausol'm
w||||ng to d|o tor |t,' ||rmago oxp|a|nod. lowtbot`sacomm|tmontanytormot|nto|||goncocou|dundorstand.Atth|s
po|nt,||rmagosays,outotthoa||onbo|ngomorgodano|octr|cb|uosphoro,justsma||orthanabaskotba||..lt|otth|s
body, t|oatod down and ontorod mo. lnstant|y l was ovorcomo by tho most un|mag|nab|o ocstasy l havo ovor
oxpor|oncod,ap|oasurovast|yboyondorgasm..3omoth|nghadboong|vontomo.'
2
|ow powortu| |s such an oxpor|onco to chango tho courso ot a porson's ||to? ||rmago prompt|y announcod h|s
ros|gnat|ontromh|sb||||on-do||arcompanyandwontoutandtoundodtholntornat|ona|3paco3c|oncosOrgan|zat|on,
wh|chaccord|ngto|tsWobpagosookstoadvancohumanundorstand|ngotthotundamonta|naturoandtunct|onsot
mattorandonorgy,y|o|d|ngbroakthroughs|npropu|s|on,onorgygonorat|on,and||ko|yadooporapproc|at|ontortho
phys|ca|procossosundor|y|ngconsc|ousnoss.'
8
lowtbot|satostamont(||tora||y)tothopoworotbo||ot.
||rmagosott|ngorstokoyboardandcrankodoutanamb|t|ous244-pagomanuscr|pt.|ot|t|od|t7bo 7totb,s|nco|t
|nc|udosh|sgoa|otconv|nc|ngthosc|ont|t|costab||shmont'otthoroa||tyotU|Osandsuchadvancodtochno|og|os
aszoro-po|ntonorgytromthovacuumotspaco,propo||ant|osspropu|s|on'andgrav|tat|ona|propu|s|on'torgroator-
than-||ght'travo|,vacuumt|uctuat|ons'toa|torgrav|tat|ona|and|nort|a|massos,'andothortormsota|tornat|vospaco
propu|s|on systoms.
4
ln tact, says ||rmago, tor thousands ot yoars wo humans havo boon nudgod' a|ong our
tochno|og|ca| trajoctory by por|od|c contact w|th advancod toachors' w||||ng to sharo tho|r know|odgo w|th us, tho
|atostbo|ng|n1047atloswo||,lowVox|co.Ashowaxospoot|c|nh|sbook:
7oocbots bovo toogbt os
tbtoogb tbo ogos.
7boy oto wotcblog os oow.
7bo Cosmos ls tbolt ocooo
ooo tboy bovo booo mlooo|
o oot oooo to oovo|op.
5
1ooncouragoturthora||oncontactandtochno|og|ca|dovo|opmont,||rmago|nvostod$8m||||on|ntothotound|ngot
lrojoctKa|ros(Grooktoropportunomomont')toproparohuman|tytortuturocontacts.lmag|nothatonodayanow
c|ty|sconstructodsomowhoroonEarth,a'Un|vorsoC|ty',whoroaspacot|moport|sostab||shodasacontorpo|ntot
|ntoract|onamongEarth-dwo||orsandv|s|torstromo|sowhoro,'||rmagotantas|zos.
0
Whywou|dayoung,succosstu|CEOr|skh|sroputat|ononsomoth|ngth|stantast|c?'||rmagoaskodaroportor
rhotor|ca||y.3ocausolbo||ovosomuch|nth|sthoory.Andlam|naun|quopos|t|ontocommun|catoanoxtromo|y
|mportantmossago.lhavothomonoy,crod|b|||ty,sc|ont|t|cground|ngandta|th.'
7
loltb |s tho oporat|vo word horo. 1oo ||rmago |ovos sc|onco, but |t |s h|s ta|th that powors h|s bo||ots. ln
cons|dor|ngthonaturootthocosmosand||to,wosoomythos|sotbo||ot-dopondontroa||smthatbo||otscomot|rst
and roasons tor bo||ot como socond onco aga|n borno out |n ||rmago's oxp|anat|on that thoro |s ono concopt ot
wh|chlam|og|ca||yandtota||yconv|ncod-wh|chsc|oncohasuttor|yta||odtotoachmod|roct|y-butwh|chro||g|onhas
|ongho|dandsomowhatrat|ona||yoxp|a|nod|n|ts|ntorna|structuro:1horocanbonoquost|onthatthoCosmos|stho
productot|ntont.'lntont|on|mp||osagoncy,andanagont|sabo|ng,|nth|scasoabo|ngouts|doourwor|dwhog|vos
usmoan|ngandhopo:lt|s|nth|sconcoptot|ntondodcroat|on,orbo|ng,thatthoomot|votoo||ngotmoan|nghasa
92
p|acotord|scuss|onw|th|nthomochan|ca||awsotphys|cs.1hophys|ca||tyot|ntont|ona||owsthophys|c|st|nmoto
|ncorporatoanundorstand|ngotomot|on|ntotho|awsthatgovornthoun|vorso.'
8
1hophys|ca||tyot|ntont|on.1h|s|sthovoryombod|montotagont|c|ty.
lntorost|ng|y, ||rmago was ra|sod Vormon, and ono ot tho tundamonta| bo||ots ot tho Vormon church |s that |ts
toundor,1osoph3m|th,wascontactodbythoango|Voron|,whod|roctodh|mtothosacrodgo|dontab|otstromwh|ch
tho3ookotVormonwaswr|tton.ln7bo 7totb,||rmagooxp|a|nsthatthorovo|at|onwasroco|vodbyamannamod
1osoph3m|th,whosodoscr|pt|onsotoncountorsw|thbr||||ant,wh|to-c|othodbo|ngsaroa|most|nd|st|ngu|shab|otrom
manymodorn-dayaccountsott|rst-handoncountorsw|th'v|s|tors.''
0
3o,1osoph3m|thhadac|osooncountorottho
th|rdk|nd.Andaccord|ngto||rmago,3m|thwasbynomoansthot|rst.E|ghtooncontur|osoar||or,3t.1ohntho0|v|no
roco|vodh|srovo|at|on'tromwh|chtho|astbook|ntho3|b|owaswr|tton,andshort|ybotorothata1ow|shcarpontor
tromlazarothoncountorodan|ntont|ona|agontotthoh|ghostordor.3otoro1osusthorowasVososandthoburn|ng
bush,whospokotoh|maslamwholam.'|romVososto1osusto3t.1ohntho0|v|noto1osoph3m|thto1osoph
||rmago-anunbrokon||noagootmorta|humanstouchodbya||onagonts.
AIion Agonticity
Ovorthoyoarslhavoappoarodonnumorousto|ov|s|onshowsw|tha||onabductoos.lhavo||tt|odoubtthatmostot
thom aro gonu|no |n tho|r rocount|ng ot tho omot|ona| trauma ot tho oxpor|onco ot bo|ng abductod. Ono ot thoso
abductooswasWh|t|oy3tr|obor,authorotthospoctacu|ar|ybost-so|||ngaccountoth|sabduct|on,Commooloo,wh|ch
hasbocomothob|b|ootthoa||onabduct|oncommun|ty.lmot3tr|obor|nthogroonroomat3|||Vahor'sto|ov|s|on
sor|osPo|ltlco||y locottoct. Wh||o wo woro chatt|ng botoro tho tap|ng ot tho show bogan, l askod h|m what ho d|d
whonhowasn'twr|t|ngaboutbo|ngabductodbya||ons.|oto|dmothathowr|tossc|oncot|ct|on,tantasy,andhorror
novo|s.Otcourso!'lthoughttomyso|t.|oo|thormado|ta||uportantas|zod|t|nh|scroat|vo|mag|nat|on.'
1hokoywordhoro|slmoglootloo.loop|oottonsoom|ncrodu|ousthatanyonocou|dconcoctsuchtantast|cstor|os
ota||ononcountors,|mp|y|ngthatthoymustthorotorohavosomomoasurootvor|s|m|||tudo.lntact,poop|omakoup
suchoncountorsovoryday.1hoy'roca||odsc|oncot|ct|onandtantasywr|tors.Cons|dorthoa|tornat|vowor|dsot|arry
lottor,7bo Loto o tbo Rlogs, 5tot ots, 5tot 7tok, Avotot, and tho rost. Wo havo tho tantast|c ab|||ty to projoct
ourso|vos|ntoothorwor|dsotmako-bo||ovo,andtho||nobotwoonconsc|oust|ct|onandsubconsc|ous|mag|n|ng|sa
t|noono.loa||tyandtantasymayb|ur|nthorocossosotthom|ndandcomotothotorotrontundorcorta|ncond|t|ons,
suchashypnos|sands|oop.
lypoosls. Vany ot thoso abduct|on oxpor|oncos aro romomborod' yoars or docados attor tho tact through a
tochn|quoca||odbypootlc togtossloo,|nwh|chasubjoct|shypnot|zodandaskodto|mag|norogross|ngback|nt|mo
to rotr|ovo a momory trom tho past, and thon p|ay |t back on tho |mag|nary scroon ot tho m|nd, as |t thoro's a
d|m|nut|vohomuncu|uss|tt|ng|ns|doa||tt|othoator|nthohoadroport|ngtothobra|n'sd|roctorwhatho|ssoo|ng.1h|s
|snotata||howmomoryworks.1homotaphorotmomoryasav|dootapo-p|aybacksystom|scomp|oto|ywrong.1horo
|s no rocord|ng dov|co |n tho bra|n. Vomor|os aro tormod as part ot tho assoc|at|on |oarn|ng systom ot mak|ng
connoct|onsbotwoonth|ngsandovonts|nthoonv|ronmont,andropot|t|voassoc|at|onsbotwoonthomgonoratonow
dondr|t|c and synapt|c connoct|ons botwoon nourons, wh|ch aro thon strongthonod through add|t|ona| ropot|t|on or
woakonodthroughd|suso.Uso|tor|oso|t.
0oyouromomboryourtonthb|rthday,ordoyouromomboryourmothor'smomoryotyourtonthb|rthdaythatsho
roca||odtoryouwhonyouworot|ttoon,or|s|tthophotographsotyourtonthb|rthdaythatyourov|owodwhonyouworo
twonty? lt |s ||ko|y a|| ot tho abovo, and much moro. 3o, whon an a||on abductoo |s rocovor|ng' a momory ot an
abduct|on oxpor|onco, what |s actua||y bo|ng rocovorod?Ana|ys|s ot hypnot|c rogross|on tapos usod by abduct|on
thorap|sts'whoomp|oyhypnos|sshowsthatthoyask|oad|ngquost|onsandconstruct|mag|narysconar|osthrough
wh|ch tho|r subjocts may concoct an ont|ro|y art|t|c|a| ovont ot somoth|ng that novor happonod.
10
ln tact, momory
contam|nat|on through suggost|vo quost|on|ng by tho hypnot|st and by tho |mag|nat|on ot tho hypnot|zod porson |s
whathapponod|nthod|sastrousrocovorodmomorymovomont'ottho1000sthatrosu|tod|ndozonsottathorsbo|ng
conv|ctod ot ch||d mo|ostat|on basod on noth|ng moro than adu|t womon's rocovorod momor|os' p|antod by
thorap|sts.
5|oop ooomo|los.Abduct|onoxpor|oncosthataronotgonoratodthroughhypnot|crogross|ontyp|ca||yoccur|atoat
n|ght or oar|y |n tho morn|ng dur|ng s|oop cyc|os that strong|y rosomb|obypoogoglc (just attor ta|||ng as|oop) and
bypoopomplc(justbotorowak|ngup)ha||uc|nat|ons,andappoartoboro|atodto|uc|ddroamsands|oop poto|ysls,
wh|chhavoboonwo||documontodamongsubjocts|noxpor|montsandpat|onts|ns|oop|absandconta|nmostottho
componontsotthoabduct|onoxpor|onco.|ypnagog|candhypnopomp|cha||uc|nat|onsoccur|nthotuzzybordor|ands
botwoonwakotu|nossands|oop,whonourconsc|ousbra|ns||ps|ntounconsc|ousnossaswota||as|oop,ortrans|t|ons
93
|nto wakotu|noss trom s|oop. loa||ty and tantasy b|ur. Vu|t|p|o sonsory moda||t|os may bo |nvo|vod, |nc|ud|ng and
ospoc|a||y soo|ng and hoar|ng th|ngs that aro not actua||y thoro, such as spock|os, ||nos, goomotr|ca| pattorns, or
roprosontat|ona||magos.3uchha||uc|natory|magosmaybo|nb|ackandwh|toor|nco|or,st|||ormov|ng,t|ator8-0,
and somot|mos ovon |nc|udo tho sp|ra||ng tunno|s roportod by poop|o who havo out-ot-body and noar-doath
oxpor|oncos.
Aud|tory compononts aro a|so somot|mos part ot tho ha||uc|natory oxpor|onco, such as hoar|ng your own namo
ca||odout,thosoundotadoorbo||orrapp|ngsoundonthodoor,andovontragmontsotspoochtromothors|mag|nod
tobo|nthoroom.A |oclo otoom|sstrongorst|||.1h|s|sadroam|nwh|chthos|oop|ngporson|sawarothathoorsho
|sas|oopanddroam|ng,butcanpart|c|pato|nanda|torthodroam|tso|t.5|oop poto|ysls|satypoot|uc|ddroam|n
wh|chthodroamor,awarootthodroam,a|sosonsospara|ys|s,prossuroonchost,prosoncootabo|ng|nthoroom,
t|oat|ng, t|y|ng, ta|||ng, or |oav|ng ono's body, w|th an omot|ona| componont that |nc|udos an o|omont ot torror, but
somot|mos a|so oxc|tomont, oxh||arat|on, rapturo, or ocstasy. lsycho|og|st 1. A||an Choyno has documontod
thousandsotcasosots|ooppara|ys|sandbo||ovosthatthoyaroassoc|atodw|ththotompora||obosaswo||astho
par|ota||obos,wh|charoassoc|atodw|thhowthobra|nor|ontsthobody|nspaco.
11
3ovora| contur|os ago, tho Eng||sh rotorrod to n|ghtt|mo sonsat|ons ot chost prossuro trom w|tchos or othor
supornatura|bo|ngsasthomaro,'tromAng|o-3axonmottoo,ortocrush.'3oaolgbtmotowasbo||ovodtoroprosont
a crushor who comos |n tho n|ght. 3|nco thoy ||vod |n a domon-hauntod wor|d, thoy ca||od thoso crushorsoomoos.
3|nco wo ||vo |n an a||on-hauntod wor|d, wo ca|| thomo|loos. Your cu|turo d|ctatos what |abo|s to ass|gn thoso
anoma|ousbra|noxpor|oncos.
1hopoworotthosobo||ots|sunm|stakab|oandthooxpor|oncocan|oadtoacond|t|ons|m||artopost-traumat|c
strossd|sordor(l130),atactdomonstratodby|arvardUn|vors|typsycho|og|stsl|chard1.Vcla||yand3usanA.
C|ancy|na2004paporont|t|odlsychophys|o|og|ca|lospond|ng0ur|ng3cr|pt-0r|vonlmagory|nloop|oloport|ng
Abduct|onby3pacoA||ons.'Vcla||y,C|ancy,andtho|rco||oaguosmoasurodhoartrato,sk|nconductanco,andbra|n
wavoact|v|tyotpoop|owhoc|a|modtohavoboonabductodbya||ons,asthoyro||vodtho|roxpor|oncosthroughscr|pt-
dr|von |magory. lo|at|vo to contro| part|c|pants,' tho authors conc|udod, abductoos oxh|b|tod groator
psychophys|o|og|ca|roact|v|tytoabduct|onandstrosstu|scr|ptsthantopos|t|voandnoutra|scr|pts.'
12
1hat|s,somo
tantas|os aro |nd|st|ngu|shab|o trom roa||ty and thoy can bo just as traumat|c. Vcla||y notod |n h|s 2008 book,
Romombotlog 7toomo, 1ho tact that poop|o who bo||ovo thoy havo boon abductod by spaco a||ons rospond ||ko
l130pat|ontstoaud|otapodscr|ptsdoscr|b|ngtho|ra||ogodabduct|ons,undorscorosthopoworotbo||ottodr|voa
phys|o|ogycons|stontw|thactua|traumat|coxpor|onco.'
18
lnadd|t|on,Vcla||ytoundthatabductoosworomuchmoro
prono to oxh|b|t ta|so roca|| and ta|so rocogn|t|on |n tho |aboratory than woro contro| subjocts' and thoy scorod
s|gn|t|cant|yh|ghorthannorma|onaquost|onna|romoasur|ngabsorpt|on,'atra|tro|atodtotantasyprononossthat
a|soprod|ctsta|soroca||.
1ho v|v|dnoss ot a traumat|c momory cannot bo takon as ov|donco ot |ts authont|c|ty, an ottoct subsoquont|y
documontod by 3usan C|ancy |n hor to||ow-up 200b book-|ongth study ot tho phonomonon,Abooctoo, not|ng that
abduct|onbo||otsprov|dothosamoth|ngsthatm||||onsotpoop|othowor|dovordor|votromtho|rro||g|ons:moan|ng,
roassuranco,myst|ca|rovo|at|on,sp|r|tua||ty,transtormat|on.'
14
lospocttu||yd|sagroo|ngw|thCar|3agan,whoarguod
thatbo||ot|npsoudosc|oncowasd|roct|yproport|ona|tom|sundorstand|ngotsc|onco,C|ancyconc|udodhorstudyby
not|ng:
1hoabductoostaughtmothatpoop|ogothrough||totry|ngonbo||otsystomstors|zo.3omootthosobo||otsystomsspoaktopowortu|
omot|ona|noodsthathavo||tt|otodow|thsc|onco-thonoodtotoo||ossa|ono|nthowor|d,thodos|rotohavospoc|a|poworsor
ab|||t|os,tho|ong|ngtoknowthatthoro|ssomoth|ngoutthoro,somoth|ngmoro|mportantthanyouthat'swatch|ngovoryou.3o||ot|n
a||onabduct|on|snotjustbadsc|onco.lt'snotjustanoxp|anat|ontorm|stortunoandawaytoavo|dtak|ngrospons|b|||tytorporsona|
prob|oms.|ormanypoop|o,bo||ot|na||onabduct|ongrat|t|ossp|r|tua|hungors.ltroassurosthomabouttho|rp|aco|nthoun|vorso
andtho|rowns|gn|t|canco.
1b
l havo otton rocountod my own a||on abduct|on oxpor|onco that happonod |n tho 1088 b|cyc|o laco Across
Amor|cawh||olwastravors|nglobraska.lhaddoc|dodthatlhads|opttoomuch|ntho1082racoandlwascur|ous
tosoohowtarlcou|dr|do|ntho1088ovontw|thoutstopp|ngtors|oop.lmado|t1,2b0m||os|no|ghty-throohours,to
thooutsk|rtsotat|nytownca||od|a|g|or.lwass|oop||ywoav|ngdownthoroadwhonmysupportmotorhomot|ashod
|tsbr|ghtsandpu||oda|ongs|dowh||omycrowontroatodmototakoas|oopbroak.Atthatmomont,ad|stantmomory
ot tho 1000s to|ov|s|on sor|os7bo lovooots was |ncu|catod |nto my wak|ng droam. ln that 1v sor|os, a||on bo|ngs
worotak|ngovorthooarthbyrop||cat|ngactua|poop|obut,|noxp||cab|y,thoyoachrota|nodast|tt||tt|ot|ngor.3uddon|y
my support toam was transmogr|t|od |nto a||ons. l starod |ntonso|y at tho|r t|ngors, gr|||od my mochan|c on b|ko
tochno|ogy,and|ntorrogatodmyg|r|tr|ondon|nt|mac|osthata||onscou|dnotposs|b|yknow(cou|dthoy?).1horo,on
94
thos|dootthoroad|nthom|dd|ootthon|ght,|ntu||cyc||ngroga||aw|thmyb|kot|rm|ybotwoonmy|ogstoraqu|ck
gotaway,larguodw|ththoa||ons,try|ngtoavo|dbo|ngabductod|ntothomothorcratthovor|ngnoarby.lt|na||yro|ontod
andwont|ns|do,on|ytod|scovorthattho|ntor|orotthoU|O|ookodromarkab|y||koaGVCmotorhomo,sol|aydown
torthoprovorb|a|oxam|nat|onprobo.l|notym|nutos|ator,attorarotrosh|ngs|oopbroak(andthanktu||ynoprobos),l
wasbackonthob|kocru|s|ngdownthoh|ghwaym||d|yamusodbywhathadjusthapponod.Whonthosuncamoupl
hadagood|aughabout|tw|thmysupportcrow,andthatovon|nglrocountodthoha||uc|nat|ontothoA3C loo ot|o
o 5pottscamoracrow,wh|chcanbov|owodonYou1ubo.
10
1hobottom||no|sth|s:stor|osotU|Osanda||onabduct|onsarotarmoro||ko|ytoboduotoknownpsycho|og|ca|
ottoctsottorrostr|a|bo|ngsrathorthantothounknownphys|ca|charactor|st|csotoxtratorrostr|a|bo|ngs.
17
Aro Wo AIono in tho univorao?
Arowoa|ono|nthoun|vorso?lt|sa|og|t|matoquost|on|rrospoct|voothowbo||otsystomsoporato,andatth|spo|nt
sc|onco ottors us an unamb|guous|y amb|guous answor: wo do not know. 1ho answor st||| o|udos us bocauso no
contacthasyotboonmado.Whynot?Who|obookshavoboonwr|ttontoansworthoquost|on,
18
andthoroaroat|oast
t|ttyansworstowhat|sknownas|orm|'sparadox-assum|ngthoCoporn|canpr|nc|p|othatwoaronotspoc|a|,thoro
shou|dbo|otsotE1lsoutthoro,and|tsothonat|oastsomootthomwou|dhavot|gurodoutso|t-rop||cat|ngrobot|c
spacocrattand/orpract|ca||ntorsto||arspacotravo|thomso|vos,andassum|ngthatat|oastsomootthosowou|dbo
m||||onsotyoarsahoadotusonanovo|ut|onaryt|mosca|o,tho|rtochno|og|oswou|dboadvancodonoughtohavo
toundusbynow,butthoyhavon't,so.whoroarothoy?
10
|oro|smy1w|ttor-s|zodanswor(140charactors):E7ls oto
ptobob|y oot tboto bot tboy bovo oot booo boto bocooso o tbo vost lototsto||ot olstoocos ooo tbolt oxttomo totlty.
Koop sootcblog!
1ho 3oarch tor Extratorrostr|a| lnto|||gonco (3E1l) |s a prob|om |n pattorn|c|ty and try|ng to d|scorn a moan|ngtu|
pattornotacommun|cat|ons|gna|tromthobackgroundno|sootspaco.3E1lsc|ont|stshavoworkodoutsystomat|c
a|gor|thms and r|gorous standards tor what wou|d const|tuto a |og|t|mato s|gna|, a procoss that was s|mp||t|od
ottoct|vo|ybyCar|3agan|nCootoct,whorothoE1lsroasonodthatsond|ngasoquoncootpr|monumborswou|dbo
d|st|ngu|shab|otrom,say,thos|gna|sproducodbyrotat|ngnoutronstars.1odato,nosuchs|gna|hasboondotoctod,
and 3E1l sc|ont|sts cont|nuo to |mprovo tho tochno|og|os to broadon tho spoctrum ot o|octromagnot|c onorgy trom
wh|chthoycansoarchthosk|os,a|ongw|ththonumborotposs|b|ostarsystomsthatcanboscannodatanyonot|mo.
lt |s tru|y a nood|o-|n-a-haystack prob|om, w|th a coup|o ot hundrod b||||on stars |n our ga|axy a|ono bogg||ng tho
tochno|og|ca|m|ndsthatdothosoarch|ng.
WiII E1 Look Anything Liko ua?
Ono aspoct ot a||on agont|c|ty that has a|ways bothorod mo |s tho dop|ct|on ot E1 as a b|poda| pr|mato w|th vory
human||kocharactor|st|cs.Whatarothochancosotthathappon|ngonsomoothorp|anot?Otthohundrodsotm||||ons
(porhapsb||||ons)otspoc|osthatovo|vodhoroonourp|anot,on|yono||noagoovo|vod|ntob|poda|pr|matos,andon|y
onosubspoc|osotthat||noagohassurv|vodtoth|sday.ltwodooncountoroxtratorrostr|a||nto|||goncos,whatarotho
oddsthatthoyw|||boanyth|ngromoto|y||kous,much|osswhatarotyp|ca||yportrayodbya||onabductoosasb|poda|
pr|matosw|thbu|boushoads,|argoa|mond-shapodoyos,andsomognar|ystuttontho|rtorohoadsspoak|ngbrokon
Eng||shw|thapocu||araccont?1hooddsaronoth|gh-notovon|ow,lcontond.
lovortho|oss,lcou|dbowrong,andno|ossanovo|ut|onarythoor|stthanl|chard0awk|nshascha||ongodmoon
th|svorypo|ntattorthod|roctoroth|stoundat|onproducodashortYou1ubov|doootmo|na||ongarboxp|a|n|ngwhyl
th|nkthatthochancosaroc|osotozorothat|nto|||gontandtochn|ca||yadvancoda||onswou|dovo|votoboanyth|ng||ko
thoonoswosoo|nt||msandhoarabout|nabductooaccounts.
20
0awk|nswroto:
lwou|dagroow|th[3hormor||nbott|ngaga|nsta||onsbo|ngb|poda|pr|matosandlth|nkthopo|nt|sworthmak|ng,butlth|nkho
groat|yovorost|matosthooddsaga|nst.[Un|vors|tyotCambr|dgopa|oonto|og|st|3|monConway-Vorr|s,whosoauthor|ty|snottobo
d|sm|ssod, th|nks |t pos|t|vo|y ||ko|y that a||ons wou|d bo, |n ottoct, b|poda| pr|matos. [|arvard Un|vors|ty ovo|ut|onary b|o|og|st| Ed
W||songavoat|oastsomot|motothospocu|at|onthat,|t|thadnotboontorthoond-Crotacoouscatastropho,d|nosaursm|ghthavo
producodsomoth|ng||kothoattachod.
95
Figuro 8. A BiodaI Dinoaaur aa AIion E1
lnarorunotthoh|storyot||toonoarth,|td|nosaurshadsurv|vodm|ghtsomootthombocomob|poda|too|usors?
la|oonto|og|st0a|oA.lusso||spocu|atodasmuch|naprojoct|onothowab|poda|d|nosaurm|ghthavoovo|vod
|nto a ropt|||an humano|d, rondorod horo by Vatt Co|||ns, attor lusso||'s or|g|na| |||ustrat|on |n0. A. lU33Ell Al0 l.
3EGUll, RECON57RUC7lON5 Ol 7lE 5VALL CRE7ACEOU5 7lEROPOL 31ElOlYC|O3AUlU3 llEOUAll3ANL A lYPO7lE7lCAL LlNO5AUROlL, lA1lOlAl VU3EUV3 O|
CAlA0A,lA1lOlAlVU3EUVO|lA1UlAl3ClElCE3,1082.
lrop||odto0awk|nsa|ongtho||nosabovo-that|tsomoth|ng||koasmart,tochno|og|ca|,b|poda|hom|no|dhasa
corta|n |ovo| ot |nov|tab|||ty bocauso ot how ovo|ut|on unto|ds, thon |t shou|d havo happonod moro than onco horo.
0awk|ns'srojo|ndortomo|son||ghton|ng:
3utyouaro|oap|ngtromonooxtromotothoothor.lnthot||mv|gnotto,you|mp||odaqu|tostaggor|ngrar|ty,sorarothatyoudon'toxpoct
twohumano|d||totorms|nthoont|roun|vorso.lowyouarota|k|ngaboutacorta|n|nov|tab|||ty,'andpo|nt|ngout,corroct|y,thata
corta|n|nov|tab|||tywou|dprod|ctthathumano|dsshou|dhavoovo|vodmorothanoncoonEarth!3oyos,wocansaythathumano|ds
aroolt|y|mprobab|o,butnotnocossar||ya||tbot|mprobab|o!Anyth|ngapproach|ngacorta|n|nov|tab|||ty'wou|dmoanm||||onsor
ovonb||||onsothumano|d||totorms|nthoun|vorso,s|mp|ybocausothonumborotava||ab|op|anots|ssohugo.low,myguoss|s
|ntormod|atobotwoonyourtwooxtromos.lagroow|thyouthathumano|dsaroraro,that|s|ndoodsuggostodbythotactthatthoyhavo
on|yovo|vodoncoonEarth.3utlsuspoctthathumano|dsaronotsovoryraroastojust|tythostat|st|ca|supor|at|vosthatyouporm|ttod
yourso|t|nthov|gnotto.
21
Goodpo|nt.3utthoprob|omtorboth0awk|nsandmyso|t|sourchauv|n|sm.AsCar|3agan||kodtosay,woaro
carbon chauv|n|sts. 3ut wo aro a|so oxygon chauv|n|sts, tomporaturo chauv|n|sts, vortobrato chauv|n|sts, mamma|
chauv|n|sts,pr|matochauv|n|sts,andmanyothors.1hochauv|n|smthatE1lsw|||commun|catov|arad|os|gna|s,that
tho|r|nto|||goncow|||takoatorms|m||artoours,andospoc|a||ythatthoyarosoc|a|bo|ngswho||vo|nc|v|||zat|ons,aro
anthropomorph|sms that havo no bas|s whatsoovor |n roa||ty. Wo cannot ovon commun|cato w|th torrostr|a|
|nto|||goncossuchasaposanddo|ph|ns,sowhathubr|sotustoth|nkthatwow|||boab|otodocodothocommun|quos
otanE1lm||||onsotyoarsoursupor|or.
|orolstrong|ysuspoctthatwoarob||ndodbywhatlca||Ptotogotos`s blos-Van|sthomoasuroota||th|ngs'-
whonwoprojoctourso|vos|ntothoa||onOthor.Cons|dorloandortha|sbycompar|son.ltpr|mato|nto|||gonco|sso
vauntod,whyd|dthoynotsurv|vo?
NoandorthaIa aa E1a
loandortha|ssp||totttromthocommonancostorsharodw|thusbotwoon000,000andbb0,000yoarsago,andthoy
arr|vod|nEuropoat|oast242,000(andporhaps800,000)yoarsago,g|v|ngthomtrooro|nthorotoraquartorota
m||||onyoars.1hoyhadacran|a|capac|tyjustas|argoasours(rang|ngtrom1,24bto1,740cc,w|thanavoragoot
1,b20cccomparodtoouravoragoot1,b00cc),worophys|ca||ymororobustthanusw|thbarro|chostsandhoavy
musc|os, and thoy sportod a roasonab|y comp|ox too|k|t ot about s|xty d|ttoront too|s. On papor |t corta|n|y sooms
roasonab|otoarguothatloandortha|shadagoodshotatbocom|ngus,'|nthosonsootatochno|og|ca||yadvancod
|nto|||gontspoc|oscapab|ootspacotravo|and|ntorsto||arcommun|cat|on.
3ut |t wo d|g doopor wo soo that thoro |s a|most no ov|donco that loandortha|s wou|d havo ovor advancod'
boyond whoro thoy woro whon thoy d|sappoarod 80,000 yoars ago. Evon though pa|ooanthropo|og|sts d|sagroo
aboutagroatmanyth|ngs,thoro|snoartota|agroomont|ntho||toraturothatloandortha|sworonotontho|rwayto
bocom|ngus.'1hoyworoportoct|ywo||-adaptodorgan|smstortho|ronv|ronmonts.
22
96
la|ooanthropo|og|stl|chardK|o|n,|nh|sauthor|tat|vowork7bo lomoo Cotoot,conc|udodthatthoarchoo|og|ca|
rocord shows that |n v|rtua||y ovory dotoctab|o aspoct-art|tacts, s|to mod|t|cat|on, ab|||ty to adapt to oxtromo
onv|ronmonts,subs|stonco,andsotorth-tholoandortha|sworobohav|ora||y|ntor|ortotho|rmodornsuccossors,and
to judgo trom tho|r d|st|nct|vo morpho|ogy, th|s bohav|ora| |ntor|or|ty may havo boon rootod |n tho|r b|o|og|ca|
makoup.'
28
loandortha|shadEuropotothomso|vostorat|oast2b0,000yoarsunrostra|nodbythoprosoncootothor
hom|n|ds,yottho|rtoo|sandcu|turoaronoton|ys|mp|orthanthosootlomo soploos, thoy show a|most no s|gn ot
chango at a||, |ot a|ono progross toward soc|a| g|oba||zat|on. la|ooanthropo|og|st l|chard loakoy notod that
loandortha|too|sroma|nodunchangodtormorothan200,000yoars-atochno|og|ca|stas|sthatsoomstodonytho
work|ngsotthotu||yhumanm|nd.On|ywhonthoUpporla|oo||th|ccu|turosburstontothoscono8b,000yoarsagod|d
|nnovat|onandarb|traryordorbocomoporvas|vo.'
24
l|kow|so,loandortha|artobjoctsarocomparat|vo|ycrudo,andthoro|smuchcontrovorsyovorwhothormanyot
thomworothoproductotnatura|causos|nstoadotart|t|c|a|man|pu|at|on.
2b
1homoststr|k|ngoxcopt|ontoth|s|stho
tamous loandortha| bono t|uto datod trom botwoon 40,000 to 80,000 yoars ago, wh|ch somo archaoo|og|sts
spocu|atomoansthatthomakorwasmus|ca|.Yotovonb|o|og|stChr|stophorW|||s,ararod|ssont|ngvo|cowhorojocts
tho |ntor|or|ty ot tho loandortha|s, adm|ttod that |t |s ont|ro|y poss|b|o that tho ho|os woro natura||y croatod by an
an|ma|gnaw|ngonthobono,notbysomola|oo||th|clanAndorson.AndovonthoughW|||sarguodlocont|mportant
d|scovor|ossuggostthattowardthoondottho|rcaroor,tholoandortha|sm|ghthavoprogrossodcons|dorab|y|ntho|r
tochno|ogy,'hohadtocontossthat|t|snotyotc|oarwhothorth|shapponodbocausootcontactw|ththoCro-Vagnons
andothormoroadvancodpoop|osorwhothorthoyaccomp||shodthosoadvancosw|thoutouts|doho|p.'
20
lrobab|ythomostdramat|cc|a|mtortholoandortha|s'human|ty'|sthobur|a|ottho|rdoad,wh|chotton|nc|udod
t|oworsstrownovorcarotu||y|a|d-outbod|os|ntota|pos|t|ons.lusodth|soxamp|o|nmybooklowo Bo|lovo,ontho
or|g|nsotro||g|on,
27
butnowrosoarch|scha||ong|ngth|s|ntorprotat|on.K|o|nnotodthatgravosmayhavoboondug
s|mp|ytoromovocorpsostromhab|tat|onaroas'andthat|ns|xtoonottwontyotthobostdocumontodbur|a|s|tostho
bod|osworot|ght|yt|oxod(|nnoartota|pos|t|on),wh|chcou|d|mp|yabur|a|r|tua|ors|mp|yados|rotod|gthosma||ost
poss|b|o bur|a| tronch.'
28
la|ooanthropo|og|st lan 1attorsa|| agrood: Evon tho occas|ona| loandortha| pract|co ot
bury|ngthodoadmayhavoboons|mp|yawayotd|scourag|nghyona|ncurs|ons|ntotho|r||v|ngspacos,orhavoa
s|m||armundanooxp|anat|on,torloandortha|bur|a|s|acktho'gravogoods'thatwou|dattosttor|tua|andbo||ot|nan
attor||to.'
20
Vuch has boon mado about tho poss|b|||ty ot loandortha| |anguago-that qu|ntossont|a| componont ot modorn
|nto|||gonco. 1h|s |s |ntoront|a| sc|onco at bost, s|nco sott bra|n t|ssuo and voca| box structuros do not toss|||zo.
lntoroncos can bo drawn trom tho hyo|d bono, wh|ch |s part ot tho voca| box structuro, as wo|| as tho shapo ot tho
bas|cran|um, or tho bottom ot tho sku||. 3ut tho d|scovory ot part ot an apparont loandortha| hyo|d bono |s
|nconc|us|vo,sa|d1attorsa||:|owovorthohyo|dargumontworksout,howovor,whonyouputthosku||-basoov|donco
togothorw|thwhatthoarchaoo|og|ca|rocordsuggostsaboutthocapac|t|osottholoandortha|sandtho|rprocursors,
|t'shardtoavo|dthoconc|us|onthatart|cu|ato|anguago,asworocogn|zo|ttoday,|sthoso|oprov|ncoottu||ymodorn
humans.'
80
Astorthocran|a|structuro,|nmamma|sthobottomotthocran|um|st|atbut|nhumans|t|sarchod(ro|atodtohow
h|gh up |n tho throat tho |arynx |s |ocatod). ln ancostra| hom|n|ds tho bas|cran|um shows no arch|ng |n
austra|op|thoc|nos,somo|nlomo otoctos,andovonmoro|narcha|clomo soploos.lnloandortha|s,howovor,tho
arch|ng |argo|y d|sappoars, ov|donco that doos not bodo wo|| tor thoor|os about loandortha| |anguago, as loakoy
conc|udod: 1udg|ng by tho|r bas|cran|a, tho loandortha|s had pooror vorba| sk|||s than othor archa|c sap|ons that
||vod sovora| hundrod thousands yoars oar||or. 3as|cran|a| t|ox|on |n loandortha|s was |oss advancod ovon than |n
lomo otoctos.'
81
loakoythonspocu|atod,countortactua||y,whatm|ghthavohapponodhadovonoar||orhom|n|dancostorssurv|vod:
lconjocturothat|t,bysomotroakotnaturo,popu|at|onsotlomo bobl|ls andlomo otoctosst|||ox|stod,wowou|d
soo|nthomgradat|onsotrotoront|a||anguago.1hogapbotwoonusandthorostotnaturowou|dthorotoroboc|osod,
byourownancostors.'
82
1hattroakotnaturo'|sthocont|ngoncy|nourt|mo||nothata||owodustosurv|vowh||ono
othor hom|n|ds d|d, and thus loakoy conc|udod, lomo soploos d|d ovontua||y ovo|vo as a doscondant ot tho t|rst
humans,butthorowasnoth|ng|nov|tab|oabout|t.'
88
lan1attorsa||a|soroasonod|nthocont|ngontmodo:ltyou'dboon
aroundatanyoar||orstagoothumanovo|ut|on,w|thsomoknow|odgootthopast,youm|ghthavoboonab|otoprod|ct
w|throasonab|oaccuracywhatm|ghtbocom|ngupnoxt.lomo soploos,howovor,|somphat|ca||ynotanorgan|sm
that doos what |ts prodocossors d|d, on|y a ||tt|o bottor, |t's somoth|ng vory-and potont|a||y vory dangorous|y-
d|ttoront.3omoth|ngoxtraord|nary,|ttota||ytortu|tous,happonodw|ththob|rthotourspoc|os.'
84
|adloandortha|swonandwo|ost,thoro|sovoryroasontobo||ovothatthoywou|dst|||bo||v|ng|na3tonoAgo
97
cu|turo ot hunt|ng, t|sh|ng, and gathor|ng, roam|ng tho h|ntor|ands ot Europo |n sma|| bands ot a coup|o ot dozon
|nd|v|dua|s,surv|v|ng|nawor|dw|thouttownsandc|t|os,w|thoutmus|candart,w|thoutsc|oncoandtochno|ogy.a
wor|dsod|ttoronttromourownthat|t|sa|most|nconco|vab|o.
Astorthogroataposormonkoyssuccood|nghadhumans,loandortha|s,andthorostotourhom|n|dancostors
gonooxt|nct,aposhavonovorshownany|nc||nat|ontowardprogross|vocu|tura|ovo|ut|on,nowor|nthotoss||rocord,
and monkoys pro||toratod throughoutAs|a and tho low Wor|d tor tons ot m||||ons ot yoars w|thout any |ntortoronco
tromhom|n|ds,yotthoyd|dn'ttakostoponotowarddovo|op|ngacomp|oxcu|turo.
1hotoss||rocord,wh||ost|||tragmontodanddosu|tory,|scomp|otoonoughnowtoshowusthatovorthopastth|rty
m||||onyoarswocanconsorvat|vo|yost|matothathundrodsotpr|matospoc|oshavo||vodouttho|r||vos|nthonooks
andcrann|osotra|ntorostsaroundthowor|d,ovorthopasttonm||||onyoarsdozonsotgroatapospoc|oshavotorgod
spoc|a||zod n|chos on tho p|anot, and ovor tho |ast s|x m||||on yoars-s|nco tho hom|n|d sp||t trom tho common
ancostor ot gor|||as, ch|mps, and orangutans-dozons ot b|poda|, too|-us|ng hom|n|d spoc|os havo strugg|od tor
surv|va|.ltthosohom|n|dsworoso|nov|tab|obytho|awsotovo|ut|onaryprogross,why|s|tthaton|yahandtu|otthoso
myr|adpong| dsandhom|n|dssurv|vod?ltbra|n|noss|ssuchaprod|ctab|oproductotthounto|d|ngpoworsotnaturo,
thon why has on|y ono hom|n|d spoc|os managod to surv|vo |ong onough to ask tho quost|on? What happonod to
thoso b|poda|, too|-us|ngAostto|opltbocloos: ooomoosls, ootoosls, otlcooos, ootbloplcos, tobostos, bolsol, and
gotbl? What happonod to thoso b|g-bra|nod cu|turo-gonorat|nglomos: bobl|ls, tooo|oosls, otgostot, otoctos,
boloo|botgoosls,andoooooottbo|oosls?ltb|gbra|nsarosogroat,whyd|da||butonoottho|rownorsgooxt|nct?
||stor|ca|oxpor|montattoroxpor|montrovoa|sthosamoanswor:woaroat|ukootnaturo,aqu|rkotovo|ut|on,a
g|or|ouscont|ngoncy.lt|stompt|ngtota|||ntothoo|dosttrapota||pattorn-sook|ng,storyto|||ngan|ma|s:wr|t|ngyourso|t
|nto tho story as tho contra| pattorn |n ordor to t|nd purposo and moan|ng |n th|s g|or|ous|y cont|ngont cosmos. 3ut
skopt|ca|a|armsshou|dto||whonovoranyonoc|a|msthatsc|oncohasd|scovorodthatourdoopostdos|rosando|dost
mythsarotruoattora||.ltthoro|san|nov|tab|||ty|nth|sstory,|t|sthatapurposo-sook|ngan|ma|w|||t|nd|tso|tastho
purposootnaturo.1hat|swhat||osatthovorycoroota||onagont|c|ty.
AIiona and Coda
A||ons as |ntont|ona| agonts ||nks tho bo||ot to ro||g|on and oquatos a||ons w|th gods. 1h|s connoct|on |s wo||
documontod by tho tochno|ogy h|stor|an Goorgo 3asa||a's |ntr|gu|ng bookClvl|lzoo Llo lo tbo Uolvotso. 3asa||a
obsorvos,1ho|doaotthosupor|or|tyotco|ost|a|bo|ngs|sno|thornownorsc|ont|t|c.lt|saw|dosproadando|dbo||ot
|nro||g|ousthought.Ar|stot|od|v|dodh|sun|vorso|ntotwod|st|nctrog|ons,thosupor|orco|ost|a|roa|mandtho|ntor|or
torrostr|a| roa|m.' 1ho |ncorporat|on ot Ar|stot|o |nto Chr|st|an thoo|ogy carr|od th|s bo||ot |nto tho V|dd|o Agos.
Chr|st|anspopu|atodthoco|ost|a|rog|onsw|thGod,thosa|nts,ango||cbo|ngsotvary|ngranks,andthosou|sottho
doad. 1hoso |mmorta| co|ost|a| bo|ngs woro supor|or to morta|s, who |nhab|tod tho |ntor|or torrostr|a| roa|m.' Evon
thoughthoCoporn|canrovo|ut|onovorturnodAr|stoto||ancosmo|ogy,thobo||otthatcroaturos||v|ngonad|stantp|anot
worosupor|ortothohumanspoc|os'hungon|ntothomodornago,andro||g|ouso|omontscont|nuotoadhorototho
porcopt|onotoxtratorrostr|a|||toovonaswostudy|t|nthotwonty-t|rstcontury.'
8b
ln2001,lconductodastudyonthop|onoorsot3E1l,mostotwhomworooncoro||g|ousbutbocamoo|thoratho|sts
or agnost|cs as adu|ts.
80
lad|o astronomor |rank 0rako-croator ot tho canon|ca| 0rako oquat|on'-was ra|sod
vorystrong3apt|st.3undayschoo|ovory3unday,'andmadoth|sobsorvat|on:Astrong|nt|uoncoonmo,andlth|nk
ona|otot3E1lpoop|o,wasthooxtons|vooxposurototundamonta||stro||g|on.Yout|ndwhonyouta|ktopoop|owho
havo boon act|vo |n 3E1l that thoro sooms to bo that throad. 1hoy woro o|thor oxposod or bombardod w|th
tundamonta||st ro||g|on. 3o to somo oxtont |t |s a roact|on to t|rm ro||g|ous upbr|ng|ng.'
87
ln h|s 1002 book on tho
subjoct,ls Aoyooo Oot 7boto, 0rako ovon suggostod that |mmorta||ty may bo qu|to common among
oxtratorrostr|a|s.'
88
Contactw|thE1lswou|damounttoatypootsocondcom|ngtormanypoop|o.3E1lp|onoorVo|v|n
Ca|v|nnotod:ltwou|dhavoamarkodottoct.lt'ssuchabroad,majorsubjoctotconcorntoovoryono,nomattorwhoro
thoyaro,thatlth|nkpoop|owou|d||ston.lt's||ko|ntroduc|nganowro||g|on,lsupposo,andhav|ng|tp|ckodupbya|ot
otpoop|o.'
Vany othor sc|ont|sts and sc|onco t|ct|on v|s|onar|os agroo. 1ho sc|ont|st and sc|onco t|ct|on wr|tor 0av|d 3r|n
suggostodthat3E1lcomb|nossor|ousandtar-roach|ngsc|oncow|thak|ndotgosh-wowzoa|thatsooms(att|mos)
tobordoronthomyst|ca|-porhapsasmuchro||g|ousasaproductotsc|oncoorsc|oncot|ct|on.lndood,tosomo,
contactw|thadvancoda||onc|v|||zat|onsmaycarrymuchthosamotranscondonta|orhopotu|s|gn|t|cancoasanymoro
trad|t|ona| not|on ot 'sa|vat|on trom abovo.''
80
ln a 2008 spooch at Ca|toch, tho sc|onco t|ct|on wr|tor oxtraord|na|ro
V|chao| Cr|chton op|nod that 3E1l |s unquost|onab|y a ro||g|on,' not|ng: |a|th |s dot|nod as tho t|rm bo||ot |n
somoth|ngtorwh|chthoro|snoproot.1hobo||otthatthoroaroothor||totorms|nthoun|vorso|samattorotta|th.1horo
98
|snotas|ng|oshrodotov|doncotoranyothor||totorms,and|ntortyyoarsotsoarch|ng,nonohasboond|scovorod.
1horo|sabso|uto|ynoov|dont|aryroasontoma|nta|nth|sbo||ot.'
40
Whatlammoroconcornodw|th|sthooxtonttowh|chthomodornsoarchtora||ons|s,atrock-bottom,partotan
anc|ont ro||g|ous quost,' tho astrob|o|og|st (and 3E1l consu|tant) lau| 0av|os wroto |n h|s 100b book,Ato o
A|ooo
41
||ttoonyoars|ator,w|ththosk|osst|||qu|ot,0av|osnotod|n7bo Eotlo 5l|oocothataprojoctw|ththoscopo
and protund|ty ot 3E1l cannot bo d|vorcod trom th|s w|dor cu|tura| contoxt, tor |t too ottors us tho v|s|on ot a wor|d
transtormod,andho|dsthocompo|||ngprom|sothatth|scou|dhapponanydaysoon.'
42
EvonCar|3agan,thosc|ont|st
morooquatodw|tha||onsthananyonobotoroors|nco,andwhowasoqua||ynotor|oustorh|sro||g|ousskopt|c|sm,
novortho|osssa|dot3E1l's|mportanco:lttouchosdoop|y|ntomyth,to|k|oro,ro||g|on,mytho|ogy,andovoryhuman
cu|turo|nsomowayoranothorhaswondorodaboutthattypootquost|on.'
48
|oovonsoom|ng|ywrotothodo|tyback
|ntothocosmosthroughthooxtratorrostr|a||nto|||goncos|nCootoct,whonh|shoro|noE|||od|scovorsthatp|-thorat|o
ot tho c|rcumtoronco ot a c|rc|o to |ts d|amotor-|s numor|ca||y oncodod |n tho cosmos, prov|d|ng proot that a
supor|nto|||goncodos|gnodthoun|vorso:
1houn|vorsowasmadoonpurposo,thoc|rc|osa|d.lnwhatovorga|axyyouhappontot|ndyourso|t,youtakothoc|rcumtoroncoota
c|rc|o,d|v|do|tby|tsd|amotor,moasuroc|oso|yonough,anduncovoram|rac|o-anothorc|rc|o,drawnk||omotorsdownstroamottho
doc|ma|po|nt.lnthotabr|cotspacoand|nthonaturootmattor,as|nagroatworkotart,thoro|s,wr|ttonsma||,thoart|st'ss|gnaturo.
3tand|ngovorhumans,gods,anddomons,subsum|ngCarotakorsand1unno|bu||dors,thoro|san|nto|||goncothatantodatostho
un|vorso.
44
Whyshou|dsomanypoop|o-tho|stsandatho|sts,thoo|og|ansandsc|ont|sts-bo||ovo|nthoox|stoncootsupor|or
co|ost|a|bo|ngs?3asa||ac|todthoworkotpsycho|og|stlobortl|ank,whosuggoststhathumanshavoanomot|ona|
nood to bo||ovo |n |mag|nary bo|ngs.
4b
0osp|to a|| tho|r sc|ont|t|c trapp|ngs,' 3asa||a wroto, tho oxtratorrostr|a|s
d|scussodbysc|ont|stsaroas|mag|naryasthosp|r|tsandgodsotro||g|onormyth.'
40
lnh|smag|stor|a|two-vo|umo
h|story ot tho concopt|on ot oxtratorrostr|a| |nto|||goncos,P|oto|lty o ot|os and7bo Blo|oglco| Uolvotso, sc|onco
h|stor|an3tovon0|ckpos|todthatwhontholowton|anmochan|ca|un|vorsod|sp|acodthosp|r|tua|wor|dotthoV|dd|o
Agos,|t|ottavastand||to|ossvo|d,wh|chwast|||odbymodornsc|oncow|thE1ls.
47
3usanC|ancyconc|udodhorstudy
ota||onabductoossomowhatw|sttu||y,w|sh|ngshocou|dbo||ovo|nsuchtranscondontbo|ngs:
A||on-abduct|onbo||otscanbocons|dorodatypootro||g|ouscrood,basodonta|th,nottacts.lndood,avastbodyotsc|ont|t|cdata
|nd|catosthatthobo||ovorsaropsycho|og|ca||ybonot|t|ng:thoy'rohapp|or,hoa|th|or,andmoroopt|m|st|cabouttho|r||vosthanpoop|o
who|acksuchbo||ots.Wo||vo|nanagowhonsc|oncoandtochno|ogyprova||andtrad|t|ona|ro||g|onsaroundort|ro.0oosn't|tmako
sonsotowrapourango|sandgods|nspacosu|tsandropackagothomasa||ons?
48
E7ls oto soco|ot goos-ooltlos ot otbolsts.
1ho |ndotat|gab|o E1l soarchor 1||| 1artor, who brooks no s|opp|noss or sont|monta||ty |n hor r|gorous rosoarch
program,|nrosponsotomy|n|t|a|suggost|on|na5cloocorov|owossaythatE1lsarosocu|argods,
40
oxprossodhor
contompt at such a charactor|zat|on. 3ho corroct|y notod that phys|cs, not ta|th, d|ctatos that any succosstu| 3E1l
dotoct|onw|||bow|tha|ong-||vodtochno|ogy(andporhapsthotochno|og|stswho|nvontod|t),'andthatwoworkon
thosoarchbocausowowanttoknowthoanswortoavoryo|dquost|on,popu|ar|yphrasodas'arowoa|ono?''1hat's
truo.Whydoos1|||1artorsoarchthosk|ostoras|gn?
lsoarchbocausol'mcur|ous,nottot|ndsomodo|ty,socu|arorothorw|so!ldonotknowthoanswortoth|so|dquost|on,butlamas
oxc|todaboutus|ngwhatovortoo|saroava||ab|ototrytot|ndthoansworaslamoxc|todaboutthoposs|b|||tyotus|ngothortoo|sto
undorstandthonaturootdarkmattor,orthostatootdarkonorgy,orwhothorg|antp|anotstormbyaggrogat|onorrunawaygrav|tat|ona|
|nstab|||ty.A||aroportoct|yva||dsc|ont|t|cquost|onstoaskaboutthoun|vorso|nwh|chwot|ndourso|vos.lovortho|oss,3asa||aand
yous||ngyouraccusat|onsotspoc|a|ro||g|ousmot|vat|onsatmoandmyco||oaguosand|otthocosmo|og|sts(andtho|rpub||shors),
whopopportho|rbookt|t|osw|ththoGod'word,ottthohook.
b0
|a|ronough.And|otmoaddthatldonot|nanywayoquato3E1lsc|ont|stsw|tha||onabductoosandt|y|ngsaucor
soarchors. 3E1l |s sc|onco, U|O|ogy |s psoudosc|onco. 3E1l |s o||t|st, U|O|ogy |s popu||st. 3E1l |s dom|natod by
lh.0. astronomors, phys|c|sts, and mathomat|c|ans, U|O|ogy |s prodom|nant|y tho doma|n ot noncrodont|a|od
amatours. 3E1l assumos tho nu|| hypothos|s that a||ons do not ox|st unt|| contact |s mado, U|O|ogy rojocts tho nu||
hypothos|soutr|ghtbystart|ngw|ththoassumpt|onthatcontacthasa|roadyboonmado.
Whatlamattor|sthodoopormot|vat|ontorthosoarch,thopsycho|ogyboh|ndthobo||otthatsomowhorooutthoro
|nthovastcosmost|||odw|thtr||||onsotstarsandp|anots,thoroox|stothor|ntont|ona|and|nto|||gontbo|ngswhoaro
vast|ysupor|ortous.lcontondhorothatthobo||otcomost|rst,thosoarchtorov|doncootthotargototbo||otto||ows.
1horo|snoth|ngwrongw|thth|s,|t|showmostotsc|oncooporatos.0arw|nandWa||acobo||ovodthatthorowasa
natura|torcoatworkcroat|ngnowspoc|os(asopposodtoasupornatura|croator),andthoytound|t |nthotormot
natura| so|oct|on. E|nsto|n and |ubb|o bo||ovod that tho |argo-sca|o structuro ot tho un|vorso cou|d bo undorstood
99
through tho oporat|on ot natura| |aws |nstoad ot supornatura| |ntorvont|ons, and thoy tound |t |n tho pr|nc|p|os ot
ro|at|v|ty and grav|ty. Wo soarch tor such u|t|mato oxp|anat|ons bocauso wo aro pattorn-sook|ng agont-postu|at|ng
pr|matoswhosobra|nsarow|rodtot|ndpattornsandagonts,ovon|tthopattornsaropuro|ynatura|andthoagontsaro
justtho|awsotnaturoorothorcorporoa|bo|ngs.Otcourso,womustsoarch.lt|swhatwodo.Woarooxp|orors.3o|n
thosp|r|totsc|ont|t|c|nqu|ry,thosoarchmustgoon.
100

10

BoIiot in Conairacioa
Agont|c|ty nood not bo so ophomora| as ghosts, gods, ango|s, and domons. Agonts may bo t|osh and b|ood, ovon
wh||o rota|n|ng an o|omont ot noar-|nv|s|b|||ty, c|oakod trom our norma| sonsos, socrot|vo |n tho|r act|ons, and |ntorrod
by tho|r ottocts. 1h|s torm ot agont|c|ty |s moro tam|||ar|y known as a coospltocy, and tho |ntoronco |s a coospltocy
tbooty.
Pattorn ot Conairacy
Consp|racy thoor|os aro a d|ttoront brood ot an|ma| than consp|rac|os thomso|vos. Whothor thoro was or was not a
consp|racy boh|nd tho assass|nat|on ot 1|K (l contond that thoro was not), thoor|os ot 1|K consp|rac|os abound, as
thoy do tor tho assass|nat|ons ot l|K, VlK 1r., and Va|co|m X, tho d|sappoaranco ot 1|mmy |otta, and tho doaths ot
lr|ncoss 0|ana and assortod rock stars, not to mont|on consp|racy thoor|os boh|nd tho t|uor|dat|on ot wator supp||os,
jot contra||s dopos|t|ng chom|ca| and b|o|og|ca| agonts |n tho atmosphoro (chomtra||s), tho sproad ot Al03 and othor
|ntoct|ous d|soasos, tho d|sporsa| ot coca|no and guns to |nnor c|t|os, poak o|| and ro|atod o|| company suppross|on ot
a|tornat|vo onorgy tochno|og|os, tho moon |and|ng that novor happonod, U|O |and|ngs that d|d happon, and tho
notar|ous go|ngs-on ot tho |odora| losorvo, tho low Wor|d Ordor, tho 1r||atora| Comm|ss|on, tho Counc|| on |oro|gn
lo|at|ons, tho Comm|ttoo ot 800, 3ku|| and 3onos, tho Kn|ghts 1omp|ar, tho |roomasons, tho l||um|nat|, tho 3||dorborg
Group, tho lothsch||ds, tho lockoto||ors, tho loarnod E|dors ot Z|on and tho Z|on|st Occupat|on Govornmont,
satan|sts and satan|c r|tua| cu|ts, and tho ||ko. 1ho ||st |s soom|ng|y ond|oss.
1ho torm coospltocy tbooty |s otton usod dor|s|vo|y to |nd|cato that somoono's oxp|anat|on tor an ovont |s h|gh|y
|mprobab|o or ovon on tho |unat|c tr|ngo, and that thoso who prottor such thoor|os aro most probab|y crackpots. 3|nco
consp|rac|os do happon, howovor, wo cannot just automat|ca||y d|sm|ss any and a|| consp|racy thoor|sts a pr|or|. 3o
what shou|d wo bo||ovo whon wo oncountor a consp|racy thoory? What aro somo ot tho charactor|st|cs ot a consp|racy
thoory that |nd|cato that |t |s ||ko|y untruo?
1. 1horo |s an obv|ous pattorn ot connoctod dots that may or may not bo connoctod |n a causa| way. Whon tho
Watorgato consp|rators contossod to tho burg|ary, or Osama b|n ladon boasts about tho tr|umph ot 0/11, wo
can bo cont|dont that tho pattorn |s roa|. 3ut whon thoro |s no torthcom|ng ov|donco to support a causa|
connoct|on botwoon tho dots |n tho pattorn, or whon tho ov|donco |s oqua||y wo|| oxp|a|nod through somo othor
causa| cha|n-or through randomnoss-tho consp|racy thoory |s ||ko|y ta|so.
2. 1ho agonts boh|nd tho pattorn ot tho consp|racy aro o|ovatod to noar suporhuman powor to pu|| |t ott. Wo must
a|ways romombor how t|awod human bohav|or |s, and tho natura| tondoncy wo a|| havo to mako m|stakos. Vost
ot tho t|mo |n most c|rcumstancos most poop|o aro not noar|y as powortu| as wo th|nk thoy aro.
8. 1ho moro comp|ox tho consp|racy, and tho moro o|omonts |nvo|vod tor |t to unto|d succosstu||y, tho |oss ||ko|y |t
|s to bo truo.
4. 1ho moro poop|o |nvo|vod |n tho consp|racy, tho |oss ||ko|y thoy w||| a|| bo ab|o to koop s||ont about tho|r socrot
go|ngs-on.
b. 1ho grandor and moro wor|d|y tho consp|racy |s bo||ovod to bo-tho contro| ot an ont|ro nat|on, oconomy, or
po||t|ca| systom, ospoc|a||y |t |t suggosts wor|d dom|nat|on-tho |oss ||ko|y |t |s to bo truo.
0. 1ho moro tho consp|racy thoory ratchots up trom sma|| ovonts that m|ght bo truo |nto much |argor ovonts that
havo much |owor probab|||t|os ot bo|ng truo, tho |oss ||ko|y |t |s to bo groundod |n roa||ty.
7. 1ho moro tho consp|racy thoory ass|gns portontous and s|n|stor moan|ngs and |ntorprotat|ons to what aro most
||ko|y |nnocuous or |ns|gn|t|cant ovonts, tho |oss ||ko|y |t |s to bo truo.
8. 1ho tondoncy to comm|ng|o tacts and spocu|at|on w|thout d|st|ngu|sh|ng botwoon tho two and w|thout ass|gn|ng
dogroos ot probab|||ty ot tactua||ty, tho |oss ||ko|y tho consp|racy thoory roprosonts roa||ty.
0. Extromo host|||ty about and strong susp|c|ons ot any and a|| govornmont agonc|os or pr|vato organ|zat|ons |n
an |nd|scr|m|nato mannor |nd|catos that tho consp|racy thoor|st |s unab|o to d|ttoront|ato botwoon truo and ta|so
consp|rac|os.
101
10. lt tho consp|racy thoor|st dotonds tho consp|racy thoory tonac|ous|y to tho po|nt ot rotus|ng to cons|dor
a|tornat|vo oxp|anat|ons tor tho ovonts |n quost|on, rojoct|ng a|| d|scont|rm|ng ov|donco tor h|s thoory and
b|atant|y sook|ng on|y cont|rmatory ov|donco to support what ho has a|roady dotorm|nod |s tho truth, ho |s ||ko|y
wrong and tho consp|racy |s probab|y a t|gmont ot h|s |mag|nat|on.
Why PooIo BoIiovo Conairacioa
Why do poop|o bo||ovo |n h|gh|y |mprobab|o consp|rac|os? l contond that |t |s bocauso tho|r pattorn-dotoct|on t||tors
aro w|do opon, thoroby |ott|ng |n any and a|| pattorns as roa|, w|th ||tt|o to no scroon|ng ot potont|a| ta|so pattorns.
Consp|racy thoor|sts connoct tho dots ot random ovonts |nto moan|ngtu| pattorns, and thon |ntuso thoso pattorns w|th
|ntont|ona| agoncy. Add to thoso propons|t|os tho cooltmotloo blos and tho blooslgbt blos (|n wh|ch wo ta||or attor-
tho-tact oxp|anat|ons to what wo a|roady know happonod), and wo havo tho toundat|on tor consp|rator|a| cogn|t|on.
Examp|os ot thoso procossos can bo tound |n Arthur Go|dwag's 2000 book, Co|ts, Coospltoclos, ooo 5octot
5oclotlos, wh|ch covors ovoryth|ng trom tho |roomasons, tho l||um|nat|, and tho 3||dorborg Group to b|ack ho||coptors
and tho low Wor|d Ordor. Whon somoth|ng momontous happons, ovoryth|ng |oad|ng up to and away trom tho ovont
sooms momontous too. Evon tho most tr|v|a| dota|| sooms to g|ow w|th s|gn|t|canco,' Go|dwag oxp|a|nod, not|ng tho
1|K assass|nat|on as a pr|mo oxamp|o.
Know|ng what wo know now . t||m tootago ot 0oa|oy l|aza trom lovombor 22, 1008, sooms prognant w|th on|gmas and |ron|os-
trom tho odd|y oxpoctant oxpross|ons on tho tacos ot tho on|ookors on tho grassy kno|| |n tho |nstants botoro tho shots woro t|rod
(bot woto tboy tbloklog), to tho p|ay ot shadows |n tho background (Coo|o tbot |osb op tboto oo tbo ovotposs bovo booo o goo
botto| g|oomlog lo tbo soo). Each odd oxcrosconco, ovory random |ump |n tho v|sua| toxturo sooms susp|c|ous.
1
Add to thoso tactors how compo|||ng|y a good narrat|vo story can t|o |t a|| togothor-th|nk O||vor 3tono's 1lK or 0an
3rown's Aogo|s ooo Lomoos, both oqua||y t|ct|ona|-and you'vo got a tormu|a tor consp|rator|a| agont|c|ty.
l oxpor|oncod th|s ottoct t|rsthand whon l v|s|tod 0oa|oy l|aza, whoro on any g|von day consp|racy thoor|sts aro at
tho roady (tor a modost t|p) to g|vo you a tour ot whoro tho shootors woro h|d|ng on that tatotu| day. ln tho photo (||guro
0), my gu|do rovoa|s that ono shootor was h|d|ng |n a sowor p|po, ho thon showod mo whoro anothor shootor was
boh|nd tho tonco atop tho grassy kno||. |or moro than an hour th|s consp|rac|st connoctod tho dots |nto moan|ngtu|
pattorns that ho |ntusod w|th |ntont|ona| agoncy.
Why do poop|o bo||ovo |n consp|rac|os? A usotu| d|st|nct|on horo |s botwoon transcondonta||sts and omp|r|c|sts.
7tooscoooooto|lsts tond to bo||ovo that ovoryth|ng |s |ntorconnoctod and a|| ovonts happon tor a roason. Empltlclsts
tond to th|nk that randomnoss and co|nc|donco |ntoract w|th tho causa| not ot our wor|d and that bo||ot shou|d dopond
on ov|donco tor oach |nd|v|dua| c|a|m. 1ho prob|om tor skopt|c|sm |s that transcondonta||sm |s |ntu|t|vo, omp|r|c|sm |s
not. Our propons|ty tor pattorn|c|ty and agont|c|ty |oads us natura||y |nto tho transcondonta| camp ot soo|ng ovonts |n
tho wor|d as unto|d|ng accord|ng to a prop|annod |og|c, whoroas tho omp|r|ca| mothod ot bo|ng skopt|ca| unt|| a c|a|m
|s provon othorw|so roqu|ros concortod ottort that most ot us do not mako. 1hus, tho psycho|ogy ot bo||ot t|rst and
ov|donco socond |s onco aga|n borno out. Or as 3utta|o 3pr|ngt|o|d onco |ntonod: Potooolo sttlkos ooop. loto yoot
|lo lt wl|| ctoop..
Figuro 0. DoaIoy PIaza and JFK Conairacy 1hooriata
On any g|von day |n 0oa|oy l|aza, consp|racy thoor|sts w||| g|vo you a tour ot whoro tho shootors woro h|d|ng.
|oro my gu|do rovoa|s that ono shootor was h|d|ng |n a sowor p|po. AU1|Ol COllEC1lOl, l|O1OGlAl| 3Y lEGllA |UG|E3.
Eow to 1oat a Conairacy 1hoory: 1ho 1ruth About tho 0/11 1ruthora
102
Vy oxpor|onco w|th tho 0/11 truthors w||| sorvo as a caso study |n how to tost tho va||d|ty ot a consp|racy thoory. lt
bogan attor a pub||c |octuro |n 200b, whon l was buttonho|od by a documontary t||mmakor w|th V|chao| Vooro|sh
amb|t|ons ot oxpos|ng tho consp|racy boh|nd 0/11.
You moan tho consp|racy by Osama b|n ladon and a|-Oaoda to attack tho Un|tod 3tatos?' l askod rhotor|ca||y,
know|ng what was to como.
1hat's what thoy want you to bo||ovo,' ho sa|d.
Who |s tboy?' l quor|od.
1ho govornmont,' ho wh|sporod, as |t thoy' m|ght bo ||ston|ng at that vory momont.
3ut d|dn't Osama and somo mombors ot a|-Oaoda not on|y say thoy d|d |t,' l rom|ndod h|m, thoy g|oatod about
what a g|or|ous tr|umph |t was?'
Oh, you'ro ta|k|ng about that v|doo ot Osama,' ho rojo|nod know|ng|y. 1hat was takod by tho ClA and |oakod to tho
Amor|can pross to m|s|oad us. 1horo has boon a d|s|ntormat|on campa|gn go|ng on ovor s|nco 0/11.'
|ow do you know?' l |nqu|rod.
3ocauso ot a|| tho unoxp|a|nod anoma||os surround|ng 0/11,' ho answorod.
3uch as?'
3uch as tho tact that stoo| mo|ts at a tomporaturo ot 2,777 dogroos |ahronho|t, but jot tuo| burns at on|y 1,b17
dogroos |ahronho|t. lo mo|tod stoo|, no co||apsod towors.'
At th|s po|nt l ondod tho convorsat|on and doc||nod to bo |ntorv|owod, know|ng proc|so|y whoro tho d|a|oguo was
go|ng noxt-|t l cannot oxp|a|n ovory s|ng|o m|nut|a about tho ovonts ot that tatotu| o|ovonth day ot 3optombor 2001,
that |ack ot know|odgo oquatos to d|roct proot that 0/11 was orchostratod by 3ush, Chonoy, lumsto|d, and tho ClA |n
ordor to |mp|omont tho|r p|an tor g|oba| dom|nat|on and a low Wor|d Ordor, to bo t|nancod by GO0 (go|d, o||, drugs)
and |aunchod by a loar| |arbor-||ko attack on tho Wor|d 1rado Contor and tho lontagon, thoroby prov|d|ng tho
just|t|cat|on tor war. 1ho ov|donco |s |n tho dota||s, ho oxp|a|nod, hand|ng mo a taux do||ar b||| (0-11' rop|ac|ng tho 1'
and 3ush supp|ant|ng Wash|ngton) chockab|ock w|th Wob s|tos. Whoro had l hoard a|| th|s botoro?
ln tho oar|y 1000s l |aunchod a tu||-sca|o |nvost|gat|on ot tho |o|ocaust don|ors, |n|t|a||y as tho covor story tor
5koptlc magaz|no and subsoquont|y oxpandod |nto a book-|ongth troatmont, Looylog llstoty.
2
1ho don|ors omp|oy
th|s tact|c ot anoma||os-as-proot to groat ottoct. 0av|d lrv|ng, tor oxamp|o, c|a|ms that thoro aro no ho|os |n tho root ot
tho gas chambor at Kroma 2 at Auschw|tz-3|rkonau. 3o what? 3o p|onty, ho says. lo ho|os |n tho root ot tho gas
chambor at Kroma 2 moans that tho oyow|tnoss account ot 33 guards c||mb|ng up on tho root and pour|ng Zyk|on-3
gas po||ots through tho ho|os and |nto tho gas chambor bo|ow |s wrong, wh|ch moans that no ono was gassod |n
Kroma 2, wh|ch moans that no ono was gassod at Auschw|tz-3|rkonau, wh|ch moans that no ono was gassod at any
pr|son camp, wh|ch moans that no 1ows anywhoro woro systomat|ca||y oxtorm|natod by tho laz|s. ln short, no ho|os,
no |o|ocaust,' says 0av|d lrv|ng. 1ho s|ogan was omb|azonod on tho 1-sh|rts ot h|s supportors at h|s london tr|a| |n
wh|ch ho suod a h|stor|an tor ca|||ng h|m a |o|ocaust don|or.
lo ho|os, no |o|ocaust. lo mo|tod stoo|, no a|-Oaoda attack. 1ho para||o|s aro oqua|, and oqua||y t|awod. And just
as l novor |mag|nod that |o|ocaust don|a| wou|d wond |ts way |nto tho ma|nstroam pross (lrv|ng's tr|a| was tront-pago
nows tor months), attor my abovo convorsat|on w|th tho t||mmakor l novor |mag|nod that 0/11 don|a| wou|d got mod|a
|ogs. 3ut now |t has |ogs tor days, and so 5koptlc magaz|no pub||shod a tu|| robutta| ot a|| tho 0/11 truthors' c|a|ms.
8
1ho bo||ot that a handtu| ot unoxp|a|nod anoma||os can undorm|no a wo||-ostab||shod thoory ||os at tho hoart ot a||
consp|rator|a| th|nk|ng. lt |s oas||y rotutod by not|ng that bo||ots and thoor|os aro not bu||t on s|ng|o tacts a|ono, but on a
convorgonco ot ov|donco trom mu|t|p|o ||nos ot |nqu|ry. A|| ot tho ov|donco' tor a 0/11 consp|racy ta||s undor tho rubr|c
ot th|s ta||acy. l cou|d app|y th|s pr|nc|p|o to any numbor ot consp|racy thoor|os, but l sha|| tocus on 0/11 bocauso |t |s
so rocont and top|ca|.
lot's bog|n w|th th|s |ssuo ot tho mo|t|ng tomporaturo ot stoo|. Accord|ng to 011rosoarch.wtc7.not, stoo| mo|ts at a
tomporaturo ot 2,777 dogroos |ahronho|t (othor sourcos put |t at 2,7b0), but jot tuo| burns at on|y 1,b17 dogroos
|ahronho|t. lo mo|tod stoo|, no co||apsod towors.
4
Wrong. ln an art|c|o |n tho 1ootoo| o tbo Vlooto|s, Voto|s, ooo
Vototlo|s 5ocloty, Vl1 ong|noor|ng protossor 0r. 1homas Eagor oxp|a|ns why: stoo| |osos b0 porcont ot |ts strongth at
1,200 dogroos |ahronho|t, tho 00,000 ||tors ot jot tuo| |gn|tod othor combust|b|o mator|a|s such as rugs, curta|ns,
turn|turo, and papor, wh|ch cont|nuod burn|ng attor tho jot tuo| was oxhaustod, ra|s|ng tomporaturos abovo 1,400
dogroos |ahronho|t and sproad|ng tho t|ro throughout tho bu||d|ng, tomporaturo d|ttoront|a|s ot hundrods ot dogroos
across s|ng|o stoo| hor|zonta| trussos causod thom to sag, stra|n|ng and thon broak|ng tho ang|o c||ps that ho|d thom to
tho vort|ca| co|umns, onco ono truss ta||od, othors ta||od, and whon ono t|oor co||apsod (a|ong w|th tho ton stor|os
abovo |t) onto tho noxt t|oor bo|ow, that t|oor thon gavo way, croat|ng a pancak|ng ottoct that tr|ggorod tho b00,000-ton
bu||d|ng to co||apso.
103
Consp|rac|sts a|so arguo that |t tho bu||d|ngs had co||apsod duo to tho |mpact ot tho p|anos, thoy shou|d havo ta||on
ovor on tho|r s|dos. 1h|s |s a|so wrong. W|th 0b porcont ot oach bu||d|ng cons|st|ng ot ompty spaco (thoso woro ott|co
bu||d|ngs attor a||), thoy cou|d on|y havo co||apsod stra|ght down-thoro s|mp|y |sn't onough structura| support |ntogr|ty
to tako an ont|ro bu||d|ng down |n ono p|oco.
1ho truthors a|so c|a|m-|n d|roct contrad|ct|on ot tho abovo c|a|m-that tho bu||d|ngs to|| stra|ght down |nto tho|r
own tootpr|nt, wh|ch, thoy say, cou|d havo happonod on|y |t thoy had boon do||borato|y brought down by oxp|os|vo
chargos carotu||y and do||borato|y sot ahoad ot t|mo. lot truo. 1ho bu||d|ngs d|d not ta|| down portoct|y stra|ght. 1ho|r
co||apso bogan on tho s|do whoro tho p|anos |mpactod, and so woro t||tod s||ght|y toward that woakonod co||apso
po|nt, wh|ch you can c|oar|y soo |n tho numorous v|doos ot tho co||aps|ng bu||d|ngs.
Anothor consp|racy c|a|m |s that tho bu||d|ngs to|| trom tho top down, proc|so|y |n tho mannor that contro||od
domo||t|on bu||d|ngs co||apso. |a|so. Contro||od domo||t|ons aro dono trom tho bottom up, not tho top down. lt you
soarch bu||d|ng domo||t|on' on You1ubo you w||| t|nd hundrods ot v|doo c||ps ot bu||d|ngs co||aps|ng by contro||od
domo||t|on. l cou|d not t|nd ono that co||apsod trom tho top down, as d|d tho Wor|d 1rado Contor bu||d|ngs. lnstoad, you
soo what domo||t|on oxports to|| us |s how |t |s dono: tho chargos aro sot to oxp|odo trom tho bottom up.
|or our spoc|a| 0/11 |ssuo ot 5koptlc wo consu|tod a domo||t|on oxport namod 3ront 3|anchard, who |s d|roctor ot
t|o|d oporat|ons tor lrotoc 0ocumontat|on 3orv|cos, a company that documonts tho work ot bu||d|ng domo||t|on
contractors. 3|nco tho r|so |n popu|ar|ty ot 0/11 consp|racy thoor|os, ho, too, has boon |nundatod w|th roquosts to
oxp|a|n why tho bu||d|ngs appoarod to havo co||apsod as |t by a contro||od domo||t|on.'
b
3|anchard and h|s toam ot
oxports at lrotoc havo workod w|th a|| major Amor|can domo||t|on compan|os and many toro|gn onos to study tho
contro||od domo||t|on ot moro than ono thousand ot tho |argost and ta||ost bu||d|ngs around tho wor|d. 1ho|r dut|os
|nc|udo ong|noor|ng stud|os, structura| ana|ys|s, v|brat|on/a|r ovorprossuro mon|tor|ng, and photograph|c sorv|cos. On
3optombor 11, 2001, lrotoc had portab|o t|o|d so|sm|c mon|tor|ng systoms oporat|ng at othor s|tos |n Vanhattan and
3rook|yn. 0omo||t|on spoc|a||sts woro h|rod to c|oan up Ground Zoro and romovo tho roma|n|ng damagod structuros,
and thoso oxports ca||od on 3|anchard's company to documont both tho doconstruct|on and tho dobr|s romova|. |oro
aro n|no ot tho bost argumonts mado by 0/11 consp|racy thoor|sts and tho|r robutta| by lrotoc:
C|olm #1. 7bo co||opso o tbo towots |ookoo oxoct|y |lko cootto||oo oomo|ltloos.
lrotoc: lo thoy d|d not. 1ho koy to any domo||t|on |nvost|gat|on |s |n t|nd|ng out tho whoro'-tho actua| po|nt at
wh|ch tho bu||d|ng ta||od. A|| photograph|c ov|donco shows Wor|d 1rado Contor bu||d|ngs 1 and 2 ta||od at tho po|nt ot
|mpact. Actua| |mp|os|on domo||t|ons a|ways start w|th tho bottom t|oors. lhoto ov|donco shows tho |owor t|oors ot
W1C 1 and 2 woro |ntact unt|| dostroyod trom abovo.
C|olm #2. Bot tboy o|| tlgbt oowo loto tbolt owo ootptlots.
lrotoc: 1hoy d|d not. 1hoy to||owod tho path ot |oast ros|stanco, and thoro was a |ot ot ros|stanco. 3u||d|ngs ot
twonty stor|os or moro do not topp|o ovor ||ko troos or ro|ntorcod towors or smokostacks. lmp|od|ng domo||t|ons ta||
|nto a tootpr|nt bocauso |owor stor|os aro romovod t|rst. W1C dobr|s was torcod out, away trom tho bu||d|ng, as tho
ta|||ng mass oncountorod |ntact t|oors.
C|olm #8. Exp|oslvo cbotgos oto sooo sbootlog tom sovoto| |oots jost ptlot to co||opso.
lrotoc: lo, a|r and dobr|s can bo soon bo|ng v|o|ont|y ojoctod trom tho bu||d|ng-a natura| and prod|ctab|o ottoct ot
rap|d structuro co||apso.
C|olm #4. ltoossos booto oxp|osloos.
lrotoc: A|| so|sm|c ov|donco trom many |ndopondont sourcos on 0/11 showod nono ot tho suddon v|brat|on sp|kos
that rosu|t trom oxp|os|vo dotonat|ons.
C|olm #5. A boot-gooototlog oxp|oslvo (potbops tbotmlto) mo|too stoo| ot Otoooo Zoto.
lrotoc: 1o a man, domo||t|on workors do not roport oncountor|ng mo|ton stoo|, cut boams, or any ov|donco ot
oxp|os|ons. C|a|ms ot dotoctod tracos ot thorm|to aro at th|s t|mo |nconc|us|vo.
C|olm #0. Otoooo Zoto oobtls-pottlco|ot|y tbo |otgo stoo| co|omos tom 7C 1 ooo 2-woto qolck|y sblppoo
ovotsoos to ptovoot sctotloy.
lrotoc: lot accord|ng to thoso who hand|od tho stoo|. 1ho cha|n ot procoss|on |s c|oar|y documontod, t|rst at
Ground Zoro by lrotoc and |ator at tho |rosh K|||s s|to by Yannuzz| 0omo||t|on. 1ho t|mo tramo (months) botoro |t was
sh|ppod to Ch|na was norma|.
C|olm #7. 7C 7 wos lotootlooo||y po||oo oowo' wltb oxp|oslvos. 7bo bol|olog owoot blmso| wos qootoo os
soylog bo ooclooo to po|| lt.'
Figuro 10. WorId 1rado Contor BuiIdinga CoIIaao
104
a. 1ho c|rc|od aroa ot ono ot tho Wor|d 1rado Contor bu||d|ngs shows a vo|umo ot smoko bo|ng comprossod out tho w|ndows bo|ow trom tho
compross|ng t|oors abovo. 1ho 0/11 consp|racy thoor|sts c|a|m that thoso aro oxp|os|vo squ|bs' sott|ng ott chargos to br|ng tho bu||d|ngs
down through oxp|os|vo dov|cos. l|O1OCOUl1E3Y O| |EVA: www.toma.gov/pdt/||brary/toma408_ch2.pdt.
b. Contrary to what 0/11 consp|racy thoor|sts c|a|m, tho Wor|d 1rado Contor bu||d|ngs d|d not ta|| ovon|y stra|ght trom tho top down, but |nstoad
bogan tho|r co||apso and t||tod on tho s|do ot tho bu||d|ng ot tho p|ano's str|ko. l|O1O COUl1E3Y O| |EVA:
www.toma.gov/pdt/||brary/toma408_ch2.pdt.
c. 1ho |mago ot W1C 7 common|y prosontod by 0/11 consp|racy thoor|sts as show|ng what appoars to bo on|y m|n|ma| damago to tho bu||d|ng.
l|O1OCOUl1E3Y O| |EVA: http://www.toma.gov/pdt/||brary/toma.408_chb.pdt.
d. W1C 7 soon trom tho southwost s|do, show|ng tho truo oxtont ot t|ro and structura| damago. l|O1O COUl1E3Y O| |EVA:
http://www.toma.gov/pdt/||brary/toma408_chb.pdt.
lrotoc: 3u||d|ng ownors do not havo author|ty ovor omorgoncy porsonno| at a d|sastor scono. Wo havo novor hoard
pu|| |t' usod to rotor to an oxp|os|vo domo||t|on. 0omo||t|on oxp|os|vo oxports ant|c|patod tho co||apso ot W1C 7 and
w|tnossod |t trom a tow hundrod toot away, and no ono hoard dotonat|ons.
C|olm #8. 5too|-tomo bol|ologs oo oot co||opso ooo to lto.
105
lrotoc: Vany stoo|-tramod bu||d|ngs havo co||apsod duo to t|ro.
C|olm #0. Aoyooo wbo ooolos tbot oxp|oslvos woto osoo ls lgootlog ovloooco.
lrotoc: Vost ot our commonts app|y to tho d|ttoroncos botwoon what poop|o actua||y saw on 0/11 and what thoy
shou|d havo soon had oxp|os|vos boon prosont. 1ho hundrods ot mon and womon who workod to romovo dobr|s trom
Ground Zoro woro somo ot tho country's most oxpor|oncod and rospoctod domo||t|on votorans. 1hoy ot a|| poop|o
possossod tho oxpor|onco and oxport|so to rocogn|zo ov|donco ot a contro||od domo||t|on |t |t ox|stod. lono ot thoso
poop|o has como torward w|th susp|c|ons that oxp|os|vos woro usod.
1ho co||apso ot Wor|d 1rado Contor bu||d|ng 7, |n tact, has grown |n |mportanco to consp|racy thoor|sts, ospoc|a||y
s|nco standard nonconsp|racy oxp|anat|ons tor tho dom|so ot W1C bu||d|ngs 1 and 2 bocamo accoptod. 3|nco W1C
7 was not struck by a p|ano, and |t d|d not co||apso unt|| b:20 p.m. on 0/11, tho causo ot |ts co||apso must bo d|ttoront
trom that ot W1C 1 and 2. Accord|ng to wtc7.not, t|ros woro obsorvod |n 3u||d|ng 7 pr|or to |ts co||apso, but thoy woro
|so|atod |n sma|| parts ot tho bu||d|ng, and woro puny by compar|son to othor bu||d|ng t|ros', turthormoro, any damago
trom ta|||ng dobr|s trom W1C 1 and W1C 2 wou|d havo noodod to bo symmotr|ca| to tr|ggor tho pancak|ng co||apso ot
W1C 7.
ln po|nt ot tact, tho t|ros burn|ng |n W1C 7 woro oxtons|vo, not |so|atod. Consp|racy thoor|sts tond to on|y show tho
north s|do ot W1C 7, wh|ch doos not |ook noar|y as damagod as tho othor s|do. (Comparo tho photographs |n t|guro
10.)
As tho bu||d|ng burnod a|| day, omorgoncy rosponso workors roa||zod that co||apso was |mm|nont, and at 8 p.m.
thoy bogan ovacuat|on ot a|| omorgoncy porsonno|. Whon tho bu||d|ng d|d co||apso, tho south s|do ot tho bu||d|ng-
wh|ch susta|nod tho most oxtons|vo damago trom tho ta|||ng dobr|s ot W1C 1 and 2-wont t|rst. As tor tho c|a|m that
W1C 7 |oasoho|dor larry 3||vorsto|n gavo tho ordor to pu|| |t,' horo |s tho actua| quoto trom a 3optombor 2002 l33
spoc|a| ca||od Amotlco Robol|os: l romombor gott|ng a ca|| trom tho, or, t|ro dopartmont commandor, to|||ng mo that
thoy woro not suro thoy woro gonna bo ab|o to conta|n tho t|ro, and l sa|d, 'Wo'vo had such torr|b|o |oss ot ||to, maybo
tho smartost th|ng to do |s pu|| |t.' And thoy mado that doc|s|on to pu|| and wo watchod tho bu||d|ng co||apso.'
|oro |s 3||vorsto|n's own oxp|anat|on tor th|s quoto, |ssuod through a spokosporson on 3optombor 0, 200b:
ln tho attornoon ot 3optombor 11, Vr. 3||vorsto|n spoko to tho ||ro 0opartmont Commandor on s|to at 3ovon Wor|d 1rado Contor. 1ho
Commandor to|d Vr. 3||vorsto|n that thoro woro sovora| t|rot|ghtors |n tho bu||d|ng work|ng to conta|n tho t|ros. Vr. 3||vorsto|n
oxprossod h|s v|ow that tho most |mportant th|ng was to protoct tho satoty ot thoso t|rot|ghtors, |nc|ud|ng, |t nocossary, to havo thom
w|thdraw trom tho bu||d|ng.
lator |n tho day, tho ||ro Commandor ordorod h|s t|rot|ghtors out ot tho bu||d|ng and at b:20 p.m. tho bu||d|ng co||apsod. lo ||vos
woro |ost at 3ovon Wor|d 1rado Contor on 3optombor 11, 2001.
As notod abovo, whon Vr. 3||vorsto|n was rocount|ng thoso ovonts tor a to|ov|s|on documontary ho statod, l sa|d, you know, wo'vo
had such torr|b|o |oss ot ||to. Vaybo tho smartost th|ng to do |s to pu|| |t.' Vr. VcOu|||an has statod that by |t,' Vr. 3||vorsto|n moant tho
cont|ngont ot t|rot|ghtors roma|n|ng |n tho bu||d|ng.
3||vorsto|n's oxp|anat|on |s supportod by oyow|tnoss accounts ot that day, |nc|ud|ng that ot ono roscuo workor who
notod that thoro woro tromondous, tromondous t|ros go|ng on. ||na||y thoy po||oo us out.' loto tho vorb.
|or my monoy, tho oddost ot a|| tho 0/11 consp|racy thoor|os |s ono |nvo|v|ng tho lontagon. 1ho |doa, t|rst t|oatod |n
1h|orry Voyssan's book 0/11. 7bo Blg Llo, was that tho lontagon was struck by a m|ss||o bocauso tho damago was
too narrow and ||m|tod to bo tho rosu|t ot an |mpact trom a 3oo|ng 7b7. ln tho 0/11 consp|racy t||m Looso Cboogo,
dramat|c roonactmonts aro prosontod, show|ng that tho ho|o |n tho lontagon was too sma|| to havo boon mado by
Amor|can A|r||nos |||ght 77. 1horo |s noth|ng ||ko so|oct|vo v|sua|s. Yot structura| ong|noor A||yn E. K||sho|mor, who
arr|vod on tho scono short|y attor tho |mpact, roportod: l saw tho marks ot tho p|ano w|ng on tho taco ot tho bu||d|ng. l
p|ckod up parts ot tho p|ano w|th tho a|r||no mark|ngs on thom. l ho|d |n my hand tho ta|| soct|on ot tho p|ano, and l
tound tho b|ack box.' K||sho|mor's oyow|tnoss account |s backod up by photos ot p|ano wrockago |ns|do and outs|do
tho bu||d|ng. K||sho|mor adds: l ho|d parts ot un|torms trom crow mombors |n my hands, |nc|ud|ng body parts. Okay?'
Okay tor mo, but not tor consp|racy thoor|sts ho||-bont on contorm|ng tho tacts to t|t tho thoory.
A|| ot tho 0/11 consp|racy c|a|ms aro oas||y rotutod. On tho lontagon m|ss||o str|ko,' tor oxamp|o, l quor|od my
documontary antagon|st about what happonod to |||ght 77, wh|ch d|sappoarod at tho samo t|mo as tho lontagon was
struck. 1ho p|ano was dostroyod and tho passongors woro murdorod by 3ush oporat|vos,' ho so|omn|y rovoa|od. 0o
you moan to to|| mo that not ooo ot tho thousands ot consp|rators noodod to pu|| a|| th|s ott,' l rotortod, |s a wh|st|o-
b|owor who wou|d go on 1v or wr|to a to||-a|| book?'
1h|nk about a|| tho oxamp|os ot d|sgrunt|od govornmont buroaucrats and ox-po||t|c|ans who can't wa|t to go pub||c
w|th tho|r |ns|dor |ntormat|on that wo taxpayors w||| prosumab|y want to know about. lot ono ot thoso 0/11 |ns|dors,
w|tnoss to what |s arguab|y tho groatost consp|racy and covor-up |n tho h|story ot Wostorn c|v|||zat|on, wants to go on
Lotty Klog Llvo or 00 Vlootos or Loto|loo to rovoa| h|s or hor socrot? lot ono ot thom wants to cash |n on what cou|d
vory wo|| bo ono ot tho bost-so|||ng books ot tho yoar, |t not tho docado? lot ono ot thom, attor a coup|o ot dr|nks and
106
a tw|ngo or two ot gu||t, has |oakod to a tr|ond (or a tr|ond ot a tr|ond) h|s or hor doop socrot? lot ono? Vy rojo|ndor
was mot w|th tho samo gr|m rosponso l got trom U|O|og|sts whon l ask thom tor concroto ov|donco: mon |n b|ack
s||onco w|tnossos and doad mon to|| no ta|os.
Waa 0/11 a Conairacy?
Was 0/11 a consp|racy? Yos, |t was. 3y dot|n|t|on, a consp|racy |s a socrot p|an by two or moro poop|o to comm|t an
|||oga|, |mmora|, or subvors|vo act|on aga|nst anothor w|thout tho|r know|odgo or agroomont. 3o, n|notoon mombors ot
a|-Oaoda p|ott|ng to t|y p|anos |nto bu||d|ngs w|thout to|||ng us const|tutos a consp|racy. 1ho u|t|mato ta||uro ot tho 0/11
consp|racy thoor|sts |s tho|r |nab|||ty to oxp|a|n away tho ovorwho|m|ng ov|donco ot tho roa| consp|racy by Osama b|n
ladon and a|-Oaoda. |or oxamp|o, how do thoy oxp|a|n thoso tacts?
1ho 1088 attack on tho U.3. Var|no barracks |n lobanon by a rad|ca| |ozbo||ah tact|on.
1ho 1008 truck bomb attack on tho Wor|d 1rado Contor.
1ho 100b attompt to b|ow up two|vo p|anos hoad|ng trom tho lh|||pp|nos to tho Un|tod 3tatos.
1ho 100b bomb|ngs ot U.3. ombassy bu||d|ngs |n Konya and 1anzan|a that k|||od two|vo Amor|cans and two
hundrod Konyans and 1anzan|ans.
1ho 1000 attack on Khobar 1owors |n 3aud| Arab|a that k|||od n|notoon U.3. m|||tary porsonno|.
1ho 1000 attompt to attack los Ango|os lntornat|ona| a|rport by Ahmod lossam.
1ho 2000 su|c|do boat attack on tho U33 Co|o that k|||od sovontoon sa||ors and |njurod th|rty-n|no othors.
1ho wo||-documontod ov|donco that Osama b|n ladon |s a major t|nanc|or tor and tho |oador ot a|-Oaoda.
1ho 1000 tatwa by b|n ladon that ott|c|a||y doc|arod a j|had aga|nst tho Un|tod 3tatos.
3|n ladon's 1008 tatwa that sa|d to k||| tho Amor|cans and tho|r a|||os-c|v|||an and m|||tary-|s an |nd|v|dua| duty
tor any Vus||m who can do |t |n any country |n wh|ch |t |s poss|b|o to do |t.'
G|von th|s background, s|nco Osama b|n ladon and a|-Oaoda havo ott|c|a||y c|a|mod rospons|b|||ty tor tho attacks
ot 0/11, wo shou|d tako thom at tho|r word that thoy d|d |t.
Conairacy Nongoring
Ono robutta| l otton hoar trom consp|racy thoor|sts |s that l am sproad|ng nogat|vo |ntormat|on as a moans ot
d|stract|ng tho pub||c trom tho truth.' 1h|s |s no|thor tho t|rst nor tho |ast t|mo that l'vo boon accusod ot bo|ng a
govornmonta| agont ot d|s|ntormat|on. U|O|og|sts suspoctod as much whon l pooh-poohod tho|r contont|on that tho
govornmont |s h|d|ng a||on spacocratt and bod|os |n Aroa b1. |o|ocaust don|ors th|nk that l'm 1ow|sh (l'm not) and that
l'm bo|ng pa|d ott by tho Z|on|st |obby (whoovor thoy aro). Vost rocont|y tho 0/11 truthors havo t|ngorod mo as a patsy
ot tho |ns|do jobbors. 1h|s accusat|on camo attor l wroto ono ot my month|y co|umns |n 5clootllc Amotlcoo about tho
0/11 consp|racy thoory and why |t |s wrong. 1o dato, attor ton yoars ot wr|t|ng month|y co|umns tor tho magaz|no, l havo
novor roco|vod so many angry and host||o |ottors. l ropr|nt a tow oxcorpts horo as a w|ndow |nto tho consp|rator|a|
m|nd-sot:
lt |s obv|ous that tho namo 3hormor' w||| go down |n h|story as moan|ng ono who ||os' or a sh|||' or a stoogo.' Examp|o: 1hat guy
was |y|ng.' Yoah, ho's noth|ng but a shormor.' Or, What a shormor ho |s!' and ovoryono w||| know what 1|A1 moans. l may start
us|ng th|s word' |mmod|ato|y |n my da||y convorsat|ons. lt corta|n|y app||os rogard|ng tho so ca||od art|c|o' 3hormor wroto about 0/11.
Ono corrospondont |dont|t|od who ho th|nks |s boh|nd tho consp|racy:
1ho broadcast and pr|nt mod|a aro a|most tota||y contro||od by tho Z|on|st cr|m|na|s who aro boh|nd tho ov|| undortak|ngs ot our
govornmont. 1hoy oporato through b|ackma||, and br|bory, and havo takon comp|oto contro| ot th|s govornmont and toro|gn po||cy to
turthor tho|r oxpans|on |n tho m|dd|o oast.
3ad|y, ho wasn't tho on|y ono to |dont|ty Z|on|sts as consp|rators:
l|oaso, accopt my canco||at|on tor 5clootllc Amotlcoo as your 0-11 roport |s no|thor sc|ont|t|c nor Amor|can but ro||g|ous and Z|on|st.
3|AVE, 3|AVE, 3|AVE-anothor qu|s||ng to tho lsrao|| ovor|ords-31Al1 1|llKllG and 31Ol llO31l1U1llG 1O YOUl |lG|El
lOWEl.
And th|s ono as wo||:
Your wh|towash on tho 0-11 doos not work. Your Z|on|st tront guys aro troat|ng your roadorsh|p as too|s. l havo boon a ||to |ong
subscr|bor ot your magaz|no and l havo a|| tho |ssuos s|nco 1071. l w||| canco| my subscr|pt|on duo to your troasonous sorv|||ty to tho
toro|gn powor (lsrao|).
107
Anothor corrospondont t|ngorod mo and tho magaz|no as part ot tho consp|racy:
l'm doop|y shockod 5clootllc Amotlcoo cou|d so obv|ous|y d|scrod|t |ts roputat|on, w|th such nonsonso. Why not run stor|os about ||tt|o
groon mon on tho moon? l moan, you'vo gono th|s |ow, why not go turthor? 0on't bo supr|sod |t tho sc|ont|t|c commun|ty starts
|augh|ng at you, and sa|os dry up. You can't pub||sh crap ||ko th|s Al0 koop your roputat|on. Voro pawns tor tho m|||tary-|ndustr|a|
comp|ox-thats what you aro.
|oro |s ono oquat|ng Amor|ca w|th laz| Gormany:
lts so sad to soo a|| our |nst|tut|ons bo|ng torcod to ||o about 0/11. And now you too! 3|rs shamo on you. 0o you not roa||zo th|s |s
EXAC1lY what happonod |n Gormany |n tho 1080s. 3uro|y you do.
Vy 0/11 corrospondonco d|od down tor a wh||o, unt|| l pub||c|y commontod on tho Vus||m wannabo torror|st Umar
|arouk Abdu|muta||ab, who ||t h|s undorwoar on t|ro on a lorthwost A|r||nos t||ght on Chr|stmas 0ay, 2000. lt a|| thoso
acts ot torror|sm aro roa||y an |ns|do job' by tho 3ush adm|n|strat|on, l wroto, why d|d a|-Oaoda |ssuo th|s statomont?:
3o proparod to suttor bocauso tho k||||ng |s com|ng and wo proparod you mon who |ovo doath just as you |ovo ||to and
by God's porm|ss|on, wo w||| como to you w|th moro th|ngs that you havo novor soon botoro. 3ocauso, as you k|||, you
w||| bo k|||od and tomorrow |s com|ng soon. 1ho martyrdom brothor was ab|o to roach h|s objoct|vo w|th tho graco ot
God but duo to a tochn|ca| tau|t, tho tu|| oxp|os|on d|d not tako p|aco.' Aro wo to bo||ovo that Abdu|muta||ab workod tor
tho U.3. govornmont? ||s own tathor rattod h|m out attor ho was rad|ca||zod by Vus||m oxtrom|sts-was that a|| part ot
tho |ns|do job' as wo||? What was that sown up |n h|s undorwoar, tho samo suporthorm|to that 3ush oporat|vos usod
to br|ng down tho Wor|d 1rado Contor bu||d|ngs w|th p|antod oxp|os|vo dov|cos?
Undauntod, and poworod by consp|rator|a| agont|c|ty, tho 0/11 truthors t|rod back.
0
Ono to|d mo to
W|po tho sm||o ott your smug gob r|ght now V|chao| 3hormor. Whatovor may havo happonod on Xmas day st||| doosn't chango tho tact
that two ot tho h|ghost bu||d|ngs |n tho wor|d cou|d not havo ta||on |n troo ta|| t|mo through tho ||no ot most ros|stanco through grav|ty
a|ono as ll31 suggosts.
Anothor grow|od:
Your g|oo about th|s rotardod patsy try|ng to ||ght h|s undorwoar on t|ro shows your b|as. You so want tho ma|nstroam mod|a
consp|racy thoory to bo truo that you can a|most tasto |t. 1h|s story rom|nds mo ot tho lot's lo||' story and tho 1oss|ca lynch story and
tho lat 1|||man story and tho WV0 stor|os and tho ott|c|a| 011 consp|racy thoory about a bunch ot guys w|th box cuttors dotoat|ng tho
most soph|st|catod a|r dotonso systom |n tho wor|d, h|tt|ng 8 ot tho|r 4 targots, |nc|ud|ng tho most dotondod bu||d|ng |n tho wor|d.
Exp|a|n W1C 7 to mo Vr. 3hormor. lt |s st||| tho 47 story o|ophant |n tho ||v|ng room.
3ut tho cromo do |a cromo ot consp|racy mongor|ng was th|s oxp|anat|on tor tho undorwoar bombor:
1h|s guy was |ot through on purposo. |o was a known torror r|sk. |o was handod to tho ClAon a p|ato by h|s own tathor! lomombor
a|| thoso Chonoy/noocon warn|ngs? 1hoy dosporato|y want to b|ot Obamas copybook. Obama st||| has nosts ot noocon v|pors |n tho
ClA/3|ackwator noxus and tho just|co dopartmont that tor somo unoxp|a|nod roason ho has boon unab|o to orad|cato. As w|th tho 011
horror tho A| Oaoda oporators woro trackod a|| tho way. 1hoy woro comprom|sod and coord|natod by b|ack ops agonts work|ng on
boha|t ot tho llAC consp|rators. As a scopt|c Vr 3hormor shou|d bo |oss proparod to swa||ow tho gutt d|shod up to h|m by tho noocon
oporators.
7
Eow Conairacioa ActuaIIy Work
As acknow|odgod, consp|rac|os do happon, so l do not automat|ca||y d|sm|ss thom stra|ght out ot tho gato. Abraham
l|nco|n was tho v|ct|m ot an assass|nat|on consp|racy, as was tho Austr|an archduko |ranz |ord|nand, gunnod down
by a 3orb|an socrot soc|oty on tho ovo ot Wor|d War l. 1ho attack on loar| |arbor was a 1apanoso consp|racy
(a|though somo consp|rac|sts th|nk |rank||n 0. loosovo|t was |n on |t), and Watorgato was a consp|racy (that l|chard
l|xon wos |n on). |ow can wo to|| tho d|ttoronco botwoon tho pattorn ot a roa| consp|racy and tho pattorn ot consp|racy
mongor|ng? As Kurt Coba|n, tho rock star ot l|rvana, onco snar|od |n h|s grungo |yr|cs short|y botoro h|s doath trom a
so|t-|nt||ctod (or was |t?) gunshot to tho hoad, 1ust bocauso you'ro parano|d don't moan thoy'ro not attor you.'
3ut as G. Gordon l|ddy onco to|d mo, tho prob|om w|th govornmont consp|rac|os |s that buroaucrats aro
|ncompotont and poop|o can't koop tho|r mouths shut. l|ddy shou|d know, as ho was an a|do to lros|dont l|xon and
ono ot tho mastorm|nds boh|nd tho broak-|n ot tho 0omocrat|c lat|ona| Comm|ttoo ott|cos at tho Watorgato |oto|.
Comp|ox consp|rac|os aro d|tt|cu|t to pu|| ott-|n th|s caso ovon somoth|ng as s|mp|o as a hoto| burg|ary was to||od by
a socur|ty guard, and undor tho prossuro ot congross|ona| hoar|ngs and journa||st|c |nvost|gat|ons many ot tho
consp|rac|sts crackod and ta|kod. 3o many poop|o want tho|r quartor hour ot tamo that ovon tho mon |n b|ack cou|dn't
squo|ch tho squoa|ors trom sp||||ng tho boans. Onco aga|n, thoro's a good chanco that tho moro o|aborato a
consp|racy thoory |s, and tho moro poop|o that wou|d nood to bo |nvo|vod to pu|| |t ott, tho |oss ||ko|y |t |s truo.
108
As an oxamp|o ot how consp|rac|os actua||y oporato |n tho h|gh|y random and mass|vo|y cont|ngont roa| wor|d (as
opposod to tho hypothot|ca| portoct wor|d ot consp|racy thoor|sts), |ot's oxam|no |n dota|| tho assass|nat|on ot tho
Austr|an archduko |ranz |ord|nand and h|s w|to, 3oph|o, who woro togothor |n 3arajovo on 1uno 28, 1014. 1h|s |s
ono ot tho most |mportant and consoquont|a| assass|nat|ons |n h|story, tor |t prompt|y tr|ggorod a m|||tary bu||dup ovor
tho summor that |od to tho guns ot August and tho outbroak ot tho ||rst Wor|d War. 1h|s was unquost|onab|y a
consp|racy organ|zod by a socrot rad|ca| organ|zat|on ca||od 3|ack |and, whoso po||t|ca| objoct|vo was tho
|ndopondonco ot 3orb|a trom tho Austro-|ungar|an omp|ro. 1ho assass|ns woro backod by an undorground ra||road
ot 3orb|an c|v|||ans and m|||tary ott|cors who prov|dod thom w|th woapons, maps, and tra|n|ng to pu|| ott tho
consp|racy.
Archduko |ranz |ord|nand, tho ho|r to tho Austro-|ungar|an throno, was |n 3arajovo to obsorvo m|||tary manouvors
and to opon a now stato musoum. |o arr|vod at tho tra|n stat|on |n tho morn|ng, and ho and h|s ontourago woro dr|von
to tho t|rst stop |n s|x automob||os. |ranz |ord|nand and 3oph|o woro |n tho th|rd voh|c|o, a convort|b|o, and ho
|nstructod tho dr|vors to procood at a |o|suro|y paco so that ho cou|d tako |n tho |oca| s|ghts ot boaut|tu| downtown
3arajovo as tho procoss|on wondod |ts way down tho h|stor|c bou|ovard Appo| Ouay. 1horo, tho consp|racy r|ng|oador
0an||o l||c had arrangod h|s s|x assass|ns at stratog|c |ocat|ons, arm|ng thom at tho |ast momont.
As tho motorcado ontorod tho k||| zono, tho t|rst two assass|ns, Vuhamod Vohmodbas|c, armod w|th a hand
gronado, and vaso Cubr||ov|c, oqu|ppod w|th a p|sto| and hand gronado, ta||od to act, o|thor out ot toar or an |nab|||ty
to got a c|oan ||no on tho targots. loxt |n ||no was lodo|jko Cabr|nov|c, who hur|od h|s hand gronado d|roct|y at tho
targot th|rd voh|c|o. lt bouncod ott tho ro||od-down root boh|nd |ranz |ord|nand and 3oph|o, sk|rtod across tho back ot
tho car, and |andod undor tho to||ow|ng voh|c|o whoro |t thon dotonatod, wound|ng tho passongors and a numbor ot
po||co and bystandors |n tho crowd.
ln a pan|c, Cabr|nov|c swa||owod tho cyan|do p||| g|von to h|m |n tho ovont ot capturo, and jumpod |nto tho noarby
V||jacka l|vor. 3ut tho r|vor was too sha||ow at that t|mo ot yoar tor drown|ng, and tho cyan|do rosu|tod on|y |n v|o|ont
vom|t|ng, so Cabr|nov|c was capturod, boaton by tho crowd, and hau|od ott to tho po||co stat|on. 1ho voh|c|os spod ott
to satoty wh||o tho othor throo assass|ns-Cvjotko lopov|c, 1r|tun Graboz, and Gavr||o lr|nc|p-s|unk away |n dotoat,
tho assass|nat|on consp|racy to||od by |ncompotonco and bad |uck.
Evon tho bost-p|annod consp|rac|os hard|y ovor go accord|ng to p|an, and th|s ono was not yot ovor. lomarkab|y,
|ranz |ord|nand doc|dod to comp|oto h|s appo|ntod rounds, and so cont|nuod on to tho town ha|| rocopt|on tor h|m,
whoro ho upbra|dod 3arajovo's o|octod |oador: Vr. Vayor, l camo horo on a v|s|t and l got bombs thrown at mo. lt |s
outragoous.' 1ho archduko thon do||vorod h|s spooch, road trom b|ood-soakod shoots ot papor that woro rotr|ovod
trom car numbor tour, acknow|odg|ng what ho thought ho saw |n tho tacos ot h|s aud|onco, an oxpross|on ot tho|r joy
at tho ta||uro ot tho attompt at assass|nat|on.' |o spoko too soon, as consp|rac|os otton turn on tho qu|rk|ost ot ovonts.
ln th|s caso, |ranz |ord|nand doc|dod to v|s|t tho hosp|ta| whoro h|s woundod comrados trom car tour woro bo|ng
troatod. 3oph|o canco|od hor p|ans and thought |t bost to jo|n hor husband.
Voanwh||o, dojoctod by tho ta||od consp|racy, Gavr||o lr|nc|p moandorod ovor to a do||catosson on tho cornor ot
Appo| Ouay and |ranz 1osoph 3troot tor a sandw|ch and pr|vato conso|at|on. ||n|sh|ng h|s moa|, ho omorgod trom
3ch|||or's cato and |o and boho|d what appoarod botoro h|s start|od oyos was tho convort|b|o voh|c|o mak|ng |ts way
trom tho town ha|| to tho hosp|ta| back a|ong Appo| Ouay, w|th |ranz |ord|nand and 3oph|o st|ck|ng out ot tho back
||ko s|tt|ng ducks. lr|nc|p |nstant|y saw th|s as h|s g|or|ous momont ot good tortuno and took |t, mov|ng to tho r|ght ot
tho car and t|r|ng h|s p|sto|, h|tt|ng tho archduko |n tho jugu|ar vo|n ot tho nock and h|tt|ng 3oph|o |n tho torso. 3oth b|od
out and d|od short|y attor.
1h|s |s how consp|rac|os roa||y work-as mossy ovonts that unto|d accord|ng to roa|-t|mo cont|ngonc|os. 1hoy otton
turn on tho m|nut|ao ot chanco and tho roa||ty ot human orror. Our propons|ty to th|nk othorw|so-to bo||ovo that
consp|rac|os aro wo||-o||od mach|nos ot Vach|avo|||an man|pu|at|ons-|s to ta|| |nto tho trap ot consp|rator|a|
pattorn|c|ty and agont|c|ty, whoro tho pattorns aro too wo|| do||noatod and tho agonts suporhuman |n know|odgo and
powor.
109

PAR1 |V
BEL|EF |N 1E|NC5 5EEN

boo poop|o tboogbt tbo oottb wos |ot, tboy woto wtoog. boo poop|o tboogbt tbo oottb wos spbotlco|,
tboy woto wtoog. Bot l yoo tblok tbot tbloklog tbo oottb ls spbotlco| ls jost os wtoog os tbloklog tbo oottb
ls |ot, tboo yoot vlowls wtoogot tboo botb o tbom pot togotbot.
-l3AAC A3lVOv, 7lE RELA7lVl7Y Ol RONO, 1080
110

11

PoIitica ot BoIiot
Aro you a po||t|ca| ||bora| or a consorvat|vo? lt you aro a ||bora|, l prod|ct that you road tho NowYotk 7lmos, ||ston to
progross|vo ta|k rad|o, watch Cll, hato Goorgo W. 3ush and |oatho 3arah la||n, adoro A| Goro and rovoro 3arack
Obama, aro pro-cho|co, ant|-gun, adhoro to tho soparat|on ot church and stato, aro |n tavor ot un|vorsa| hoa|th caro,
voto tor moasuros to rod|str|buto woa|th and tax tho r|ch |n ordor to |ovo| tho p|ay|ng t|o|d, and bo||ovo that g|oba|
warm|ng |s roa|, human causod, and potont|a||y d|sastrous tor c|v|||zat|on |t tho govornmont doosn't do somoth|ng
dramat|c and soon. lt you aro a consorvat|vo, l prod|ct that you road tho o|| 5ttoot 1ootoo|, ||ston to consorvat|vo ta|k
rad|o, watch |OX lows, |ovo Goorgo W. 3ush and vonorato 3arah la||n, dosp|so A| Goro and abhor 3arack Obama,
aro pro-||to, ant|-gun contro|, bo||ovo that Amor|ca |s a Chr|st|an nat|on that shou|d mo|d church and stato, aro aga|nst
un|vorsa| hoa|th caro, voto aga|nst moasuros to rod|str|buto woa|th and tax tho r|ch, and aro skopt|ca| ot g|oba|
warm|ng and/or govornmont schomos to dramat|ca||y a|tor our oconomy |n ordor to savo c|v|||zat|on.
A|though th|s c|ustor ot spoc|t|c prod|ct|ons may not bo a portoct match tor any ono porson's pos|t|ons, tho tact that
most Amor|cans do ta|| |nto ono ot thoso two sots ot att|tudos |nd|catos that ovon po||t|ca|, oconom|c, and soc|a|
bo||ots torm d|st|nct pattorns that wo can |dont|ty and assoss. ln th|s chaptor on our journoy |nto tho bo||ov|ng bra|n, l
want to pu|| back tor a grandor v|sago ot bo||ot systoms and how thoy oporato |n tho roa|m ot po||t|cs, oconom|cs, and
|doo|og|os ot var|ous typos.
1ho Powor ot PoIiticaI BoIiota, or Why PooIo Divido 1homaoIvoa into LiboraIa and Conaorvativoa
ln 2008, 3tantord Un|vors|ty soc|a| psycho|og|st 1ohn 1ost and h|s co||oaguos pub||shod a papor |n tho prost|g|ous
journa| Psycbo|oglco| Bo||otlo ont|t|od lo||t|ca| Consorvat|sm as Vot|vatod 3oc|a| Cogn|t|on,' wh|ch was a synthos|s
ot t|tty yoars ot t|nd|ngs pub||shod |n o|ghty-o|ght papors oncompass|ng 22,818 subjocts that |od tho rosoarchors to
conc|udo that consorvat|vos suttor trom uncorta|nty avo|danco' and torror managomont,' and havo a nood tor ordor,
structuro,' and c|osuro' a|ong w|th dogmat|sm' and |nto|oranco ot amb|gu|ty,' a|| ot wh|ch |oads to ros|stanco to
chango' and ondorsomont ot |noqua||ty' |n tho|r bo||ots and pract|cos.
Undorstand|ng tho psycho|og|ca| undorp|nn|ngs ot consorvat|sm has tor contur|os posod a cha||ongo tor h|stor|ans,
ph||osophors, and soc|a| sc|ont|sts,' tho authors conc|udod.
Wo rogard po||t|ca| consorvat|sm as an |doo|og|ca| bo||ot systom that |s s|gn|t|cant|y (but not comp|oto|y) ro|atod to mot|vat|ona|
concorns hav|ng to do w|th tho psycho|og|ca| managomont ot uncorta|nty and toar. 3poc|t|ca||y, tho avo|danco ot uncorta|nty (and tho
str|v|ng tor corta|nty) may bo part|cu|ar|y t|od to ono coro d|mons|on ot consorvat|vo thought, ros|stanco to chango. 3|m||ar|y, concorns
w|th toar and throat may bo ||nkod to tho socond coro d|mons|on ot consorvat|sm, ondorsomont ot |noqua||ty.
1
1ho papor was p|ckod up by tho nows da|||os and tho story broko that sc|ont|sts had at |ong |ast d|scovorod what
makos consorvat|vos t|ck. Ono commontator tor Psycbo|ogy 7oooy askod ls lo||t|ca| Consorvat|sm a V||d |orm ot
lnsan|ty?'
2
1ho 3r|t|sh papor tho Oootoloo roportod: A study tundod by tho U3 govornmont has conc|udod that
consorvat|sm can bo oxp|a|nod psycho|og|ca||y as a sot ot nourosos rootod |n 'toar and aggross|on, dogmat|sm and
tho |nto|oranco ot amb|gu|ty.'' lt th|s was not onough to got tho b|ood bo|||ng ot consorvat|vos ovorywhoro, tho roport's
authors ||nkod lona|d loagan and tho r|ght-w|ng ta|k show host lush l|mbaugh to ||t|or and Vusso||n|, argu|ng thoy
a|| suttorod trom tho samo att||ct|on.
8
lood|oss to say, consorvat|vos woro nono too koon on hav|ng tho|r po||t|ca|
bo||ots b|ops|od ||ko so many cancorous tumors.
Why aro poop|o consorvat|vo? Why do poop|o voto lopub||can? 1ho quost|ons aro typ|ca||y posod w|thout ovon a
wh|tt ot awaronoss ot tho |nhoront b|as |n ask|ng |t |n th|s mannor-that bocauso 0omocrats aro so |nd|sputab|y r|ght
and lopub||cans so unquost|onab|y wrong, consorvat|sm must bo a monta| d|soaso, a t|aw |n tho bra|n, a porsona||ty
d|sordor that |oads to cogn|t|vo ma|tunct|on|ng. Vuch as mod|ca| sc|ont|sts study cancor |n ordor to curo tho d|soaso,
||bora| po||t|ca| sc|ont|sts study po||t|ca| att|tudos and vot|ng bohav|or |n ordor to curo poop|o ot tho cancor ot
consorvat|sm. 1h|s ||bora| bo||ot b|as |n acadom|a |s so doop|y ontronchod that |t bocomos tho po||t|ca| wator through
wh|ch tho ||bora| t|sh sw|m-thoy don't ovon not|co |t.
Un|vors|ty ot v|rg|n|a psycho|og|st 1onathan |a|dt not|cod tho b|as and ca||od attont|on to |t |n a w|do|y road and
111
commontod upon ossay on Edgo.org, What Vakos loop|o voto lopub||can?' 1ho standard ||bora| ||no-as rot|octod
|n tho 1ost study-|s that poop|o voto lopub||can bocauso thoy aro cogn|t|vo|y |nt|ox|b|o, tond ot h|orarchy, and
|nord|nato|y atra|d ot uncorta|nty, chango, and doath.' |a|dt |nvo|g|od h|s to||ow acadom|cs to movo boyond such
d|agnosos' and romombor tho socond ru|o ot mora| psycho|ogy |s that mora||ty |s not just about how wo troat oach
othor (as most ||bora|s th|nk), |t |s a|so about b|nd|ng groups togothor, support|ng ossont|a| |nst|tut|ons, and ||v|ng |n a
sanct|t|od and nob|o way. Whon lopub||cans say that 0omocrats 'just don't got |t,' th|s |s tho '|t' to wh|ch thoy rotor.'
4
Why do ||bora|s charactor|zo consorvat|vos |n such a s|antod mannor? 1o answor tho quost|on |ot's bog|n by
rovors|ng tho procoss and charactor|zo 0omocrats and ||bora|s as suttor|ng trom a host ot oqua||y dotoct|vo monta|
statos: a |ack ot mora| compass that |oads to an |nab|||ty to mako c|oar oth|ca| cho|cos, an |nord|nato |ack ot corta|nty
about soc|a| |ssuos, a patho|og|ca| toar ot c|ar|ty that |oads to |ndoc|s|vonoss, a na|vo bo||ot that a|| poop|o aro oqua||y
ta|ontod, and a b||nd adhoronco |n tho tooth ot contrad|ctory ov|donco that cu|turo and onv|ronmont a|ono dotorm|no
ono's |ot |n soc|oty and thorotoro |t |s up to tho govornmont to romody a|| soc|a| |njust|cos. Onco you sot up tho
adjoct|vos |n tho torm ot oporat|ona||y dot|nod porsona||ty tra|ts and cogn|t|vo sty|os, |t |s oasy to co||oct tho data to
support thom. 1ho t|aw |s |n tho charactor|zat|on procoss |tso|t.
1wo popu|ar book-|ongth oxamp|os that ta|| |nto tho samo bo||ot b|as trap aro tho 2008 book 7bo Po|ltlco| Vloo by
Un|vors|ty ot Ca||torn|a-3orko|oy cogn|t|vo sc|ont|st Goorgo lakott and tho 2007 book 7bo Po|ltlco| Btolo by Emory
Un|vors|ty psycho|og|st 0row Woston. 1ho tropos aro tam|||ar: ||bora|s aro gonorous to a tau|t (b|ood|ng hoarts'),
rat|ona|, |nto|||gont, opt|m|st|c, and appoa| to votors' roason through cogont argumonts, consorvat|vos aro st|ngy
(hoart|oss'), dour, and d|m-w|ttod author|tar|ans who appoa| to votors' omot|ons through throat and toarmongor|ng.
3ut consorvat|vos w|n most o|oct|ons bocauso ot tho|r Vach|avo|||an man|pu|at|on ot votors' omot|ona| bra|ns, and
thorotoro ||bora| po||t|c|ans nood to ramp up tho|r campa|gns w|th an appoa| to votors' hoarts |nstoad ot tho|r hoads.
lot on|y |s tho charactor|zat|on dr|von ont|ro|y by a ||bora| bo||ot b|as, but tho vory prom|so that consorvat|vos aro
w|nn|ng tho batt|o tor votors' hoarts |s orronoous. ln congross|ona| racos 0omocrats havo so|zod tho day: |n tho
3onato, 0omocrats odgod out lopub||cans 8,80b to 8,828 |n contost|ng 0,882 soats trom 18bb to 2000, and |n tho
|ouso, 0omocrats trouncod lopub||cans 1b,808 to 12,004 |n tho 27,000 soats contostod trom 18bb to 2000.
As tor tho porsona||ty tra|ts and tomporamont ot consorvat|vos vorsus ||bora|s, and tho supposod|y dour naturo ot
tho tormor, accord|ng to tho lat|ona| Op|n|on losoarch Contor's Ooooto| 5oclo| 5otvoys, 1072-2004, 44 porcont ot
poop|o who roportod bo|ng consorvat|vo' or vory consorvat|vo' sa|d thoy woro vory happy' vorsus on|y 2b porcont ot
poop|o who roportod bo|ng ||bora|' or vory ||bora|.' A 2007 Ga||up lo|| tound that b8 porcont ot lopub||cans vorsus
on|y 88 porcont ot 0omocrats sa|d that tho|r monta| hoath |s oxco||ont.' Ono roason may bo that consorvat|vos aro so
much moro gonorous than ||bora|s, g|v|ng 80 porcont moro monoy (ovon whon contro||od tor |ncomo), donat|ng moro
b|ood, and |ogg|ng moro vo|untoor hours. And |t |sn't bocauso consorvat|vos havo moro oxpondab|o |ncomo. 1ho
work|ng poor g|vo a substant|a||y h|ghor porcontago ot tho|r |ncomos to char|ty than any othor |ncomo group, and throo
t|mos moro than thoso on pub||c ass|stanco ot comparab|o |ncomo. ln othor words, povorty |s not a barr|or to char|ty,
but wo|taro |s.
b
Ono oxp|anat|on tor thoso t|nd|ngs |s that consorvat|vos bo||ovo char|ty shou|d bo pr|vato (through
nonprot|t organ|zat|ons) whoroas ||bora|s bo||ovo char|ty shou|d bo pub||c (through govornmont). |oro wo soo a
pattorn ot po||t|ca| party protoroncos groundod |n d|ttoront mora| toundat|ons, wh|ch wo w||| oxp|oro bo|ow.
Ono roason that ||bora|s charactor|zo consorvat|vos |n th|s mannor may bo tho ||bora| b|as ot acadom|c soc|a|
sc|ont|sts. 1o w|t, a 200b study by Goorgo Vason Un|vors|ty oconom|st 0an|o| K|o|n us|ng votor rog|strat|ons tound
that 0omocrats outnumborod lopub||cans by a staggor|ng rat|o ot 10 to 1 among tho tacu|ty at tho Un|vors|ty ot
Ca||torn|a-3orko|oy and by 7.0 to 1 among tho tacu|ty at 3tantord Un|vors|ty. ln tho human|t|os and soc|a| sc|oncos,
tho rat|o was 10 to 1 at both campusos (80 to 1 among ass|stant and assoc|ato protossors). ln somo dopartmonts,
such as anthropo|ogy and journa||sm, thoro wasn't a s|ng|o lopub||can to bo tound. 1ho rat|o tor a|| dopartmonts |n a||
co||ogos and un|vors|t|os throughout tho Un|tod 3tatos, sa|d K|o|n, |s 8 to 1 0omocrats ovor lopub||cans.
0
3m|th Co||ogo po||t|ca| sc|ont|st 3tan|oy lothman and h|s co||oaguos tound a s|m||ar b|as |n a 200b nat|ona| study:
on|y 1b porcont ot protossors doscr|bo thomso|vos as consorvat|vo, comparod to 72 porcont who sa|d thoy woro
||bora| (80 porcont |n human|t|os and soc|a| sc|oncos).
7
A moro nuancod nat|onw|do study conductod |n 2001 by
UClA's ||ghor Educat|on losoarch lnst|tuto tound that b.8 porcont ot tacu|ty mombors woro tar |ott, 42.8 porcont
woro ||bora|, 84.8 porcont woro m|dd|o ot tho road, 17.7 porcont woro consorvat|vo, and 0.8 porcont woro tar r|ght.
Compar|ng tho oxtromos |n th|s samp|o, thoro aro sovontoon t|mos moro tar |ott ||bora|s than tar r|ght consorvat|vos.
1ho b|as appoars ovon |n |aw schoo|s, whoro ono wou|d hopo tor a moro ba|ancod oducat|on |n our tuturo |awmakors.
ln 200b, lorthwostorn |aw protossor 1ohn VcG|nn|s survoyod tho tacu|t|os ot tho top twonty-ono |aw schoo|s ratod by
U.5. Nows & ot|o Ropott and tound that po||t|ca||y act|vo protossors ovorwho|m|ng|y tond to bo 0omocrat, w|th 81
porcont contr|but|ng who||y or prodom|nant|y' to 0omocrat|c campa|gns wh||o just 1b porcont d|d tho samo tor
lopub||cans.
8
112
1ho ||bora| s|ant a|so appoars to dom|nato many torms ot tho mod|a. A 200b study by UClA po||t|ca| sc|ont|st 1|m
Grosoc|oso and Un|vors|ty ot V|ssour| oconom|st 1ottroy V||yo moasurod mod|a b|as by count|ng tho t|mos that a
part|cu|ar mod|a out|ot c|tod var|ous th|nk tanks and po||cy groups, and thon comparod th|s w|th tho numbor ot t|mos
that mombors ot Congross c|tod tho samo groups. Our rosu|ts show a strong ||bora| b|as: a|| ot tho nows out|ots wo
oxam|no, oxcopt lox Nows` 5poclo| Ropott and tho osblogtoo 7lmos, roco|vod scoros to tho |ott ot tho avorago
mombor ot Congross.' lrod|ctab|y, tho CB5 Evoolog Nows and tho NowYotk 7lmos roco|vod scoros tar to tho |ott
ot contor.' 1ho throo most po||t|ca||y noutra| mod|a out|ots woro l33's Nowsloot, Cll's NowsNlgbt, and A3C's
Oooo Votolog Amotlco. lntorost|ng|y, tho most po||t|ca||y contr|st ot a|| nows sourcos was U5A 7oooy.
0
Ot courso, ||bora|s do not havo a monopo|y on po||t|ca| b|as. Whonovor l ||ston to consorvat|vo ta|k rad|o l t|nd |t
d|stross|ng|y oasy to prod|ct what tho hosts aro go|ng to say about X, ovon botoro thoy opon tho|r mouths to spoak,
and th|s |s tho caso tor whatovor X happons to bo: hoa|th caro, tho war |n lraq, abort|on, gun contro|, gay marr|ago,
g|oba| warm|ng, and most othor |ssuos. l don't ovon bothor to ||ston to lush l|mbaugh anymoro bocauso l a|roady
know what ho |s go|ng to say. 0|tto 3||| O'lo|||y, 3oan |ann|ty, and G|onn 3ock, who aro as prod|ctab|o as doath and
taxos, no|thor ono ot wh|ch thoy bo||ovo |n.
1ho po||t|ca| commontators who aro moro d|tt|cu|t to prod|ct aro tho onos who do not just too tho party ||no but soom
w||||ng to broak tho |doo|og|ca| pattorn |n rosponso to now data or a bottor thoory. An oxamp|o |s 0onn|s lraogor,
porhaps ow|ng to h|s oxtons|vo tra|n|ng |n tho rabb|n|ca| sty|o ot thought |n wh|ch oach mora| |ssuo |s to bo wo|ghod
carotu||y, dobatod oxtons|vo|y, and thought through doop|y. Ot courso, th|s moro nuancod sty|o may not appoa| to as
many ||stonors, and lraogor's show doos |ag boh|nd tho moro b|ack-and-wh|to consorvat|vo ta|k shows |n tho rat|ngs.
Androw 3u|||van and Chr|stophor ||tchons aro a|so d|tt|cu|t to prod|ct, but l attr|buto th|s to tho tact that both aro c|osor
to bo|ng ||bortar|an-soc|a||y ||bora| and oconom|ca||y consorvat|vo. lot p|ac|ng yourso|t squaro|y |n tho m|dd|o ot an
|doo|og|ca| pattorn makos |t oas|or to broak out ot that pattorn (and thus bo moro unprod|ctab|o). On tho opon|y
||bortar|an tront, 1ohn 3tosso| |s vory prod|ctab|o, but s|nco ho ochoos many ot my own |doo|og|ca| bo||ots l tond not to
not|co tho b|as.
And that's tho po|nt. lt's not that any ot thoso soc|a| commontators (or many othors-tho spoc|t|c oxamp|os aro not
|mportant) aro not or|g|na| th|nkors |n and ot thomso|vos, or that thoy aro not |nto|||gont, oducatod, and ||vo by tho
courago ot tho|r conv|ct|ons (thoy aro a|| ot thoso th|ngs and moro), |t |s that whon you strap on an |doo|og|ca| bo||ot
you s|ot yourso|t |nto a sot pattorn ot spoc|t|c pos|t|ons w|th|n that bo||ot and parrot thoso back to your soc|a| group-
tho aud|onco, |n tho caso ot pub||c |nto||octua|s-who ||ston most|y |n ordor to havo tho|r own |doo|og|ca| bo||ots
bo|storod.
PartIsan Hearts and PolItIcal MInds
ln tho|r book Pottlsoo lootts ooo Vloos, po||t|ca| sc|ont|sts 0ona|d Groon, 3rad|oy la|mqu|st, and Er|c 3ch|ck|or
domonstratod that most poop|o do not so|oct a po||t|ca| party bocauso |t rot|octs tho|r v|ows, |nstoad, thoy t|rst loootly
w|th a po||t|ca| pos|t|on, usua||y |nhor|tod trom tho|r paronts, poor groups, or upbr|ng|ng. Onco thoy havo mado a
comm|tmont to that po||t|ca| pos|t|on thoy chooso tho appropr|ato party and thon to||ow tho d|ctatos ot |t.
10
1h|s |s tho
powor ot po||t|ca| bo||ot, and |t shows |n tho vory tr|ba| naturo ot modorn po||t|cs and tho storootypos ot oach tr|bo.
Anyono who to||ows po||t|ca| commontary on a rogu|ar bas|s through tho standard channo|s ot ta|k rad|o and
to|ov|s|on, nowspapor and magaz|no od|tor|a|s, popu|ar books, b|ogs, v|ogs, twoots, and tho ||ko, knows tho standard
storootypo ot what ||bora|s th|nk ot consorvat|vos:
Coosotvotlvos oto o boocb o lommot-otlvlog, moot-ootlog, goo-totlog, smo||-govotomoot-ptomotlog, tox-ooctooslog, boto-otloklog,
Blb|o-tbomplog, b|ock-ooo-wblto-tbloklog, lst-poooolog, sboo-stomplog, moto||y oogmotlc b|owbotos.
And what consorvat|vos th|nk ot ||bora|s:
Llboto|s oto o boocb o bybtlo-otlvlog, too-ootlog, ttoo-bogglog, wbo|o-sovlog, soooo|-wootlog, blg-govotomoot-ptomotlog, tox-
loctooslog, bott|oo-wotot-otloklog, |lp-|opplog, wlsby-wosby, oomby-pomby boowottots.
3uch storootypos aro so |ngra|nod |nto our cu|turo that ovoryono undorstands thom and comod|ans and
commontators oxp|o|t thom. l|ko many storootypos, thoy both havo an o|omont ot truth to thom that rot|octs an
omphas|s on d|ttor|ng mora| va|uos, ospoc|a||y thoso wo dor|vo |ntu|t|vo|y. ln tact, rosoarch now ovorwho|m|ng|y
domonstratos that most ot our mora| doc|s|ons aro groundod |n automat|c mora| too||ngs rathor than do||borat|vo|y
rat|ona| ca|cu|at|ons. Wo do not roason our way to a mora| doc|s|on by carotu||y wo|gh|ng tho ov|donco tor and
aga|nst, |nstoad, wo mako |ntu|t|vo |oaps to mora| doc|s|ons and thon rat|ona||zo tho snap doc|s|on attor tho tact w|th
rat|ona| roasons. Our mora| |ntu|t|ons-rot|octod |n such consorvat|vo-||bora| storootypos-aro moro omot|ona| than
113
rat|ona|. As w|th most ot our bo||ots about most th|ngs |n ||to, our mora| bo||ots como t|rst, tho rat|ona||zat|on ot thoso
mora| bo||ots comos socond.
Accord|ng to 1onathan |a|dt, |n tact, such storootypos can bo bottor undorstood |n tho contoxt ot mora| |ntu|t|on
thoory,
11
wh|ch oxp|a|ns why wo havo a natura| avors|on to corta|n bohav|ors such as |ncost, ovon |t wo cannot
art|cu|ato thoso roasons. |or oxamp|o, road tho to||ow|ng sconar|o and cons|dor |t you th|nk tho act|ons ot tho
charactors aro mora||y accoptab|o or wrong:
1u||o and Vark aro brothor and s|stor. 1hoy aro travo||ng togothor |n |ranco on summor vacat|on trom co||ogo. Ono n|ght thoy aro
stay|ng a|ono |n a cab|n noar tho boach. 1hoy doc|do that |t wou|d bo |ntorost|ng and tun |t thoy tr|od mak|ng |ovo. At vory |oast |t wou|d
bo a now oxpor|onco tor oach ot thom. 1u||o was a|roady tak|ng b|rth contro| p|||s, but Vark usos a condom too, just to bo sato. 1hoy
both onjoy mak|ng |ovo, but thoy doc|do not to do |t aga|n. 1hoy koop that n|ght as a spoc|a| socrot, wh|ch makos thom too| ovon c|osor
to oach othor. What do you th|nk about that, was |t OK tor thom to mako |ovo?
A|most ovoryono who roads th|s v|gnotto, constructod by |a|dt to tost poop|o's mora| |ntu|t|ons, says that |t |s
mora||y wrong. Whon askod why, thoy g|vo answors such as 1u||o m|ght got prognant (but sho can't) or that |t w||| hurt
tho|r s|b||ng ro|at|onsh|p (but |t d|dn't), or that othors w||| t|nd out (but thoy won't). Evontua||y poop|o g|vo up roason|ng
and just b|urt out somoth|ng ||ko, l don't know. l can't oxp|a|n |t. l just know |t's wrong.'
12
|a|dt conc|udos trom th|s and s|m||ar rosoarch t|nd|ngs that wo havo mora| omot|ons that ovo|vod to ho|p us surv|vo
and roproduco. ln tho la|oo||th|c onv|ronmont ot our ancostors, |ncost |od to tho vory roa| prob|om ot gonot|c mutat|ons
trom c|oso |nbrood|ng. Ot courso, no ono botoro our gonorat|on undorstood tho undor|y|ng gonot|c roasons tor tho
|ncost taboo, but ovo|ut|on ondowod us w|th mora| omot|ons tor avo|d|ng c|oso soxua| ro|at|ons w|th our k|n and k|nd
through tho natura| so|oct|on aga|nst thoso who pract|cod |t oxtons|vo|y. |a|dt proposos that tho toundat|ons ot our
sonso ot r|ght and wrong rost w|th|n t|vo |nnato and un|vorsa||y ava||ab|o psycho|og|ca| systoms.
18
1. lotm/coto, ro|atod to our |ong ovo|ut|on as mamma|s w|th attachmont systoms and an ab|||ty to too| (and
d|s||ko) tho pa|n ot othors. Wo havo ovo|vod a doop sonso ot ompathy and sympathy tor othors as wo |mag|no
ourso|vos |n tho|r pos|t|on and what a s|tuat|on wou|d too| ||ko |t |t woro to happon to us. 1h|s toundat|on
undor||os such mora| v|rtuos as k|ndnoss, gont|onoss, and nurturanco.
2. loltooss/toclptoclty, ro|atod to tho ovo|ut|onary procoss ot roc|proca| a|tru|sm, |n wh|ch l'|| scratch your back |t
you'|| scratch m|no.' 1h|s ovontua||y ovo|vod |nto gonu|no too||ngs ot r|ght and wrong ovor ta|r and unta|r
oxchangos-a toundat|on that |oads to such po||t|ca| |doa|s ot just|co, r|ghts, and autonomy tor |nd|v|dua|s.
8. lo-gtoop/|oyo|ty, ro|atod to our |ong h|story as a tr|ba| spoc|os ab|o to torm sh|tt|ng coa||t|ons. Wo ovo|vod tho
propons|ty to torm w|th|n-group am|ty tor our to||ow tr|bosmon and botwoon-group onm|ty tor anyono |n anothor
group. 1h|s toundat|on croatos w|th|n a tr|bo a band-ot-brothors' ottoct and undor||os such v|rtuos as patr|ot|sm
and so|t-sacr|t|co tor tho group.
4. Aotbotlty/tospoct, shapod by our |ong pr|mato h|story ot h|orarch|ca| soc|a| |ntoract|ons. Wo ovo|vod a natura|
tondoncy to dotor to author|ty, show dotoronco to |oadors and oxports, and to||ow tho ru|os and d|ctatos g|von by
thoso abovo us |n soc|a| rank. 1h|s toundat|on undor||os such v|rtuos as |oadorsh|p and to||oworsh|p, |nc|ud|ng
ostoom tor |og|t|mato author|ty and rospoct tor trad|t|ons.
b. Potlty/sooctlty, shapod by tho psycho|ogy ot d|sgust and contam|nat|on. Wo ovo|vod omot|ons to d|roct us
toward tho c|oan and away trom tho d|rty. 1h|s toundat|on undor||os ro||g|ous not|ons ot str|v|ng to ||vo |n a |oss
carna| and moro o|ovatod and nob|o way, and |t omphas|zos tho bo||ot that tho body |s a tomp|o that can bo
dosocratod by |mmora| act|v|t|os and contam|nants.
Ovor tho yoars |a|dt and h|s Un|vors|ty ot v|rg|n|a co||oaguo 1osso Graham havo survoyod tho mora| op|n|ons ot
moro than 118,000 poop|o trom ovor a dozon d|ttoront countr|os and rog|ons around tho wor|d, and thoy havo tound
th|s cons|stont d|ttoronco botwoon ||bora|s and consorvat|vos: l|bora|s aro h|ghor than consorvat|vos on 1 and 2
(botm/coto and oltooss/toclptoclty), but |owor than consorvat|vos on 8, 4, and b (lo-gtoop/|oyo|ty, ootbotlty/tospoct,
and potlty/sooctlty). Consorvat|vos aro rough|y oqua| on a|| t|vo d|mons|ons: |owor than ||bora|s on 1 and 2 but h|ghor
on 8, 4, and b. (1ako tho survoy yourso|t at http://www.yourmora|s.org.) 1ho broakdown can bo soon |n t|guro 11.
114
Figuro 11. 1ho Fivo NoraI Foundationa
3asod on survoys ot tho mora| op|n|ons ot 118,240 poop|o trom moro than a dozon countr|os conductod by
1onathan |a|dt and 1osso Graham ot tho Un|vors|ty ot v|rg|n|a, thoro |s a cons|stont d|ttoronco botwoon ||bora|s
and consorvat|vos |n wh|ch ||bora|s scoro h|ghor than consorvat|vos on mora| toundat|ons numbors 1 and 2
(botm/coto and oltooss/toclptoclty), but scoro |owor than consorvat|vos on mora| toundat|ons numbors 8, 4, and
b (lo-gtoop/|oyo|ty, ootbotlty/tospoct, and potlty/sooctlty). Consorvat|vos aro rough|y oqua| on a|| t|vo d|mons|ons,
|owor than ||bora|s on 1 and 2 but h|ghor on 8, 4, and b. 1ho graph |s ot rosponsos to t|vo subsca|os ot tho Vora|
|oundat|ons Ouost|onna|ro. GlAl| COUl1E3Y O| 1OlA1|Al |Al01. 3UlvEY AvAllA3lE A1 www.yourmora|s.org.
ln othor words, ||bora|s quost|on author|ty, co|obrato d|vors|ty, and otton t|aunt ta|th and trad|t|on |n ordor to caro tor
tho woak and opprossod. 1hoy want chango and just|co ovon at tho r|sk ot po||t|ca| and oconom|c chaos. 3y contrast,
consorvat|vos omphas|zo |nst|tut|ons and trad|t|ons, ta|th and tam||y, and nat|on and crood. 1hoy want ordor ovon at
tho cost ot thoso at tho bottom ta|||ng through tho cracks. Ot courso, thoro aro oxcopt|ons to such gonora||zat|ons, but
tho po|nt horo |s that |nstoad ot v|ow|ng tho lott and tho l|ght as o|thor r|ght or wrong (dopond|ng on wh|ch ono you
aro), a moro rot|oct|vo approach |s to rocogn|zo that ||bora|s and consorvat|vos omphas|zo d|ttoront mora| va|uos and
tond to sort thomso|vos |nto thoso two c|ustors.
Cons|dor just ono study among many on tho ro|at|onsh|p botwoon gonoros|ty and tho ru|o ot |aw. ln a 2002
oxpor|mont by tho oconom|sts Ernst |ohr and 3|mon Gachtor on mora||st|c pun|shmont,' subjocts woro g|von tho
opportun|ty to pun|sh othors who rotuso to cooporato |n a group act|v|ty that ca||s tor a|tru|st|c g|v|ng. 1ho study
omp|oyod a cooporat|on gamo |n wh|ch tho subjocts cou|d g|vo monoy |nto a sharod commons. ln tho oxpor|monta|
cond|t|on |n wh|ch thoro was no pun|shmont tor troo r|d|ng' (poop|o cou|d roco|vo tho bonot|ts ot bo|ng |n tho group
w|thout g|v|ng anyth|ng |nto tho commons), tho oxpor|montors d|scovorod that cooporat|on among tho subjocts qu|ck|y
docayod w|th|n tho t|rst s|x rounds ot tho gamo. ln tho sovonth round |ohr and Gachtor |ntroducod a now cond|t|on |n
wh|ch subjocts woro a||owod to pun|sh troo r|dors by tak|ng monoy trom thom. 1h|s thoy d|d w|th |mpun|ty, wh|ch
|mmod|ato|y tr|ggorod a r|so |n tho |ovo|s ot cooporat|on and g|v|ng by tho tormor troo r|dors.
14
Conc|us|on: |n ordor tor
thoro to bo soc|a| harmony soc|oty noods to havo |n p|aco a systom that both oncouragos gonoros|ty and pun|shos
troo r|d|ng.
1horo aro two such systoms |n tho modorn wor|d-ro||g|on and govornmont-and both aroso about t|vo thousand to
sovon thousand yoars ago to moot tho noods ot soc|a| contro| and po||t|ca| harmony whon sma|| bands and tr|bos ot
huntor-gathorors, t|shormon, and hordors coa|oscod |nto much |argor ch|otdoms and statos ot agr|cu|tura||sts,
crattsmon, and tradosmon. Whon popu|at|ons bocamo too |argo tor |ntorma| moans ot soc|a| contro| (such as goss|p
and shunn|ng), ro||g|on and govornmont ovo|vod as soc|a| watchdogs and ontorcors ot tho ru|os.
1b
3oth consorvat|vos
and ||bora|s agroo that soc|oty noods ru|os, but tor most bohav|ors consorvat|vos protor moro pr|vato rogu|at|on
through ro||g|on, commun|ty, and tam||y wh||o ||bora|s tavor moro pub||c rogu|at|on through govornmont (oxcopt tor
soxua| moros, whon tho oppos|to |s tho caso). 1ho prob|om w|th both |nst|tut|ons |s that our mora| m|nds a|so ovo|vod
to un|to us |nto toams, d|v|do us aga|nst othor toams, and conv|nco ourso|vos that wo aro r|ght and othor groups aro
wrong. 1h|s tact has had d|ro consoquoncos, trom 0ocombor 7, 1041, to 3optombor 11, 2001.
Vy tavor|to oxamp|o ot tho tons|on croatod by thoso d|ttoroncos comos trom tho 1002 t||m A lowOooo Voo, wh|ch
115
l th|nk wo|| |||ustratos tho consorvat|vo-||bora| d|ttoroncos |n mora| toundat|ons. ln tho courtroom ond|ng, 1ack
l|cho|son's consorvat|vo mar|no co|ono| lathan l. 1ossup |s bo|ng cross-oxam|nod by 1om Cru|so's ||bora| navy
||outonant 0an|o| Kattoo, who |s dotond|ng two mar|nos accusod ot acc|donta||y k||||ng a to||ow so|d|or. Kattoo th|nks
1ossup ordorod a codo rod'-an ott-tho-books command to rough up a d|s|oya| mar|no tra|noo namod 3ant|ago who
was |n nood ot d|sc|p||no-and that mattors got trag|ca||y out ot hand. Kattoo wants |nd|v|dua| just|co tor h|s c||onts
ovon at tho cost ot group un|ty |n tho m|||tary. 1ossup wants troodom and socur|ty tor tho nat|on ovon at tho cost ot
|nd|v|dua| ||borty. Kattoo th|nks that ho |s ont|t|od' to tho truth,' but 1ossup suspocts that Kattoo can't hand|o tho
truth.' Why? 3ocauso, 1ossup oxp|a|ns,
3on, wo ||vo |n a wor|d that has wa||s. And thoso wa||s havo to bo guardod by mon w|th guns. Who's go|ng to do |t? You?. You don't
want tho truth bocauso doop down |n p|acos you don't ta|k about at part|os, you want mo on that wa||. You nood mo on that wa||. Wo
uso words ||ko booot, cooo, |oyo|ty. Wo uso thoso words as tho backbono to a ||to spont dotond|ng somoth|ng. You uso 'om as a
punch ||no. l havo no|thor tho t|mo nor tho |nc||nat|on to oxp|a|n myso|t to a man who r|sos and s|oops undor tho b|ankot ot tho vory
troodom that l prov|do, and thon quost|ons tho mannor |n wh|ch l prov|do |t. l wou|d rathor you just sa|d 'thank you' and wont on your
way. Othorw|so l suggost you p|ck up a woapon and stand a post. E|thor way, l don't g|vo a damn what you th|nk you aro ont|t|od to.
lorsona||y, l am cont||ctod, and that cont||ct rot|octs tho tact that thoro aro t|mos whon mora| bo||ots aro
|rroconc||ab|o, as |s tho caso horo. On tho ono hand, l |oan toward tho ||bora| omphas|s on |nd|v|dua| ta|rnoss, just|co,
and ||borty, and l worry that ovoromphas|s on group |oya|ty w||| tr|ggor our |nnor tr|ba||sm and |ts corrospond|ng
xonophob|a.
10
On tho othor hand, tho ov|donco trom h|story, anthropo|ogy, and ovo|ut|onary psycho|ogy rovoa|s just
how doop our tr|ba| |nst|ncts run. Good toncos mako good no|ghbors bocauso ov|| poop|o roa||y aro part ot tho mora|
|andscapo. l am a c|v|| ||bortar|an who ho|ds tho va|uo ot |nd|v|dua| ||borty and autonomy abovo a|most a|| othor va|uos,
but ovor s|nco 0/11, 7/7, 12/2b, and tho count|oss othor assau|ts on our ||bort|os by othor tr|bos, l am ospoc|a||y
gratotu| to a|| tho bravo so|d|ors on thoso wa||s who havo a||owod us to s|oop undor a b|ankot ot troodom.
1ragic, utoian, and RoaIiatic Viaiona ot Euman Naturo
ldont|ty|ng tho mora| va|uos that mako up tho bo||ots ot ||bora|s and consorvat|vos porhaps ho|ps attonuato our natura|
propons|ty to domon|zo thoso |n tho othor party as ov||. 1hrough undorstand|ng comos to|oranco. At |oast that's what
tho |doa||zod ||bora| c|rcu|ts |n my bra|n to|| mo. ln roa||ty, l strong|y suspoct that tho two-party systom ovo|vod as |t d|d
ovor tho contur|os bocauso ot tho natura| tondoncy to omphas|zo thoso oqua||y |mportant but otton |rroconc||ab|o mora|
va|uos.
loca|| trom chaptor 8 tho rosoarch by bohav|or gonot|c|sts on |dont|ca| tw|ns soparatod at b|rth and ra|sod |n
d|ttoront onv|ronmonts that tound that about 40 porcont ot tho var|anco |n tho|r ro||g|ous att|tudos was accountod tor by
tho|r gonos. 1hoso samo stud|os a|so showod that about 40 porcont ot tho var|anco |n tho|r po||t|ca| att|tudos |s duo to
|nhor|tanco.
17
Ot courso, just ||ko gonos do not codo tor part|cu|ar ro||g|ous ta|ths, wo don't |nhor|t po||t|ca| party
att|||at|on d|roct|y. lnstoad, gonos codo tor tomporamont and poop|o tond to sort thomso|vos |nto tho |ott and r|ght
c|ustors ot mora| va|uos basod on tho|r porsona||ty protoroncos, w|th ||bora|s omphas|z|ng tho botm/coto and
oltooss/toclptoclty va|uos and consorvat|vos undorscor|ng tho lo-gtoop/|oyo|ty, ootbotlty/tospoct, and potlty/sooctlty
va|uos. 1h|s wou|d oxp|a|n why poop|o aro so prod|ctab|o |n tho|r bo||ots on such a w|do rango ot |ssuos that aro
soom|ng|y unconnoctod-why somoono who bo||ovos that tho govornmont shou|d stay out ot tho pr|vato bodroom
novortho|oss bo||ovos that tho govornmont shou|d bo doop|y |nvo|vod |n pr|vato bus|noss, why somoono who bo||ovos
that taxos shou|d bo |oworod novortho|oss wants to spond hoav||y on m|||tary, po||co, and tho jud|c|a| systom.
ln h|s book A Coo|lct o Vlsloos, oconom|st 1homas 3owo|| arguod that thoso two c|ustors ot mora| va|uos aro
|nt|mato|y ||nkod to tho v|s|on ono ho|ds about human naturo, o|thor as constra|nod (consorvat|vo) or unconstra|nod
(||bora|). |o ca||od thoso tho coosttolooo vlsloo and tho oocoosttolooo vlsloo. 3owo|| showod that controvors|os ovor
a numbor ot soom|ng|y unro|atod soc|a| |ssuos such as taxos, wo|taro, 3oc|a| 3ocur|ty, hoa|th caro, cr|m|na| just|co,
and war ropoatod|y rovoa| a cons|stont |doo|og|ca| d|v|d|ng ||no a|ong thoso two cont||ct|ng v|s|ons. lt human opt|ons
aro not |nhoront|y constra|nod, thon tho prosonco ot such ropugnant and d|sastrous phonomona v|rtua||y cr|os out tor
oxp|anat|on-and tor so|ut|ons. 3ut |t tho ||m|tat|ons and pass|ons ot man h|mso|t aro at tho hoart ot thoso pa|ntu|
phonomona, thon what roqu|ros oxp|anat|on aro tho ways |n wh|ch thoy havo boon avo|dod or m|n|m|zod.'
Wh|ch ot thoso naturos you bo||ovo |s truo w||| |argo|y shapo wh|ch so|ut|ons to soc|a| |||s you th|nk w||| bo most
ottoct|vo. ln tho unconstra|nod v|s|on, thoro aro no |ntractab|o roasons tor soc|a| ov||s and thorotoro no roason why
thoy cannot bo so|vod, w|th sutt|c|ont mora| comm|tmont. 3ut |n tho constra|nod v|s|on, whatovor art|t|cos or stratog|os
rostra|n or amo||orato |nhoront human ov||s w||| thomso|vos havo costs, somo |n tho torm ot othor soc|a| |||s croatod by
thoso c|v|||z|ng |nst|tut|ons, so that a|| that |s poss|b|o |s a prudont trado-ott.'
lt's not that consorvat|vos th|nk wo'ro ov|| and ||bora|s bo||ovo wo'ro good. lmp||c|t |n tho unconstra|nod v|s|on |s tho
116
not|on that tho potont|a| |s vory d|ttoront trom tho actua|, and that moans ox|st to |mprovo human naturo toward |ts
potont|a|, or that such moans can bo ovo|vod or d|scovorod, so that man w||| do tho r|ght th|ng tor tho r|ght roason,
rathor than tor u|tor|or psych|c or oconom|c rowards,' 3owo|| o|aboratod. Van |s, |n short, 'portoct|b|o'-moan|ng
cont|nua||y |mprovab|o rathor than capab|o ot actua||y roach|ng abso|uto portoct|on.'
18
ln h|s mastorp|oco ana|ys|s ot human naturo, 7bo B|ook 5|oto, |arvard psycho|og|st 3tovon l|nkor ro|abo|od thoso
two v|s|ons tho 7toglc Vlsloo and tho Utoploo Vlsloo, and rocont|guros thom s||ght|y:
1ho Utop|an v|s|on sooks to art|cu|ato soc|a| goa|s and dov|so po||c|os that targot thom d|roct|y: oconom|c |noqua||ty |s attackod |n a
war on povorty, po||ut|on by onv|ronmonta| rogu|at|ons, rac|a| |mba|ancos by protoroncos, carc|nogons by bans on tood add|t|vos. 1ho
1rag|c v|s|on po|nts to tho so|t-|ntorostod mot|vos ot tho poop|o who wou|d |mp|omont thoso po||c|os-namo|y, tho oxpans|on ot tho|r
buroaucrat|c t|otdoms-and to tho|r |nopt|tudo at ant|c|pat|ng tho myr|ad consoquoncos, ospoc|a||y whon tho soc|a| goa|s aro p|ttod
aga|nst m||||ons ot poop|o pursu|ng tho|r own |ntorosts.
1ho d|st|nct |ott-r|ght d|v|do cons|stont|y c|oavos tho (rospoct|vo|y) Utop|an v|s|on and 1rag|c v|s|on a|ong
numorous spoc|t|c contosts, such as tho s|zo ot tho govornmont (b|g vorsus sma||), tho amount ot taxat|on (h|gh vorsus
|ow), trado (ta|r vorsus troo), hoa|th caro (un|vorsa| vorsus |nd|v|dua|), onv|ronmont (protoct |t vorsus |oavo |t a|ono),
cr|mo (causod by soc|a| |njust|co vorsus causod by cr|m|na| m|nds), tho const|tut|on (jud|c|a| act|v|sm tor soc|a| just|co
vorsus str|ct construct|on|sm tor or|g|na| |ntont), and many othors.
10
lorsona||y l agroo w|th 3owo|| and l|nkor that tho unconstra|nod v|s|on |s utop|an, wh|ch |n |ts or|g|na| Grook
moans no p|aco.' An unconstra|nod utop|an v|s|on ot human naturo |argo|y accopts tho b|ank-s|ato modo| and
bo||ovos that custom, |aw, and trad|t|ona| |nst|tut|ons aro sourcos ot |noqua||ty and |njust|co and shou|d thorotoro bo
hoav||y rogu|atod and constant|y mod|t|od trom tho top down, |t ho|ds that soc|oty can bo ong|noorod through
govornmont programs to ro|oaso tho natura| unso|t|shnoss and a|tru|sm w|th|n poop|o, |t dooms phys|ca| and
|nto||octua| d|ttoroncos |argo|y to bo tho rosu|t ot unjust and unta|r soc|a| systoms that can bo roong|noorod through
soc|a| p|ann|ng, and thorotoro poop|o can bo shutt|od across soc|ooconom|c c|assos that woro art|t|c|a||y croatod
through unta|r and unjust po||t|ca|, oconom|c, and soc|a| systoms |nhor|tod trom h|story. l bo||ovo that th|s vors|on ot
human naturo ox|sts |n ||tora||y oo p|oco.
A|though somo ||bora|s ombraco just such a v|s|on ot human naturo, l strong|y suspoct that whon pushod on spoc|t|c
|ssuos most ||bora|s roa||zo that human bohav|or |s constra|nod to a corta|n dogroo-ospoc|a||y thoso oducatod |n tho
b|o|og|ca| and ovo|ut|onary sc|oncos who aro awaro ot tho rosoarch |n bohav|or gonot|cs. 1horotoro, tho dobato turns
o n oogtoos ot constra|nt. lathor than thoro bo|ng two d|st|nct and unamb|guous catogor|os ot constra|nod and
unconstra|nod (or trag|c and utop|an) v|s|ons ot human naturo, l th|nk thoro |s just ono v|s|on w|th a s||d|ng sca|o. lot's
ca|| th|s tho Roo|lstlc Vlsloo.
lt you bo||ovo that human naturo |s part|y constra|nod |n a|| rospocts-mora||y, phys|ca||y, and |nto||octua||y-thon you
ho|d a loa||st|c v|s|on ot human naturo. ln koop|ng w|th tho rosoarch trom bohav|ora| gonot|cs and ovo|ut|onary
psycho|ogy, |ot's put a numbor on that constra|nt at 40 to b0 porcont. ln tho loa||st|c v|s|on, human naturo |s ro|at|vo|y
constra|nod by our b|o|ogy and ovo|ut|onary h|story, and thorotoro soc|a| and po||t|ca| systoms must bo structurod
around thoso roa||t|os, accontuat|ng tho pos|t|vo and attonuat|ng tho nogat|vo aspocts ot our naturos. A loa||st|c
v|s|on rojocts tho b|ank-s|ato modo| that poop|o aro so ma||oab|o and rospons|vo to soc|a| programs that
govornmonts can ong|noor tho|r ||vos |nto a groat soc|oty ot |ts dos|gn, and |nstoad bo||ovos that tam||y, custom, |aw,
and trad|t|ona| |nst|tut|ons aro tho bost sourcos tor soc|a| harmony. 1ho loa||st|c v|s|on rocogn|zos tho nood tor str|ct
mora| oducat|on through paronts, tam||y, tr|onds, and commun|ty mombors bocauso poop|o havo a dua| naturo ot
bo|ng so|t|sh and so|t|oss, compot|t|vo and cooporat|vo, groody and gonorous, and so wo nood ru|os and gu|do||nos
and oncouragomont to do tho r|ght th|ng. 1ho loa||st|c v|s|on acknow|odgos that poop|o vary w|do|y both phys|ca||y
and |nto||octua||y-|n |argo part bocauso ot natura| |nhor|tod d|ttoroncos-and thorotoro w||| r|so (or ta||) to tho|r natura|
|ovo|s. 1horotoro govornmonta| rod|str|but|on programs aro not on|y unta|r to thoso trom whom tho woa|th |s
cont|scatod and rod|str|butod, but tho a||ocat|on ot tho woa|th to thoso who d|d not oarn |t cannot and w||| not work to
oqua||zo thoso natura| |noqua||t|os.
l th|nk most modoratos on both tho lott and tho l|ght ombraco a loa||st|c v|s|on ot human naturo. 1hoy shou|d, as
shou|d tho oxtrom|sts on both onds, bocauso tho ov|donco trom psycho|ogy, anthropo|ogy, oconom|cs, and ospoc|a||y
ovo|ut|onary thoory and |ts app||cat|on to a|| throo ot thoso sc|oncos supports |t. 1horo aro at |oast a dozon ||nos ot
ov|donco that convorgo to th|s conc|us|on:
20
1. C|oar and quant|tat|vo phys|ca| d|ttoroncos among poop|o |n s|zo, strongth, spood, ag|||ty, coord|nat|on, and
othor phys|ca| attr|butos trans|ato |nto somo bo|ng moro succosstu| than othors, at |oast ha|t ot thoso d|ttoroncos
aro |nhor|tod.
2. C|oar and quant|tat|vo |nto||octua| d|ttoroncos among poop|o |n momory, prob|om-so|v|ng ab|||ty, cogn|t|vo
117
spood, mathomat|ca| ta|ont, spat|a| roason|ng, vorba| sk|||s, omot|ona| |nto|||gonco, and othor monta| attr|butos
trans|ato |nto somo bo|ng moro succosstu| than othors, at |oast ha|t ot thoso d|ttoroncos aro |nhor|tod.
8. Ev|donco trom bohav|ora| gonot|cs and tw|n stud|os |nd|cato that 40 to b0 porcont ot tho var|anco among
poop|o |n tomporamont, porsona||ty, and many po||t|ca|, oconom|c, and soc|a| protoroncos aro accountod tor by
gonot|cs.
4. |a||od commun|st and soc|a||st oxpor|monts around tho wor|d throughout tho twont|oth contury rovoa|od that
top-down dracon|an contro|s ovor oconom|c and po||t|ca| systoms do not work.
b. |a||od communos and utop|an commun|ty oxpor|monts tr|od at var|ous p|acos throughout tho wor|d ovor tho
past 1b0 yoars domonstratod that poop|o by naturo do not adhoro to tho Varx|an pr|nc|p|o trom oach
accord|ng to h|s ab|||ty, to oach accord|ng to h|s nood.'
0. |am||y t|os aro powortu| and tho connoctodnoss botwoon b|ood ro|at|vos |s doop. Commun|t|os who havo tr|od
to broak up tho tam||y and havo ch||dron ra|sod by othors prov|do countorov|donco to tho c|a|m that |t takos a
v|||ago' to ra|so a ch||d. 1ho cont|nuod pract|co ot nopot|sm turthor ro|ntorcos tho pract|co that b|ood |s th|ckor
than wator.'
7. 1ho pr|nc|p|o ot roc|proca| a|tru|sm-l'|| scratch your back |t you'|| scratch m|no-|s un|vorsa|, poop|o do not by
naturo g|vo gonorous|y un|oss thoy roco|vo somoth|ng |n roturn, ovon |t what thoy roco|vo |s on|y soc|a| status.
8. 1ho pr|nc|p|o ot mora||st|c pun|shmont-l'|| pun|sh you |t you do not scratch my back attor l havo scratchod
yours-|s un|vorsa|, poop|o do not |ong to|orato troo r|dors who cont|nua||y tako but a|most novor g|vo.
0. ||orarch|ca| soc|a| structuros aro a|most un|vorsa|. Ega||tar|an|sm works (baro|y) on|y among t|ny bands ot
huntor-gathorors |n rosourco-poor onv|ronmonts whoro thoro |s noxt to no pr|vato proporty. Whon a proc|ous
gamo an|ma| |s huntod, oxtons|vo r|tua|s and ro||g|ous coromon|os aro roqu|rod to onsuro oqua| shar|ng ot tho
tood.
10. Aggross|on, v|o|onco, and dom|nanco aro a|most un|vorsa|, part|cu|ar|y among young ma|os sook|ng
rosourcos, womon, and ospoc|a||y status. 3tatus sook|ng |n part|cu|ar oxp|a|ns many horototoro unoxp|a|nod
phonomona, such as h|gh r|sk tak|ng, cost|y g|tts, oxcoss|vo gonoros|ty boyond ono's moans, and ospoc|a||y
attont|on sook|ng.
11. W|th|n-group am|ty and botwoon-group onm|ty aro a|most un|vorsa|. 1ho ru|o ot thumb |s to trust |n-group
mombors unt|| thoy provo to bo d|strusttu|, and to d|strust out-group mombors unt|| thoy provo to bo trusttu|.
12. 1ho dos|ro ot poop|o to trado w|th ono anothor |s a|most un|vorsa|-not tor tho so|t|oss bonot|t ot othors or tho
soc|oty, but tor tho so|t|sh bonot|t ot ono's own k|n and k|nd, |t |s an un|ntondod consoquonco that trado
ostab||shos trust botwoon strangors and |owors botwoon-group onm|ty, as wo|| as producos groator woa|th tor
both trad|ng partnors and groups.
1ho toundors ot our ropub||c ostab||shod our systom ot govornmont as thoy d|d basod on th|s loa||st|c v|s|on ot
human naturo. 1ho tons|on botwoon |nd|v|dua| ||borty and soc|a| cohos|vonoss can novor bo roso|vod to ovoryono's
sat|stact|on, and so tho mora| pondu|um sw|ngs |ott and r|ght, and po||t|cs |s p|ayod most|y botwoon tho two torty-yard
||nos ot tho po||t|ca| p|ay|ng t|o|d. 1h|s tons|on botwoon troodom and socur|ty, |n tact, wou|d oxp|a|n why th|rd part|os
havo such a d|tt|cu|t t|mo t|nd|ng a tooho|d on tho po||t|ca| rock taco ot Amor|ca, and typ|ca||y crator attor an o|oct|on or
cowor |n tho shadows ot two bohomoths that havo como to dot|no tho |ott-r|ght systom. ln Europo, whoro th|rd, tourth,
and ovon t|tth part|os roco|vo substant|a| support at tho po||s, thoy aro, |n tact, baro|y d|st|ngu|shab|o trom tho part|os
on o|thor s|do ot thom, and po||t|ca| sc|ont|sts t|nd that thoy can oas||y c|ass|ty thom as |argo|y omphas|z|ng o|thor
||bora| or consorvat|vo va|uos. |a|dt's data on tho d|ttor|ng toundat|ona| va|uos ot Amor|can ||bora|s and consorvat|vos,
|n tact, oxtond to a|| countr|os that havo boon tostod, and tho chart ||nos trom country to country aro v|rtua||y
|nd|st|ngu|shab|o trom ono anothor.
l bo||ovo that tho loa||st|c v|s|on ot human naturo |s what 1amos Vad|son was th|nk|ng ot whon ho ponnod h|s
tamous d|ctum |n |odora||st lapor lumbor b1': lt mon woro ango|s, no govornmont wou|d bo nocossary. lt ango|s
woro to govorn mon, no|thor oxtorna| nor |ntorna| contro|s on govornmont wou|d bo nocossary.'
21
Abraham l|nco|n a|so
had somoth|ng ||ko tho loa||st|c v|s|on |n m|nd whon ho wroto |n h|s t|rst |naugura| addross |n Varch 1801, on tho ovo
ot tho b|ood|ost cont||ct |n our nat|on's h|story: 1hough pass|on may havo stra|nod, |t must not broak our bonds ot
attoct|on. 1ho myst|c chords ot momory, strotch|ng trom ovory batt|ot|o|d and patr|ot gravo to ovory ||v|ng hoart and
hoarthstono a|| ovor th|s broad |and, w||| yot swo|| tho chorus ot tho Un|on, whon aga|n touchod, as suro|y thoy w||| bo,
by tho bottor ango|s ot our naturo.'
22
Lott, Right, and Ott tho Charta
118
ln my loa|po||t|k modo, l do not soo th|s |ott-r|ght systom chang|ng any t|mo soon bocauso |t |s so doop|y groundod |n
our ovo|vod human naturos as oxh|b|tod |n tho t|vo mora| toundat|ons and as ov|doncod by tho two|vo ||nos ot ov|donco
tor tho loa||st|c v|s|on. ln my ldoa|po||t|k
28
modo, howovor, l havo tound a po||t|ca| pos|t|on boyond tho trad|t|ona| |ott-
r|ght spoctrum that wo|| su|ts my bo||ots and tomporamont, and th|s |s ca||od |lbottotloo. l|bortar|an? l know what
you'ro th|nk|ng:
Llbottotloos oto o boocb o o|octtlc-cot otlvlog, osloo-ooo ootlog, pot-smoklog, poto-wotcblog, ptostltotloo-soppottlog, go|o-bootolog,
goo-stosblog, Coostltotloo-wovlog, socossloo-moogotlog, tox-tovo|tlog, ootl-govotomoot oootcblsts.
Yos, ||ko tho othor two storootypos, thoro |s somo o|omont ot truth |n th|s ono as wo||. 3ut, bas|ca||y, ||bortar|ans aro
tor troodom and ||borty tor |nd|v|dua|s, and yot wo rocogn|zo that |n ordor to bo troo wo must a|so bo protoctod. Your
troodom to sw|ng your arms onds at my noso. As 1ohn 3tuart V||| oxp|a|nod |n h|s 18b0 book Oo Llbotty, 1ho so|o
ond tor wh|ch mank|nd aro warrantod, |nd|v|dua||y or co||oct|vo|y, |n |ntortor|ng w|th tho ||borty ot act|on ot any ot tho|r
numbor, |s so|t-protoct|on. 1hat tho on|y purposo tor wh|ch powor can bo r|ghttu||y oxorc|sod ovor any mombor ot a
c|v|||zod commun|ty, aga|nst h|s w|||, |s to provont harm to othors.'
24
1ho dovo|opmont ot domocracy was an |mportant
stop to dotoat|ng tho tytoooy o tbo moglsttoto that ro|gnod tor contur|os |n Europoan monarch|os, but as V||| notod,
tho prob|om w|th domocracy |s that |t can |oad to tho tytoooy o tbo mojotlty: 1horo noods protoct|on a|so aga|nst tho
tyranny ot tho prova|||ng op|n|on and too||ng, aga|nst tho tondoncy ot soc|oty to |mposo, by othor moans than c|v||
pona|t|os, |ts own |doas and pract|cos as ru|os ot conduct on thoso who d|ssont trom thom, to tottor tho dovo|opmont
and, |t poss|b|o, provont tho tormat|on ot any |nd|v|dua||ty not |n harmony w|th |ts ways, and compo| a|| charactors to
tash|on thomso|vos upon tho modo| ot |ts own.'
2b
1h|s |s, |n tact, why our country's toundors producod tho 3||| ot l|ghts.
1hoso aro r|ghts that cannot bo takon away no mattor how b|g tho major|ty |n a domocrat|c o|oct|on.
l|bortar|an|sm |s groundod |n tho Ptloclp|o o ltoooom. o|| poop|o oto too to tblok, bo|lovo, ooo oct os tboy
cbooso, so |oog os tboy oo oot lotlogo oo tbo oqoo| toooom o otbots. Ot courso, tho dov|| |s |n tho dota||s ot what
const|tutos |ntr|ngomont,' but thoro aro at |oast a dozon ossont|a|s to ||borty and troodom that nood sh|o|d|ng trom
oncroachmont:
1. 1ho ru|o ot |aw.
2. lroporty r|ghts.
8. Econom|c stab|||ty through a socuro and trustworthy bank|ng and monotary systom.
4. A ro||ab|o |ntrastructuro and tho troodom to movo about tho country.
b. |roodom ot spooch and tho pross.
0. |roodom ot assoc|at|on.
7. Vass oducat|on.
8. lrotoct|on ot c|v|| ||bort|os.
0. A robust m|||tary tor protoct|on ot our ||bort|os trom attacks by othor statos.
10. A potont po||co torco tor protoct|on ot our troodoms trom attacks by othor poop|o w|th|n tho stato.
11. A v|ab|o |og|s|at|vo systom tor ostab||sh|ng ta|r and just |aws.
12. An ottoct|vo jud|c|a| systom tor tho oqu|tab|o ontorcomont ot thoso ta|r and just |aws.
1hoso ossont|a|s |ncorporato tho mora| va|uos ombracod by both ||bora|s and consorvat|vos, and as such torm tho
toundat|on tor a br|dgo botwoon tho lott and tho l|ght. W||| tho l|bortar|an larty ovor grow |argo onough to cha||ongo
tho two dom|nant po||t|ca| part|os and torm a v|ab|o throo-party systom? l doubt |t, tor tho vory roason that ||bortar|ans
tond to d|s||ko |argo and powortu| po||t|ca| part|os. Organ|z|ng ||bortar|ans |s ||ko hord|ng cats. lovortho|oss, |n tho
contoxt ot tho pattorn ot po||t|ca| part|os and tho mora| va|uos on wh|ch thoy aro basod, tho ||bortar|an pos|t|on |s just a
roshutt||ng ot tho toundat|ons ot tho othor two. loth|ng now noods to bo |nvontod or |ntroducod |nto tho systom. 1hoso
aro va|uos doop|y |ngra|nod |n our naturo and thus w||| ||ko|y roma|n a ro|at|vo|y pormanont part ot tuturo po||t|ca|
pattorns.
BoIiot and 1ruth
3o||ot statomonts |n po||t|cs aro not a|ways tho samo as bo||ot statomonts |n sc|onco. Whon l say, l bo||ovo |n
ovo|ut|on' or l bo||ovo |n tho b|g bang,' th|s |s somoth|ng d|ttoront than whon l say, l bo||ovo |n a t|at tax' or l bo||ovo |n
||bora| domocracy.' E|thor ovo|ut|on and tho b|g bang happonod or thoy d|d not, and tho ovorwho|m|ng ov|donco |s that
thoy d|d. 1ho mattor ot tho or|g|n ot spoc|os and tho or|g|n ot tho un|vorso aro, |n pr|nc|p|o, puzz|os that can bo so|vod
w|th moro data and bottor thoory. 3ut tho mattor ot tho r|ght torm ot taxat|on or govornmonta| structuro doponds on tho
119
ovora|| goa|s to bo accomp||shod, and tor that moro data and bottor thoory can ho|p us on|y onco tho goa| has boon
ostab||shod. 1ho dotorm|nat|on ot that ovorarch|ng po||t|ca| goa|, howovor, doponds on tho vory subjoct|vo procoss ot
po||t|ca| dobato |n wh|ch both s|dos bu||d a caso tor what thoy th|nk |s tho bottor way to ||vo. l happon to th|nk that a t|at
tax |s a much ta|ror systom than a progross|vo tax, bocauso l don't th|nk that poop|o shou|d bo pun|shod w|th h|ghor
taxos just bocauso thoy oarn moro |ncomo through hard work and croat|v|ty. 3ut my ||bora| tr|onds arguo that a
progross|vo tax |s ta|ror bocauso poop|o |owor on tho |ncomo sca|o aro h|t hardor by tho samo tax rato than poop|o
h|ghor on tho |ncomo sca|o.
A|though sc|onco may not bo ab|o to adjud|cato such |ssuos ot ta|rnoss to ovoryono's sat|stact|on, a caso can and
shou|d bo mado tor sc|onco |ntorm|ng po||t|ca| bo||ots-somot|mos bo||ot statomonts |n po||t|cs aro not d|ss|m||ar trom
bo||ot statomonts |n sc|onco. l havo crossod th|s boundary myso|t many t|mos, most notab|y |n 7bo 5clooco o Oooo
ooo Evl| and 7bo Vloo o tbo Votkot. l rojoct |n pract|co tho oototo|lstlc o||ocy (somot|mos ca||od tho ls-oogbt
o||ocy), wh|ch ho|ds that tho ls shou|d not dotorm|no tho oogbt, that tbo woy tblogs oto |s not nocossar||y bowtboy
sboo|o bo, or that just bocauso somoth|ng |s oototo| doos not mako |t tlgbt. 3omot|mos that |s tho caso, but
somot|mos |t |s not tho caso. l t|rm|y bo||ovo that how wo structuro soc|oty shou|d bo |ntormod by and ovon basod on a
loa||st|c v|s|on ot human naturo and tho two|vo ||nos ot ov|donco l prosontod tor |t, tho ta||od commun|st and soc|a||st
oxpor|monts domonstrato what happons whon you |gnoro tho way th|ngs aro natura||y-poop|o d|o by tho hundrods ot
m||||ons.
Anothor oxamp|o ot cross|ng tho |s-ought d|v|do can bo tound |n 1|mothy |orr|s's book 7bo 5clooco o Llbotty, |n
wh|ch ho wods domocracy and sc|onco.
20
|orr|s arguos, tor oxamp|o, that tho po||t|ca| bo||ot ot 1ohn locko that
poop|o shou|d bo troatod oqua||y undor tho |aw-wh|ch tactorod hoav||y |n tho construct|on ot tho U.3. Const|tut|on-
was an untostod thoory |n tho sovontoonth contury. lt cou|d havo boon ta|s|t|od. Wo cou|d havo g|von womon and
b|acks tho voto and d|scovorod that domocracy doosn't work un|oss |t |s pract|cod by wh|to ma|os on|y, wh|ch |t was at
tho t|mo ot locko. 3ut that |s not what happonod. Wo ran tho oxpor|mont and tho rosu|ts woro unoqu|voca||y pos|t|vo.
l|bora||sm and sc|onco aro mothods, not |doo|og|os,' |orr|s oxp|a|nod to mo whon l |n|t|a||y doubtod h|s thos|s by
suggost|ng o|| po||t|ca| bo||ots aro |doo|og|os. 3oth |ncorporato toodback |oops through wh|ch act|ons (o.g., |aws) can
bo ova|uatod to soo whothor thoy cont|nuo to moot w|th gonora| approva|. lo|thor sc|onco nor ||bora||sm makos any
doctr|na|ro c|a|ms boyond tho ott|cacy ot tho|r rospoct|vo mothods-that |s, that sc|onco obta|ns know|odgo and that
||bora||sm producos soc|a| ordors gonora||y accoptab|o to troo poop|os.' 3ut, l rojo|nod, aron't a|| po||t|ca| c|a|ms typos
ot bo|los? lo, |orr|s rospondod: 1o put |t anothor way, (c|ass|ca|) ||bora||sm |s not a bo||ot. lt was a proposod
mothod, wh|ch cou|d oas||y havo boon tound want|ng |n pract|co. As |t has |nstoad succoodod, |t dosorvos support.
3o||ot |s not roqu|rod at any stop a|ong tho way-oxcopt |n tho sonso, say, that 1ohn locko 'bo||ovod' (or rathor
roasonab|y thought) that ho was on to somoth|ng prom|s|ng.'
27
Untortunato|y, not ovoryono agroos that tho ovora|| goa| ot a soc|oty shou|d bo groator oqua||ty, ||borty, troodom,
woa|th, and prospor|ty tor moro poop|o |n moro p|acos moro ot tho t|mo, as commontators such as myso|t, 1|mothy
|orr|s, and most othor Wostorn obsorvors bo||ovo. 3omo soc|ot|os-oxtromo ls|am|c thoocrac|os, tor oxamp|o-
bo||ovo that too much oqua||ty, ||borty, troodom, woa|th, and prospor|ty |oads to docadonco, ||cont|ousnoss,
prom|scu|ty, pornography, prost|tut|on, toon prognancy, su|c|dos, abort|ons, 310s, and sox, drugs, and rock 'n' ro||. Ed
|usa|n roca||od |n 7bo ls|omlst, h|s book about ls|am|c oxtrom|sm and h|s |ndoctr|nat|on |nto tho Vus||m brothorhood
|n 3r|ta|n, that tho|r motto was 1ho Ouran ls Our Const|tut|on, 1lboo ls Our Way, Vartyrdom ls Our 0os|ro.' Ono co||
mombor to|d h|m: 0omocracy |s botom! |orb|ddon |n ls|am. 0on't you know that? 0omocracy |s a Grook concopt,
rootod |n oomos and ktotos-poop|o's ru|o. ln ls|am, wo don't ru|o, A||ah ru|os.. 1ho wor|d today suttors trom tho
ma||gnant cancors ot troodom and domocracy.'
28
3omo ls|am|sts ho|d as a h|ghor goa| obod|onco to God and h|s ho|y book, wh|ch |oads thom to bo||ovo |n a r|g|d
and h|orarch|ca| soc|a| structuro |n wh|ch, tor oxamp|o, womon shou|d oboy mon, shou|d bo pun|shod tor adu|tory by
tho doath pona|ty, and shou|d bo troatod undor tho |aw as proporty ||tt|o d|ttoront trom chatto| or catt|o. ln tho words ot
tho lak|stan| journa||st and pro-ls|am|c |doo|oguo Abu| A|a Vawdud|: ls|am wants tho who|o oarth and doos not
contont |tso|t w|th on|y a part thoroot. lt wants and roqu|ros tho ont|ro |nhab|tod wor|d.. lt |s not sat|st|od by a p|oco ot
|and but domands tho who|o un|vorso [and| doos not hos|tato to ut|||zo tho moans ot war to |mp|omont |ts goa|.'
20
Wh||o sc|onco and ||borty go hand |n hand, what do you say to somoono who doos not bo||ovo |n o|thor? 7ty
wloolog oo o|octloo,' |s what 1|mothy |orr|s wou|d to|| thom, a|though th|s wou|d ||ko|y ta|| on doat oars s|nco such
poop|o aro a|most novor ab|o to do so |n a troo and ta|r domocrat|c o|oct|on. lovortho|oss, |orr|s to|d mo that ho |s
opt|m|st|c about tho tuturo ot domocracy: ln pract|co thoro |s moro consonsus around tho wor|d than |s gonora||y
roa||zod-at |oast w|th|n thoso parts ot tho wor|d that havo roasonab|y troo mod|a so that poop|o can mako tact-basod
doc|s|ons. lt |s not tho caso, tor |nstanco, that Vus||m countr|os 'bo||ovo' that woa|th and troodom aro undos|rab|o. 1hat
120
pos|t|on, takon by rad|ca| ls|am|sts, appoa|s to but a sma|| m|nor|ty. lo||s ropoatod|y show that tho major|ty ot Vus||ms
who do not a|roady ||vo |n domocrat|c countr|os protor ||bora| domocracy to othor systoms ot govornmont.'
80
ln tact,
most Vus||ms |n lndonos|a, Egypt, lak|stan, Vorocco, and othor ls|am|c nat|ons opposo ls|am|sm and oxtrom|sm ot
any k|nd. lt |sn't hard to undorstand why whon you out||no tho prob|om, as 0av|d |rum and l|chard lor|o d|d so c|oar|y
and succ|nct|y |n tho|r book Ao Eoo to Evl|, trom wh|ch wo may dor|vo a sc|ont|t|c so|ut|on:
1ako a vast aroa ot tho oarth's surtaco, |nhab|tod by poop|o who romombor a groat h|story. Enr|ch thom onough that thoy can attord
sato|||to to|ov|s|on and lntornot connoct|ons, so that thoy can soo what ||to |s ||ko across tho Vod|torranoan or across tho At|ant|c. 1hon
sontonco thom to ||vo |n chok|ng, m|sorab|o, po||utod c|t|os ru|od by corrupt, |ncompotont ott|c|a|s. Entang|o thom |n rogu|at|ons and
contro|s so that nobody can ovor mako much ot a ||v|ng oxcopt by pay|ng ott somo crookod ott|c|a|. 3ubord|nato thom to o||tos who
havo suddon|y bocomo |nca|cu|ab|y woa|thy trom shady doa||ngs |nvo|v|ng potro|oum rosourcos that supposod|y bo|ong to a||. 1ax
thom tor tho bonot|t ot govornmonts that prov|do noth|ng |n roturn oxcopt m|||tary ostab||shmonts that |oso ovory war thoy t|ght: not
roads, not c||n|cs, not c|oan wator, not stroot ||ght|ng. loduco tho|r ||v|ng standards yoar attor yoar tor two docados. 0ony thom any
torum or |nst|tut|on-not a par||amont, not ovon a c|ty counc||-whoro thoy may troo|y d|scuss tho|r gr|ovancos. K|||, ja||, corrupt, or dr|vo
|nto ox||o ovory po||t|ca| t|guro, art|st, or |nto||octua| who cou|d art|cu|ato a modorn a|tornat|vo to buroaucrat|c tyranny. log|oct, c|oso, or
s|mp|y ta|| to croato an ottoct|vo schoo| systom-so that tho m|nds ot tho noxt gonorat|on aro tormod ont|ro|y by c|or|cs whoso own
m|nds conta|n noth|ng but mod|ova| thoo|ogy and a smattor|ng ot th|rd wor|d nat|ona||st so|t-p|ty. Comb|no a|| th|s, and what o|so
wou|d ono oxpoct to croato but an onragod popu|aco.
81
3||pp|ng back |nto my ldoa|po||t|k modo, tho sc|ont|t|c so|ut|on to tho po||t|ca| prob|om ot oppross|vo govornmonts |s
tho tr|od-and-truo mothod ot sproad|ng ||bora| domocracy and markot cap|ta||sm through tho troo and opon oxchango
ot |ntormat|on, products, and sorv|cos across porous oconom|c bordors. l|bora| domocracy |s not just tho |oast bad
po||t|ca| systom comparod to a|| othors (paco W|nston Church|||), |t |s tho bost systom yot dov|sod tor g|v|ng poop|o a
chanco to bo hoard, an opportun|ty to part|c|pato, and a vo|co to spoak truth to powor. Varkot cap|ta||sm |s tho
groatost gonorator ot woa|th |n tho h|story ot tho wor|d and |t has workod ovorywhoro that |t has boon tr|od. Comb|no
tho two and ldoa|po||t|k may bocomo loa|po||t|k.

A t|na| noto on bo||ot and truth: 1o many ot my ||bora| and atho|st tr|onds and co||oaguos, an oxp|anat|on tor ro||g|ous
bo||ots such as what l havo prosontod |n th|s book |s tantamount to d|scount|ng both |ts |ntorna| va||d|ty and |ts oxtorna|
roa||ty. Vany ot my consorvat|vo and tho|st tr|onds and co||oaguos tako |t th|s way as wo|| and thorotoro br|st|o at tho
thought that oxp|a|n|ng a bo||ot oxp|a|ns |t away. 1h|s |s not nocossar||y so. Exp|a|n|ng why somoono bo||ovos |n
domocracy doos not oxp|a|n away domocracy, oxp|a|n|ng why somoono who ho|ds ||bora| or consorvat|vo va|uos
w|th|n a domocracy doos not oxp|a|n away thoso va|uos. ln pr|nc|p|o, tho tormat|on and ro|ntorcomont ot po||t|ca|,
oconom|c, or soc|a| bo||ots |s no d|ttoront trom ro||g|ous bo||ots.
Exp|a|n|ng that poop|o aro consorvat|vo bocauso tho|r paronts votod lopub||can, that thoy woro ra|sod |n or now
||vo |n a rod stato, that tho|r ro||g|on |oans consorvat|vo |nstoad ot ||bora|, or that by tomporamont thoy protor ordorod
soc|a| h|orarch|os and str|ct ru|os, doos not automat|ca||y d|scount tho va||d|ty ot tho consorvat|vo pr|nc|p|os and
va|uos, any moro than oxp|a|n|ng that poop|o aro ||bora| bocauso tho|r paronts votod 0omocrat|c, that thoy woro
ra|sod |n or now ||vo |n a b|uo stato, that tho|r ro||g|on |oans ||bora| |nstoad ot consorvat|vo, or that by tomporamont thoy
protor tho |ovo||ng ot soc|a| h|orarch|os and moro t|ox|b|o ru|os, automat|ca||y d|scounts tho va||d|ty ot tho ||bora|
pos|t|on.
lovortho|oss, tho tact that our bo||ots aro so hoav||y |adon w|th omot|ona| baggago shou|d g|vo ono pauso to at
|oast cons|dor tho pos|t|on ot othors and to bo skopt|ca| ot ono's own bo||ots. 1ho tact that wo tond not to do so |s a
rosu|t ot somo vory powortu| cogn|t|vo b|asos that work to onsuro that wo aro a|ways r|ght. l w||| oxam|no thom |n tho
noxt chaptor.
121

12

Contirmationa ot BoIiot
|avo you ovor gono to tho phono to ca|| a tr|ond, on|y to havo tho phono r|ng t|rst and t|nd your tr|ond on tho othor ond
ot tho ||no? What aro tho odds ot that? lot h|gh, and your pattorn|c|ty |ntu|t|on probab|y s|gna|od to you that thoro was
somoth|ng spoc|a| about th|s ovont. Was thoro? lrobab|y not. |oro's why: tho sum ot a|| probab|||t|os oqua|s ono.
G|von onough opportun|t|os, out||or anoma||os w||| |nov|tab|y happon. 1ho quost|on |s not bot ls tbo ptobobl|lty tbot o
tlooo woo|o pbooo wbl|o bolog tboogbt oboot?-wh|ch |s vory |ow-but lo tbo toto| popo|otloo o o|| poop|o moklog
pbooo co||s ooo tbloklog oboot tlooos, wbot ls tbo ptobobl|lty tbot ot |oost ooo pbooo co|| wl|| ovot|op wltb ot |oost
ooo slmo|tooooos tboogbt? wh|ch |s vory h|gh. Ana|ogous|y, tho chanco ot any ono porson w|nn|ng tho |ottory |s
oxtromo|y |ow, but |n tho |ottory systom as a who|o, somoono w||| w|n.
ln h|s |ns|ghttu| book 7bo Ltookoto`s o|k, tho mathomat|c|an and sc|onco wr|tor loonard V|od|now computod tho
odds ot a mutua| tund managor namod 3||| V|||or boat|ng 3tandard 8 loor's b00 |ndox t|ttoon yoars |n a row.
1
|or th|s
toat V|||or was ha||od as tho groatost monoy managor ot tho 1000s' and Cll computod tho odds ot h|m do|ng so at
872,b20 to 1. 1hoso aro |ong odds |ndood. And V|od|now notos that |t you had p|ckod 3||| V|||or at tho start ot tho
stroak |n 1001 and computod tho odds ot h|m boat|ng tho 38l b00 ovory yoar tor tho noxt t|ttoon yoars, thoy wou|d
|ndood bo vory s||m. 3ut th|s pr|nc|p|o wou|d app|y to any mutua| tund managor that you happonod to p|ck. You wou|d
havo had tho samo odds aga|nst you |t you had t||ppod a co|n onco a yoar tor t|ttoon yoars w|th tho goa| ot hav|ng |t
|and hoads up oach t|mo,' V|od|now notos. 3ut, |n tact, thoro aro moro than s|x thousand mutua| tund managors, so
tho ro|ovant quost|on |s, |t thousands ot poop|o aro toss|ng co|ns onco a yoar and havo boon do|ng so tor docados,
what aro tho chancos that ono ot thom, tor somo por|od ot t|ttoon yoars or |ongor, w||| toss a|| hoads?' 1hat probab|||ty
|s much h|ghor. ln tact, V|od|now domonstratos that ovor tho past torty yoars ot act|vo mutua| tund trad|ng, tho odds
that at |oast ono mutua| tund managor wou|d boat tho markot ovory yoar tor t|ttoon yoars |n a row turn out to bo about
throo out ot tour, or 7b porcont!
l havo app||od th|s pr|nc|p|o ot probab|||ty th|nk|ng to m|rac|os. lot us dot|no a m|rac|o as an ovont w|th m||||on-to-
ono odds ot occurr|ng (|ntu|t|vo|y that sooms raro onough to oarn tho mon|kor). lot us a|so ass|gn a numbor ot ono b|t
por socond ot data that t|ows |nto our sonsos as wo go about our day, and assumo that wo aro awako tor two|vo hours
a day. 1hat nots us 48,200 b|ts ot data por day, or 1,200,000 por month. Evon assum|ng that 00.000 porcont ot thoso
b|ts aro tota||y moan|ng|oss (and so wo t||tor thom out or torgot thom ont|ro|y), that st||| |oavos 1.8 m|rac|os' por month,
or 1b.b m|rac|os por yoar. 1hanks to so|oct|vo momory and tho cooltmotloo blos, wo w||| romombor on|y thoso tow
aston|sh|ng co|nc|doncos and torgot tho vast soa ot moan|ng|oss data.
Wo can omp|oy a s|m||ar back-ot-tho-onvo|opo ca|cu|at|on to oxp|a|n doath promon|t|on droams. 1ho avorago
porson has about t|vo droams por n|ght, or 1,82b droams por yoar. lt wo romombor on|y a tonth ot our droams, thon
wo roca|| 182.b droams por yoar. 1horo aro about 800 m||||on Amor|cans, who thus produco b4.7 b||||on romomborod
droams por yoar. 3oc|o|og|sts to|| us that oach ot us knows about 1b0 poop|o ta|r|y wo||, thus produc|ng a notwork
soc|a| gr|d ot 4b b||||on porsona| ro|at|onsh|p connoct|ons. W|th an annua| doath rato ot 2.4 m||||on Amor|cans por yoar
(a|| agos, a|| causos), |t |s |nov|tab|o that somo ot thoso b4.7 b||||on romomborod droams w||| bo about somo ot thoso
2.4 m||||on doaths among tho 800 m||||on Amor|cans and tho|r 4b b||||on ro|at|onsh|p connoct|ons. ln tact, |t wou|d bo a
mltoc|o |t somo doath promon|t|on droams d|d not como truo! |oro |s a to|ov|s|on ta|k show op|sodo you w||| novor
soo: loxt, wo havo a vory spoc|a| guost who has oxpor|oncod a numbor ot v|v|d droams about tho doaths ot
prom|nont poop|o, not ono ot wh|ch has como truo. 3ut stay tunod bocauso you novor know whon tho noxt ono w||| bo
cont|rmod.' lnstoad, ot courso, to|ov|s|on ta|k shows tocus on tho m||||on-to-ono ovonts and |gnoro tho rost ot tho no|so.
1hoso oxamp|os show tho powor ot what l ca|| o|k oomotocy, a torm ot pattorn|c|ty. |o|k numoracy |s our natura|
tondoncy to m|sporco|vo probab|||t|os, to th|nk anocdota||y |nstoad ot stat|st|ca||y, and to tocus on and romombor
short-torm tronds and sma||-numbor runs. Wo not|co a short strotch ot coo| days and |gnoro tho |ong-torm g|oba|
warm|ng trond. Wo noto w|th constornat|on a downturn |n tho hous|ng and stock markots, torgott|ng tho ha|t contury
upward-po|nt|ng trond ||nos. 3awtooth data trond ||nos, |n tact, aro oxomp|ary ot to|k numoracy, whoro our sonsos aro
goarod to tocus on oach tooth's up or down ang|o wh||o tho ovora|| d|roct|on ot tho b|ado |s noar|y |nv|s|b|o to us. |o|k
numoracy |s just ono ot many cogn|t|vo b|asos that |nt|uonco and otton d|stort tho way that wo procoss |ntormat|on, and
122
togothor thoso b|asos ro|ntorco our |ntu|t|vo|y dor|vod bo||ot systoms.
Eow Our Braina Convinco ua 1hat Wo Aro AIwaya Right
Onco wo torm bo||ots and mako comm|tmonts to thom, wo ma|nta|n and ro|ntorco thom through a numbor ot powortu|
cogoltlvo bootlstlcs that guarantoo thoy aro corroct. A bootlstlc |s a monta| mothod ot so|v|ng a prob|om through
|ntu|t|on, tr|a| and orror, or |ntorma| mothods whon thoro |s no torma| moans or tormu|a tor so|v|ng |t (and otton ovon
whon thoro |s). 1hoso hour|st|cs aro somot|mos ca||od to|os o tbomb, a|though thoy aro bottor known as cogoltlvo
blosos bocauso thoy a|most a|ways d|stort porcopts to t|t proconco|vod concopts. 3o||ots cont|guro porcopt|ons. lo
mattor what bo||ot systom |s |n p|aco-ro||g|ous, po||t|ca|, oconom|c, or soc|a|-thoso cogn|t|vo b|asos shapo how wo
|ntorprot |ntormat|on that comos through our sonsos and mo|d |t to t|t tho way wo want tho wor|d to bo and not
nocossar||y how |t roa||y |s, onco aga|n, tho bas|s ot bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm.
l ca|| th|s gonora| procoss bo|lo cooltmotloo. 1horo aro a numbor ot spoc|t|c cogn|t|vo hour|st|cs that oporato to
cont|rm our bo||ots as truo. Whon |ntogratod |nto tho procossos ot pattorn|c|ty and agont|c|ty, thoso hour|st|cs support
my thos|s that bo||ots aro tormod tor a var|oty ot subjoct|vo, omot|ona|, psycho|og|ca|, and soc|a| roasons, and thon
aro ro|ntorcod, just|t|od, and oxp|a|nod w|th rat|ona| roasons.
1ho Contirmation Biaa: 1ho Nothor ot AII Cognitivo Biaaoa
1hroughout th|s book l havo rotoroncod tho cont|rmat|on b|as |n var|ous contoxts. |oro l wou|d ||ko to oxam|no |t |n
dota||, as |t |s tho mothor ot a|| tho cogn|t|vo b|asos, g|v|ng b|rth |n ono torm or anothor to most ot tho othor hour|st|cs.
Examp|o: as a t|sca| consorvat|vo and soc|a| ||bora| l can t|nd common ground whothor l am ta|k|ng to a lopub||can or
a 0omocrat. ln tact, l havo c|oso tr|onds |n both camps, and ovor tho yoars l havo obsorvod tho to||ow|ng: no mattor
what tho |ssuo |s undor d|scuss|on, both s|dos aro oqua||y conv|ncod that tho ov|donco ovorwho|m|ng|y supports tho|r
pos|t|on. l'm suro |t doos bocauso ot tho cont|rmat|on b|as, or tbo tooooocy to sook ooo loo cooltmototy ovloooco lo
soppott o o|toooy oxlstlog bo|los ooo lgooto ot tolototptot olscooltmlog ovloooco. 1ho cont|rmat|on b|as |s bost
capturod |n tho b|b||ca| w|sdom 5ook ooo yo sbo|| loo.
Expor|monta| oxamp|os abound.
2
ln 1081, psycho|og|st Vark 3nydor taskod subjocts to assoss tho porsona||ty ot
somoono whom thoy woro about to moot, but on|y attor thoy rov|owod a prot||o ot tho porson. 3ubjocts |n ono group
woro g|von a prot||o ot an |ntrovort (shy, t|m|d, qu|ot), wh||o subjocts |n anothor group woro g|von a prot||o ot an
oxtrovort (soc|ab|o, ta|kat|vo, outgo|ng). Whon askod to mako a porsona||ty assossmont, thoso subjocts who woro to|d
that tho porson wou|d bo an oxtrovort tondod to ask quost|ons that wou|d |oad to that conc|us|on, tho |ntrovort group
d|d tho samo |n tho oppos|to d|roct|on.
8
ln a 1088 study, psycho|og|sts 1ohn 0ar|oy and lagot Gross showod subjocts
a v|doo ot a ch||d tak|ng a tost. Ono group was to|d that tho ch||d was trom a h|gh soc|ooconom|c c|ass wh||o tho othor
group was to|d that tho ch||d was trom a |ow soc|ooconom|c c|ass. 1ho subjocts woro thon askod to ova|uato tho
acadom|c ab|||t|os ot tho ch||d basod on tho rosu|ts ot tho tost. Evon though both groups ot subjocts woro ova|uat|ng
tho oxact samo sot ot numbors, thoso who woro to|d that tho ch||d was trom a h|gh soc|ooconom|c c|ass ratod tho
ch||d's ab|||t|os as abovo grado |ovo|, and thoso who thought that tho ch||d was trom a |ow soc|ooconom|c c|ass ratod
tho ch||d as bo|ow grado |ovo| |n ab|||ty.
4
1h|s |s a str|k|ng |nd|ctmont ot human roason but a tost|mony to tho powor ot
bo||ot oxpoctat|ons.
1ho powor ot oxpoctat|on was d|sp|ayod |n a 1080 study by psycho|og|sts 3onn|o 3horman and Z|va Kunda, who
prosontod a group ot subjocts w|th ov|donco that contrad|ctod a bo||ot thoy ho|d doop|y, and w|th ov|donco that
supportod thoso samo bo||ots. 1ho rosu|ts showod that tho subjocts rocogn|zod tho va||d|ty ot tho cont|rm|ng ov|donco
but woro skopt|ca| ot tho va|uo ot tho d|scont|rm|ng ov|donco.
b
ln anothor 1080 study, by psycho|og|st 0oanna Kuhn,
whon ch||dron and young adu|ts woro oxposod to ov|donco |ncons|stont w|th a thoory thoy protorrod, thoy ta||od to
not|co tho contrad|ctory ov|donco, or |t thoy d|d acknow|odgo |ts ox|stonco, thoy tondod to ro|ntorprot |t to tavor tho|r
proconco|vod bo||ots.
0
ln a ro|atod study, Kuhn oxposod subjocts to an aud|o rocord|ng ot an actua| murdor tr|a| and
d|scovorod that |nstoad ot ova|uat|ng tho ov|donco t|rst and thon com|ng to a conc|us|on, most subjocts concoctod a
narrat|vo |n tho|r m|nd about what happonod, mado a doc|s|on ot gu||t or |nnoconco, thon r|tt|od through tho ov|donco
and p|ckod out what most c|oso|y t|t tho story.
7
1ho cont|rmat|on b|as |s part|cu|ar|y potont |n po||t|ca| bo||ots, most notab|y tho mannor |n wh|ch our bo||ot t||tors
a||ow |n |ntormat|on that cont|rms our |doo|og|ca| conv|ct|ons and t||tors out |ntormat|on that d|scont|rms thoso samo
conv|ct|ons. 1h|s |s why |t |s so oasy to prod|ct wh|ch mod|a out|ots ||bora|s and consorvat|vos chooso to mon|tor. Wo
now ovon havo an |doa ot whoro |n tho bra|n tho cont|rmat|on b|as |s procossod thanks to an tVll study conductod at
Emory Un|vors|ty by 0row Woston.
8
123
0ur|ng tho run-up to tho 2004 pros|dont|a| o|oct|on, wh||o undorgo|ng a bra|n scan, th|rty mon-ha|t so|t-doscr|bod
strong' lopub||cans and ha|t strong' 0omocrats-woro taskod w|th assoss|ng statomonts by both Goorgo W. 3ush
and 1ohn Korry |n wh|ch tho cand|datos c|oar|y contrad|ctod thomso|vos. lot surpr|s|ng|y, |n tho|r assossmonts ot tho
cand|datos, lopub||can subjocts woro as cr|t|ca| ot Korry as 0omocrat|c subjocts woro ot 3ush, yot both |ot tho|r own
protorrod cand|dato ott tho ova|uat|vo hook. Ot courso. 3ut what was ospoc|a||y rovoa||ng woro tho nouro|mag|ng
rosu|ts: tho part ot tho bra|n most assoc|atod w|th roason|ng-tho ootso|ototo| ptotooto| cottox-was qu|oscont.
Vost act|vo woro tho otblto| tooto| cottox, wh|ch |s |nvo|vod |n tho procoss|ng ot omot|ons, and tho oototlot clogo|oto
cottox-our o|d tr|ond tho ACC, wh|ch |s so act|vo |n pattorn|c|ty procoss|ng and cont||ct roso|ut|on. lntorost|ng|y, onco
subjocts had arr|vod at a conc|us|on that mado thom omot|ona||y comtortab|o, tho|r vootto| sttlotom-a part ot tho
bra|n assoc|atod w|th roward-bocamo act|vo.
ln othor words, |nstoad ot rat|ona||y ova|uat|ng a cand|dato's pos|t|ons on th|s or that |ssuo, or ana|yz|ng tho p|anks
ot oach cand|dato's p|attorm, wo havo an omot|ona| roact|on to cont||ct|ng data. Wo rat|ona||zo away tho parts that do
not t|t our proconco|vod bo||ots about a cand|dato, thon roco|vo a roward |n tho torm ot a nourochom|ca| h|t, probab|y
dopam|no. Woston conc|udod:
Wo d|d not soo any |ncroasod act|vat|on ot tho parts ot tho bra|n norma||y ongagod dur|ng roason|ng. What wo saw |nstoad was a
notwork ot omot|on c|rcu|ts ||ght|ng up, |nc|ud|ng c|rcu|ts hypothos|zod to bo |nvo|vod |n rogu|at|ng omot|on, and c|rcu|ts known to bo
|nvo|vod |n roso|v|ng cont||cts. Essont|a||y, |t appoars as |t part|sans tw|r| tho cogn|t|vo ka|o|doscopo unt|| thoy got tho conc|us|ons thoy
want, and thon thoy got mass|vo|y ro|ntorcod tor |t, w|th tho o||m|nat|on ot nogat|vo omot|ona| statos and act|vat|on ot pos|t|vo onos.
Eindaight Biaa
ln a typo ot t|mo-rovorsa| cont|rmat|on b|as, tho blooslgbt blos |s tbo tooooocy to tocoosttoct tbo post to lt wltb
ptosoot koow|oogo. Onco an ovont has occurrod, wo |ook back and roconstruct how |t happonod, why |t had to
happon that way and not somo othor way, and why wo shou|d havo soon |t com|ng a|| a|ong.
0
3uch Vonday-morn|ng
quartorback|ng' |s ||tora||y ov|dont on tho Vonday morn|ngs to||ow|ng a wookond t|||od w|th tootba|| gamos. Wo a||
know what p|ays shou|d havo boon ca||od . attor tho outcomo. 0|tto tho stock markot and tho ond|oss parado ot
t|nanc|a| oxports whoso prognost|cat|ons aro qu|ck|y torgotton as thoy sh|tt to post hoc ana|ys|s attor tho markot
c|osos. lt's oasy to buy |ow, so|| h|gh' onco you havo portoct |ntormat|on, wh|ch |s ava||ab|o on|y attor tho tact whon |t |s
too |ato.
1ho h|nds|ght b|as |s on prom|nont d|sp|ay attor a major d|sastor, whon ovoryono th|nks that thoy know how and why
|t happonod, and why our oxports and |oadors shou|d havo soon |t com|ng. lA3A ong|noors shou|d havo known that
tho O-r|ng on tho spaco shutt|o Cbo||oogot's so||d rockot boostor jo|nts wou|d ta|| |n trooz|ng tomporaturos |oad|ng to
a mass|vo oxp|os|on, or that a sma|| toam str|ko on tho |oad|ng odgo ot tho w|ng ot tho spaco shutt|o Co|omblo wou|d
rosu|t |n |ts dostruct|on upon roontry. 3uch h|gh|y |mprobab|o and unprod|ctab|o ovonts bocomo not on|y probab|o but
pract|ca||y corta|n otot tboy boppoo. 1ho hand-wr|ng|ng and t|ngor-po|nt|ng by tho mombors ot lA3A's |nvost|gat|vo
comm|ss|ons taskod w|th dotorm|n|ng tho causos ot tho two spaco shutt|o d|sastors woro caso stud|os |n tho
h|nds|ght b|as. |ad such corta|nty roa||y ox|stod botoro tho tact, thon ot courso d|ttoront act|ons wou|d havo boon
takon.
1ho h|nds|ght b|as |s oqua||y ov|dont |n t|mos ot war. A|most |mmod|ato|y to||ow|ng tho 1apanoso attack on loar|
|arbor on 0ocombor 7, 1041, tor oxamp|o, consp|racy thoor|sts wont to work to provo that lros|dont loosovo|t must
havo known |t was com|ng bocauso ot tho so-ca||od bomb p|ot mossago that U.3. |nto|||gonco |ntorcoptod |n Octobor
1041: a 1apanoso agont |n |awa|| had boon |nstructod by h|s supor|ors |n 1apan to mon|tor warsh|p movomonts |n
and around tho nava| baso at loar|. 1hat sounds ta|r|y damn|ng and, |n tact, thoro woro o|ght such mossagos doa||ng
w|th |awa|| as a poss|b|o targot that woro |ntorcoptod and docryptod by U.3. |nto|||gonco botoro 0ocombor 7. |ow
cou|d our |oadors not havo soon |t com|ng? 1hoy must havo, and thorotoro thoy |ot |t happon tor notar|ous and
Vach|avo|||an roasons. 3o say tho consp|racy thoor|sts w|th tho|r h|nds|ght b|as d|a|od up to tu||.
3otwoon Vay and 0ocombor ot that yoar, howovor, thoro woro no |oss than t|tty-o|ght mossagos |ntorcoptod
rogard|ng 1apanoso sh|p movomonts |nd|cat|ng an attack on tho lh|||pp|nos, twonty-ono mossagos |nvo|v|ng
lanama, sovon mossagos att|||atod w|th attacks |n 3outhoast As|a and tho lothor|ands East lnd|os, and ovon sovon
mossagos connoctod to tho Un|tod 3tatos' Wost Coast. 1horo woro so many |ntorcoptod mossagos, |n tact, that army
|nto|||gonco stoppod sond|ng momos to tho Wh|to |ouso out ot concorn that thoro m|ght bo a broach |n socur|ty
|oad|ng tho 1apanoso to roa||zo that wo had brokon tho|r codos and woro road|ng tho|r ma||.
10
lros|dont Goorgo W. 3ush was subjoct to tho samo typo ot consp|rator|a| h|nds|ght b|as attor 0/11, whon a momo
surtacod datod August 0, 2001, ont|t|od 3|n ladon 0otorm|nod to 3tr|ko |n U.3.' load|ng tho momo |n h|nds|ght |s
oor|o, w|th rotoroncos to h|jackod p|anos, bomb|ng tho Wor|d 1rado Contor, and attacks on Wash|ngton, 0.C., and tho
124
los Ango|os lntornat|ona| A|rport. 3ut |t you road |t |n a pro-0/11 m|nd-sot, and |n tho contoxt ot tho hundrods ot |nto|
momos track|ng tho var|ous com|ngs and go|ngs and potont|a| targots ot a|-Oaoda-an |ntornat|ona| organ|zat|on
oporat|ng |n dozons ot countr|os and targot|ng numorous Amor|can ombass|os, m|||tary basos, navy sh|ps, and tho
||ko-|t |s not at a|| c|oar whon, whoro, or |t such attacks m|ght happon. 1h|nk about tho h|nds|ght b|as |n today's
contoxt |n wh|ch wo know w|th noar corta|nty that a|-Oaoda w||| str|ko aga|n, but wo |ack tho |ntormat|on to know whoro
and whon and how thoy w||| attack. 1h|s |oads us to dotond aga|nst tho |ost attack.
5oIt-Juatitication Biaa
1h|s hour|st|c |s ro|atod to tho h|nds|ght b|as. 1ho so|-jostllcotloo blos |s tbo tooooocy to totlooo|lzo ooclsloos otot
tbo oct to coovloco ootso|vos tbot wbot wo olo wos tbo bost tblog wo coo|o bovo oooo. Onco wo mako a doc|s|on
about somoth|ng |n our ||vos wo carotu||y scroon subsoquont data and t||tor out a|| contrad|ctory |ntormat|on ro|atod to
that doc|s|on, |oav|ng on|y ov|donco |n support ot tho cho|co wo mado. 1h|s b|as app||os to ovoryth|ng trom caroor and
job cho|cos to mundano purchasos. Ono ot tho pract|ca| bonot|ts ot so|t-just|t|cat|on |s that no mattor what doc|s|on wo
mako-to tako th|s or that job, to marry th|s or that porson, to purchaso th|s or that product-wo w||| a|most a|ways bo
sat|st|od w|th tho doc|s|on, ovon whon tho objoct|vo ov|donco |s to tho contrary.
1h|s procoss ot chorry-p|ck|ng tho data happons at ovon tho h|ghost |ovo|s ot oxport assossmont. lo||t|ca| sc|ont|st
lh|||p 1ot|ock, tor oxamp|o, |n h|s book Expott Po|ltlco| 1oogmoot, rov|owod tho ov|donco tor tho ab|||ty ot
protoss|ona| oxports |n po||t|cs and oconom|cs to mako accurato prod|ct|ons and assossmonts. |o tound that ovon
though a|| ot thom c|a|mod to havo data |n support ot tho|r pos|t|ons, whon ana|yzod attor tho tact such oxport op|n|ons
and prod|ct|ons turnod out to bo no bottor than thoso ot nonoxports-or ovon chanco. Yot, as tho so|t-just|t|cat|on
hour|st|c wou|d prod|ct, oxports aro s|gn|t|cant|y |oss ||ko|y to adm|t that thoy aro wrong than nonoxports.
11
Or as l ||ko
to say, smott poop|o bo|lovo wolto tblogs bocooso tboy oto bottot ot totlooo|lzlog tbolt bo|los tbot tboy bo|o ot
ooosmott toosoos.
As wo saw |n tho prov|ous chaptor, po||t|cs |s t|||od w|th so|t-just|ty|ng rat|ona||zat|ons. 0omocrats soo tho wor|d
through ||bora|-t|ntod g|assos, wh||o lopub||cans t||tor |t through consorvat|vo-shadod |onsos. Whon you ||ston to both
consorvat|vo ta|k rad|o' and progross|vo ta|k rad|o' you w||| hoar curront ovonts |ntorprotod |n ways that aro 180
dogroos out ot phaso. 3o |ncongruont aro tho |ntorprotat|ons ot ovon tho s|mp|ost go|ngs-on |n tho da||y nows that you
wondor |t thoy can poss|b|y bo ta|k|ng about tho samo ovont. 3oc|a| psycho|og|st Goottroy Cohon quant|t|od th|s ottoct
|n a study |n wh|ch ho d|scovorod that 0omocrats aro moro accopt|ng ot a wo|taro program |t thoy bo||ovo |t was
proposod by a to||ow 0omocrat, ovon |t tho proposa| camo trom a lopub||can and |s qu|to rostr|ct|vo. lrod|ctab|y,
Cohon tound tho samo ottoct tor lopub||cans, who woro tar moro ||ko|y to approvo ot a gonorous wo|taro program |t
thoy thought |t was proposod by a to||ow lopub||can.
12
ln othor words, ovon whon oxam|n|ng tho oxact samo data
poop|o trom both part|os arr|vo at rad|ca||y d|ttoront conc|us|ons.
A vory d|sturb|ng roa|-wor|d oxamp|o ot tho so|t-just|t|cat|on hour|st|c can bo soon |n tho cr|m|na| just|co systom.
Accord|ng to lorthwostorn Un|vors|ty |aw protossor lob Wardon,
You got |n tho systom and you bocomo vory cyn|ca|. loop|o aro |y|ng to you a|| ovor tho p|aco. 1hon you dovo|op a thoory ot tho cr|mo,
and |t |oads to what wo ca|| tunno| v|s|on. Yoars |ator ovorwho|m|ng ov|donco comos out that tho guy was |nnocont. And you'ro s|tt|ng
thoro th|nk|ng, Wa|t a m|nuto. E|thor th|s ovorwho|m|ng ov|donco |s wrong or l was wrong-and l cou|dn't havo boon wrong bocauso
l'm a good guy.' 1hat's a psycho|og|ca| phonomonon l havo soon ovor and ovor.
18
Attribution Biaa
Our bo||ots aro vory much groundod |n how wo attr|buto tho causa| oxp|anat|ons tor thom, and th|s |oads to a
tundamonta| otttlbotloo blos, or tbo tooooocy to otttlboto olotoot coosos ot oot owo bo|los ooo octloos tboo tbot o
otbots. 1horo aro sovora| typos ot attr|but|on b|as.
14
1horo |s a sltootlooo| otttlbotloo blos, |n wh|ch wo |dont|ty tho
causo ot somoono's bo||ot or bohav|or |n tho onv|ronmont (hor succoss |s a rosu|t ot |uck, c|rcumstanco, and hav|ng
connoct|ons') and a olsposltlooo| otttlbotloo blos, |n wh|ch wo |dont|ty tho causo ot somoono's bo||ot or bohav|or |n
tho porson as an ondur|ng porsona| tra|t (hor succoss |s duo to hor |nto|||gonco, croat|v|ty, and hard work'). And,
thanks to tho so|t-sorv|ng b|as, wo natura||y attr|buto our own succoss to a pos|t|vo d|spos|t|on (l am hardwork|ng,
|nto|||gont, and croat|vo') and wo attr|buto othors' succoss to a |ucky s|tuat|on (ho |s succosstu| bocauso ot
c|rcumstanco and tam||y connoct|ons').
1b
1ho attr|but|on b|as |s a torm ot porsona| sp|n-doctor|ng.
Vy co||oaguo |rank 3u||oway and l d|scovorod anothor torm ot attr|but|on b|as |n a rosoarch projoct that wo
conductod sovora| yoars ago. |rank and l wantod to know why poop|o bo||ovo |n God, so wo po||od ton thousand
random Amor|cans. ln add|t|on to oxp|or|ng var|ous domograph|c and soc|o|og|ca| var|ab|os, wo a|so d|roct|y askod
125
subjocts |n an ossay quost|on why thoy bo||ovod |n God and why thoy thought othors bo||ovo |n God. 1ho top two
roasons that poop|o gavo tor why thoy bo||ovod |n God woro tho good dos|gn ot tho un|vorso' and tho oxpor|onco ot
God |n ovoryday ||to.' lntorost|ng|y, and to|||ng|y, whon subjocts woro askod why thoy thought othor poop|o bo||ovod |n
God, thoso two answors droppod to s|xth and th|rd p|aco, rospoct|vo|y, and tho two most common roasons g|von woro
that bo||ot |s comtort|ng' and toar ot doath.'
10
1hoso answors rovoa|od a sharp d|st|nct|on botwoon an loto||octoo|
otttlbotloo blos, |n wh|ch poop|o cons|dor tho|r own bo||ots as bo|ng rat|ona||y mot|vatod, and an omotlooo| otttlbotloo
blos, |n wh|ch poop|o soo tho bo||ots ot othors as bo|ng omot|ona||y dr|von.
You can soo th|s attr|but|on b|as |n po||t|ca| as wo|| as ro||g|ous bo||ots. |or oxamp|o, on tho |ssuo ot gun contro|,
you w||| hoar somoono attr|buto tho|r own pos|t|on to roasonod |nto||octua| cho|co (l am tor gun contro| bocauso
stat|st|cs show that cr|mo docroasos whon gun ownorsh|p docroasos' or l'm aga|nst gun contro| bocauso stud|os
show that moro guns moans |oss cr|mo'), and attr|buto tho othor porson's op|n|on on tho samo subjoct to omot|ona|
nood (|o |s tor gun contro| bocauso ho |s a b|ood|ng-hoart ||bora| who noods to |dont|ty w|th tho v|ct|m' or |o |s
aga|nst gun contro| bocauso ho's a hoart|oss consorvat|vo who noods to too| ombo|donod by a woapon').
17
1h|s was,
|n tact, what po||t|ca| sc|ont|sts l|sa |arwo|| and 3ornard Wo|nor d|scovorod |n tho|r study on tho attr|but|on b|as |n
po||t|ca| att|tudos, w|th consorvat|vos just|ty|ng tho|r bo||ots w|th rat|ona| argumonts but accus|ng po||t|ca| ||bora|s ot
bo|ng b|ood|ng hoarts', ||bora|s, |n turn, ottorod |nto||octua| just|t|cat|ons tor tho|r pos|t|ons, wh||o accus|ng
consorvat|vos ot bo|ng hoart|oss.'
18
1ho attr|but|on b|as ot porco|v|ng |nto||octua| roasons tor bo||ot as supor|or to omot|ona| roasons appoars to bo a
man|tostat|on ot a broador torm ot so|t-sorv|ng b|as through wh|ch poop|o s|ant tho|r porcopt|ons ot tho wor|d,
ospoc|a||y tho soc|a| wor|d, |n tho|r tavor.
5unk-Coat Biaa
loo 1o|stoy, ono ot tho doopost th|nkors on tho human cond|t|on |n tho h|story ot ||toraturo, mado th|s obsorvat|on on
tho powor ot doop|y ho|d and comp|ox|y ontw|nod bo||ots: l know that most mon, |nc|ud|ng thoso at oaso w|th
prob|oms ot tho groatost comp|ox|ty, can so|dom accopt ovon tho s|mp|ost and most obv|ous truth |t |t bo such as
wou|d ob||go thom to adm|t tho ta|s|ty ot conc|us|ons wh|ch thoy havo do||ghtod |n oxp|a|n|ng to co||oaguos, wh|ch thoy
havo proud|y taught to othors, and wh|ch thoy havo wovon, throad by throad, |nto tho tabr|c ot tho|r ||vos.' Upton 3|nc|a|r
sa|d |t moro succ|nct|y: lt |s d|tt|cu|t to got a man to undorstand somoth|ng whon h|s job doponds on not undorstand|ng
|t.'
1hoso obsorvat|ons aro oxamp|os ot tho sook-cost blos, or tbo tooooocy to bo|lovo lo somotblog bocooso o tbo
cost sook loto tbot bo|lo. Wo hang on to |os|ng stocks, unprot|tab|o |nvostmonts, ta|||ng bus|nossos, and unsuccosstu|
ro|at|onsh|ps. W|th tho attr|but|on b|as thrott|od up wo concoct rat|ona| roasons to just|ty thoso bo||ots and bohav|ors |n
wh|ch wo havo mado s|zab|o |nvostmonts. 1ho b|as |oads to a bas|c ta||acy: that past |nvostmont shou|d |nt|uonco
tuturo doc|s|ons. lt wo woro rat|ona| wo wou|d just computo tho odds ot succood|ng trom th|s po|nt torward and thon
doc|do |t add|t|ona| |nvostmont warrants tho potont|a| payott. 3ut wo aro not rat|ona|, not |n bus|noss, corta|n|y not |n
|ovo, and most ospoc|a||y not |n war. Cons|dor tho cost wo'vo sunk |nto tho wars |n lraq and Atghan|stan. 1hoso wars
aro cost|ng us $4.10 b||||on a yoar |n m|||tary oxpond|turos a|ono, an |ncrod|b|o 10.0 porcont ot G0l, not to mont|on
tho b||||ons ot do||ars spont |n nonm|||tary oxpond|turos, a|ong w|th tho b,842 Amor|cans k|||od (at tho t|mo ot wr|t|ng, a
t|guro that grows by tho day). lo wondor most mombors ot Congross trom both part|os, a|ong w|th pros|donts Obama,
3ush, C||nton, and 3ush havo a|| statod that wo'vo got to stay tho courso' and not just cut and run.' lros|dont Goorgo
W. 3ush oxp|a|nod |n a 1u|y 4, 2000, spooch at |ort 3ragg, lorth Caro||na: l'm not go|ng to a||ow tho sacr|t|co ot
2,b27 troops who havo d|od |n lraq to bo |n va|n by pu|||ng out botoro tho job |s dono.'
10
1h|s |s tho vory ombod|mont ot
tho sunk-cost b|as.
5tatua Ouo Biaa
Aro you an organ donor? l am, but |n my stato (Ca||torn|a) l had to punch out a ||tt|o tab and st|ck |t on my dr|vor's
||conso to |nd|cato my protoronco, and th|s ||tt|o roqu|romont moans that tar towor poop|o |n my stato aro organ donors
comparod to statos whoro tho dotau|t pos|t|on |s that you aro an organ donor un|oss you punch out a ||tt|o tab
|nd|cat|ng that you do not w|sh to part|c|pato. 1h|s |s an opt-|n vorsus opt-out cho|co arch|tocturo dos|gn d||omma, and
|t |s an oxamp|o ot tho stotos qoo blos, or tbo tooooocy to opt ot wbotovot lt ls wo oto osoo to, tbot ls, tbo stotos qoo.
Wo tond to protor ox|st|ng soc|a|, oconom|c, and po||t|ca| arrangomonts ovor proposod a|tornat|vos, ovon somot|mos
at tho oxponso ot |nd|v|dua| and co||oct|vo so|t-|ntorost. Othor oxamp|os abound.
Econom|sts W||||am 3amuo|son and l|chard Zockhausor d|scovorod that whon poop|o aro ottorod a cho|co among
126
tour d|ttoront t|nanc|a| |nvostmonts w|th vary|ng dogroos ot r|sk, thoy so|oct ono basod upon how r|sk avorso thoy aro,
and tho|r cho|cos rango w|do|y. 3ut whon poop|o aro to|d that an |nvostmont too| has boon so|octod tor thom and that
thoy thon havo tho opportun|ty to sw|tch to ono ot tho othor |nvostmonts, 47 porcont stayod w|th what thoy a|roady had
comparod to tho 82 porcont who choso thoso part|cu|ar |nvostmont opportun|t|os whon nono woro prosontod t|rst as a
dotau|t opt|on.
20
ln tho oar|y 1000s, c|t|zons |n low 1orsoy and lonnsy|van|a woro ottorod two opt|ons tor tho|r
automob||o |nsuranco: a h|gh-pr|cod opt|on that grantod thom tho r|ght to suo and a choapor opt|on that rostr|ctod tho|r
r|ghts to suo. Corrospond|ng opt|ons |n oach stato woro rough|y oqu|va|ont. ln low 1orsoy tho dotau|t opt|on was tho
moro oxpons|vo ono, that |s, |t you d|d noth|ng you woro automat|ca||y g|von that cho|co, and so 7b porcont ot c|t|zons
so|octod |t. ln lonnsy|van|a tho dotau|t opt|on was tho choapor ono, and on|y 20 porcont optod tor tho moro oxpons|vo
p|an.
21
Why doos tho status quo b|as ox|st? 3ocauso tho status quo roprosonts what wo a|roady havo (and havo to g|vo up
|n ordor to chango), vorsus what wo mlgbt havo onco wo chooso, wh|ch |s tar r|sk|or. Why shou|d th|s bo? 3ocauso ot
tho oooowmoot ooct.
Endowmont Ettoct
1ho psycho|ogy undor|y|ng tho status quo b|as |s what oconom|st l|chard 1ha|or ca||s tho oooowmoot ooct, or tbo
tooooocy to vo|oo wbot wo owo moto tboo wbot wo oo oot owo. ln h|s rosoarch on tho ondowmont ottoct, 1ha|or has
tound that ownors ot an |tom va|uo |t rough|y tw|co as much as potont|a| buyors ot tho samo |tom. ln ono oxpor|mont,
subjocts woro g|von a cottoo mug va|uod at $0.00 and thoy woro askod what thoy wou|d tako tor |t. 1ho avorago pr|co
bo|ow wh|ch thoy wou|d not so|| was $b.2b. Anothor group ot subjocts woro askod how much thoy wou|d bo w||||ng to
pay tor tho samo mug and gavo an avorago pr|co ot $2.7b.
22
Ownorsh|p ondows va|uo by |ts own v|rtuo, and naturo has ondowod us to ho|d doar what |s ours. Why? Evo|ut|on.
1ho ondowmont ottoct bog|ns w|th tho natura| propons|ty tor an|ma|s to mark tho|r torr|tor|os and dotond thom through
throat gosturos and ovon phys|ca| aggross|on |t nocossary, thoroby doc|ar|ng tho oqu|va|ont ot pr|vato ownorsh|p to
what was onco a pub||c good. 1ho ovo|ut|onary |og|c runs ||ko th|s: onco a torr|tory |s doc|arod takon by ono an|ma|,
wou|d-bo trospassors havo to |nvost cons|dorab|o onorgy and r|sk gravo bod||y |njury |n attompts to acqu|ro tho
proporty tor thomso|vos, so thoro |s an ondowmont ottoct. Wo aro moro w||||ng to |nvost |n dotond|ng what |s a|roady
ours than wo aro to tako what |s somoono o|so's. 0ogs, tor oxamp|o, w||| |nvost moro onorgy |n dotond|ng a bono trom
a cha||ongor than thoy w||| |n abscond|ng w|th somo othor dog's bono. 1ho ondowmont ottoct w|th proporty ownorsh|p
has a d|roct and obv|ous connoct|on to |oss ovotsloo, whoro wo aro tw|co as mot|vatod to avo|d tho pa|n ot |oss as
wo aro to sook tho p|oasuro ot ga|n. Evo|ut|on has w|rod us to caro moro about what wo a|roady havo than what wo
m|ght possoss, and horo wo t|nd tho ovo|vod mora| omot|on that undorg|rds tho concopt ot pr|vato proporty.
3o||ots aro a typo ot pr|vato proporty-|n tho torm ot our pr|vato thoughts w|th pub||c oxpross|ons-and thorotoro
tho ondowmont ottoct app||os to bo||ot systoms. 1ho |ongor wo ho|d a bo||ot, tho moro wo havo |nvostod |n |t, tho moro
pub||c|y comm|ttod wo aro to |t, tho moro wo ondow |t w|th va|uo and tho |oss ||ko|y wo aro to g|vo |t up.
Framing Ettocta
|ow bo||ots aro tramod otton dotorm|nos how thoy aro assossod, and th|s |s ca||od tho tomlog ooct, or tbo
tooooocy to otowolotoot cooc|osloos bosoo oo bowooto oto ptosootoo. |ram|ng ottocts aro ospoc|a||y not|coab|o
|n t|nanc|a| doc|s|ons and oconom|c bo||ots. Cons|dor tho to||ow|ng thought oxpor|mont prosontod |n two d|ttoront
tramos tor tho samo t|nanc|a| prob|om:
1. lhonos Ga|oro ottors tho now 1ochno phono tor $800, t|vo b|ocks away |actorylhonos has tho samo modo|
ha|t ott tor $1b0. 0o you mako tho short tr|p to savo $1b0? 3uro you wou|d, r|ght?
2. laptops Ga|oro ottors tho now 3upor0upor computor tor $1,b00, t|vo b|ocks away |actorylaptops has tho
samo modo| d|scountod to $1,8b0. 0o you mako tho short tr|p to savo $1b0? lah, why bothor?
ln rosoarch whoro subjocts aro ottorod such cho|cos, most poop|o wou|d tako tho tr|p |n tho t|rst sconar|o but not tho
socond, ovon though tho amount savod |s tho samo! Why? 1ho tram|ng changos tho porco|vod va|uo ot tho cho|co.
|ram|ng ottocts can bo tound |n both po||t|ca| and sc|ont|t|c bo||ots. |oro |s a c|ass|c thought oxpor|mont w|th roa|-
wor|d |mp||cat|ons: You aro a contag|ous d|soaso oxport at tho Contors tor 0|soaso Contro| and you havo boon to|d
that tho Un|tod 3tatos |s propar|ng tor tho outbroak ot an unusua| As|an d|soaso that |s oxpoctod to k||| s|x hundrod
poop|o. Your toam ot oxports has prosontod you w|th two programs to combat tho d|soaso:
Ptogtom A. 7wo boootoo poop|o wl|| bo sovoo.
127
Ptogtom B. 7boto ls o ooo-tblto ptobobl|lty tbot o|| slx boootoo poop|o wl|| bo sovoo, ooo o two-tbltos ptobobl|lty
tbot oobooy wl|| bo sovoo.
lt you aro ||ko tho 72 porcont ot tho subjocts |n an oxpor|mont that prosontod th|s sconar|o, you choso lrogram A.
low cons|dor anothor sot ot cho|cos tor tho samo sconar|o:
Ptogtom C. loot boootoo poop|o wl|| olo.
Ptogtom L. 7boto ls o ooo-tblto ptobobl|lty tbot oobooy wl|| olo, ooo o two-tbltos ptobobl|lty tbot o|| slx boootoo
poop|o wl|| olo.
Evon though tho not rosu|t ot tho socond sot ot cho|cos |s proc|so|y tho samo as tho t|rst, subjocts sw|tchod
protoroncos, trom 72 porcont tor lrogram A to 78 porcont tor lrogram 0. 1ho tram|ng ot tho quost|on |od to tho sh|tt
|n protoronco. Wo protor to th|nk |n torms ot how many poop|o wo may savo |nstoad ot how many poop|o w||| d|o-tho
pos|t|vo tramo' |s protorrod ovor tho nogat|vo tramo.'
28
Anchoring Biaa
lack|ng somo objoct|vo standard to ova|uato bo||ots and doc|s|ons-wh|ch |s usua||y not ava||ab|o-wo grasp tor any
standard on hand, no mattor how soom|ng|y subjoct|vo. 3uch standards aro ca||od oocbots, and th|s croatos tho
oocbotlog ooct, or tbo tooooocy to to|y too boovl|y oo o post tootooco ot oo ooo ploco o lootmotloo wboo
moklog ooclsloos. 1ho compar|son anchor can ovon bo ont|ro|y arb|trary. ln ono study subjocts woro askod to g|vo tho
|ast tour d|g|ts ot tho|r 3oc|a| 3ocur|ty numbors, and thon askod to ost|mato tho numbor ot phys|c|ans |n low York
C|ty. 3|zarro|y, poop|o w|th h|ghor 3oc|a| 3ocur|ty numbors tondod to g|vo h|ghor ost|matos tor tho numbor ot docs |n
Vanhattan. ln a ro|atod study, subjocts woro shown an array ot |toms to purchaso-a bott|o ot w|no, a cord|oss
computor koyboard, a v|doo gamo-and woro thon to|d that tho va|uo ot tho |toms was oqua| to tho |ast two d|g|ts ot
tho|r 3oc|a| 3ocur|ty numbors. Whon subsoquont|y askod tho max|mum pr|co thoy wou|d bo w||||ng to pay, subjocts
w|th h|gh 3oc|a| 3ocur|ty numbors cons|stont|y sa|d that thoy wou|d bo w||||ng to pay moro than thoso w|th |ow
numbors. W|th no objoct|vo anchor tor compar|son, th|s random anchor |nt|uoncod thom arb|trar||y.
Our |ntu|t|vo sonso ot tho anchor|ng ottoct and |ts powor |oads nogot|ators |n corporato morgors, roprosontat|vos |n
bus|noss doa|s, and ovon d|sputants |n d|vorcos to bog|n trom an oxtromo |n|t|a| pos|t|on |n ordor to sot tho anchor
h|gh tor tho|r s|do.
AvaiIabiIity Eouriatic
|avo you ovor not|cod how many rod ||ghts you oncountor wh||o dr|v|ng whon you aro |ato tor an appo|ntmont? Vo, too.
|ow doos tho un|vorso know that l |ott |ato? lt doosn't, ot courso, but tho tact that most ot us not|co moro rod ||ghts
whon wo aro runn|ng |ato |s an oxamp|o ot tho ovol|obl|lty bootlstlc, or tho tondoncy to ass|gn probab|||t|os ot potont|a|
outcomos basod on oxamp|os that aro |mmod|ato|y ava||ab|o to us, ospoc|a||y thoso that aro v|v|d, unusua|, or
omot|ona||y chargod, wh|ch aro thon gonora||zod |nto conc|us|ons upon wh|ch cho|cos aro basod.
24
|or oxamp|o, your ost|mat|on ot tho probab|||ty ot dy|ng |n a p|ano crash (or ||ghtn|ng str|ko, shark attack, torror|st
attack, and so on) w||| bo d|roct|y ro|atod to tho ava||ab|||ty ot just such an ovont |n your wor|d, ospoc|a||y your oxposuro
to |t |n mass mod|a. lt nowspapors and ospoc|a||y to|ov|s|on covor an ovont thoro |s a good chanco that poop|o w|||
ovorost|mato tho probab|||ty ot that ovont happon|ng.
2b
An Emory Un|vors|ty study, tor oxamp|o, rovoa|od that tho
|oad|ng causo ot doath |n mon-hoart d|soaso-roco|vod tho samo amount ot mod|a covorago as tho o|ovonth-
rankod causo: hom|c|do. ln add|t|on, drug uso-tho |owost-rank|ng r|sk tactor assoc|atod w|th sor|ous |||noss and
doath-roco|vod as much attont|on as tho socond-rankod r|sk tactor ot poor d|ot and |ack ot oxorc|so. Othor stud|os
havo tound that womon |n tho|r tort|os bo||ovo thoy havo a 1 |n 10 chanco ot dy|ng trom broast cancor, wh||o tho|r roa|
||tot|mo odds aro moro ||ko 1 |n 2b0. 1h|s ottoct |s d|roct|y ro|atod to tho numbor ot nows stor|os about broast cancor.
20
Roroaontativo Biaa
lo|atod to tho ava||ab|||ty b|as |s tho toptosoototlvo blos, wh|ch, as doscr|bod by |ts d|scovorors, psycho|og|sts Amos
1vorsky and 0an|o| Kahnoman, moans: an ovont |s judgod probab|o to tho oxtont that |t roprosonts tho ossont|a|
toaturos ot |ts paront popu|at|on or gonorat|ng procoss.' And, moro gonora||y, whon tacod w|th tho d|tt|cu|t task ot
judg|ng probab|||ty or troquoncy, poop|o omp|oy a ||m|tod numbor ot hour|st|cs wh|ch roduco thoso judgmonts to
s|mp|or onos.'
27
1ho to||ow|ng thought oxpor|mont has bocomo a c|ass|c |n cogn|t|vo stud|os. lmag|no that you aro
|ook|ng to h|ro somoono tor your company and you aro cons|dor|ng tho to||ow|ng cand|dato tor omp|oymont:
Llooo ls tbltty-ooo yoots o|o, slog|o, ootspokoo, ooo voty btlgbt. 5bo mojotoo lo pbl|osopby. As o stoooot, sbo wos ooop|y coocotooo
128
wltb lssoos o olsctlmlootloo ooo soclo| jostlco ooo pottlclpotoo lo ootlooc|oot oomoosttotloos.
Wh|ch |s moro ||ko|y? 1. l|nda |s a bank to||or. 2. l|nda |s a bank to||or and |s act|vo |n tho tom|n|st movomont.
Whon th|s sconar|o was prosontod to subjocts, 8b porcont choso tho socond opt|on. Vathomat|ca||y spoak|ng, th|s
|s tho wrong cho|co, bocauso tho probab|||ty ot two ovonts occurr|ng togothor w||| a|ways bo |oss than tho probab|||ty ot
ono occurr|ng by |tso|t. And yot most poop|o got th|s prob|om wrong bocauso thoy ta|| v|ct|m to tho roprosontat|vo
ta||acy, |n wh|ch tho doscr|pt|vo torms prosontod |n tho socond opt|on soom moro roprosontat|vo ot tho doscr|pt|on ot
l|nda.
28
|undrods ot oxpor|monts rovoa| t|mo and aga|n that poop|o mako snap doc|s|ons undor h|gh |ovo|s ot uncorta|nty,
and thoy do so by omp|oy|ng thoso var|ous ru|os ot thumb to shortcut tho computat|ona| procoss. |or oxamp|o, po||cy
oxports woro askod to ost|mato tho probab|||ty that tho 3ov|ot Un|on wou|d |nvado lo|and and that tho Un|tod 3tatos
wou|d thon broak ott d|p|omat|c ro|at|ons. 3ubjocts gavo th|s a probab|||ty ot 4 porcont. Voanwh||o, anothor group ot
po||cy oxports was askod to ost|mato tho probab|||ty just that tho Un|tod 3tatos wou|d broak ott d|p|omat|c ro|at|ons
w|th tho 3ov|ot Un|on. A|though tho |attor was moro ||ko|y, thoso oxports gavo |t a sma||or probab|||ty ot happon|ng. 1ho
oxpor|montors conc|udod that tho moro dota||od two-part sconar|o soomod moro roprosontat|vo ot tho actors
|nvo|vod.
|nattontionaI BIindnoaa Biaa
Arguab|y ono ot tho most powortu| ot tho cogn|t|vo b|asos that shapo our bo||ots |s capturod |n tho b|b||ca| provorb
1horo aro nono so b||nd as thoso who w||| not soo.' lsycho|og|sts ca|| th|s loottootlooo| b|looooss, or tbo tooooocy to
mlss somotblog obvloos ooo goooto| wbl|o ottooolog to somotblog spoclo| ooo spocllc. 1ho now-c|ass|c
oxpor|mont |n th|s b|as has subjocts watch|ng a ono-m|nuto v|doo ot two toams ot throo p|ayors oach, ono toam
donn|ng wh|to sh|rts and tho othor b|ack sh|rts, as thoy movo about ono anothor |n a sma|| room toss|ng two
baskotba||s back and torth. 1ho ass|gnod task |s to count tho numbor ot passos mado by tho wh|to toam.
Unoxpoctod|y, attor th|rty-t|vo soconds a gor|||a ontors tho room, wa|ks d|roct|y through tho tarrago ot bod|os, thumps
h|s chost, and ox|ts n|no soconds |ator.
|ow cou|d anyono m|ss a guy |n an apo su|t? ln tact, |n th|s romarkab|o oxpor|mont by psycho|og|sts 0an|o| 3|mons
and Chr|stophor Chabr|s, b0 porcont ot subjocts d|d not soo tho gor|||a, ovon whon askod |t thoy not|cod anyth|ng
unusua|.
20
|or many yoars now l havo |ncorporatod tho gor|||a 0v0 |nto my pub||c |octuros, ask|ng tor a show ot hands
ot thoso who d|d not soo tho gor|||a. Out ot tho moro than ono hundrod thousand poop|o l havo shown |t to ovor tho
yoars, towor than ha|t saw tho gor|||a dur|ng tho t|rst v|ow|ng. (l show tho c||p a socond t|mo w|th no count|ng and
ovoryono soos |t.) l was ab|o to docroaso tho t|guro ovon moro by to|||ng aud|oncos that ono gondor |s moro accurato
than tho othor at count|ng tho passos, but l won't to|| thom wh|ch gondor so as not to b|as tho tost. 1h|s roa||y makos
poop|o s|t up and concontrato, caus|ng ovon moro to m|ss tho gor|||a.
Vost rocont|y, l t||mod a spoc|a| on gu|||b|||ty tor Loto|loo NBC w|th tho host Chr|s |anson, |n wh|ch wo
roconstructod a numbor ot c|ass|c psycho|og|ca| oxpor|monts that domonstrato many ot thoso cogn|t|vo b|asos, ono ot
wh|ch was |nattont|ona| b||ndnoss. lnstoad ot a gor|||a, howovor, wo had Chr|s |anson h|mso|t wa|k r|ght through tho
m|dd|o ot a room |n wh|ch thoro was a stud|o aud|onco ot poop|o who thought that thoy woro try|ng out tor an l3C
roa||ty show. Wo arrangod tor a roa| low York baskotba|| toam to part|c|pato, but whon l saw how sma|| tho room was
and how c|oso tho aud|onco mombors wou|d bo to tho aroa whoro Chr|s wou|d wa|k across tho stago, l bocamo
concornod that tho ottoct wou|d not work. 3o l |nstructod our baskotba|| p|ayors to roa||y ham up tho|r dr|bb||ng and
pass|ng and to omu|ato tho |ar|om G|obotrottors w|th somo vory an|matod and voca| p|ay. As wo||, l d|v|dod tho stud|o
aud|onco |nto two groups, ono ot whom wou|d count tho numbor ot passos by tho wh|to-sh|rtod p|ayors and tho othor
ha|t tho numbor ot passos by tho b|ack-sh|rtod p|ayors. ||na||y, l had thom count tho passos out |oud. 1ho ottoct was
noar|y comp|oto. On|y a coup|o ot poop|o not|cod somoth|ng unusua|, and not ono porson |n tho aud|onco saw that |t
was Chr|s |anson who wa|kod across tho stago, stoppod, tw|r|od around, and ox|tod tho stago. 1ho aud|onco was
shockod whon l oxp|a|nod what had just happonod and brought Chr|s out to groot thom.
Figuro 12. WouId You 5oo tho CoriIIa?
129
lnattont|ona| b||ndnoss |s tbo tooooocy to mlss somotblog obvloos ooo goooto| wbl|o ottooolog to somotblog
spoclo| ooo spocllc. 1ho now-c|ass|c oxpor|mont |n th|s b|as has subjocts watch|ng a ono-m|nuto v|doo ot two
toams ot throo p|ayors oach, ono toam donn|ng wh|to sh|rts and tho othor b|ack sh|rts, as thoy movo about ono
anothor |n a sma|| room toss|ng two baskotba||s back and torth. 1ho ass|gnod task |s to count tho numbor ot
passos mado by tho wh|to toam. Unoxpoctod|y, attor th|rty-t|vo soconds a gor|||a ontors tho room, wa|ks d|roct|y
through tho tarrago ot bod|os, thumps |ts chost, and ox|ts n|no soconds |ator. ln th|s romarkab|o oxpor|mont by
psycho|og|sts 0an|o| 3|mons and Chr|stophor Chabr|s, b0 porcont ot tho subjocts d|d not soo tho gor|||a, ovon
whon askod |t thoy not|cod anyth|ng unusua|. l|O1O COUl1E3Y O| 0AllEl 3lVOl3 Al0 C|ll31Ol|El C|A3ll3, GOllllA3 ll OUl Vl031:
3U31AllE0 llA11El1lOlAl 3lll0lE33 |Ol 0YlAVlC EvEl13, ' PERCEP7lON 28 (1000): 10b0-74, Al0 1|E lA3 WE3 lAGE O| 0AllEl 3lVOl3:
http://www.tho|nv|s|b|ogor|||a.com.
Expor|monts such as thoso rovoa| a hubr|s |n our powors ot porcopt|on, as wo|| as a tundamonta| m|sundorstand|ng
ot how tho bra|n works. Wo th|nk ot our oyos as v|doo camoras and our bra|ns as b|ank tapos to bo t|||od w|th
porcopts. Vomory, |n th|s t|awod modo|, |s s|mp|y row|nd|ng tho tapo and p|ay|ng |t back |n tho thoator ot tho m|nd.
1h|s |s not at a|| what happons. 1ho porcoptua| systom, and tho bra|n that ana|yzos |ts data, aro doop|y |nt|uoncod by
tho bo||ots |t a|roady ho|ds. As a consoquonco, much ot what passos botoro our oyos may bo |nv|s|b|o to a bra|n
tocusod on somoth|ng o|so. ln tact, oyo trackors havo boon usod to mon|tor subjocts watch|ng tho t||m, and thoso who
m|ssod tho gor|||a woro |ook|ng r|ght at |t.
Biaaoa and BoIiota
Our bo||ots aro buttotod by a host ot thoso and add|t|ona| cogn|t|vo b|asos that l w||| br|ot|y mont|on horo (|n
a|phabot|ca| ordor):
Aotbotlty blos: tho tondoncy to va|uo tho op|n|ons ot an author|ty, ospoc|a||y |n tho ova|uat|on ot somoth|ng wo know
||tt|o about.
Booowogoo ooct: tho tondoncy to ho|d bo||ots that othor poop|o |n your soc|a| group ho|d bocauso ot tho soc|a|
ro|ntorcomont prov|dod.
Botoom ooct: tho tondoncy to troat vaguo and gonora| doscr|pt|ons ot porsona||ty as h|gh|y accurato and spoc|t|c.
Bo|lovobl|lty blos: tho tondoncy to ova|uato tho strongth ot an argumont basod on tho bo||ovab|||ty ot |ts conc|us|on.
C|ostotlog l||osloo: tho tondoncy to soo c|ustors ot pattorns that, |n tact, can bo tho rosu|t ot randomnoss, a torm ot
pattorn|c|ty.
Cooobo|otloo blos: tho tondoncy to cont|ato momor|os w|th |mag|nat|on and othor poop|o's accounts as ono's
own.
Cooslstoocy blos: tho tondoncy to roca|| ono's past bo||ots, att|tudos, and bohav|ors as rosomb||ng prosont bo||ots,
att|tudos, and bohav|ors moro than thoy actua||y do.
Expoctotloo blos / oxpotlmootot blos: tho tondoncy tor obsorvors and ospoc|a||y tor sc|ont|t|c oxpor|montors to
not|co, so|oct, and pub||sh data that agroo w|th tho|r oxpoctat|ons tor tho outcomo ot an oxpor|mont, and to not not|co,
d|scard, or d|sbo||ovo data that appoar to cont||ct w|th thoso oxpor|monta| oxpoctat|ons.
lo|so-coosoosos ooct: tho tondoncy tor poop|o to ovorost|mato tho dogroo to wh|ch othors agroo w|th tho|r
bo||ots or that w||| go a|ong w|th thom |n a bohav|or.
lo|o ooct: tho tondoncy tor poop|o to gonora||zo ono pos|t|vo tra|t ot a porson to a|| tho othor tra|ts ot that porson.
loto blos: tho tondoncy to adopt tho bo||ots and to||ow tho bohav|ors ot tho major|ty ot mombors |n a group |n ordor
to avo|d cont||ct.
l||osloo o cootto|: tho tondoncy tor poop|o to bo||ovo that thoy can contro| or at |oast |nt|uonco outcomos that most
poop|o cannot contro| or |nt|uonco.
l||osoty cotto|otloo: tho tondoncy to assumo that a causa| connoct|on (corro|at|on) ox|sts botwoon two var|ab|os,
anothor torm ot pattorn|c|ty.
lo-gtoop blos: tho tondoncy tor poop|o to va|uo tho bo||ots and att|tudos ot thoso whom thoy porco|vo to bo to||ow
mombors ot tho|r group, and to d|scount tho bo||ots and att|tudos ot thoso whom thoy porco|vo to bo mombors ot a
d|ttoront group.
1ost-wot|o blos: tho tondoncy tor poop|o to soarch tor th|ngs that tho v|ct|m ot an untortunato ovont m|ght havo dono
to dosorvo |t.
Nogotlvlty blos: tho tondoncy to pay c|osor attont|on and g|vo moro wo|ght to nogat|vo ovonts, bo||ots, and
|ntormat|on than to pos|t|vo.
130
Notmo|cy blos: tho tondoncy to d|scount tho poss|b|||ty ot a d|sastor that has novor happonod botoro.
Not-lovootoo-boto blos: tho tondoncy to d|scount tho va|uo ot a bo||ot or sourco ot |ntormat|on that doos not como
trom w|th|n.
Ptlmocy ooct: tho tondoncy to not|co, romombor, and assoss as moro va|uab|o |n|t|a| ovonts moro than
subsoquont ovonts.
Ptojoctloo blos: tho tondoncy to assumo that othors sharo tho samo or s|m||ar bo||ots, att|tudos, and va|uos, and to
ovorost|mato tho probab|||ty ot othors' bohav|ors basod on our own bohav|ors.
Rocoocy ooct: tho tondoncy to not|co, romombor, and assoss as moro va|uab|o rocont ovonts moro than oar||or
ovonts.
Rosy tottospoctloo blos: tho tondoncy to romombor past ovonts as bo|ng moro pos|t|vo than thoy actua||y woro.
5o|-o|l||log ptopbocy: tho tondoncy to bo||ovo |n |doas and to bohavo |n ways that contorm to oxpoctat|ons tor
bo||ots and act|ons.
5totootyplog ot goooto|lzotloo blos: tho tondoncy to assumo that a mombor ot a group w||| havo corta|n
charactor|st|cs bo||ovod to roprosont tho group w|thout hav|ng actua| |ntormat|on about that part|cu|ar mombor.
7tolt-osctlptloo blos: tho tondoncy tor poop|o to assoss tho|r own porsona||ty, bohav|or, and bo||ots as moro
var|ab|o and |oss dogmat|c than thoso ot othors.
Biaa BIind 5ot
1ho blos b|loo spot |s roa||y a mota-b|as |n that |t |s groundod |n a|| tho othor cogn|t|vo b|asos. lt |s tbo tooooocy to
tocogolzo tbo powot o cogoltlvo blosos lo otbot poop|o bot to bo b|loo to tbolt lo|oooco opoo oot owo bo|los. ln
ono study conductod by lr|ncoton Un|vors|ty psycho|og|st Em||y lron|n and hor co||oaguos, subjocts woro random|y
ass|gnod h|gh or |ow scoros on a soc|a| |nto|||gonco' tost. Unsurpr|s|ng|y, thoso g|von tho h|gh marks ratod tho tost
ta|ror and moro usotu| than thoso roco|v|ng |ow marks. Whon askod |t |t was poss|b|o that thoy had boon |nt|uoncod by
tho scoro on tho tost, subjocts rospondod that othor part|c|pants had boon tar moro b|asod than thoy woro. Evon whon
subjocts adm|t to hav|ng a b|as, such as bo|ng a mombor ot a part|san group, th|s |s apt to bo accompan|od by tho
|ns|stonco that, |n tho|r own caso, th|s status . has boon un|quo|y oo|lgbtoolog-|ndood, that |t |s tho |ock ot such
on||ghtonmont that |s mak|ng thoso on tho othor s|do ot tho |ssuo tako tho|r m|sgu|dod pos|t|on,' sa|d lron|n. ln a
ro|atod study at 3tantord Un|vors|ty, studonts woro askod to comparo thomso|vos to tho|r poors on such porsona|
qua||t|os as tr|ond||noss and so|t|shnoss. lrod|ctab|y, thoy ratod thomso|vos h|ghor. Yot, ovon whon tho subjocts woro
warnod about tho bottot-tboo-ovotogo blos and askod to roova|uato tho|r or|g|na| assossmonts, 08 porcont c|a|mod
that tho|r |n|t|a| ova|uat|ons woro objoct|vo, and 18 porcont ovon c|a|mod to bo too modost!
80
1ho NiddIo Land ot BoIiot
low that wo havo dr|||od doop |nto tho bra|n to oxam|no tho cogn|t|vo b|asos ot bo||ot, |ot us pu|| back tor a broador
v|ow ot what l ca|| tho Vloo|o Looo ot bo||ot.
lmag|no thoso two sor|os ot twonty-t|vo hoads (|) and ta||s (1) co|n t||ps and guoss wh|ch sor|os bost roprosonts
randomnoss:
1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1|1
|||11|11|1||||11||111111|
Vost poop|o wou|d say that tho t|rst sor|os ot a|tornat|vo hoads and ta||s |ooks tho most random, whoroas, |n tact,
both computor s|mu|at|ons and actua| co|n-t||pp|ng oxpor|monts gonorato somoth|ng much moro ||ko tho socond
sor|os (try |t yourso|t). Whon subjocts aro askod to |mag|no t||pp|ng a co|n and aro thon |nstructod to wr|to down tho
soquonco ot outcomos, tho|r guossos aro h|gh|y nonrandom. 1hat |s, tho|r str|ng ot 1s and |s moro c|oso|y rosomb|os
tho prod|ctab|o t|rst str|ng abovo and not tho |oss prod|ctab|o and moro (but not portoct|y) random socond str|ng.
1h|s tact goos a |ong way toward oxp|a|n|ng tho apparont nonrandom guoss|ng |n E3l oxpor|monts that
paranorma| rosoarchors c|a|m as ov|donco tor psych|c powor. ln tact, |n tho|r ana|ys|s ot E3l rosoarch ovor tho past
contury, lotor 3ruggor and K|rston 1ay|or havo rodot|nod E3l as ooct o sobjoctlvo ptobobl|lty, not|ng that
sc|ont|sts havo now conc|us|vo|y domonstratod what typ|ca||y happons |n rosoarch |n wh|ch ono subjoct tr|os to
dotorm|no or ant|c|pato tho thoughts or act|ons ot a socond subjoct us|ng paranorma| moans. Whon tho socond
subjoct |s |nstructod to random|y portorm somo task (such as ra|s|ng or |owor|ng an arm), tho soquonco |s not go|ng to
bo random. Ovor t|mo tho socond subjoct w||| dovo|op a prod|ctab|o pattorn that tho t|rst subjoct w||| unconsc|ous|y
131
|oarn.
81
1h|s ottoct |s ca||od lmp|lclt soqoooco |ootolog, and |t has p|aguod paranorma| rosoarch tor ovor a contury as
rosoarchors cont|nuo to ta|| to contro| tor |t. As tho mathomat|c|an lobort Covoyou onco qu|ppod: landom numbor
gonorat|on |s too |mportant to bo |ott to chanco.'
82
1ho roason that our to|k |ntu|t|ons so otton got |t wrong |s that wo ovo|vod |n what tho ovo|ut|onary b|o|og|st l|chard
0awk|ns ca||s Vloo|o ot|o-a |and m|dway botwoon short and |ong, sma|| and |argo, s|ow and tast, young and o|d.
Out ot a|||torat|vo protoronco, l ca|| |t Vloo|o Looo. ln tho V|dd|o land ot spaco, our sonsos ovo|vod tor porco|v|ng
objocts ot m|dd||ng s|zo-botwoon, say, gra|ns ot sand and mounta|n rangos. Wo aro not oqu|ppod to porco|vo atoms
and gorms, on ono ond ot tho sca|o, or ga|ax|os and oxpand|ng un|vorsos, on tho othor ond. ln tho V|dd|o land ot
spood, wo can dotoct objocts mov|ng at a wa|k|ng or runn|ng paco, but tho g|ac|a||y s|ow movomont ot cont|nonts (and
g|ac|ors) and tho bogg||ng|y tast spood ot ||ght aro ||tora||y |mporcopt|b|o. Our V|dd|o land t|mo sca|os rango trom tho
psycho|og|ca| now' ot throo soconds |n durat|on to tho tow docados ot a human ||tot|mo, tar too short to w|tnoss
ovo|ut|on, cont|nonta| dr|tt, or |ong-torm onv|ronmonta| changos. Our V|dd|o land to|k numoracy |oads us to pay
attont|on to and romombor short-torm tronds, moan|ngtu| co|nc|doncos, and porsona| anocdotos.
Add|t|ona| random procossos and our to|k numoracy about thom abound. |o||ywood stud|o oxocut|vos otton t|ro
succosstu| producors attor a short run ot box-ott|co bombs, on|y to watch tho subsoquont t||ms undor product|on dur|ng
tho producor's ro|gn bocomo b|ockbustors. Ath|otos who appoar on 5potts l||osttotoo's covor typ|ca||y oxpor|onco
caroor downturns, not bocauso ot a suporst|t|ous j|nx but bocauso ot tho rogross|on to tho moan.' 1ho oxomp|ary
portormanco that |andod thom on tho covor |n tho t|rst p|aco |s a |ow-probab|||ty ovont that |s d|tt|cu|t to ropoat, and
thus thoy rogross' back to tho|r norma| portormanco |ovo|s.
Extraord|nary ovonts do not a|ways roqu|ro oxtraord|nary causos. G|von onough t|mo and opportun|ty, thoy can
happon by chanco. Undorstand|ng th|s can ho|p us ovorcomo our V|dd|o land propons|ty to t|nd pattorns and agonts
that aro not actua||y thoro. Embraco tho random. ||nd tho pattorn. Know tho d|ttoronco.
5cionco aa tho uItimato Biaa-Dotoction Nachino
1ho study ot cogn|t|vo b|asos has rovoa|od that humans aro anyth|ng but tho En||ghtonmont |doa| ot rat|ona| ca|cu|ators
carotu||y wo|gh|ng tho ov|donco tor and aga|nst bo||ots. And thoso b|asos aro tar roach|ng |n tho|r ottocts. A judgo or
jury assoss|ng ov|donco aga|nst a dotondant, a CEO ova|uat|ng |ntormat|on about a company, or a sc|ont|st wo|gh|ng
data |n tavor ot a thoory w||| undorgo tho samo cogn|t|vo tomptat|ons to cont|rm what |s a|roady bo||ovod.
What can wo do about |t? ln sc|onco wo havo bu||t-|n so|t-corroct|ng mach|nory. ln oxpor|monts, str|ct doub|o-b||nd
contro|s aro roqu|rod, |n wh|ch no|thor tho subjocts nor tho oxpor|montors know tho oxpor|monta| cond|t|ons dur|ng tho
data-co||oct|on phaso. losu|ts aro vottod at protoss|ona| contoroncos and |n poor-rov|owod journa|s. losoarch must
bo rop||catod |n othor |abs unatt|||atod w|th tho or|g|na| rosoarchor. 0|scont|rm|ng ov|donco, as wo|| as contrad|ctory
|ntorprotat|ons ot tho data, must bo |nc|udod |n tho papor. Co||oaguos aro rowardod tor bo|ng skopt|ca|. lovortho|oss,
sc|ont|sts aro no |oss vu|norab|o to thoso b|asos, so such procaut|ons must bo v|gorous|y ontorcod, ospoc|a||y by tho
sc|ont|sts thomso|vos, bocauso |t you don't sook contrad|ctory data aga|nst your thoory or bo||ots, somoono o|so w|||,
usua||y w|th groat g|oo and |n a pub||c torum.
|ow th|s mothod ot sc|onco dovo|opod h|stor|ca||y and how |t works today aro tho subjoct ot tho t|na| chaptors and
op||oguo ot th|s book.
132

18

Coograhioa ot BoIiot
1hroughout th|s journoy |nto tho bo||ov|ng bra|n wo havo soon how wo aro not tho rat|ona| ca|cu|ators and |og|c
mach|nos that tho En||ghtonmont ph||osophors who |aunchod tho Ago ot loason onv|s|onod. Wo aro, |n tact, subjoct to
a host ot tactors that shapo our bo||ots. lattorn|c|ty onsuros that wo w||| sook and t|nd pattorns |n both moan|ngtu| and
moan|ng|oss no|so. Agont|c|ty dr|vos us to |ntuso thoso pattorns w|th moan|ng and |ntont|ona| agonts to oxp|a|n why
th|ngs happon as thoy do. 1hoso moan|ngtu| pattorns torm tho coro ot our bo||ots, tor wh|ch our bra|ns omp|oy a host
ot cogn|t|vo b|asos that cont|nua||y cont|rm our bo||ots as truo, and our undorstand|ng ot roa||ty |s dopondont upon
thoso bo||ots. 1o ro|torato my thos|s: bo|los como ltst, tbo oxp|oootloos ot tbo bo|los o||ow.
|ow, thon, can wo to|| tho d|ttoronco botwoon truo and ta|so pattorns? |ow can wo d|scorn tho d|ttoronco botwoon
roa| and |mag|nary agonts? |ow can wo avo|d tho cogn|t|vo b|as p|tta||s that so burdon our rat|ona||ty? 1ho answor |s
sc|onco. A br|ot tour through what l am ca|||ng tho googtopblos o bo|lo rovoa|s that dosp|to tho subjoct|v|ty ot our
psycho|og|os, ro|at|vo|y objoct|vo know|odgo |s ava||ab|o through tho too|s ot sc|onco. 1ho story ot how thoso too|s
woro croatod |s a ha|t|ng journoy ot oxp|orat|on ot tho wor|d and our p|aco |n |t.
Figuro 18. 1erra AustralIs lncognIta
7otto locogolto aro two ot tho most |mportant words ovor ponnod on tho goography ot bo||ot, ombody|ng tho
monta| spaco ot un||m|tod oxp|orat|on-a story w|thout ond. 1hoy appoar on th|s map, 7otto Aostto|ls locogolto,
by |ondr|k |ond|us, 10b7. COUl1E3Y O| 0lXOl ll3lAlY, 31A1E ll3lAlY O| lEW 3OU1| WAlE3, AU31lAllA.
1orra |ncognita
1ho bo||ot ong|no dr|vos a|| torms ot porcopt|on |n a|| t|o|ds ot know|odgo, and thoro aro tow moro dramat|c oxamp|os
than thoso trom tho h|story ot oxp|orat|on. Goograph|ca| maps shapo cogn|t|vo maps, and v|co vorsa. Whon C|aud|us
lto|omaous ot A|oxandr|a-bottor known to h|story as lto|omy-ponnod tho words 7otto Aostto|ls locogolto at tho
bottom ot h|s socond-contury CE wor|d map, ho unw|tt|ng|y a|so prov|dod a cogn|t|vo map that shapod oxp|orat|on tor
moro than 1,b00 yoars by troo|ng human|ty trom tho constra|nts ot a doggod and dogmat|c comm|tmont to corta|nty.
1ho know|odgo that thoro was st||| und|scovorod |and-cod|t|od |n lat|n as totto locogolto-|od oxp|orors to now
ho|ghts ot advonturo and gavo to tuturo gonorat|ons an oarth (and ovontua||y a cosmos) much |argor and moro
var|ogatod than ovor |mag|nod. (3oo t|guro 18.) An uncorta|n and doubt|ng m|nd |oads to trosh wor|d v|s|ons and tho
poss|b|||ty ot now and ovor-chang|ng roa||t|os.
1
Nogativo BoIiota
Chr|stophor Co|umbus's cont|donco |n ach|ov|ng a succosstu| m|ss|on to tho |ar East by way ot sa|||ng wost |s a
pr|mo oxamp|o ot bo||ots dr|v|ng porcopt|ons. ||s t|rst voyago was prom|sod on lto|omy's cartograph|ca| coord|natos
133
tor tho |ongth that tho Euro-As|an cont|nont oxtonds oast, as wo|| as tho ovora|| c|rcumtoronco ot tho wor|d, both ot
wh|ch woro m|sca|cu|atod to a dogroo portoct|y |n sync w|th Co|umbus's oxpoctat|ons.
1o computo tho s|zo ot tho oarth, lto|omy usod an ost|mato ot b00 stad|a por ono dogroo ot |ong|tudo, |nstoad ot
tho moro accurato t|guro ot 700 stad|a por dogroo omp|oyod by tho ost|mab|o anc|ont Grook goographor and
mathomat|c|an Eratosthonos. A stad|um |s about 18b motors, so b00 stad|a oqua|s 02,b00 motors (or 02.b
k||omotors) and 700 stad|a oqua|s 120,b00 motors (or 120.b k||omotors) por dogroo ot |ong|tudo. 1ho actua|
c|rcumtoronco ot tho oarth |s 40,07b k||omotors at tho oquator. lto|omy's ca|cu|at|ons ost|matod |t to bo about 88,800
k||omotors, or 17 porcont too sma||. Add to th|s Co|umbus's uso ot Var|nus ot 1yro's ost|mato on tho h|gh s|do ot tho
|ongth that tho Euro-As|an |and mass strotchod oastward (thoroby |oav|ng |oss wator to sa|| across), p|us tho tact that
tho |and routos trom Europo to Ch|na and lnd|a had bocomo po||t|ca||y unstab|o attor tho ta|| ot Constant|nop|o |n 14b8,
and Co|umbus's p|an to sa|| wost to got to tho oast was actua||y qu|to roasonab|o. (3a|||ng down tho coast ot Atr|ca,
around tho Capo ot Good |opo, and oast to lnd|a and Ch|na had novor boon succosstu||y comp|otod and was
cons|dorod potont|a||y prob|omat|c at bost and d|sastrous at worst.) 1hus, |n ono ot tho most prosc|ont co|nc|doncos |n
tho h|story ot sorond|p|tous d|scovory, attor sa|||ng a ||tt|o moro than b,000 k||omotors wostward across tho Ocoan
3oa' (tho At|ant|c) on h|s ma|don voyago, Co|umbus oncountorod |and |n tho oxact p|aco whoro ho had ca|cu|atod tho
lnd|os wou|d bo, and thus ho dubbod tho poop|o ho ongagod thoro lnd|ans.'
2
Why d|d Co|umbus not |mmod|ato|y roa||zo ho was not |n As|a? 3uro|y tho t|ora and tauna and poop|o ho
d|scovorod woro noth|ng at a|| ||ko what Varco lo|o had roportod trom h|s |and oxcurs|ons oastward trom Europo
whoro ho had mot tho Groat Khan and absorbod As|an cu|turo. 1ho answor can bo tound |n tho dua| prob|om ot
potcoptloo and cogoltloo, or ooto and tbooty. What throw Co|umbus ott was coarso-gra|nod data coup|od w|th
|ncorroct thoory. Varco lo|o's roports ot As|a woro skotchy at bost, a||ow|ng amp|o w|gg|o room tor |ntorprot|ng low
Wor|d data as O|d Wor|d tacts. l|us, thoro was no thoory ot a low Wor|d, so |n Co|umbus's m|nd whon ho mado t|rst
contact w|th tho low Wor|d on that tatotu| day |n Octobor 1402, whoro o|so cou|d ho bo bot As|a?
3ocauso ot tho powor ot tho parad|gm to shapo porcopt|ons, Co|umbus's cogn|t|vo map to|d h|m what ho was
soo|ng. Whon h|s mon dug up somo common gardon rhubarb, Rboom tbopootlcom (usod |n p|os), tor oxamp|o, tho
sh|p's surgoon dotorm|nod that |t was Rboom olcloo|o, tho mod|c|na| Ch|noso rhubarb. 1ho nat|vo Amor|can p|ant
gumbo-||mbo was m|stakon tor an As|at|c var|oty ot tho mast|c ovorgroon troo that y|o|ds ros|n usod to mako |acquor,
varn|sh, and adhos|vos. 1ho 3outh Amor|can oogo| oo pols nut was c|ass|t|od as tho As|an coconut, or at |oast what
Varco lo|o had doscr|bod as such. Co|umbus doomod a p|ant w|th tho aroma ot c|nnamon to bo that va|uab|o As|an
sp|co. Attor t|rst touch|ng |and |n 3an 3a|vador, Co|umbus thon sa||od to Cuba, br|ng|ng w|th h|m somo 3an
3a|vador|an capt|vos to ho|p w|th commun|cat|ons w|th tho Cuban nat|vos, who to|d h|m that thoro was go|d to bo
tound at Cubanacan'-tho m|dd|o ot Cuba-wh|ch Co|umbus hoard as E| Gran Can,' or tho Groat Khan. Whon
Co|umbus touchod down aga|n |n Cuba dur|ng h|s socond voyago, ho rocordod h|s nav|gat|on a|ong what ho thought
woro tho shoros ot tho Vang| k|ngdom |n southorn Ch|na, wh|ch had boon doscr|bod by Varco lo|o. And so |t wont tor
a|| tour voyagos to tho lnd|os,' w|th Co|umbus novor onco doubt|ng whoro ho was, dosp|to novor moot|ng tho Groat
Khan. 3uch |s tho powor ot bo||ot. low data pour|ng |n through o|d parad|gms on|y ro|ntorcod h|s cont|donco that ho
was whoro ho bo||ovod ho was-on tho oastorn boundary ot tho O|d Wor|d, not tho oastorn odgo ot tho low Wor|d.
8
1ho powor ot tho parad|gm was w|tnossod aga|n short|y attor Co|umbus's op|c voyagos whon |ord|nand Vago||an
sot out to c|rcumnav|gato tho g|obo |n 1b10. Onco |t was ostab||shod that thoro was a cont|nonta| |and mass botwoon
Europo and As|a, oxp|orors, cartographors, and scho|ars had two groat unansworod goograph|ca| quost|ons: (1) ls
thoro a northorn passago' through or around tho lorth Amor|can cont|nont ||nk|ng tho At|ant|c and lac|t|c ocoans that
sh|ps sa|||ng wost trom Europo cou|d travorso and savo months ot travo| t|mo? (2) ls thoro roa||y a groat southorn |and
mass, tho 7otto Aostto|ls locogolto ot lto|omy's |mag|nat|on? 1h|s socond quost|on bocamo tho provocat|on tor a
s|ow ot oogotlvo olscovotlos-|ook|ng tor X but t|nd|ng Y.
lava| survoyor 1amos Cook socurod tho hoadsh|p tor thoso voyagos on tho prom|so that ho wou|d sook out th|s
unknown torr|tory unt|| ho wou|d d|scovor |t or ta|| |n w|th tho oastorn s|do ot tho |and d|scovorod by 1asman and now
ca||od low Zoa|and.' (Abo| 1anszoon 1asman a|so d|scovorod tho |argo |s|and ott tho southoastorn t|p ot Austra||a,
wh|ch now boars h|s namo-1asman|a.) 1horo was putat|vo ov|donco tor tho ox|stonco ot th|s |ost cont|nont. 1ho
mystor|ous torr|tory was roportod|y t|rst s|ghtod by Varco lo|o, |ator by 3pan|sh and |ronch voyagors, and most
rocont|y by tho p|rato Edward 0av|s. 1ho cont|nont was ost|matod to bo as |argo as As|a and |oadod w|th proc|ous
goms and m|nora|s. lush trop|ca| surround|ngs woro roportod|y dottod w|th tomp|os, and tho poop|o travo|od about tho
|and on tho backs ot o|ophants. lt was an o|ghtoonth-contury E| 0orado, tho 3hangr|-|a ot tho 3outh lac|t|c.
4
lr|or to Cook, many advonturors crusadod tor such voyagos ot nogat|vo d|scovory. Vauportu|s cajo|od |rodor|ck
tho Groat |nto t|nanc|ng a tr|p. ln 17b0, Char|os do 3rossos ot 0|jon pub||shod h|s llstolto oos Novlgotloos oox
134
7ottos Aostto|os, |n wh|ch ho dovo|opod tho thoory that th|s cont|nont must ox|st to countorba|anco tho wo|ght ot tho
|andmassos ot tho lorthorn |om|sphoro and provont tho oarth trom topp||ng ovor. 1o modorn oars th|s sounds
pos|t|vo|y datty bocauso wo know that tho oarth |s not t|oat|ng' |n any mod|um that wou|d causo |t to r|ght' |tso|t, as an
out-ot-ba|anco |og m|ght do |n a pond ot wator. 3ut, |n tact, |t was |ong bo||ovod-r|ght up through tho oar|y part ot tho
twont|oth contury-that tho oarth was, |n tact, t|oat|ng |n an |nv|s|b|o substanco ca||od tbo otbot.
A docado |ator, |n 1700, a 3cotsman namod 1ohn Ca||andor pub||shod a book amb|t|ous|y ont|t|od 7otto Aostto|ls
Cogolto. Ca||andor proposod |mmod|ato co|on|zat|on ot th|s no |ongor |ncogn|to now cont|nont. 1ho to||ow|ng yoar tho
ch|ot hydrographor to tho 3r|t|sh East lnd|a Company, A|oxandor 0a|rymp|o, wroto h|s Accooot o tbo Llscovotlos
Vooo lo tbo 5ootb Pocllc Ocooo, ro|torat|ng tho g|oba| oqu|||br|um thoory' and ottor|ng proc|so |at|tudo and
|ong|tudo t|guros tor tho |and that ho ost|matod conta|nod moro than t|tty m||||on |nhab|tants. |o |ns|stod that |ts woa|th
wou|d tar oxcood that ot tho Amor|can co|on|os, wh|ch wou|d troo Eng|and trom tho po||t|ca| and oconom|c tr|bu|at|ons
thoso troub|omakor Amor|cans woro st|rr|ng up. 0a|rymp|o bo||ovod that s|nco ho was so wo|| |ntormod about th|s
southorn |and ho shou|d bo g|von command ot an oxpod|t|onary torco. |o wou|d bo tho now (and |ast, ho bo||ovod)
Co|umbus. 3|nco 0a|rymp|o was not a nava| ott|cor, tho command ot 3r|ta|n's voyago ot d|scovory wont to tho v|rtua||y
unknown torty-yoar-o|d Cook, who was savvy onough to |nc|udo sc|ont|sts among h|s crow mombors, thoroby mak|ng
h|s oxp|orat|ons among tho groatost |n tho h|story ot sc|onco. ln tho procoss ot sook|ng out tho unknown |and ot tho
south, Cook tound, chartod, and oxp|orod just about ovoryth|ng but tho myth|ca| |and, |nc|ud|ng 1ah|t|, low Zoa|and,
1asman|a, Austra||a, tho Groat 3arr|or loot, 1onga, Eastor ls|and, low Ca|odon|a, low Gu|noa, tho 3andw|ch
ls|ands, and, t|na||y, what 7otto Aostto|ls locogolto wou|d turn out to actua||y bo-Antarct|ca.
b
ln tho ond, what was known on tho map mattorod |oss than what was unknown, tor |t |s und|scovorod country that
dr|vos oxp|orat|on and |nnovat|on, p|ac|ng totto locogolto at tho vory hoart ot sc|onco.
Look 1hrough tho 1ubo
0ur|ng th|s ago ot pos|t|vo oxp|orat|on and nogat|vo d|scovory, othor goograph|os ot bo||ot w|th tho|r own unknown
torr|tor|os woro opon|ng up to human oxp|orat|on. ln 1000, tho lta||an mathomat|c|an and astronomor Ga|||oo Ga|||o|
turnod toward tho hoavons a mod|t|od vors|on ot tho to|oscopo t|rst |nvontod by tho 0utch spoctac|o makor |ans
l|pporshoy, who or|g|na||y croatod |t tor much moro oarth|y mattors, such as v|ow|ng tho t|ags and contonts ot
morchant vosso|s approach|ng port. At th|s t|mo astronomy was at somoth|ng ot a standst|||. W|th tho oxcopt|on ot tho
sun and tho moon, tho una|dod human oyo was |nadoquato tor obsorv|ng astronom|ca| bod|os |n any dota|| much
boyond a po|nt ot ||ght. Ga|||oo |mprovod tho l|pporshoy |ookor' w|th a |argor |ons and a groator magn|ty|ng oyop|oco,
po|ntod |t upward, and mado a numbor ot start||ng obsorvat|ons.
Ga|||oo notod, tor oxamp|o, that thoro woro sato|||tos orb|t|ng 1up|tor, that vonus had phasos, and that thoro woro
mounta|ns on tho moon and spots on tho sun. |o ovon d|scornod that tho V||ky Way-tho b|urry bo|t ot ||ght c|nchod
across tho wa|st ot tho sky-actua||y compr|sod an uncountab|o numbor ot |nd|v|dua| stars. 1ho d|scovory ot 1up|tor's
moons was part|cu|ar|y s|gn|t|cant |n that |t was ov|donco that tho oarth was not tho contor ot ovotytblog, g|v|ng
support to Coporn|cus's ho||ocontr|c thoory, wh|ch Ga|||oo had a|roady comm|ttod h|mso|t to bo||ovo ovon botoro ho
cou|d provo |t. Voroovor, Ga|||oo's to|oscop|c d|scovor|os ot mounta|ns cast|ng shadows on tho moon, a|ong w|th
thoso posky sunspots, posod a prob|om tor Ar|stoto||an cosmo|ogy, wh|ch ho|d that a|| objocts |n spaco must bo
portoct|y round and portoct|y smooth.
1ho to|oscopo prov|dod an Arch|modoan po|nt trom wh|ch wor|dv|ows cou|d bo movod, but not ovoryono was oagor
to p|ck up tho now tu|crum. Ga|||oo's om|nont son|or co||oaguo at tho Un|vors|ty ot ladua, Cosaro Cromon|n|, was so
comm|ttod to Ar|stoto||an cosmo|ogy that ho rotusod to ovon |ook through tho tubo. ln tact, Cromon|n| was skopt|ca|
that thoro woro ovon any hoavon|y bod|os to soo through |t, conc|ud|ng that |t was a|| a par|or tr|ck: l don't bo||ovo that
anyono but ho saw thom, and bos|dos, that |ook|ng through g|assos wou|d mako mo d|zzy. Enough, l don't want to
hoar any moro about |t. 3ut what a p|ty that Vr. Ga|||oo has gotton |nvo|vod |n thoso ontorta|nmont tr|cks.'
0
Cromon|n|'s
a||og|anco to Ar|stot|o was duo, |n no sma|| part, to tho tact that tho Catho||c Church had woddod tho uncontostod
author|ty ot scr|pturo (v|a tho groat th|rtoonth-contury August|n|an scho|ar 3t. 1homas Aqu|nas) to tho undon|ab|o
w|sdom ot Ar|stot|o. Cromon|n|'s t|do||ty was to tho ph||osophor,' as ho oxp|a|nod dur|ng tho lnqu|s|t|on: l cannot and
do not w|sh to rotract my oxpos|t|on ot Ar|stot|o bocauso th|s |s how l undorstand h|m, and l am pa|d to prosont h|m as
l undorstand h|m, and, woro l not to do so, l wou|d bo ob||god to g|vo back my pay.'
7
low tbot |s |oya|ty to tho
company, and tho Catho||c Church was unquost|onab|y tho |argost and most powortu| corporato ont|ty ot |ts day.
1hoso who d|d |ook through Ga|||oo's tubo cou|d not bo||ovo tho|r oyos-||tora||y. Ono ot Ga|||oo's co||oaguos
roportod that tho |nstrumont workod tor torrostr|a| v|ow|ng but not co|ost|a|, bocauso l tostod th|s |nstrumont ot
Ga|||oo's |n a thousand ways, both on th|ngs horo bo|ow and on thoso abovo. 3o|ow, |t works wondortu||y, |n tho sky |t
135
doco|vos ono. l havo as w|tnossos most oxco||ont mon and nob|o doctors . and a|| havo adm|ttod tho |nstrumont to
doco|vo.' A protossor ot mathomat|cs at tho Co||og|o lomano was conv|ncod that Ga|||oo had put tho tour moons ot
1up|tor |ns|do tho tubo and that ho, too, cou|d show othors such a marvo| g|von tho opportun|ty to t|rst bu||d thom |nto
somo g|assos.' Ga|||oo was pract|ca||y apop|oct|c |n h|s trustrat|on: As l w|shod to show tho sato|||tos ot 1up|tor to tho
lrotossors |n ||oronco, thoy wou|d soo no|thor thom nor tho to|oscopo. 1hoso poop|o bo||ovo thoro |s no truth to sook
|n naturo, but on|y |n tho compar|son ot toxts.'
8
ln Ga|||oo's m|nd, tho marr|ng ot tho sun w|th spots and tho moon w|th mounta|ns soundod tho doath kno|| ot
Ar|stoto||an cosmo|ogy. Ar|stoto||an scho|ast|cs (a|so known as Potlpototlcs, or thoso who th|nk wh||o pac|ng,' an
act|v|ty popu|ar among Grook ph||osophors) tr|od dosporato|y to prosorvo tho appoarancos' ot tho unb|om|shod and
|ncorrupt|b|o hoavons, but Ga|||oo was conv|ncod |t was on|y a mattor ot t|mo, as ho notod |n sardon|c ant|c|pat|on |n a
1012 |ottor: l prosumo that thoso |nnovat|ons w||| bo tho tunora| and tho t|n|sh ot, or tho |ast judgmont on, psoudo-
ph||osophy, s|gns ot |t havo a|roady appoarod |n tho Voon and |n tho 3un. l am oxpoct|ng to hoar ot groat
proc|amat|ons on th|s subjoct by tho lor|patot|cs who w||| w|sh to prosorvo tho |mmorta||ty ot tho hoavons. l do not
know how |t can bo savod and prosorvod.'
0
lart|a| prosorvat|on ot tho hoavons camo |n 1010 whon Ga|||oo was
grantod porm|ss|on to omp|oy tho Coporn|can systom on|y tor mathomat|ca| convon|onco to ca|cu|ato p|anotary orb|ts.
3ut ho was warnod both vorba||y and |n wr|t|ng that ho was not to protoss tho sun-contorod systom as ||tora||y truo.
lovortho|oss, contrar|an that ho was, and oporat|ng undor tho assumpt|on that h|s prov|ous good stand|ng w|th
Card|na| Vattoo 3arbor|n|-now lopo Urban vlll-wou|d grant h|m somo |ooway, |n 1082 Ga|||oo pub||shod h|s most
tamous work, Llo|ogoo Coocotolog tbo 7wo Cblo ot|o 5ystoms, Pto|omolc ooo Copotolcoo, an unm|stakab|o
dotonso ot tho Coporn|can sun-contorod systom. Ga|||oo's book was a mastorp|oco ot ||toraturo, sot down |n tho sty|o
ot a d|a|oguo botwoon two propononts, ono a supportor ot tho oarth-contorod goocontr|c thoory and tho othor a
champ|on ot tho sun-contorod ho||ocontr|c systom. 1ho book's protagon|st, a supportor ot tho goocontr|c modo|, was
namod 3|mp||c|o' and boro a str|k|ng rosomb|anco to tho |ncumbont lopo Urban vlll, whom Ga|||oo charactor|zod as
an |rrat|ona| too|. Llo|ogoo |s a systomat|c attack on Ar|stoto||an phys|cs and cosmo|ogy, and on tho lor|patot|c
ro||anco on author|ty ovor obsorvat|on.
Unsurpr|s|ng|y, Urban vlll was |nconsod, not on|y bocauso Ga|||oo had v|o|atod tho rostra|nt ot 1010 on toach|ng tho
Coporn|can systom as roa|, but a|so bocauso tho sc|ont|st had r|d|cu|od tho popo's own protorrod pos|t|on on tho
ongo|ng lto|oma|c-Coporn|can controvorsy. ln August 1082, tho |o|y Ott|co proh|b|tod turthor pub||cat|on and sa|os ot
Llo|ogoo. 3hort|y thoroattor, tho popo ordorod Ga|||oo to stand tr|a| botoro tho lnqu|s|t|on |n lomo |n 1088, whoro ho
was tound gu||ty ot vohomont susp|c|on ot horosy.' ln tho pona|ty phaso ot tho tr|a|, tho court docrood: Wo condomn
you to torma| |mpr|sonmont |n th|s |o|y Ott|co at our p|oasuro.'
10
1ho now-agod astronomor torma||y ronouncod h|s s|n:
l havo boon pronouncod by tho |o|y Ott|co to bo vohomont|y suspoctod ot horosy-that |s to say, ot hav|ng ho|d and bo||ovod that tho
sun |s tho contor ot tho wor|d and |mmovoab|o, and that tho oarth |s not tho contor, and movos. 1horotoro, dos|r|ng to romovo trom tho
m|nds ot your om|noncos, and ot a|| ta|thtu| Chr|st|ans, th|s strong susp|c|on roasonab|y conco|vod aga|nst mo, w|th s|ncoro hoart and
unto|gnod ta|th l abjuro, curso, and dotost tho atorosa|d orrors and horos|os.
11
G|von Ga|||oo's comm|tmont to obsorvat|on ovor author|ty, what |ogond has h|m say|ng noxt (a|though apocrypha|),
t|ts h|s charactor so wo|| that |t shou|d havo boon spokon: Eppot sl moovo,' And yot |t movos.' Whon tho |ogond
bocomos tact, pr|nt tho |ogond.
1h|s |s, |n tact, what happonod to tho |ogond that Ga|||oo was torturod and ja||od tor h|s bo||ots. 3ocauso tho church
d|d not ro|oaso tho documonts dota|||ng proc|so|y what was dono w|th Ga|||oo, but d|d ro|oaso statomonts that sa|d
Ga|||oo wou|d bo subjoct to r|gorous oxam|nat|on' (wh|ch at tho t|mo ovoryono know moant torturo), poop|o natura||y
assumod that Ga|||oo was torturod and ja||od tor h|s bo||ots.
12
ln roa||ty, bocauso ot Ga|||oo's tamo and tho rospoct ho
ho|d among so many prom|nont poop|o |n powor, and ospoc|a||y bocauso ot h|s rocantat|on, tho court grantod h|m a
sa|utary ponanco' portormod tor tho sp|r|tua| bonot|t ot tormor horot|cs who had roturnod to tho ta|th,' and ho was
thoroattor cont|nod to what amountod to a vory comtortab|o houso arrost. |o cou|d |oavo tho cont|nos ot tho bu||d|ng
and ovon go to v|s|t h|s daughtor |n a noarby convont. lovortho|oss, Llo|ogoo was bannod and Ga|||oo was proh|b|tod
trom ovor aga|n toach|ng tho Coporn|can systom.
18
lomarkab|y, Ga|||oo's Llo|ogoo roma|nod on tho Catho||c
Church's looox o Ptoblbltoo Books unt|| 188b, and |t was not unt|| 1002 that lopo 1ohn lau| ll oxonoratod Ga|||oo
w|th an ott|c|a| apo|og|a that rovoa|s how bo||ot systoms can and do chango onco thoy aro docoup|od trom unchang|ng
dogmas, ovon |t |t takos throo and a ha|t contur|os to do so:
1hanks to h|s |ntu|t|on as a br||||ant phys|c|st and by ro|y|ng on d|ttoront argumonts, Ga|||oo, who pract|ca||y |nvontod tho oxpor|monta|
mothod, undorstood why on|y tho sun cou|d tunct|on as tho contro ot tho wor|d, as |t was thon known, that |s to say, as a p|anotary
systom. 1ho orror ot tho thoo|og|ans ot tho t|mo, whon thoy ma|nta|nod tho contra||ty ot tho Earth, was to th|nk that our undorstand|ng ot
tho phys|ca| wor|d's structuro was, |n somo way, |mposod by tho ||tora| sonso ot 3acrod 3cr|pturo. lot us roca|| tho co|obratod say|ng
136
attr|butod to 3aron|us, 5pltltol 5oocto mootom olsso oos oocoto qoomooo oo coo|om ootot, ooo qoomooo coo|om gtoolotot.' [lt was
tho |o|y 3p|r|t's |ntont to toach us how ono goos to hoavon, not how tho hoavons go.'|
14
Why d|d rodompt|on tako so |ong? Ga|||oo's own words |n a 101b |ottor to tho grand duchoss dowagor Chr|st|na,
w|th whom ho had boon corrospond|ng about h|s horot|ca| |doas |n support ot Coporn|cus, prov|do somo |ns|ght:
Voth|nks that |n tho d|scuss|on ot natura| prob|oms wo ought not to bog|n at tho author|ty ot p|acos ot 3cr|pturo, but at
sons|b|o oxpor|monts and nocossary domonstrat|ons.'
1b
Voth|nks Ga|||oo know portoct|y wo|| what ho was do|ng-and what tho consoquoncos wou|d bo-by prodd|ng
thoso o|d Ar|stoto||ans |nto |ook|ng through h|s tubo.
1ho BattIo ot tho Booka
1ho a||og|anco to tho author|ty ot both scr|pturo and Ar|stot|o mado |t vory d|tt|cu|t tor tho scho|ars ot Ga|||oo's t|mo to
accopt h|s obsorvat|ons-and ospoc|a||y tho |nduct|ons ho drow trom thom-as truo. And ho know |t. 1h|s |s why
Ga|||oo commontod |n h|s book Boolos lo otot, w|th op|grammat|c po|gnancy, 1ho author|ty ot Arch|modos was ot
no moro |mportanco than that ot Ar|stot|o, Arch|modos was r|ght bocauso h|s conc|us|ons agrood w|th oxpor|mont.'
10
|our contur|os |ator, tho phys|c|st l|chard |oynman ochood Ga|||oo's pr|nc|p|o |n h|s obsorvat|on about dotorm|n|ng |t
your thoory |s r|ght or wrong: lt |t d|sagroos w|th oxpor|mont, |t |s wrong. ln that s|mp|o statomont |s tho koy to sc|onco.
lt doosn't mako any d|ttoronco how boaut|tu| your guoss |s, how smart you aro, who mado tho guoss, or what h|s namo
|s. lt |t d|sagroos w|th oxpor|mont, |t's wrong. 1hat's a|| thoro |s to |t.'
17
What Ga|||oo rot|octod |n h|s obsorvat|ons was ono ond ot a spoctrum that grow out ot tho 3c|ont|t|c lovo|ut|on that
had bogun moro than a contury botoro and cu|m|natod |n a batt|o ot tho books: tbo book o ootbotlty vorsus tbo book
o oototo. Androas vosa||us's d|ssoct|ons ot tho human body |n h|s 1b48 Oo tbo lobtlc o tbo lomoo Booy, W||||am
G||bort's goo|og|ca| obsorvat|ons on magnots and tho oarth |n h|s 1000 Oo tbo Vogoot ooo Vogootlc Boolos, ooo oo
tbo Otoot Vogoot tbo Eottb, and W||||am |arvoy's track|ng ot tho mot|on ot tho hoart and b|ood |n h|s 1028
Aootomlco| Exotclso oo tbo Votloo o tbo loott ooo B|ooo lo Aolmo|s woro a|| books ot naturo that cha||ongod tho
anc|ont books ot author|ty, |n wh|ch scr|bos cop|od cop|os ot cop|os or|g|na||y sot down contur|os botoro, w|th ||tt|o
roa|-wor|d tact chock|ng.
1ho 3c|ont|t|c lovo|ut|on was rovo|t|ng aga|nst tho Catho||c Church and |ts ro||anco on ho|y scr|pturo (|n lat|n no
|oss) as |ntorprotod by author|t|os |n a r|g|d occ|os|ast|ca| h|orarchy. 1h|s |s, |n part, why tho Catho||c Church roactod
so v|o|ont|y to tho lrotostant lotormat|on-Vart|n luthor sa|d |t was accoptab|o tor ovoryono to road tho 3|b|o |n tho
vornacu|ar, that anyono can havo a ro|at|onsh|p w|th God d|roct|y w|thout a pr|ost|y |ntormod|ary, and that such r|g|d
h|orarch|os woro unnocossary. 1h|s sot tho stago tor |ator cu|tura| and po||t|ca| batt|os botwoon consorvat|vos and
||bora|s that havo carr|od torward to th|s day.
|ow d|d tho book ot author|ty ma|nta|n |ts gr|p on tho human |mag|nat|on? An oxamp|o can bo tound |n tho t|rst-
contury CE loman wr|tor 0|oscor|dos' work, Lo Vototlo Voolco, tho toromost c|ass|ca| sourco ot botan|ca|
torm|no|ogy and tho |oad|ng pharmaco|og|ca| toxt tor tho noxt 1,000 yoars. Lo Vototlo Voolco prosontod thorough
doscr|pt|ons ot moro than s|x hundrod p|ants that tho author co||octod wh||o travo||ng w|th tho arm|os ot Emporor loro
and bocamo tho toundat|on ot |ato mod|ova| horba|s whon |t was trans|atod |nto sovon |anguagos and d|str|butod
throughout Europo. Attor 0|oscor|dos' doath, howovor, h|s d|sc|p|os stud|od 0|oscor|dos |nstoad ot naturo. ln t|mo,
copy|sts copy|ng cop|os croatod a who|o now naturo that had ||tt|o corrospondonco to roa||ty. loavos woro drawn on
branchos tor symmotry. En|argod roots and stom systoms woro addod to t||| |n ovors|zod to||o pagos. lub||shors usod
stock b|ocks ot wood carvod |nd|v|dua||y tor roots, trunks, branchos, and |oavos, and comb|nod thom |nto compos|to
|||ustrat|ons ot troos that ox|stod nowhoro |n tho wor|d. Copy|sts' tancy and |mag|nat|on bocamo tho norm. 1ho
barnac|o-troo,' tor oxamp|o, was bo||ovod to actua||y grow barnac|os, tho troo-ot-||to' was onvo|opod by a sorpont
w|th a woman's hoad, and tho larc|ssus p|ant grow t|ny human t|guros. 3o powortu| was 0|oscor|dos' |nt|uonco ovor
tho agos that |ato |n tho s|xtoonth contury tho cha|r ot botany at tho Un|vors|ty ot 3o|ogna was contorrod w|th tho t|t|o
loador ot 0|oscor|dos.'
18
1ho powor ot tho book ot author|ty |s wo|| oxomp||t|od |n tho |||ustrat|ons |n t|guro 14. 1ho ha|t-man / ha|t-boast
croaturo |s tho truo p|cturo ot tho lam|a,' trom Edward 1opso||'s 1007 work 7bo llstotlo o looto-ootoo Boostos.
1ho ha|t-man / ha|t-p|ant croaturo |s tho p|ant Vandragora,' moro common|y known today as a mandrako (|n tho
n|ghtshados tam||y), or|g|na||y pr|ntod |n a 148b Gorman book, lotbotlos. Who ovor saw such croaturos? lo ono. 3ut
onco thoy woro pr|ntod |n vo|umos that woro cop|od ond|oss|y trom contury to contury w|thout anyono chock|ng tho
or|g|na| sourcos-much |oss naturo-thoy bocamo ro|t|od as spoc|os |n God's croat|on. Emp|r|ca| obsorvat|on and
vor|t|cat|on d|d not |nhab|t tho cogn|t|vo spaco |n tho mod|ova| m|nd. 3y contrast, tho woodcut |||ustrat|on ot two art|st-
137
natura||sts trom loonhart |uchs's 1b42 Lo llstotlo 5tltplom (7bo llstoty o P|oots) rovoa|s a phaso trans|t|on trom
tho book ot author|ty to tho book ot naturo. lnstoad ot cop|ors copy|ng cop|os mado trom prov|ous cop|os, natura||sts
wont outdoors to chock w|th naturo |nstoad, and that moant tho oxt|nct|on ot lam|a and Vandragora (a|though 3|gtoot
and tho loch loss Vonstor ||vo on |n our |mag|nat|ons).
10
1h|s batt|o ot tho books |nvo|vos two d|ttoront ways ot th|nk|ng-two bo||ot ong|nos, as |t woro. 1ho book ot author|ty
|s groundod |n ooooctloo-tho procoss ot mak|ng spoc|t|c statomonts trom a gonora||zod conc|us|on, or argu|ng trom
tho gonora| to tho spoc|t|c, tom tbooty to ooto. 1ho book ot naturo |s groundod |n loooctloo-tho procoss ot draw|ng
gonora||zod conc|us|ons trom spoc|t|c statomonts, or argu|ng trom tho spoc|t|c to tho gonora|, tom ooto to tbooty. lt
wou|d bo ovors|mp||t|od and unroa||st|c to doscr|bo any ono porson or trad|t|on as pract|c|ng puro |nduct|on or puro
doduct|on, tor nono ot us oporatos |n a vacuum w|thout |nputs trom many sourcos, and |t |s |mposs|b|o to oporato
w|thout both modos ot th|nk|ng. 0ata and thoory go hand |n hand. lovortho|oss, thoro aro por|ods |n tho h|story ot
sc|onco whon ono has boon omphas|zod moro than tho othor, and Ga|||oo and h|s to||ow rovo|ut|onar|os woro butt|ng
up aga|nst a doop trad|t|on |n doduct|on.
Figuro 14. 1ho Book ot Authority 1riumha ovor tho Book ot Naturo
3o powortu| was tho trad|t|on ot rospoct|ng tho author|ty ot tho anc|onts, that natura||sts' woro ||tt|o moro than
scr|bos who cop|od tho cop|os ot prov|ous cop|ors trom somo |ong-ago or|g|na| sourco. 1ho ha|t-man / ha|t-boast
croaturo ca||od tho lam|a' (a) and tho ha|t-man / ha|t-p|ant croaturo ca||od tho Vandragora' (b) woro both
stap|os ot s|xtoonth- and sovontoonth-contury works. 1ho two art|st-natura||sts skotch|ng an actua| p|ant (c) mark a
soa chango |n tho sh|tt trom tho book ot author|ty to tho book ot naturo. lam|a trom Edward 1opso||'s 1007 7bo
llstotlo o looto-ootoo Boostos. Vandragora trom tho 148b Gorman lotbotlos. 1ho art|st-natura||sts trom
|uchs's 1b42 Lo llstotlo 5tltplom. A|| aro ropr|ntod trom AlAl 0E3U3, VANANLNA7URE lN7lE RENAl55ANCE (CAV3ll0GE: CAV3ll0GE
UllvEl3l1Y llE33, 1078), ll. 80, 44, 4b.
1ho pu|| ot Ar|stoto||an |og|c t|od to doduct|vo roason|ng was compo|||ng and hard to ovorcomo. ln tho oar|y 1000s,
tor oxamp|o, wh||o Ga|||oo was mak|ng h|s t|rst to|oscop|c obsorvat|ons, |t was suggostod that spaco cons|stod ||tora||y
ot noth|ng-a vacuum. 3ut how, thon, wou|d tho p|anots movo through |t? Accord|ng to Ar|stot|o, an objoct movod
through a|r or spaco by |mpotus,' |n wh|ch a|r or othor' passos and onvo|ops tho objoct, thoroby push|ng |t trom
boh|nd and g|v|ng |t thrust. 1ust as an arrow movos through tho atmosphoro by tho a|r onvo|op|ng |t and push|ng |t trom
boh|nd, so, too, do p|anots movo through spaco w|th tho othor surround|ng thom and push|ng thom trom boh|nd.
W|thout tho othor no thrust cou|d ox|st to push a p|anot through spaco. 1ho p|anots movo, orgo no vacuum. Ethor,
thoroattor, bocamo tho t|tth o|omont-a|ong w|th oarth, wator, a|r, and t|ro-and bo||ot |n |t pors|stod a|| tho way |nto
tho twont|oth contury, unt|| tho oxpor|monts on tho spood ot ||ght by phys|c|sts A|bort V|cho|son and Edward Vor|oy
woro tu||y accoptod. 3uch |s tho onduranco ot bo||ot, ovon |n tho sc|oncos.
ln 1020, a staunch cha||ongo to Ar|stot|o's doduct|vo mothodo|ogy was prottorod by tho Eng||sh ph||osophor |ranc|s
3acon |n h|s book Novom Otgooom. 1h|s now |nstrumont' was tho omp|r|ca| or obsorvat|ona| mothod. lojoct|ng both
tho unomp|r|ca| trad|t|on ot scho|ast|c|sm and tho lona|ssanco quost to rocovor and prosorvo anc|ont w|sdom, 3acon
sought a b|ond ot sonsory data and roasonod thoory, w|th omphas|s on data and caut|on about thoory. ldoa||y, ho
138
proposod, ono shou|d bog|n w|th obsorvat|ons thon tormu|ato a gonora| thoory trom wh|ch |og|ca| prod|ct|ons cou|d bo
mado. 3acon out||nod how tho m|nd works |n th|s rogard:
1horo aro and can bo on|y two ways ot soarch|ng |nto and d|scovor|ng truth. 1ho ono t||os trom tho sonsos and part|cu|ars to tho most
gonora| ax|oms, and trom thoso pr|nc|p|os, tho truth ot wh|ch |t takos tor sott|od and |mmovab|o, procoods to judgmont and to tho
d|scovory ot m|dd|o ax|oms. 1ho othor dor|vos ax|oms trom tho sonsos and part|cu|ars, r|s|ng by a gradua| and unbrokon ascont, so
that |t arr|vos at tho most gonora| ax|oms |ast ot a||. 1h|s |s tho truo way, but as yot untr|od.
20
lmpod|ng 3acon's goa|, howovor, woro psycho|og|ca| barr|ors that co|orod c|oar judgmont ot tho tacts, ot wh|ch ho
|dont|t|od tour typos: loo|s o tbo covo (|nd|v|dua| pocu||ar|t|os), loo|s o tbo motkotp|oco (||m|ts ot |anguago), loo|s o
tbo tbootot (proox|st|ng bo||ots), and loo|s o tbo ttlbo (|nhor|tod to|b|os ot human thought): ldo|s aro tho protoundost
ta||ac|os ot tho m|nd ot man. lor do thoy doco|vo |n part|cu|ars . but trom a corrupt and crookod|y-sot prod|spos|t|on
ot tho m|nd, wh|ch doth, as |t woro, wrost and |ntoct a|| tho ant|c|pat|ons ot tho undorstand|ng.' 1ho powor ot bo||ots to
dr|vo our obsorvat|ons and conc|us|ons |s protound: 1ho human undorstand|ng whon |t has onco adoptod an
op|n|on . draws a|| th|ngs o|so to support and agroo w|th |t. And though thoro bo a groator numbor and wo|ght ot
|nstancos to bo tound on tho othor s|do, yot thoso |t o|thor nog|octs and dosp|sos . |n ordor that by th|s groat and
porn|c|ous prodotorm|nat|on tho author|ty ot |ts tormor conc|us|ons may roma|n |nv|o|ato.' 1h|s |s a suporb oxamp|o ot
tho cooltmotloo blos, wh|ch wo saw |n tho prov|ous chaptor |s whoro wo |ook tor and t|nd cont|rmatory ov|donco tor
what wo a|roady bo||ovo and o|thor |gnoro or rat|ona||zo d|scont|rm|ng ov|donco. Evoryono doos |t.
What |s tho answor to tho prob|om ot tho |do|s? 3c|onco. 3acon's Novom Otgooom was part ot a |argor projoct ho
ca||od lostoototlo Vogoo, or tho Groat lostorat|on.' (3oo t|guro 1b.) 1h|s was a p|an to roorgan|zo ph||osophy and
tho sc|oncos, start|ng by cha||ong|ng tho author|ty ot Ar|stot|o w|th tho now |nstrumont ot sc|onco. W|th tho |mpudonco
on|y a man ot 3acon's staturo cou|d mustor, ho bo|d|y proposod that thoro was but ono courso |ott . to try tho who|o
th|ng anow upon a bottor p|an and to commonco a tota| roconstruct|on ot sc|oncos, arts, and a|| human know|odgo,
ra|sod upon tho propor toundat|ons.' 3acon suggostod, As wator w||| not ascond h|ghor than tho |ovo| ot tho t|rst
spr|ng-hoad trom whonco |t doscondoth, so know|odgo dor|vod trom Ar|stot|o and oxomptod trom ||borty ot
oxam|nat|on w||| not r|so aga|n h|ghor than tho know|odgo ot Ar|stot|o.'
21
1ho dobato ovor tho ro|at|vo strongths and ro|os ot |nduct|on and doduct|on |n sc|onco cont|nuod tor contur|os and
roma|ns w|th us to th|s day. Whon Char|os 0arw|n was com|ng ot |nto||octua| ago and dovo|op|ng h|s thoory ot
ovo|ut|on, tor oxamp|o, tho pondu|um had swung ovor to tho s|do ot |nduct|on, and thoro was much handwr|ng|ng
among ph||osophors ot sc|onco ovor what |t was and how |t was usod |n sc|onco. A|though dot|n|t|ons var|od, |nduct|on
was rough|y undorstood to moan argu|ng trom tho spoc|t|c to tho gonora|, trom data to thoory. ln 1880, howovor,
astronomor 1ohn |orscho| arguod that |nduct|on was roason|ng trom tho known to tho unknown. ln 1840, ph||osophor
ot sc|onco W||||am Whowo|| |ns|stod that |nduct|on was tho supor|mpos|ng ot concopts on tacts by tho m|nd, ovon |t
thoy woro not omp|r|ca||y vor|t|ab|o. ln 1848, ph||osophor 1ohn 3tuart V||| c|a|mod that |nduct|on was tho d|scovory ot
gonora| |aws trom spoc|t|c tacts, but that thoy had to bo vor|t|od omp|r|ca||y. 1ohannos Kop|or's d|scovory ot tho |aws
ot p|anotary mot|on, tor oxamp|o, was cons|dorod to bo a c|ass|c caso study ot |nduct|on. |or |orscho| and V|||,
Kop|or d|scovorod thoso |aws through carotu| obsorvat|on and |nduct|on. |or Whowo||, tho |aws woro so|t-ov|dont
truths that cou|d havo boon known a pr|or| and vor|t|od |ator by obsorvat|on. 3y tho 1800s, as tho thoory ot ovo|ut|on
was ga|n|ng momontum and convorts, |orscho| and V||| carr|od tho day on |nduct|on as obsorvat|on, not so much
bocauso thoy woro r|ght and Whowo|| was wrong, but bocauso omp|r|c|sm was bocom|ng |ntogra| to tho
undorstand|ng ot how good sc|onco |s dono. 1h|s |s, |n part, what causod 0arw|n to do|ay pub||cat|on ot Oo tbo Otlglo
o 5poclos-ho wantod to comp||o cop|ous data tor h|s thoory botoro go|ng pub||c.
22
139
Figuro 15. Francia Bacon'a Croat Roatoration through tho ExIoration ot 5cionco
|ront|sp|oco trom |ranc|s 3acon's 1020 lostoototlo Vogoo, or Groat lostorat|on' through tho Novom
Otgooom, or now |nstrumont ot sc|onco. 1ho sh|ps roprosont tho too|s ot sc|ont|t|c know|odgo that carry tho
oxp|orors (sc|ont|sts) past tho l|||ars ot |orcu|os (||tora||y, tho 3tra|t ot G|bra|tar, t|gurat|vo|y, tho gatos ot tho groat
unknown). 1|E |lOl1l3llECE |lOV|lAlCl3 3ACOl, lN57AURA7lOVAONA, 1020, l3 |lOVE. l. El3El31Ell, 7lE PRlN7lNO REVOLU7lONlNEARLY VOLERN
EUROPE (lEW YOlK: CAV3ll0GE UllvEl3l1Y llE33, 1088), l. 2b8.
1ho Powor and Povorty ot Puro Emiriciam
A|| |nto||octua| movomonts sw|ng ||ko pondu|ums through monta| spaco, osc|||at|ng botwoon oxtromos thon sott||ng |nto
an ovor moro narrow groovo ot |doat|ona| rango. 3o |t was tor tho batt|o ot tho books as tho oxtromos ot t|uctuat|on
botwoon author|ty and omp|r|c|sm stab|||zod ovor t|mo, and whoro today wo (hopotu||y) rocogn|zo tho |mportanco ot
both data and thoory. lt was Ga|||oo who t|rst d|scovorod tho pr|nc|p|o ot tho pondu|um, so |t |s w|th somo |rony that l
omp|oy tho motaphor horo. As |mportant as h|s omp|r|ca| d|scovor|os woro to ovorthrow|ng tho author|tat|vo dogma ot
contur|os past, whon |t camo to h|s obsorvat|ons ot tho p|anot 3aturn, Ga|||oo succumbod to h|s own cogn|t|vo
||m|tat|ons and |mag|nat|on.
Attor obsorv|ng 3aturn-tho most d|stant p|anot ot h|s day-through h|s t|ny to|oscopo, Ga|||oo wroto to h|s
astronom|ca| co||oaguo 1ohannos Kop|or, A|tlsslmom p|oootom totgomloom obsotvovl,' l havo obsorvod that tho
tarthost p|anot |s throoto|d.' |o thon oxp|a|nod what ho moant: 1h|s |s to say that to my vory groat amazomont 3aturn
was soon to mo to bo not a s|ng|o star, but throo togothor, wh|ch a|most touch oach othor.' |o saw 3aturn not as a
p|anot w|th r|ngs as wo soo |t today |n ovon tho t|n|ost ot homo to|oscopos, but as ono |argo sphoro surroundod by two
sma||or sphoros, thus account|ng tor |ts ob|ong shapo.
Why d|d Ga|||oo-champ|on ot obsorvat|on and |nduct|on-mako th|s m|stako? |av|ng pra|sod omp|r|c|sm as tho
s|no qua non ot sc|onco, wo must now adm|t |ts ||m|tat|vo ottocts. Ga|||oo's orror |s |nstruct|vo tor an undorstand|ng ot
tho |ntorp|ay ot data and thoory, and whon |t camo to 3aturn, Ga|||oo |ackod thom both. Loto: 3aturn |s tw|co as tar
away as 1up|tor, thus what tow photons ot ||ght thoro woro stroam|ng through tho c|oudy g|ass |n h|s ||tt|o tubo mado
roso|ut|on ot tho r|ngs prob|omat|c at bost. 7booty: 1horo was no thoory ot p|anotary r|ngs. lt |s at th|s |ntorsoct|on ot
nonox|stont thoory and nobu|ous data that tho powor ot bo||ot |s at |ts zon|th and tho m|nd t|||s |n tho b|anks. l|ko
Co|umbus botoro h|m, Ga|||oo wont to h|s gravo bo||ov|ng not what h|s oyos actua||y saw but what h|s modo| ot tho
wor|d to|d h|m ho was soo|ng. lt was ||tora||y a caso ot l woo|oo`t bovo sooo lt l l booo`t bo|lovoo lt.
Ga|||oo cou|d not soo' tho r|ngs ot 3aturn, o|thor d|roct|y or thoorot|ca||y, but ho corta|n|y saw somoth|ng, and horo|n
||os tho prob|om. A|tlsslmom p|oootom totgomloom obsotvovl. As tho |ato |arvard ovo|ut|onary thoor|st and h|stor|an
ot sc|onco 3tophon 1ay Gou|d notod |n h|s |ns|ghttu| commontary on tho Ga|||oo 3aturn atta|r: |o doos not advocato
h|s so|ut|on by stat|ng 'l conjocturo,' 'l hypothos|zo,' 'l |ntor,' or 'lt sooms to mo that tho bost |ntorprotat|on..' lnstoad,
ho bo|d|y wr|tos 'obsorvav|'-l havo obsotvoo. lo othor word cou|d capturo, w|th such torsonoss and accuracy, tho
major chango |n concopt and procoduro (not to mont|on oth|ca| va|uat|on) that markod tho trans|t|on to what wo ca||
'modorn' sc|onco.'
28
140
Ovor t|mo Ga|||oo roturnod to 3aturn otton, and a|though ho novor saw tho samo th|ng tw|co, ho stuck stoadtast|y
w|th h|s or|g|na| obsorvat|on and conc|us|on. ln h|s 1018 book on sunspots, ho wroto: l havo roso|vod not to put
anyth|ng around 3aturn oxcopt what l havo a|roady obsorvod and rovoa|od-that |s, two sma|| stars wh|ch touch |t, ono
to tho oast and ono to tho wost.' Cha||ongod by a to||ow astronomor who suggostod that porhaps |t was ono ob|ong
objoct rathor than throo sphoros, Ga|||oo boastod ot h|s own supor|or obsorvat|ona| sk|||s ot tho shapo and d|st|nct|on
ot tho throo stars |mportoct|y soon. l, who havo obsorvod |t a thousand t|mos at d|ttoront por|ods w|th an oxco||ont
|nstrumont, can assuro you that no chango whatovor |s to bo soon |n |t.'
1ho noxt t|mo ho po|ntod h|s tubo to 3aturn just botoro pub||cat|on ot h|s sunspot book, howovor, Ga|||oo saw
somoth|ng rathor d|ttoront.
3ut |n tho past tow days l roturnod to |t and tound |t to bo so||tary, w|thout |ts customary support|ng stars, and as portoct|y round and
sharp|y boundod as 1up|tor. low what can bo sa|d ot th|s strango motamorphos|s?.. Was |t |ndood an |||us|on and a traud w|th
wh|ch tho |onsos ot my to|oscopo doco|vo mo tor so |ong-and not on|y mo, but many othors who havo obsorvod |t w|th mo?. l nood
not say anyth|ng dot|n|to upon so strango and unoxpoctod an ovont, |t |s too rocont, too unpara||o|od, and l am rostra|nod by my own
|nadoquacy and tho toar ot orror.
24
lovortho|oss, Ga|||oo conc|udod |n tho book that dosp|to th|s now data h|s or|g|na| thoory about what ho saw was
corroct. Why? 1ho answor may bo tound |n tho v|sua| prosontat|on ot tho data.
1ho groat scho|ar ot tho v|sua| d|sp|ay ot quant|tat|vo |ntormat|on Edward 1utto notos |n h|s 2000 book, Boootlo|
Evloooco, w|th tho accompany|ng pago trom Ga|||oo's 1018 sunspot book (soo t|guro 10), that Ga|||oo roportod h|s
d|scovory ot 3aturn's unusua| shapo as 2 vlsoo| oooos that comparo c|oar and murky to|oscop|c v|ows. ln Ga|||oo's
work lstotlo o olmosttozlool lototoo o||o moccblo so|otl (1018), words and |magos comb|no to bocomo s|mp|y
ov|donco rathor than d|ttoront modos ot ov|donco.' 1ho trans|at|on ot tho toxt |n t|guro 10 accompan|od by tho two t|ny
draw|ngs ot 3aturn roads: 1ho shapo ot 3aturn |s thus as shown by portoct v|s|on and portoct |nstrumonts, but
appoars thus whoro portoct|on |s |ack|ng, tho shapo and d|st|nct|on ot tho throo stars bo|ng |mportoct|y soon.' 1utto
doscr|bos th|s sontonco as ono ot tho bost ana|yt|ca| dos|gns ovor' bocauso |t roprosontod 3aturn as ov|donco,
|mago, draw|ng, graph|c, word, noun.'
2b
0osp|to h|s moro rocont obsorvat|ons that tho throo stars' had bocomo
so||tary' and as portoct|y round and sharp|y boundod as 1up|tor,' Ga|||oo's |mago, draw|ng, graph|c, word, and noun
woro congoa|od |nto ov|donco that h|s or|g|na| obsorvat|ons woro corroct. Ga|||oo novor tu||y rotroatod trom h|s t|rst
dot|n|t|vo conc|us|on.
Figuro 10. CaIiIoo'a 5aturn aa Evidonco, |mago, Drawing, Crahic, Word, Noun"
1ho pago trom Ga|||oo's 1018 book on sunspots, |n wh|ch ho roturns to tho cons|dorat|on ot tho 3aturn on|gma,
conc|ud|ng onco aga|n that ho was r|ght |n tho t|rst p|aco that 3aturn was a throo-bod|od objoct. 3ourco: GAlllEO
GAlllEl, l57ORlA E LlVO57RAZlONl lN7ORNO ALLE VACCllE 5OLARl (lOVE, 1018), l. 2b. A3 lEllO0UCE0 ll E0WAl0 1U|1E, BEAU7llUL EVlLENCE
(C|E3|llE, COll.: GlAl|lC3 llE33, 2000), l. 40.
1ho so|ut|on to tho 3aturn prob|om |s oqua||y |nstruct|vo ot tho ooto-tbooty d|a|oguo |n tho narrat|vo ot bo||ot. lt
wasn't unt|| 10b0-ha|t a contury attor Ga|||oo's obsorvat|ons-that 0utch astronomor Chr|st|aan |uygons pub||shod
tho so|ut|on |n h|s groat work 5ystomo 5ototolom, ono ot tho t|nost v|sua| d|sp|ays ot both data and thoory |n tho
h|story ot sc|onco. ln t|guro 17 wo soo on d|sp|ay th|rtoon |ntorprotat|ons ot 3aturn producod by astronomors trom
1010 (Ga|||oo) to 10b0 (|ontana and othors), a|| wrong.
1o our ooto-tbooty duo wo shou|d add ptosoototloo ot tho data and thoory. ln many ways, prosontat|on |s
ovoryth|ng |n undorstand|ng how bo||ots aro born, ro|ntorcod, and changod, bocauso humans aro so v|sua||y or|ontod
as pr|matos who onco dopondod on throo-d|mons|ona||ty to nav|gato through donso arboroa| onv|rons. 1ho ooto-
141
tbooty-ptosoototloo tr|ad |s on oxqu|s|to d|sp|ay |n t|guro 18, |n wh|ch |uygons takos thoso two-d|mons|ona| 3aturns,
b|ows thom up |nto 8-0, and puts thom |n mot|on around tho sun. lt |s a marvo|ous prosontat|on ot both data and
thoory, |ncorporat|ng Coporn|cus's thoory that tho sun |s at tho contor ot tho so|ar systom |nstoad ot tho oarth (as |n
lto|oma|c cosmo|ogy), Kop|or's t|rst |aw that p|anotary orb|ts aro o|||pt|ca| |nstoad ot c|rcu|ar (as |n Ar|stoto||an
cosmo|ogy), and Kop|or's th|rd |aw that tho |nnor p|anots rovo|vo around tho sun tastor than tho outor p|anots.
Figuro 17. Chriatiaan Euygona'a CataIoguo ot Errora
0utch astronomor Chr|st|aan |uygons so|vod tho 3aturn on|gma |n h|s 10b0 work 5ystomo 5ototolom, |n wh|ch
ho |nc|udod th|s v|sua| cata|oguo ot tho th|rtoon most prom|nont thoor|os ot 3aturn, |nc|ud|ng thoso ot l. Ga|||oo,
1010, ll. 3cho|nor, 1014, lll. l|cc|o||, 1041 or 1048, lv-vll. |ovo|, thoorot|ca| torms, vlll-lX. l|cc|o||, 1048-10b0,
X. 0|v|n|, 1040-1048, Xl. |ontana, 1080, Xll. 3|ancan|, 1010, Gassond|, 1088, 1080, Xlll. |ontana and othors,
1044, 104b. loto tho t|rst |mago trom Ga|||oo's obsorvat|on ot 3aturn trom wh|ch ho conc|udod: l havo obsorvod
that tho tarthost p|anot |s throoto|d.' 3ourco: C|ll31lAAl |UYGEl3, 5Y57EVA 5A7URNlUV (1|E |AGUE, 10b0), |Ol0OU1llA1E A1ll. 84-
8b. A3 lEllO0UCE0 ll E0WAl0 1U|1E, Vl5UAL EXPLANA7lON5 (C|E3|llE, COll.: GlAl|lC3 llE33, 1007), l. 107.
|oro wo soo tho sun-Earth-3aturn systom trom abovo-an Arch|modoan po|nt outs|do tho so|ar systom that grants
a now porspoct|vo-w|th 3aturn sot |n mot|on on |ts g|ac|a||y s|ow 20.b-Earth-yoars-|ong orb|t. About 1.8 Earth-yoars
o|apso botwoon oach ot tho 82 3aturns |n tho d|agram. 1ho ottoct |s to show that 3aturn w||| appoar d|ttoront to Earth-
bound obsorvors at d|ttoront t|mos ot tho Earth yoar. 1h|s oxp|a|ns why |n tho courso ot ha|t a contury so many koon-
oyod astronomors saw so many d|ttoront 3aturns, |nc|ud|ng a 3aturn w|th no r|ngs at a||. 1w|co oach 3aturn-yoar tho
r|ngs appoar odgo on to Earth-bound obsorvors. Edward 1utto o|oquont|y doscr|bos tho powor ot th|s v|sua|
oxp|anat|on: |uygons prosonts a sor|os ot st||| |magos |n ordor to dop|ct mot|on. 1o roso|vo such d|scont|nuous
spat|a| roprosontat|ons ot cont|nuous tompora| act|v|ty, v|owors must |ntorpo|ato botwoon |magos, c|os|ng up tho
gaps. lmag|nat|vo and or|g|na|, th|s d|sp|ay |s a c|ass|c, an oxomp|ar ot |ntormat|on dos|gn.'
20
Figuro 18. 5aturn in 8-D and in Notion
1ho ooto-tbooty-ptosoototloo tr|ad |s on oxqu|s|to d|sp|ay horo, |n wh|ch |uygons takos thoso two-d|mons|ona|
3aturns soon |n ||guro 17, b|ows thom up |nto 8-0, and puts thom |n mot|on around tho sun. lt |s a marvo|ous
prosontat|on ot both data and thoory, |ncorporat|ng Coporn|cus's thoory that tho sun |s at tho contor ot tho so|ar
systom |nstoad ot tho oarth (as |n lto|oma|c cosmo|ogy), Kop|or's t|rst |aw that p|anotary orb|ts aro o|||pt|ca|
|nstoad ot c|rcu|ar (as |n Ar|stoto||an cosmo|ogy), and Kop|or's th|rd |aw that tho |nnor p|anots rovo|vo around tho
sun tastor than tho outor p|anots. 3OUlCE: C|ll31lAAl |UYGEl3, 5Y57EVA 5A7URNlUV (1|E |AGUE, 10b0), l. bb. A3 lEllO0UCE0 ll
E0WAl0 1U|1E, Vl5UAL EXPLANA7lON5 (C|E3|llE, COll.: GlAl|lC3 llE33, 1007), l. 108.
142
1ho 3aturn on|gma and |ts u|t|mato so|ut|on rovoa|s tho |ntorp|ay botwoon ooto, tbooty, and ptosoototloo, botwoon
loooctloo, ooooctloo, and commoolcotloo, botwoon what wo soo, what wo tblok, and what wo soy. Wo cannot
untang|o tho throo, tor tho m|nd ongagos thom a|| to produco know|odgo on wh|ch wo act |n tho wor|d. 1ho 3aturn atta|r
domonstratos, |n tho mastor rhotor|c|an 3tophon 1ay Gou|d's words, both tho powor and povorty ot puro omp|r|c|sm.'
|ow? Gou|d's answor |s ono ot tho most o|oquont ovor ponnod on th|s contont|ous |ssuo:
1ho |doa that obsorvat|on can bo puro and unsu|||od (and thorotoro boyond d|sputo)-and that groat sc|ont|sts aro, by |mp||cat|on,
poop|o who can troo tho|r m|nds trom tho constra|nts ot surround|ng cu|turo and roach conc|us|ons str|ct|y by untrammo|od
oxpor|mont and obsorvat|on, jo|nod w|th c|oar and un|vorsa| |og|ca| roason|ng-has otton harmod sc|onco by turn|ng tho omp|r|c|st
mothod |nto a sh|bbo|oth. 1ho |rony ot th|s s|tuat|on t|||s mo w|th a m|xturo ot pa|n tor a dora||od (|t |mposs|b|o) |doa| and amusomont
tor human to|b|os-as a mothod dov|sod to undorm|no proot by author|ty bocomos, |n |ts turn, a spoc|os ot dogma |tso|t. 1hus, |t on|y
to honor tho tru|sm that ||borty roqu|ros otorna| v|g||anco, wo must a|so act as watchdogs to dobunk tho author|tar|an torm ot tho
omp|r|c|st myth-and to roassort tho qu|ntossont|a||y human thomo that sc|ont|sts can work on|y w|th|n tho|r soc|a| and psycho|og|ca|
contoxts. 3uch an assort|on doos not dobaso tho |nst|tut|on ot sc|onco, but rathor onr|chos our v|ow ot tho groatost d|a|oct|c |n human
h|story: tho transtormat|on ot soc|oty by sc|ont|t|c progross, wh|ch can on|y ar|so w|th|n a matr|x sot, constra|nod, and tac|||tatod by
soc|oty.
27

ln tho 1020s, tour contur|os attor Ga|||oo changod tho goography ot know|odgo ot tho wor|d and |ts |mmod|ato
onv|rons |n spaco, a cosmo|og|ca| matr|x ot data, thoory, and prosontat|on camo togothor |n a now pattorn that
comp|oto|y changod tho way wo v|ow tho cosmos and our p|aco |n |t. As bo|d a pattorn shattoror as ho was, Ga|||oo
cou|d novor havo |mag|nod just how |nconco|vab|y vast and vacuous tho hoavons wou|d turn out to bo. |ow that now
pattorn was d|scovorod, do||noatod, doubtod, dobatod, and u|t|mato|y dotorm|nod to bo corroct prov|dos us w|th a
t|na| oxamp|o ot how sc|onco works to adjud|cato d|sputos ovor cont||ct|ng pattorns, and how wo can avo|d tho trap
that bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm ho|ds tor us |t wo do not omp|oy tho too|s ot sc|onco.
143

14

CoamoIogioa ot BoIiot
On a c|oar n|ght away trom c|ty ||ghts, |t you havo roasonab|y good oyos|ght you can just baro|y mako out a tuzzy patch
ot ||ght noar tho consto||at|on Cass|opo|a (tho W-shapod pattorn ot stars), ospoc|a||y |t you |ook a ||tt|o to tho s|do ot |t
so that tho photons that |ott tho Andromoda ga|axy 2.b m||||on yoars ago |and on tho por|phory ot your rot|na whoro tho
d|m-||ght sons|t|vo rods aro |ocatod. On Octobor 0, 1028, astronomor Edw|n |ubb|o, w|o|d|ng tho ono-hundrod-|nch
|ookor to|oscopo atop Vount W||son |n tho 3an Gabr|o| Vounta|ns abovo tho los Ango|os bas|n-at tho t|mo tho
|argost ||ght-gathor|ng |nstrumont |n tho wor|d-cont|rmod that th|s and many ot tho othor c|oudy |magos ho had boon
tocus|ng |n h|s oyop|oco woro not nobu|ao wltblo tho V||ky Way ga|axy as many astronomors bo||ovod, but woro, |n
tact, soparato ga|ax|os-|s|and un|vorsos' as thoy woro romant|ca||y ca||od-and that tho un|vorso |s b|ggor than
anyono |mag|nod . a |ot b|ggor.
What |ubb|o cont|rmod attor contur|os ot dobato |s that our star |s not moro|y a gra|n ot sand among a hundrod
b||||on gra|ns on a s|ng|o boach, |n tact, thoro aro hundrods ot b||||ons ot boachos, oach ono ot wh|ch conta|ns
hundrods ot b||||ons ot gra|ns ot sand. 1ho story ot how th|s romarkab|o d|scovory was mado domonstratos how
sc|onco works |n pract|co: not on|y how |t roqu|ros an o|ogant b|ond ot data, thoory, and prosontat|on as soon |n tho
Ga|||oo story, but a|so how sc|ont|t|c d|sputos aro roso|vod and what happons to prov|ous|y accoptod thoor|os
rondorod obso|oto by now obsorvat|ons. ln tho wor|d ot macrosc|onco thoro aro tow targots ot obsorvat|on moro
nobu|ous than tho cosm|c nobu|ao that havo porp|oxod obsorvors tor so |ong. 1ho t|na| roso|ut|on ot tho|r naturo wou|d
rosu|t |n a dramat|c sh|tt |n our undorstand|ng ot tho |argo-sca|o structuro ot tho un|vorso . and boyond.
Lookback 1imo
Whon you |ook out |nto spaco tho d|stancos aro so onormous that you aro |ook|ng back |nto t|mo, appropr|ato|y,
astronomors ca|| th|s |ookbock tlmo. l|ght travo|s at a spood ot about 180,000 m||os por socond, or about 071 m||||on
m||os an hour. lt takos ||ght 1.8 soconds to travo| trom tho moon to Earth, 8.8 m|nutos trom tho sun to Earth, and 4.4
yoars trom our c|osost sto||ar no|ghbor A|pha Contaur| to Earth. 1hus, whon l sa|d that tho ||ght trom tho Andromoda
ga|axy |ott 2.b m||||on yoars ago, l was us|ng a |ookbock tlmo rotoronco bocauso |t |s 2.b m||||on ||ght-yoars away.
Goo|og|sts ca|| such |ong t|mo spans ooop tlmo. Lookbock tlmo, ooop tlmo . by any othor namo |t dwarts tho
|mag|nat|on ot croaturos that ||vo a scant tour scoro yoars.
Whon |t comos to such astronom|ca||y d|stant objocts as ga|ax|os, tho nakod oyo cou|d not ho|p oar|y astronomors
grasp tho naturo ot tho nobu|a, and thus |t |s that human|ty had to wa|t unt|| modorn opt|cs cou|d prov|do us w|th tho
obsorvat|ona| too|s noodod to soo such onormous d|stancos. W|th ono oxcopt|on. On that c|oar n|ght away trom c|ty
||ghts, attor you'vo tound Andromoda, scan tho rost ot tho co|ost|a| sphoro and you w||| soo a th|ck band ot sp|otchy
||ght that strotchos across tho ont|ro sky. 1h|s |s tho V||ky Way ga|axy, and tho prob|om ot dotorm|n|ng |ts naturo |s
compoundod by tho tact that wo'ro |n tho m|dd|o ot |t w|th no way to stop ott ot our obsorvor's p|attorm tor an
Arch|modoan b|g-p|cturo porspoct|vo. Evor s|nco Ga|||oo was ab|o to d|scorn |nd|v|dua| stars |n that band ot ||ght w|th
h|s crudo to|oscopo, astronomors havo dobatod |ts naturo, whoro wo ||vo |n ro|at|on to |t, and |t thoso othor m|sty torms
|n tho sky aro s|m||ar to or d|ttoront trom tho ono |n wh|ch wo ||vo.
3omo astronomors spocu|atod that a torco mado tho stars or|ont thomso|vos |n a band across tho sky, and that th|s
structuro rotatod around tho sun just ||ko tho p|anots. ln 17b0, an Eng||sh watchmakor and toachor namod 1homas
Wr|ght pub||shod h|s thoory ot tho V||ky Way |n a book ont|t|od Ao Otlgloo| 7booty, ot, Now lypotbosls o tbo
Uolvotso, |n wh|ch ho prosc|ont|y conjocturod that an obsorvor's or|ontat|on |n spaco dotorm|nos tho porcopt|on ot
what |s obsorvod. |o conc|udod that tho V||ky Way was a sho|| ot stars on wh|ch our so|ar systom ros|dod, such that
|ook|ng t|at across tho sho|| ono soos |ots ot stars, but |n |ook|ng up or down away trom tho sho|| ono soos most|y
ompty spaco.
1
1hat's a c|oso approx|mat|on to what wo obsorvo, on|y wo now know that tho V||ky Way |s a t|at d|sc,
||ko a |r|sboo, and our so|ar systom s|ts about throo-quartors ot tho way out trom |ts contor. lt you |ook through' tho
d|sc-a|ong tho th|ck p|ano, that |s-you soo |ots ot stars, and thoso thon appoar as a band across tho n|ght sky.
Whon you |ook away trom tho band you aro |ook|ng o|thor up or down trom tho d|sc.
144
|aIanda in tho 5ky
3uch conjocturos, howovor prosc|ont |n h|nds|ght, ga|nod ||tt|o toot|ng on tho |nto||octua| |andscapo unt|| tho groat
lruss|an ph||osophor lmmanuo| Kant turnod h|s porcoptua| powors skyward-|t on|y |n h|s m|nd's oyo-whon ho
suggostod that tho o|||pt|ca|-shapod nobu|ous stars' bo||ovod by many astronomors to bo noarby woro actua||y d|scs
ot count|oss stars vory tar away: l oas||y porsuadod myso|t that thoso stars can bo noth|ng o|so than a mass ot many
t|xod stars. On account ot tho|r toob|o ||ght, thoy aro romovod to an |nconco|vab|o d|stanco trom us.' 3ut why do somo
nobu|ao appoar round, othors o|||pt|ca| shapod, and st||| othors as a t|at p|ano? Woro thoso d|ttoront objocts ont|ro|y, or
aro thoy tho samo spoc|os ot objocts v|owod at d|ttoront ang|os? Kant roasonod h|s way to a noar|y corroct answor:
[l|t such a wor|d ot t|xod stars |s boho|d at such an |mmonso d|stanco trom tho oyo ot tho spoctator s|tuatod outs|do ot
|t, thon th|s wor|d w||| appoar undor a sma|| ang|o as a patch ot spaco whoso t|guro w||| bo c|rcu|ar |t |ts p|ano |s
prosontod d|roct|y to tho oyo, and o|||pt|ca| |t |t |s soon trom tho s|do or ob||quo|y.'
1hoso nobu|ao bocamo known as Kant's |s|and un|vorsos,' and ho waxod poot|c about thom |n h|s 17bb book
Uolvotso| Nototo| llstoty ooo 7booty o tbo loovoos: 1ho |nt|n|tudo ot tho croat|on |s groat onough to mako a
wor|d, or a V||ky Way ot wor|ds, |ook |n compar|son w|th |t what a t|owor or an |nsoct doos |n compar|son w|th tho
oarth.' As tor tho V||ky Way |tso|t, Kant out||nod h|s thoory |n h|s usua| |ns|ghttu| mannor:
1ust as tho p|anots |n tho|r systom aro tound vory noar|y |n a common p|ano, tho t|xod stars aro a|so ro|atod to tho|r pos|t|ons, as
noar|y as poss|b|o, to a corta|n p|ano wh|ch must bo conco|vod as drawn through tho who|o hoavons, and by tho|r bo|ng vory c|oso|y
massod |n |t thoy prosont that stroak ot ||ght wh|ch |s ca||od tho V||ky Way. l havo bocomo porsuadod that bocauso th|s zono,
|||um|natod by |nnumorab|o suns, has a|most oxact|y tho torm ot a groat c|rc|o, our sun must bo s|tuatod qu|to noar th|s groat p|ano. ln
oxp|or|ng tho causos ot th|s arrangomont, l havo tound tho v|ow to bo vory probab|o that tho so-ca||od t|xod stars may roa||y bo s|ow
mov|ng, wandor|ng stars ot a h|ghor ordor.
2
1ho Croat Dobato
Kant's thoory ot tho hoavons sot tho stago tor a mu|t|contury dobato botwoon thoso who thought that tho nobu|ao woro
sto||ar systoms w|th|n our own ga|axy ot stars (tho nobu|ar hypothos|s'), and thoso who bo||ovod that thoy roprosontod
soparato ga|ax|os at groat d|stancos (tho |s|and un|vorso thoory'). As roto|d by 1|mothy |orr|s |n h|s c|ass|c work
Comlog o Ago lo tbo Vl|ky oy, as wo|| as by Ga|o Chr|st|anson |n h|s b|ography Eowlo lobb|o. Votloot o tbo
Nobo|oo, and most rocont|y by Varc|a 3artus|ak |n hor sp|ond|d h|story ot 7bo Loy o loooo tbo Uolvotso, |t was
th|s dobato that Edw|n |ubb|o adjud|catod at Vount W||son on that tatotu| day |n Octobor 1028.
8
ln 1781, a comot chasor namod Char|os Voss|or pub||shod a cata|og ot tho nobu|ao, pr|mar||y as a moans ot
d|st|ngu|sh|ng thoso t|xod b|urry dots trom tho mov|ng w|spy comots ho was soarch|ng tor.
4
1h|s bocamo tho dot|n|t|vo
compond|um ot nobu|ao and |s st||| |n uso today bocauso h|stor|ca| nomonc|aturo ho|ds procodonco |n sc|onco (|n tho
samo way that wo st||| uso Car| von l|nno's o|ghtoonth-contury pro-0arw|n|an b|nom|a| nomonc|aturo tor |dont|ty|ng
organ|sms-tor oxamp|o, lomo soploos). Voss|or's cata|og gavo gr|st to tho to|oscop|c m|||. 1ho groat astronomor
W||||am |orscho|, attor h|s romarkab|o d|scovory ot Uranus, rampod up tho soarch by turn|ng h|s twonty-toot tubo w|th
|ts two|vo-|nch m|rror to tho objocts Voss|or sa|d woro not mov|ng. l havo |ookod tarthor |nto spaco than ovor a human
bo|ng d|d botoro mo,' ho boastod. |o was ab|o to roso|vo |nd|v|dua| stars w|th|n tho b|otchos, prov|ng that thoro woro
|s|and un|vorsos attor a||!
b
Kant was r|ght.
lot so tast. lt turns out that |orscho| was not |mag|ng d|stant ga|ax|os. |o was |ook|ng at g|obu|ar c|ustors-
co||oct|ons ot stars |n or noar tho V||ky Way ga|axy that astronomors d|ttoront|atod trom nobu|ao w|thout d|scorn|b|o
|nd|v|dua| stars. |orscho| corroct|y |dont|t|od tho Or|on lobu|a as an |ntorsto||ar c|oud ot gas w|th|n our ga|axy |n tho
procoss ot g|v|ng b|rth to now stars. As wo||, |n 1700 |orscho| |magod a most s|ngu|ar lhaonomonon!': a star ot
about tho o|ghth magn|tudo, w|th a ta|nt |um|nous atmosphoro' |n wh|ch tho star |s portoct|y |n tho contor and tho
atmosphoro |s so d||utod, ta|nt and oqua| throughout, that thoro can bo no surm|so ot |ts cons|st|ng ot stars, nor can
thoro bo a doubt ot tho ov|dont connoct|on botwoon tho atmosphoro and tho star.'
0
lt was a p|anotary nobu|a-a star
w|th|n our ga|axy that |s shodd|ng |ts outor gasoous |ayor. 1h|s was ov|donco aga|nst Kant's |s|and un|vorso thoory and
|n tavor ot tho nobu|ar hypothos|s. 3y tho 1700s |orscho| had cata|ogod moro than a thousand now nobu|ao and
sto||ar c|ustors. 0osp|to tho w|do var|oty ot nobu|a typos that ho |magod, and ovor tho vo|cos ot many skopt|ca|
co||oaguos, |orscho| pronouncod: 1hoso cur|ous objocts, not on|y on account ot tho|r numbor, but a|so |n
cons|dorat|on ot tho|r groat consoquonco, aro no |oss than who|o s|doroa| systoms' that may wo|| outv|o our V||ky-
Way |n grandour.'
7
ContIicting Pattorna ot Data
W|th tho h|nds|ght b|as, ot courso, wo know how tho story turns out. lt |s oasy to rummago around |n tho dustb|n ot
145
h|story and pu|| out thoso who woro ahoad ot tho|r t|mo, wh|ch |s what l'vo boon do|ng thus tar, but w|th two contur|os
|ott |n tho story astronomors had obv|ous|y not so|vod tho r|dd|o ot tho nobu|ao. An add|t|ona| prob|om ar|sos at th|s
po|nt: |n a sonso both thoor|os woro corroct. On tho ono hand, thoro aro |ots ot |oca| phonomona w|th|n our ga|axy that
appoar as tuzzy patchos |n tho n|ght sky: comots, gasoous c|ouds, g|obu|ar c|ustors ot stars, opon c|ustors ot stars,
p|anotary nobu|ao, anc|ont nova and supornova stars that b|ow up and |ott on|y sho||s ot gas, and so on. On tho othor
hand, tho vast major|ty ot Voss|or's cata|og objocts |abo|od as nobu|ao aro, |n tact, |s|and un|vorsos-ga|ax|os ot
stars-onormous d|stancos away trom tho V||ky Way ga|axy. 1ho prob|om |n d|st|ngu|sh|ng botwoon tho two
catogor|os ot co|ost|a| objocts comos down to bottor data and rot|nod thoory. 1ho |attor to||owod tho tormor, and tho
tormor dopondod d|roct|y on |mprovomonts |n to|oscopo tochno|ogy.
ln tho 1880s, an lr|sh nob|oman namod W||||am larsons, th|rd oar| ot losso, constructod a th|rty-s|x-|nch to|oscopo.
1hrough h|s oyop|oco ho managod to baro|y d|scorn sp|ra| arms |n Vb1-tho t|tty-t|rst objoct |n Voss|or's cata|og-
wh|ch took ovoryono by surpr|so bocauso ovon thoso who bo||ovod |n tho |s|and un|vorso thoory had no not|on ot what
tho structuro ot thoso othor ga|ax|os (|ot a|ono our own) m|ght bo. 1ho Wh|r|poo| ga|axy, as |t camo to bo known,
soomod to |nd|cato movomont through arms co||od around a contra| ax|s that vory much rosomb|od a wh|r|poo|, trom
whonco |ts namo.
8
ln 1840, a supportor ot tho |s|and un|vorso thoory namod 1ohn l|cho| suggostod that somo ot tho
nobu|ao aro s|tuatod so doop |n spaco that no ray trom thom cou|d roach our Earth, unt|| attor travo||ng through tho
|ntorvon|ng abyssos, dur|ng contur|os whoso numbor stuns tho |mag|nat|on.'
0
ln l|cho|'s |mag|nat|on that numbor
cou|d bo as h|gh as th|rty m||||on yoars. 1h|s was a stunn|ng t|guro to contomp|ato g|von that tho prova|||ng wor|dv|ow
among tho pub||c at tho t|mo was a b|b||ca| ago no o|dor than ton thousand yoars. lr|vato|y, many sc|ont|sts had tho|r
doubts, but nono cou|d havo known how shy ot tho mark tho|r oducatod guossos woro-ott, as |t turns out, by ordors ot
magn|tudo ot vory doop |ookback t|mo.
Onco aga|n wo aro gott|ng ahoad ot ourso|vos |n s|ng||ng out our prognost|cat|ng champ|ons ot truth. 1horo woro
othor ||nos ot ov|donco p|||ng up aga|nst tho |s|and un|vorso thoory, and nono moro powortu| than what was bo|ng
|magod through a now dov|co capab|o ot d|scorn|ng tho o|omontary const|tuonts ot ||ght. As lsaac lowton
domonstratod back |n tho sovontoonth contury, |t you pass wh|to ||ght through a g|ass pr|sm |t can bo sproad out |nto
|ts componont co|ors. Ovor tho contur|os sc|ont|sts d|scovorod that |t you magn|ty a band ot thoso co|ors you can soo
vort|ca| ||nos that appoar to roprosont tho o|omonts |n tho substanco ot tho objoct that |s gonorat|ng tho ||ght. |or
oxamp|o, |t you hoat up an o|omont so hot that |t burns br|ght onough to g|vo ott ||ght, pass th|s ||ght through a pr|sm,
and magn|ty |t, you w||| t|nd a charactor|st|c sot ot ||nos that roprosont that o|omont and no othor-a|ways and
ovorywhoro.
1h|s dov|co |s ca||od a spocttoscopo, and |t was t|rst omp|oyod by a Gorman opt|cs tochn|c|an namod 1osoph von
|raunhotor, who attachod a crudo spoctroscopo to h|s to|oscopo and not|cod that s|m||ar pattorns ot ||nos appoarod |n
tho spoctra ot tho sun, moon, and tho othor p|anots, wh|ch to||owod trom tho tact that tho moon and p|anots aro
rot|oct|ng sun||ght. 3ut whon |raunhotor ana|yzod othor stars ho tound d|ttoront ||no pattorns. Was tho ||ght trom tho
stars com|ng trom a d|ttoront sourco? A tow docados |ator a phys|c|st namod lobort 3unson (ot 3unson burnor'
tamo) |magod a |oca| t|ro through h|s spoctroscopo and tound bar|um and stront|um |n tho t|amos. Othors to||owod,
rocord|ng spoctra ot a|| mannor ot hoatod o|omonts, and thus was born tho tochno|ogy ot spoctroscopy and tho
sc|onco ot astrophys|cs. 3y cata|og|ng tho charactor|st|c ||nos tor o|omonts on Earth, astronomors cou|d thon turn tho|r
spoctroscopos (yokod to tho|r to|oscopos) to tho stars-and ovontua||y tho nobu|ao-|n ordor to dotorm|no tho|r
compos|t|on.
ln 1801, a phys|c|st namod Gustav K|rchhott |magod tho c|osost star to tho oarth-tho sun-and tound ||nos
match|ng thoso ot sod|um, ca|c|um, magnos|um, |ron, chrom|um, n|cko|, bar|um, coppor, and z|nc. On August 20,
1804, an Eng||sh amatour astronomor namod W||||am |ugg|ns turnod a spoctroscopo to tho ||ght com|ng trom tho
br|ght stars 3oto|gouso and A|dobaran, whoro ho |dont|t|od |ron, sod|um, ca|c|um, magnos|um, and b|smuth,
cont|rm|ng that tho sun was just anothor star, and, a|tornat|vo|y, that tho stars aro tho samo spoc|os ot co|ost|a| objoct
as tho sun. 3ut thon |ugg|ns contusod tho dobato whon ho d|d a spoctroscop|c ana|ys|s ot ono ot |orscho|'s
p|anotary nobu|ao and tound on|y ono d|st|nct ||no.
At t|rst l suspoctod somo d|sp|acomont ot tho pr|sm, and that l was |ook|ng at a rot|oct|on ot tho |||um|natod s||t . thon tho truo
|ntorprotat|on t|ashod upon mo. 1ho r|dd|o ot tho nobu|ao was so|vod. 1ho answor, wh|ch had como to us |n tho ||ght |tso|t, road: lot
an aggrogat|on ot stars, but a |um|nous gas. 3tars attor tho ordor ot our own sun, and ot tho br|ghtor stars, wou|d g|vo a d|ttoront
spoctrum, tho ||ght ot th|s nobu|a had c|oar|y boon om|ttod by a |um|nous gas.
10
1ho NobuIar Eyothoaia Nado ViaibIo"
W|th th|s now data tho pondu|um was sw|ng|ng back |n tavor ot tho nobu|ao as |ntorna| ga|act|c structuros, porhaps,
146
somo spocu|atod, thoy woro stars and p|anotary systoms undor dovo|opmont. 0omonstrat|ng tho powor ot th|s
concopt to dr|vo porcopts, |n 1888 tho ro|at|vo|y now tochno|ogy ot astrophotography was |ntroducod at tho loya|
Astronom|ca| 3oc|oty's annua| moot|ng w|th a dramat|c photograph ot Andromoda, wh|ch was doc|arod by
astronomors as 1ho nobu|ar hypothos|s mado v|s|b|o!' 1ho m|ghty Andromoda was onco aga|n ro|ogatod to our
ga|act|c suburbs. Evon tho d|scovory ot a nova |n Andromoda, wh|ch |ator wou|d bo add|t|ona| proot ot |ts oxtraga|act|c
or|g|n, was ro|ntorprotod through tho |ons ot tho nobu|ar hypothos|s as an anoma|y-tho vory tact that |t outshono tho
ont|ro nobu|a w|th tho onorgy ot somo t|tty m||||on suns,' wroto ono astronomor, moant that |t was s|mp|y |mposs|b|o
that th|s cou|d bo an oxp|od|ng star |n a d|stant ga|axy. lnstoad, |t was suggostod that |t cou|d bo tho suddon
transtormat|on ot tho nobu|a |nto a star,' and thus tho nobu|ar hypothos|s roma|nod |ntact. 1ho quost|on whothor
nobu|ao aro oxtorna| ga|ax|os hard|y any |ongor noods d|scuss|on,' doc|arod tho astronomor Agnos C|orko |n hor
dot|n|t|vo 1800 work, 7bo 5ystom o tbo 5tots. lt has boon answorod by tho progross ot d|scovory. lo compotont
th|nkor, w|th tho who|o ot tho ava||ab|o ov|donco botoro h|m, can now, |t |s sato to say, ma|nta|n any s|ng|o nobu|a to bo
a star systom ot coord|nato rank w|th tho V||ky Way.'
11
At th|s po|nt wo wou|d do wo|| to romombor Arthur C. C|arko's t|rst |aw: Whon a d|st|ngu|shod but o|dor|y sc|ont|st
statos that somoth|ng |s poss|b|o, ho |s a|most corta|n|y r|ght. Whon ho statos that somoth|ng |s |mposs|b|o, ho |s vory
probab|y wrong.'
12
As our account sh|tts |nto tho twont|oth contury wo w||| t|nd that tho progross ot d|scovory supportod
C|arko ovor C|orko, bog|nn|ng w|th an 1800 spoctroscop|c ana|ys|s ot tho Andromoda nobu|a by tho Gorman
astronomor 1u||us 3cho|nor. 3cho|nor comparod Andromoda to tho spoctra ot tho Or|on nobu|a, wh|ch by thon was
dotorm|nod to bo a noarby c|oud ot |ntorsto||ar gas. Andromoda's spoctra moro c|oso|y rosomb|od that ot an
onormous c|ustor ot stars and not just a c|oud ot gas. 1o tost th|s hypothos|s, |n 1008 an astronomor at tho l|ck
Obsorvatory noar 3an 1oso, Ca||torn|a, namod Edward |ath moasurod tho spoctra ot g|obu|ar c|ustors and notod tho
s|m||ar|ty w|th tho spoctrum ot Andromoda. Gamo, sot, and match, as tar as |ath was concornod: 1ho hypothos|s that
tho contra| port|on ot a nobu|a ||ko tho tamous ono |n Andromoda |s a s|ng|o star may bo rojoctod at onco, un|oss wo
w|sh to mod|ty groat|y tho common|y accoptod |doas as to what const|tutos a star.'
18
3ut s|nco thoro was as yot no
accurato and ro||ab|o moans to moasuro tho d|stanco to such co|ost|a| objocts, |ath cou|d not d|scorn whothor
Andromoda roprosontod a noarby g|obu|ar c|ustor or a d|stant |s|and un|vorso.
Woighty ovidonco in tavor ot tho woII known 'iaIand univorao' thoory"
1ho t|na| p|ocos ot tho puzz|o |n th|s co|ost|a| mystory woro put togothor |n Ca||torn|a, t|rst at tho l|ck Obsorvatory and
t|na||y at Vount W||son, tho t|rst two mounta|ntop obsorvator|os |n tho wor|d that woro, |n tho|r day, on tho cutt|ng odgo
ot poor|ng |nto doop spaco and |ookback t|mo. ln tho |ato n|notoonth contury, a phonomona||y woa|thy |ndustr|a||st
namod 1amos l|ck, |n soarch ot tho b|ggost and bo|dost monumonts to wh|ch ho cou|d attach h|s namo, p|odgod $1
m||||on to bu||d an obsorvatory on Vount |am||ton |n tho 0|ab|o mounta|n rango just |n|and trom 3an 1oso. 1horo ho
oroctod tho Groat l|ck lotractor,' a th|rty-s|x-|nch p|oco ot g|ass mountod at tho ond ot a jaw-dropp|ng|y |ong tubo
that roma|ns to th|s day ono ot tho most boaut|tu| astronom|ca| |nstrumonts ovor constructod, a truo concours
d'o|oganco ot sc|onco. 3ut th|s to|oscopo-ono ot tho |ast ot tho groat rotractors ovor bu||t-was ma|n|y omp|oyod |n
tho study ot p|anots and stars, wh|ch had como to consumo astronom|ca| caroors. 3o whon tho obsorvatory h|rod a
young upstart astronomor who spoc|a||zod |n spoctroscopy namod 1amos Koo|or, ho was sont across tho va||oy to
anothor poak whoro a socondary domo housod an |no|ogant workaday rot|octor to|oscopo w|th a th|rty-s|x-|nch m|rror
and sko|ota| struts |nstoad ot a tubo.
1ho trans|t|on botwoon tho o|d and tho now-botwoon tho rotract|ng |ons and tho rot|oct|ng m|rror-was moro than
symbo||c. (3oo t|guro 10.) 1ho s|zo ot a |ons |s rostr|ctod by |ts wo|ght bocauso |t can on|y bo supportod around tho
odgo. Ovor t|mo |t may bog|n to sag and d|stort. A m|rror, howovor, can bo tu||y buttrossod trom bonoath, and so a
rot|oct|ng to|oscopo can bo mado |argo onough to gathor thoso proc|ous tow photons ot ||ght arr|v|ng trom tho tar
roachos ot tho un|vorso. 1ho Cross|oy, so namod tor tho woa|thy toxt||o manutacturor who bought |t |n 188b and thon
donatod |t to tho l|ck Obsorvatory, had anothor advantago tor tho spoctroscop|st: g|ass |onsos d|scr|m|nato|y absorb
somo wavo|ongths moro than othors, ||m|t|ng tho scopo and qua||ty ot spoctroscop|c ana|ys|s, whoroas a m|rror
rot|octs a|| wavo|ongths oqua||y, prov|d|ng a truor portra|t ot tho contonts ot tho mystor|ous nobu|ao.
14
Ono ot tho t|rst |ong-torm oxposuros Koo|or mado w|th tho Cross|oy was ot tho controvors|a| Vb1 Wh|r|poo| ga|axy,
wh|ch stunnod ovon tho most consorvat|vo ot astronomors w|th |ts obv|ous sp|ra| shapo |mp|y|ng mot|on, a|ong w|th
|ntorna| structuro |n tho torm ot d|st|nct arms. As an addod bonus, tho tour-hour oxposuro rovoa|od sovon othor
prov|ous|y unknown nobu|ao, h|nt|ng that thoro woro many moro out thoro than anyono had prov|ous|y |mag|nod. Ovor
t|mo tho Voss|or cata|og had boon vast|y surpassod by tho low Gonora| Cata|og (lGC), wh|ch toaturod thousands ot
nobu|ao. As Koo|or whoo|od tho Cross|oy around tho sky snapp|ng |ong oxposuros ot th|s and that lGC objoct, ho
147
bogan to soo a pattorn ot t|attonod d|scs ot sp|ra||ng arms sw|r||ng around a br|ght contor. ln tho background woro
count|oss moro not-yot-cata|ogod t|ny sp|otchos ot ||ght. lt was what wo wou|d today ca|| a tocto| pottoto: w|th oach
|ncroaso ot magn|t|cat|on tor a part|cu|ar patch ot sky, a s|m||ar pattorn omorgod ot scattorod nobu|ao boh|nd tho
pr|mary targot ot tho v|owt|ndor. Extrapo|at|ng trom h|s data sot, an avorago ot throo nobu|ao por squaro dogroo |n tho
sky, Koo|or ost|matod that thoro woro at |oast 120,000 ot thoso co|ost|a| sph|nxos, but ho pr|vato|y suspoctod that
thoro woro many moro than th|s, porhaps an ordor ot magn|tudo moro.
Figuro 10. Lick Obaorvatory'a 1oIoacoo and tho Nyatorioua NobuIao |t RovoaIod
a. 1ho Cross|oy to|oscopo at tho l|ck Obsorvatory conta|ns a th|rty-s|x-|nch m|rror at tho bottom and a socondary m|rror at tho top ot |ts tubo, that
togothor rot|oct tho tocusod ||ght |nto an oyop|oco or spoctroscopo on tho s|do ot tho tubo. 1hrough th|s |nstrumont 1amos Koo|or was ab|o to
|mago thousands ot nobu|ao. l|O1OGlAl| 3Y 1|E AU1|Ol.
b. Ono such nobu|a was lGC 801 (tho 801st objoct |n tho low Gonora| Cata|og ot doop spaco objocts), wh|ch, whon oxam|nod moro c|oso|y,
was d|scovorod to |nc|udo many othor nobu|ao, trom wh|ch Koo|or conc|udod that thoy aro soparato |s|and un|vorsos' outs|do ot tho V||ky
Way ga|axy. 1ho c|oso-up |mago w|th |nd|v|dua| nobu|ao |dont|t|od w|th arrows and tho throo br|ght stars corrosponds to tho uppor r|ght cornor
ot tho w|do-ang|o photograph ot ga|axy lGC 801. COUl1E3Y O| 1|E llCK O33ElvA1OlY.
Aga|n, w|th h|nds|ght wo wondor how Koo|or and h|s co||oaguos cou|d not havo |mmod|ato|y |ntorrod sp|ra| arms ot
count|oss stars at groat d|stanco, but tho prova|||ng thoory ot star tormat|on at that t|mo was ot a contract|ng nobu|ous
mass that rotatod as |t contractod, thus g|v|ng p|anots tho|r common p|ano and d|roct|on ot rovo|ut|on about a star, as
wo soo |n our own so|ar systom. 1h|s |s a prob|om |n pattorn dotoct|on and hypothos|s tost|ng to dotorm|no |t tho
nobu|ao pattorns roprosont dovo|op|ng star and p|anotary systoms w|th|n our ga|axy or |s|and un|vorso ga|ax|os tar
away. G|von h|s ta|onts tor both astrophotography and spoctroscopy, |t wou|d havo boon on|y a mattor ot t|mo botoro
Koo|or conductod a dot|n|t|vo oxpor|mont w|th tho Cross|oy to dotorm|no wh|ch pattorn was roa|, but ho unoxpoctod|y
d|od at ago torty-two |n August 1000, so that task wont to |obor Curt|s throughout tho 1010s, |n tho raco aga|nst tho
Vount W||son astronomors tor tho pr|zo that wou|d u|t|mato|y bo tho un|vorso |tso|t.
Curt|s cata|ogod nobu|ao by adjoct|vo-patchy, branchod, |rrogu|ar, o|ongatod ova|, symmotr|ca|-and soarchod
tho data tor a moan|ngtu| pattorn that wou|d |nd|cato wh|ch hypothos|s was corroct. |o bogan by rophotograph|ng
sp|ra|s shot by Koo|or yoars botoro |n hopos ot moasur|ng rotat|on. Whon ho tound nono ho conc|udod, tho ta||uro to
t|nd any ov|donco ot rotat|on wou|d |nd|cato that thoy must bo ot onormous actua| s|zo, and at onormous d|stancos
148
trom us.' Or, tho nobu|ao aro noarby and not rotat|ng. Who cou|d to||? Goorgo l|tchoy, that's who, and h|s |ong-t|mo-
oxposuro photograph ot lGC 0040 |n 1017 trom tho now |a|o s|xty-|nch rot|octor to|oscopo at Vount W||son-namod
attor tho astronomor Goorgo E||ory |a|o, who was |n tho hab|t ot bu||d|ng tho wor|d's |argost to|oscopos and had
baggod anothor ono horo-rovoa|od a nova that had t|arod up whon comparod to oar||or photographs ot that samo
objoct. Compar|ng th|s nova to tho 188b nova |n Andromoda rovoa|od that |t was 1000 t|mos d|mmor, wh|ch l|tchoy
took to moan that |t was 1000 t|mos tarthor away. Un|oss, ot courso, thoro aro d|ttoront typos ot nova, somo br|ghtor
and somo d|mmor-wh|ch thoro aro-so moro data and bottor thoory woro st||| noodod. Curt|s wont to work,
photograph|ng nobu|ao prov|ous|y |magod and compar|ng tho p|atos |n soarch ot now dots ot ||ght. |o tound thom,
conc|ud|ng that ono |n part|cu|ar had to bo at |oast twonty m||||on ||ght-yoars away, wh|ch |od h|m to noto, 1ho novao |n
sp|ra|s turn|sh wo|ghty ov|donco |n tavor ot tho wo|| known '|s|and un|vorso' thoory.'
1b
1h|s m|ght havo sott|od tho |ssuo, woro |t not tor tho tact that thoro was no ro||ab|o mothod tor moasur|ng d|stanco
out that tar. As tho 3r|t|sh astronomor A. C. Crommo||n notod |n h|s 1018 comprohons|vo papor wo|gh|ng tho
ov|donco tor and aga|nst tho |s|and un|vorso thoory: Whothor truo or ta|so, tho hypothos|s ot oxtorna| ga|ax|os |s
corta|n|y a sub||mo and magn|t|cont ono. lnstoad ot a s|ng|o star-systom |t prosonts us w|th thousands ot thom, somo
|argo and consp|cuous, othors ta|nt and sma|| through tho|r awtu| romotonoss. Our conc|us|ons |n sc|onco must bo
basod on ov|donco, and not on sont|mont. 3ut wo may oxpross tho hopo that th|s sub||mo concopt|on may stand tho
tost ot turthor oxam|nat|on.'
10
Rod 5hitta and VariabIo 5tara
1ho sub||mo concopt|on' ot |s|and un|vorsos, howovor, was not qu|to roady tor pr|mo t|mo. 1ho groat 3r|t|sh
astrophys|c|st 1amos 1oans dovo|opod a modo| tor tho ovo|ut|on ot so|ar systoms that |ookod romarkab|y ||ko what
astronomors thought thoy woro soo|ng |n tho nobu|ao. 1h|s modo| |nc|udod stars that passod noarby a nobu|ous c|oud,
st|rr|ng up tho part|c|os |nto sp|ra| shapos that wou|d ovontua||y coa|osco |nto p|anots. At tho lowo|| Obsorvatory |n
Ar|zona, tho co|ortu| and |nt|uont|a| astronomor lorc|va| lowo|| throw h|s not |ncons|dorab|o wo|ght boh|nd tho nobu|ar
hypothos|s and was stoadtast|y cont|dont that tho tuzzy patchos roprosontod so|ar systoms |n tormat|on. 1o bo|stor h|s
bo||ot ho ordorod h|s young chargo vosto 3||phor to spoctrograph|ca||y ana|yzo tho nobu|ao to dotoct tho
charactor|st|c ||nos ot p|anots that ho strong|y suspoctod wou|d bo tound w|th|n thoso ta|nt structuros, a|ong w|th tho|r
rad|a| vo|oc|ty-how tast tho nobu|ao woro mov|ng toward or away trom us. 1h|s |attor sot ot moasuromonts wou|d turn
out to bo tho undo|ng ot lowo||'s thoory.
ln a marathon ||ght-gathor|ng n|ght |n 3optombor 1012, 3||phor |magod Andromoda tor 18.b hours. 1ho
spoctrograph|c p|ato rovoa|od that thoro was a d|sp|acomont ot tho spoctra| ||nos toward tho b|uo ond ot tho
spoctrum.
17
3y now astronomors had dotorm|nod that tho sh|tt|ng ot spoctra| ||nos toward tho b|uo moant that an objoct
|s mov|ng toward us, and |t sh|ttod toward tho rod tho objoct |s rocod|ng away trom us. 1h|s |s tho so-ca||od 0opp|or
ottoct, d|scovorod by tho Austr|an phys|c|st Chr|st|an 0opp|or, who notod that wavos ot ||ght mov|ng toward an
obsorvor w||| bo squashod and thorotoro sh|ttod toward tho h|ghor-troquoncy b|uo ond ot tho spoctrum, and |t mov|ng
away tho wavos w||| bo strotchod and thorotoro sh|ttod toward tho |owor-troquoncy rod ond ot tho spoctrum.
Andromoda was b|uo sh|ttod. Roo||y b|uo sh|ttod-to tho tuno ot throo hundrod k||omotors por socond by 3||phor's
ca|cu|at|ons, wh|ch put Andromoda astronom|ca||y tar boyond tho rango ot mot|on ovor moasurod ot |nd|v|dua| stars.
|ow cou|d an objoct mov|ng th|s tast bo |ocatod w|th|n tho V||ky Way?
Add|t|ona| spoctra| sh|tts cont|rmod 3||phor's |n|t|a| t|nd|ng. lobu|a V81 was moasurod at ono thousand k||omotors
por socond-throo t|mos tho spood ot Andromoda-and |t was mov|ng away trom us. 3y 1014, 3||phor had moro than
a dozon nobu|ar spoods, a|| w|th|n tho rango moasurod tor Andromoda and V81-about twonty-t|vo t|mos tastor than
tho avorago sto||ar vo|oc|ty-and most rocod|ng trom us. W|th thoso spoods, and tho ost|matod s|zo ot tho V||ky Way,
|t soomod c|oar to many astronomors that thoso nobu|ao cou|d not bo w|th|n tho V||ky Way. 1ho |s|and un|vorso thoory
was ga|n|ng momontum, and tho soods ot tho oxpand|ng un|vorso thoory woro bo|ng sown.
What was noodod to c|oso out tho dobato was a ro||ab|o d|stanco moasuromont, wh|ch was croatod |n tho oar|y
1000s by |onr|otta 3wan loav|tt at |arvard, who bogan hor caroor as a vo|untoor and workod hor way up to bo|ng a
computor'-a woman who ca|cu|atod t|guros tor tho a||-ma|o statt astronomors. 3ho t|na||y carvod out a m||ostono
caroor |n astronomy tor hor work on Copho|d var|ab|o stars, wh|ch bocamo tho standard d|stanco-moasuromont
objocts that |ubb|o notod on h|s photograph|c p|ato |n 1028. Copho|d var|ab|os-namod tor tho spoc|mon d|scovorod
|n tho Cophous tho K|ng consto||at|on-vary |n br|ghtnoss ovor tho courso ot days, wooks, or months, and thoy do so
|n a h|gh|y prod|ctab|o mannor: tho br|ghtor tho var|ab|o tho |ongor |ts por|od. 3|nco loav|tt d|scovorod thoso
Copho|ds |n tho 3ma|| Vago||an|c C|oud-thoso g|ow|ng patchos |n tho southorn sky t|rst notod by |ord|nand
Vago||an dur|ng h|s c|rcumnav|gat|on ot tho g|obo-|t moant that a|| tho stars w|th|n that sato|||to ga|axy woro tho samo
149
d|stanco trom us. 1ho|r por|od|c|ty was a d|roct moasuromont ot tho|r roa| |um|nos|ty and not an ottoct ot vary|ng
d|stancos.
Copho|d var|ab|os bocamo tho standard cand|o' ot ||ght-d|stanco moasuromont. lt you havo a part|cu|ar typo ot
cand|o tor wh|ch a|| t|amos aro tho samo s|zo and br|ghtnoss, and you d|scovor somo to bo ha|t as br|ght or a quartor
as br|ght or an o|ghth as br|ght as tho standard cand|o noarby, you can roasonab|y |ntor that thoy aro two, tour, or o|ght
t|mos as tar away. Onco tho d|stanco to a Copho|d var|ab|o cou|d bo ro||ab|y ostab||shod through such tr|od-and-truo
mothods as para||ax (how much tho background stars sh|tt boh|nd tho targot stars whon compar|ng |magos takon trom
ono s|do ot Earth's orb|t to thoso takon trom tho othor s|do s|x months |ator), thon t|nd|ng Copho|ds |n nobu|ao that aro
X t|mos d|mmor moans that thoy aro X t|mos tarthor away. lt Copho|d var|ab|os cou|d bo tound |ns|do nobu|ao at
d|stancos much groator than tho s|zo ot tho V||ky Way, that wou|d cont|rm that thoso stars aro |ocatod |n nobu|ao wo||
outs|do ot our ga|axy and va||dato tho |s|and un|vorso thoory.
1ho Big CaIaxy" Eyothoaia and tho Nyatorioua Rotating NobuIao
1horo was ono moro ||no ot ov|donco aga|nst tho |s|and un|vorso hypothos|s, and that was tho work ot tho groat
cosmo|og|st |ar|ow 3hap|oy on tho s|zo ot tho V||ky Way. 3hap|oy bogan by gathor|ng data on g|obu|ar c|ustors trom
tho ono-hundrod-|nch |ookor to|oscopo rocont|y unvo||od as tho wor|d's |argost atop Vount W||son. 3y 1020 3hap|oy
conc|udod that thoso sto||ar g|obos c|rc|o about tho contor ot tho V||ky Way ||ko wasps swarm|ng about a nost. 3|nco |t
had by now boon dotorm|nod that tho sun |s nowhoro noar tho contor ot tho V||ky Way, 3hap|oy |ncroasod tho
ost|matod s|zo ot tho V||ky Way by an ordor ot magn|tudo, trom 80,000 ||ght-yoars to 800,000 ||ght-yoars across. |o
ca||od |t h|s b|g ga|axy' hypothos|s, and |t was a ga|axy oas||y |argo onough to accommodato a|| co|ost|a| objocts-
|nc|ud|ng thoso posky nobu|ao-|nto tho known un|vorso. lt 3hap|oy was r|ght, thoro |s on|y ono |s|and un|vorso and
wo'ro |n |t, a|ong w|th tho nobu|ao. 1o tost h|s hypothos|s, 3hap|oy roturnod to tho data on whothor or not nobu|ao
rotato. lt thoy do, thon thoy cannot bo that tar away, bocauso an objoct whoso rotat|ona| mot|on was dotoctab|o ovor a
courso ot on|y a tow yoars at that d|stanco wou|d moan that |t was rotat|ng tastor than tho spood ot ||ght, wh|ch |s not
poss|b|o. 3ocauso somo astronomors thought that thoy had dotoctod just such mot|on |n Andromoda, 3hap|oy
conc|udod that |t cou|d bo no tarthor away than about 20,000 ||ght-yoars.
Voasuromont ot tho rotat|ona| spoods ot tho nobu|ao bogan |n oarnost by tho 0utch astronomor Adr|aan van
Vaanon on tho s|xty-|nch |a|o to|oscopo at Vount W||son |n 101b. Us|ng a storooscop|c v|owt|ndor that a|tornatod two
|dont|ca| photograph|c p|atos shot at d|ttoront t|mos, van Vaanon comparod photographs ot sp|ra| nobu|ao takon |n
1800, 1008, and 1014 to h|s most rocont photographs. 3cann|ng tho |magos tor anyth|ng that movod or any rotat|ona|
chango trom ono yoar to tho noxt, van Vaanon thought ho saw mot|on |n V101-tho l|nwhoo| nobu|a-wh|ch ho
ost|matod was comp|ot|ng ono tu|| rovo|ut|on ovory 8b,000 yoars. lt V101 was an |s|and un|vorso at a vast d|stanco,
th|s wou|d moan that tho stars on tho nobu|a's odgo wou|d bo rotat|ng tastor than tho spood ot ||ght, wh|ch E|nsto|n had
rocont|y provon was |mposs|b|o. Ergo, V101-and by oxtons|on tho othor sp|ra| nobu|ao-woro noarby and wo|| w|th|n
3hap|oy's now|y roconst|tutod 800,000-||ght-yoars-across V||ky Way. 3hap|oy wroto van Vaanon: Congratu|at|ons on
tho nobu|ous rosu|ts! 3otwoon us wo havo put a cr|mp |n tho |s|and un|vorsos, |t sooms,-you by br|ng|ng tho sp|ra|s |n
and l by push|ng tho Ga|axy out.'
18
3|nco tho thoor|os woro |n cont||ct, tho rub was |n tho data, wh|ch |obor Curt|s at tho l|ck cha||ongod. |o attomptod
to moasuro nobu|ar rotat|ona| mot|on h|mso|t but cou|dn't. Whoro van Vaanon thought ho saw rotat|ona| por|ods ot
100,000 yoars tor V88, 4b,000 yoars tor Vb1, and b8,000 yoars tor V81, Curt|s saw no mot|on at a||. |ow can th|s
bo? E|thor nobu|a aro rotat|ng or thoy aro not, r|ght? |oro|n ||os a prob|om |n pattorn|c|ty and how tho m|nd t|||s |n tho
dota||s whon tho data do not spoak tor thomso|vos, wh|ch thoy raro|y do. Voasur|ng nobu|ar rotat|on was |ncrod|b|y
tod|ous work |n wh|ch orror moasuromont cou|d oas||y oxcood tho moasuromont ot mot|on |tso|t, |oad|ng to a
comp|oto|y orronoous conc|us|on. lt wou|d bo ||ko ost|mat|ng tho spood ot a car at 80 mph, 80 mph. 1h|s, |t wou|d
soom, was what happonod. As |mprovomonts |n moasur|ng qua||ty |ncroasod, mot|on ot tho nobu|a docroasod . unt||
|t d|sappoarod ont|ro|y.
VARI"
Entor Edw|n |ubb|o, ono ot tho grandost charactors |n tho |ong and co|ortu| h|story ot astronomy, who cu|t|vatod a
3r|t|sh a|r ot ar|stocracy ovon though ho was trom V|ssour|. |ubb|o arr|vod at Vount W||son short|y attor tho
magn|t|cont now ono-hundrod-|nch |ookor to|oscopo (soo t|guro 20) camo on||no, w|th a capac|ty to d|scorn a cand|o
at a d|stanco ot t|vo thousand m||os. |ubb|o's cons|dorab|o |nto||oct and amb|t|on woro attordod tho tochno|ogy to
adjud|cato onco and tor a|| tho groat dobato botwoon tho nobu|ar hypothos|s and tho |s|and un|vorso thoory.
150
Figuro 20. 1ho Nount WiIaon 100-inch 1oIoacoo 1hat 5oIvod tho RiddIo ot tho NobuIao
1ho ono-hundrod-|nch |ookor to|oscopo atop Vount W||son |n tho 3an Gabr|o| Vounta|ns |n 3outhorn Ca||torn|a,
whoro Edw|n |ubb|o domonstratod onco and tor a|| that tho mystor|ous nobu|ao woro not sma|| noarby gasoous
objocts w|th|n tho V||ky Way ga|axy, but woro |nstoad |s|and un|vorsos'-ga|ax|os-s|m||ar |n structuro to our own
but vory tar away. l|O1OGlAl| 3Y AU1|Ol.
1ho yoar 1028 was |ubb|o's annus m|rab|||s, start|ng w|th sovora| months ot c|ass|ty|ng and cata|og|ng tam|||ar
nobu|ao, to||owod by tho d|scovory ot t|ttoon var|ab|o stars |n lGC 0822, o|ovon ot wh|ch woro Copho|d var|ab|os.
|ubb|o omp|oyod tho now standard cand|os to computo tho nobu|a's d|stanco at 700,000 ||ght-yoars, wo|| boyond
ovon 3hap|oy's 800,000-||ght-yoars-across b|g ga|axy.' On Octobor 4, |ubb|o photographod a numbor ot nobu|ao,
|nc|ud|ng Andromoda. 0ur|ng tho noxt day's dota||od |aboratory ana|ys|s ot tho p|atos ho thought ho spottod a nova,
maybo throo. ||s attont|on ho|ghtonod, ho rophotographod Andromoda tho noxt n|ght and cont|rmod: nova
suspoctod.' |ubb|o thon wont to tho arch|vos to comparo tho p|ato w|th thoso shot prov|ous|y, and thoro on tho now
p|ato ho scratchod |n l' tor nova-now star-tor throo spocs ot ||ght. 1r|p|o-chock|ng h|s p|ato, |ubb|o roa||zod that
ono ot tho dots was not now, |t was, |n tact, a var|ab|o star-a Copho|d var|ab|o, no |oss! |ubb|o wroto |n tho |ogbook
tor tho ono-hundrod-|nch to|oscopo, On th|s p|ato (|88b|), throo stars woro tound, 2 ot wh|ch woro novao, and 1
provod to bo a var|ab|o, |ator |dont|t|od as a Copho|d-tho t|rst to bo rocogn|zod |n V81.'
10
On tho p|ato |ubb|o
crossod out tho l' and scratchod |n vAl!' 1ho dato on tho p|ato roads 0-Oct 1028.' (3oo t|guro 21.) 1h|s |s tho day
tho un|vorso changod.
Ovor tho noxt sovora| months |ubb|o roturnod to Andromoda and trackod tho ||ght curvo tor h|s Copho|d, wh|ch
var|od ovor 81.41b days, trom wh|ch ho computod that tho star was sovon thousand t|mos br|ghtor than our sun. Yot |t
was baro|y not|coab|o on a photograph|c p|ato attor hours ot ||ght-gathor|ng oxposuro, wh|ch cou|d moan on|y ono
th|ng: Andromoda was vory, voty tar away. |ubb|o wroto to 3hap|oy (who was now at |arvard): You w||| bo |ntorostod
to hoar that l havo tound a Copho|d var|ab|o |n tho Andromoda lobu|a (V81). l havo to||owod tho nobu|a th|s soason
as c|oso|y as tho woathor porm|ttod and |n tho |ast t|vo months havo nottod n|no novao and two var|ab|os.'
20
Us|ng tho
samo tochn|quo that 3hap|oy had usod tor moasur|ng g|obu|ar c|ustors and tho s|zo ot tho V||ky Way, |ubb|o
ca|cu|atod that Andromoda was at |oast a m||||on ||ght-yoars away. lt truo, th|s wou|d moan that Andromoda was an
|s|and un|vorso.
3hap|oy was s|ow to soo tho now data |n tho samo way |ubb|o d|d, to|||ng h|m that ho tound |ubb|o's |ottor to bo
tho most ontorta|n|ng p|oco ot ||toraturo l havo soon tor a |ong t|mo,' and caut|onod h|m that Copho|ds w|th var|ab|o
por|ods |ongor than twonty days may not bo ro||ab|o |nd|cators ot d|stanco. |ubb|o rospondod w|th moro data,
|mag|ng n|no var|ab|o stars |n lGC 0822, thon anothor dozon var|ab|os |n Andromoda, throo ot wh|ch woro tho
covotod Copho|ds, p|us anothor t|ttoon var|ab|os |n V88, V81, and V101. ln anothor |ottor to 3hap|oy, |ubb|o optod
tor d|p|omacy |n gont|y nudg|ng h|s co||oaguo and orstwh||o compot|tor to sh|tt parad|gms: tho straws aro a|| po|nt|ng
|n ono d|roct|on and |t w||| do no harm to bog|n cons|dor|ng tho var|ous poss|b|||t|os |nvo|vod' |n accopt|ng tho |s|and
un|vorso thoory. ln tho ond 3hap|oy camo around, show|ng |ubb|o's |ottor to a |arvard astronomy graduato studont
and pronounc|ng: |oro |s tho |ottor that has dostroyod my un|vorso.'
21
3hort|y thoroattor, 3hap|oy champ|onod tho
|s|and un|vorso thoory, abandon|ng h|s prov|ous|y ho|d bo||ot |n ||ght ot th|s now and unm|stakab|o data.
151
Figuro 21. 1ho Photograh 1hat Changod tho univorao
Edw|n |ubb|o's photograph ot Andromoda |n wh|ch ho |dont|t|od Copho|d var|ab|o stars-usod tor moasur|ng
d|stanco-that a||owod h|m to computo that th|s nobu|a was too tar away to bo |ocatod w|th|n tho V||ky Way, and
thorotoro must |tso|t bo an |s|and un|vorso.' COUl1E3Y O| VOUl1Wll3Ol O33ElvA1OlY.
As tor Adr|aan van Vaanon's data ot tho nobu|ar rotat|ons that conv|ncod not a tow astronomors that tho nobu|ar
hypothos|s was corroct, |ubb|o conc|udod that |t must havo boon moasuromont orror: 1ho prob|om ot roconc|||ng tho
two sots ot data has a corta|n tasc|nat|on, but |n sp|to ot th|s l bo||ovo that tho moasurod rotat|ons must bo abandonod.
l havo boon oxam|n|ng tho moasuros tor tho t|rst t|mo and tho |nd|cat|ons po|nt stoad||y to a magn|tudo orror as a
p|aus|b|o oxp|anat|on. lotat|on appoars to bo a torcod |ntorprotat|on.'
22
A porp|oxod and trustratod van Vaanon wont
back to h|s astronom|ca| p|atos and rocrunchod tho numbors, to|||ng 3hap|oy, l cannot t|nd a t|aw |n V88, tor wh|ch l
havo tho bost mator|a|. 1hoy soom to bo as cons|stont as poss|b|y can bo.' 3hap|oy countorod w|th a d|p|omat|c
compar|son botwoon two sots ot data and corrospond|ng thoor|os: l am comp|oto|y at a |oss to know what to bo||ovo
concorn|ng thoso angu|ar mot|ons, but thoro sooms to bo no way ot doubt|ng tho Copho|ds, prov|d|ng |ubb|o's
por|od-|um|nos|ty curvos aro as dot|n|to as wo hoar thoy aro.'
1hoy woro, and yoars |ator whon 3hap|oy was askod |n an |ntorv|ow why ho dotondod van Vaanon's rotat|ona|
data tor so |ong, ho rospondod |n tho th|rd porson: 1hoy wondor why 3hap|oy mado th|s b|undor. 1ho po|nt . |s that
van Vaanon was h|s tr|ond and ho bo||ovod |n tr|onds.' An adm|rab|o tra|t to bo suro, wh|ch can ovon c|oud tho
judgmont ot data-hardonod sc|ont|sts, but |n tho ond data and thoory must trump bo||ot and tr|ondsh|p.

1ho groat dobato ovor tho co|ost|a| nobu|ao sorvos as a c|ass|c study |n tho h|story ot sc|onco domonstrat|ng that, |n
t|mo, d|sputos aro sott|od and dobatos aro roso|vod through h|ghor-qua||ty data and moro comprohons|vo thoory.
lorhaps sc|onco doos not progross as qu|ck|y as wo m|ght ||ko, and sc|ont|sts otton c||ng to chor|shod thoor|os |ong
attor tho data |nd|catos that thoy shou|d (ospoc|a||y whon yokod to tr|ondsh|p), but ovontua||y chango doos como,
parad|gm sh|tts aro mado, rovo|ut|ons aro undortakon, and cumu|at|vo progross |s mado toward a groator
undorstand|ng ot tho truo naturo ot naturo.
Whoro do wo go trom tho |s|and un|vorso thoory? What can thoro bo boyond |s|and ga|ax|os popu|at|ng an
oxpand|ng un|vorso?
5cionco and tho Croatoat unaoIvod Nyatory
1horo |s ono mystory l w||| concodo has provon to bo a knotty ono tor sc|onco, and that |s tho mattor ot how our
un|vorso camo to bo. 1ho mystory |s prosontod |n two gonora| ways, ono |mposs|b|o to answor and tho othor
potont|a||y (but not yot) answorab|o. ln tho t|rst cont|gurat|on, tho quost|on |s askod, bot oxlstoo booto oot oolvotso
bogoo Or by ls tboto somotblog totbot tboo ootblog
lhras|ng tho quost|ons |n th|s way |s not on|y unsc|ont|t|c, |t |s nonsons|ca|, a|ong tho ||nos ot ask|ng bot tlmo wos
lt booto tlmo bogoo Or bot ls oottb o tbo Nottb Po|o Ask|ng why thoro |s somoth|ng rathor than noth|ng
prosumos noth|ng' |s tho natura| stato ot th|ngs out ot wh|ch somoth|ng' noods an oxp|anat|on. Vaybo somoth|ng' |s
tho natura| stato ot th|ngs and noth|ng' wou|d bo tho mystory to bo so|vod. As tho phys|c|st v|ctor 3tongor notod:
Curront cosmo|ogy suggosts that no |aws ot phys|cs woro v|o|atod |n br|ng|ng tho un|vorso |nto ox|stonco. 1ho |aws ot
152
phys|cs thomso|vos aro shown to corrospond to what ono wou|d oxpoct |t tho un|vorso appoarod trom noth|ng. 1horo
|s somoth|ng rathor than noth|ng bocauso somoth|ng |s moro stab|o.'
28
1ho tho|st's answor to tho prob|om ot ox|stonco |s that God ox|stod botoro tho un|vorso and subsoquont|y brought |t
|nto ox|stonco out ot noth|ng (ox n|h||o) |n a s|ng|o croat|on momont as doscr|bod |n Gonos|s. 3ut tho vory concopt|on
ot God ox|st|ng booto tho un|vorso and tboo croat|ng |t |mp||os a t|mo soquonco. ln both tho ro||g|ous and sc|ont|t|c
wor|dv|ows, t|mo bogan w|th tho b|g bang croat|on ot tho un|vorso, so God wou|d havo to ox|st outs|do ot spaco and
t|mo, wh|ch moans that as t|n|to bo|ngs do||m|tod by ||v|ng |n a t|n|to un|vorso wo cannot poss|b|y know anyth|ng about
such a supornatura| ont|ty, un|oss ho bocamo a natura| bo|ng and ontorod our wor|d to portorm m|rac|os.
ln any caso, |n th|s concopt|on ot tho mystory wo aro ||m|tod by |anguago and cogn|t|on: bocauso our bra|ns aro
t|n|to and ||m|tod wo cannot roa||y grasp what |nt|n|ty' or noth|ng' or otorn|ty' roa||y moan, and such thought
oxpor|monts rosu|t |n paradoxos that d|sso|vo |nto tauto|og|os, a|ong tho ||nos ot dot|n|ng gtovlty as tho tondoncy ot
objocts to attract ono anothor, and thon oxp|a|n|ng that objocts attract ono anothor bocauso ot gtovlty.
24
lt |s
paradox|ca| to th|nk ot tho un|vorso as g|v|ng b|rth to t|mo and spaco and thon ask|ng what thoro was botoro tho
un|vorso. lt |s tauto|og|ca| to dot|no God as tho croator ot tho un|vorso, and thon oxp|a|n tho un|vorso as a croat|on ot
God. 1hoso |anguago and cogn|t|on conundrums cannot |oad us to a sat|stactory answor to tho quost|on. 1h|s ||mor|ck
by tho phys|c|st Goorgo Gamow wo|| capturos tho paradox:
7boto wos o yooog o||owtom 7tlolty
bo took [tbo sqooto toot o lololtyj
Bot tbo oombot o olglts
Oovo blm tbo logots,
bo otoppoo Votb ooo took op Llvlolty.
1ho socond cont|gurat|on ot tho mystory g|vos sc|ont|sts somoth|ng to work w|th: by ls oot oolvotso so loo|y
toooo to ooob|o stots, p|ooots, |lo, ooo loto||lgooco to otlso 1h|s |s known as tho loo-toolog ptob|om, and |n my
op|n|on |t |s tho bost argumont that tho|sts havo tor tho ox|stonco ot God. Evon nonro||g|ous sc|ont|sts aro stunnod by
tho odd cont|gurat|on ot numbors that had to bo just so or o|so ||to cou|d not ox|st. 3|r Vart|n loos, 3r|ta|n's
astronomor roya|, |n h|s book 1ost 5lx Nombots out||nod tho prob|om, not|ng that, our omorgonco trom a s|mp|o 3|g
3ang was sons|t|vo to s|x 'cosm|c numbors'' that aro wo|| tunod' tor tho omorgonco ot mattor and ||to.
2b
|oro aro tho
s|x numbors:
1. C (omoga) = 1, tho amount ot mattor |n tho un|vorso: |t C was groator than 1 |t wou|d havo co||apsod |ong ago
and |t C was |oss than 1 no ga|ax|os wou|d havo tormod.
2. r (ops||on) = .007, how t|rm|y atom|c nuc|o| b|nd togothor: |t ops||on woro .000 or .008, mattor as wo know |t
cou|d not ox|st as |t doos.
8. 0 = 8, tho numbor ot d|mons|ons |n wh|ch wo ||vo: |t 0 woro 2 or 4, ||to cou|d not ox|st.
4. l = 10
80
, tho rat|o ot tho strongth ot o|octromagnot|sm to that ot grav|ty: |t |t had just a tow |oss zoros tho
un|vorso wou|d bo too young and too sma|| tor ||to to ovo|vo.
b. O = 1/100,000, tho tabr|c ot tho un|vorso: |t O woro sma||or tho un|vorso wou|d bo toaturo|oss and |t O woro
|argor tho un|vorso wou|d bo dom|natod by g|ant b|ack ho|os.
0. \ (|ambda) = 0.7, tho cosmo|og|ca| constant, or ant|grav|ty' torco that |s caus|ng tho un|vorso to oxpand at an
acco|orat|ng rato: |t \ woro |argor |t wou|d havo provontod stars and ga|ax|os trom torm|ng.
1ho t|no-tun|ng ot thoso s|x numbors (thoro aro moro, but thoso aro tho b|g onos) that mako ||to poss|b|o |s
somot|mos oxp|a|nod by tho anthrop|c pr|nc|p|o,' most prom|nont|y statod by phys|c|sts 1ohn 3arrow and |rank 1|p|or
|n tho|r 1080 book 7bo Aotbtoplc Cosmo|oglco| Ptloclp|o: lt |s not on|y man that |s adaptod to tho un|vorso. 1ho
un|vorso |s adaptod to man. lmag|no a un|vorso |n wh|ch ono or anothor ot tho tundamonta| d|mons|on|oss constants
ot phys|cs |s a|torod by a tow porcont ono way or tho othor? Van cou|d novor como |nto bo|ng |n such a un|vorso. 1hat
|s tho contra| po|nt ot tho anthrop|c pr|nc|p|o. Accord|ng to tho pr|nc|p|o, a ||to-g|v|ng tactor ||os at tho contor ot tho
who|o mach|nory and dos|gn ot tho wor|d.'
20
1ho anthrop|c pr|nc|p|o troub|os sc|ont|sts bocauso ot |ts ant|thos|s,
known as tho Coporn|can pr|nc|p|o,' wh|ch statos that wo aro not spoc|a|. lnto|||gont dos|gn thoor|sts, croat|on|sts, and
thoo|og|ans ho|d that th|s t|no-tun|ng |s ov|donco tor |nto|||gont dos|gn by a do|ty, and tho anthrop|c pr|nc|p|o |s tho|r
hypothos|s. l suggost that thoro aro at |oast s|x a|tornat|vos to th|s hypothos|s that bottor support tho Coporn|can
pr|nc|p|o hypothos|s.
27
1. 1ho un|vorso |s not so t|no|y tunod tor ||to s|nco tho vast major|ty ot tho un|vorso |s ompty spaco, and what ||tt|o
153
mattor thoro |s-|n tho torm ot stars and p|anots-|s most|y |nhosp|tab|o to ||to.
2. 1ho |doa that tho un|vorso |s t|no|y tunod tor us |s a prob|om |n cosmlc cboovlolsm, a grandor var|ant ot what
Car| 3agan ca||od carbon chauv|n|sm,' or tho bo||ot that ||to cannot bo basod on anyth|ng othor than carbon. 3y
rojoct|ng cosm|c chauv|n|sm wo soo that tho un|vorso |s not t|no|y tunod tor us, wo aro t|no|y tunod tor |t. lt |s
d|tt|cu|t tor us to conco|vo ot how a d|ttoront phys|cs cou|d produco d|ttoront torms ot ||to, but |t cou|d. 3c|onco
has had on|y tour contur|os to study tho naturo ot ||to, ovo|ut|on has had tour b||||on yoars to croato ||to. Evo|ut|on
|s smartor than sc|onco. lt |s too prov|nc|a| ot us to say that wo know tor suro that ||to cou|d not ovo|vo undor a
d|ttoront sot ot |aws.
8. 3uch numbors as tho spood ot ||ght and l|anck's constant aro, on ono |ovo|, arb|trary numbors that can bo
cont|gurod |n d|ttoront ways so that tho|r ro|at|onsh|p to tho othor constants aro not so co|nc|donta| or
mystor|ous. As wo||, such constants may bo locoostoot ovor vast spans ot t|mo, vary|ng trom tho b|g bang to tho
prosont, mak|ng tho un|vorso t|no|y tunod on|y now but not oar||or or |ator |n |ts h|story. lhys|c|sts 1ohn 3arrow
and 1ohn Wobb ca|| thoso numbors tho |nconstant constants,' and havo domonstratod how |n part|cu|ar tho
spood ot ||ght, grav|tat|on, and tho mass ot tho o|octron havo, |n tact, boon |nconstant ovor t|mo.
28
4. 1horo may bo an undor|y|ng pr|nc|p|o boh|nd tho s|x mag|c numbors that w||| bo tound whon tho grand un|t|od
thoory ot phys|cs |s d|scovorod and constructod. lnstoad ot s|x mystor|ous numbors, thoro w||| just bo ono. Unt||
wo havo a comprohons|vo thoory ot phys|cs that connocts tho quantum wor|d ot subatom|c part|c|os to tho
cosm|c wor|d ot gonora| ro|at|v|ty, wo do not yot know onough about tho naturo ot our un|vorso to mako tho |oap
to somoth|ng boyond naturo. Ca|toch cosmo|og|st 3oan Carro|| notos:
loss|b|y gonora| ro|at|v|ty |s not tho corroct thoory ot grav|ty, at |oast |n tho contoxt ot tho oxtromo|y oar|y
un|vorso. Vost phys|c|sts suspoct that a quantum thoory ot grav|ty, roconc|||ng tho tramowork ot quantum
mochan|cs w|th E|nsto|n's |doas about curvod spacot|mo, w||| u|t|mato|y bo roqu|rod to mako sonso ot what
happons at tho vory oar||ost t|mos. 3o |t somoono asks you what roa||y happonod at tho momont ot tho
purportod 3|g 3ang, tho on|y honost answor wou|d bo: l don't know.'
20
1hat grand un|t|od thoory ot ovoryth|ng w||| |tso|t nood an oxp|anat|on, but |t may bo oxp||cab|o by somo othor
thoory wo havo yot to comprohond out ot our shoor |gnoranco at th|s momont |n tho h|story ot sc|onco.
b. As a h|stor|an ot sc|onco l strong|y suspoct that thoro aro grandor v|stas st||| to bo d|scovorod by astronomors
and cosmo|og|sts that w||| chango tho naturo ot tho prob|om a|togothor, trom oxp|a|n|ng tho naturo and or|g|n ot
tho un|vorso to oxp|a|n|ng somoth|ng o|so ont|ro|y. Cons|dor tho soquonco ot our v|sago ot tho cosmos ovor tho
past m|||onn|a: trom tho anc|ont 3aby|on|ans' Earth-contorod cosmo|ogy w|th a canopy ot stars rotat|ng around
|t that was p|ckod up by tho |obrows and so||d|t|od by Ar|stot|o's modo| ot a mot|on|oss Earth, to tho mod|ova|
wor|dv|ow ot Earth at tho contor and tho stars and p|anots rotat|ng c|oso by on tho|r crysta| sphoros, to tho
s|xtoonth-contury Coporn|can rovo|ut|on that put Earth |n mot|on and tho stars tar away, to W||||am |orscho|'s
o|ghtoonth-contury conjocturo that tho tuzzy patchos |n tho sky woro |s|and un|vorsos,' to Edw|n |ubb|o's
twont|oth-contury d|scovory that thoso nobu|ao woro not |n tho V||ky Way ga|axy but woro actua||y ga|ax|os ot
|mmonso s|zo and d|stanco oxpand|ng away trom a b|g bang bog|nn|ng, to tho twonty-t|rst-contury t|nd|ng that
tho un|vorso |s oxpand|ng at an acco|orat|ng rato, to . what?
0. 3asod on tho h|story ot astronomy, and othor convorg|ng ||nos ot ov|donco and |og|c, l wou|d ||ko to mako tho
caso tor a mo|tlvotso, |n wh|ch our un|vorso-wh|ch was born |n a b|g bang and w||| most ||ko|y oxpand torovor
and d|o w|th a wh|mpor-|s just ono ot many bubb|o un|vorsos a|| w|th d|ttoront |aws ot naturo.
80
1hoso un|vorsos
w|th tho s|x mag|c numbors w||| gonorato mattor, wh|ch coa|oscos |nto stars, somo ot wh|ch co||apso |nto b|ack
ho|os and a s|ngu|ar|ty, tho samo ont|ty out ot wh|ch our un|vorso may havo sprung. 1hus, un|vorsos ||ko ours
g|vo b|rth to baby un|vorsos w|th thoso samo s|x numbors, somo ot wh|ch dovo|op |nto|||gont ||to smart onough
to d|scovor th|s 0arw|n|an procoss ot cosm|c ovo|ut|on. A mo|tlvotso conta|n|ng a mu|t|tudo ot un|vorsos t|ts
th|s h|stor|ca| trajoctory ot oxpand|ng cosm|c hor|zons and ro|ntorcos tho |ong-stand|ng Coporn|can pr|nc|p|o
that wo aro but t|oot|ng actors on th|s p|anotary proscon|um.
Ot courso, wo shou|d app|y tho ru|os ot sc|onco and skopt|c|sm to tho mu|t|vorso hypothos|s as v|gorous|y as wo
wou|d any othor. Aro thoro any good roasons to bo||ovo |n a mu|t|vorso? 1horo aro, and tho modo|s como |n a var|oty
ot t|avors that, |n koop|ng w|th tho pattorn ot numorat|on abovo, l'|| c|ass|ty |nto s|x typos.
1. 7bo ototoo|-tototo mo|tlvotso. 1h|s torm ot mu|t|vorso ar|sos out ot an otorna| boom-and-bust cyc|o ot
oxpans|on and contract|ons ot tho un|vorso, w|th our un|vorso just ono op|sodo' ot tho bubb|o's ovontua|
154
co||apso and ro-oxpans|on |n an otorna| cyc|o. Cosmo|og|st 3oan Carro|| arguos that spaco and t|mo d|d ox|st
botoro tho 3|g 3ang, what wo ca|| tho 3ang |s a k|nd ot trans|t|on trom ono phaso to anothor.' As such, ho says,
thoro |s no such th|ng as an |n|t|a| stato, bocauso t|mo |s otorna|. ln th|s caso, wo aro |mag|n|ng that tho 3|g
3ang |sn't tho bog|nn|ng ot tho ont|ro un|vorso, a|though |t's obv|ous|y an |mportant ovont |n tho h|story ot our
|oca| rog|on.'
81
1h|s mu|t|vorso sooms un||ko|y bocauso a|| tho ov|donco to dato shows that our un|vorso |s not
on|y st||| oxpand|ng, but |ts oxpans|on |s acco|orat|ng. 1horo doos not appoar to bo onough mattor |n our
un|vorso to ha|t tho oxpans|on and br|ng |t back |nto a b|g crunch that cou|d |aunch |t back |nto a now bubb|o out
ot anothor b|g bang.
82
2. Vo|tlp|o-ctootloos mo|tlvotso. ln tho thoory ot |nt|at|onary cosmo|ogy, tho un|vorso sprang |nto ox|stonco trom a
bubb|o nuc|oat|on ot spaco-t|mo, and |t th|s procoss ot un|vorso croat|on |s natura| thon thoro may bo mu|t|p|o
bubb|o nuc|oat|ons that g|vo r|so to many un|vorsos that oxpand but roma|n soparato trom ono anothor w|thout
any causa| contact botwoon thom. lt such causa||y d|sconnoctod un|vorsos ox|stod, howovor, thoro |s no way to
got |ntormat|on trom thom, and so th|s |s an |nhoront|y untostab|o hypothos|s and thus |s no bottor than tho
anthrop|c pr|nc|p|o hypothos|s.
88
8. 7bo mooy-wot|os mo|tlvotso. 1h|s typo ot mu|t|vorso |s dor|vod out ot tho many wor|ds' |ntorprotat|on ot
quantum mochan|cs, |n wh|ch thoro aro an |nt|n|to numbor ot un|vorsos |n wh|ch ovory poss|b|o outcomo ot
ovory poss|b|o cho|co that has ovor boon ava||ab|o, or w||| bo ava||ab|o, has happonod |n ono ot thom. 1h|s
mu|t|vorso |s groundod |n tho b|zarro t|nd|ngs ot tho tamous doub|o-s||t' oxpor|mont |n wh|ch ||ght |s passod
through two s||ts and torms an |ntortoronco pattorn ot wavos on a back surtaco (||ko throw|ng two stonos |n a
pond and watch|ng tho concontr|c wavo pattorns |ntoract, w|th crosts and troughs add|ng and subtract|ng trom
ono anothor). 1ho spooky part comos whon you sond s|ng|o photons ot ||ght ono at a t|mo through tho two s||ts
-thoy st||| torm an |ntortoronco wavo pattorn ovon though thoy aro not |ntoract|ng w|th othor photons. |ow can
th|s bo? Ono answor |s that tho photons aro |ntoract|ng w|th photons |n othor un|vorsos! ln th|s typo ot mu|t|vorso
-somot|mos cont|gurod as para||o| un|vorsos'-you cou|d moot your doppo|gngor, and dopond|ng on wh|ch
un|vorso you ontorod, your para||o| so|t wou|d bo ta|r|y s|m||ar or d|ss|m||ar to you, a thomo that has bocomo a
stap|o ot sc|onco t|ct|on. 1h|s vors|on ot tho mu|t|vorso, |n my op|n|on, doosn't pass tho smo|| tost. 1ho |doa ot
thoro bo|ng mu|t|p|o vors|ons ot mo and you out thoro-and |n an |nt|n|to mu|t|vorso modo| thoro wou|d bo an
|nt|n|to numbor ot us-just sooms pr|ma tac|o absurd and ovon |oss ||ko|y than tho tho|st|c a|tornat|vo.
4. 7bo mo|tlolmooslooo| sttlog tbooty mo|tlvotso. A mu|t|d|mons|ona| mu|t|vorso may como about whon a throo-
d|mons|ona| brano' (a mombrano||ko structuro on wh|ch our un|vorso ox|sts) movos through h|ghor-
d|mons|ona| spaco and co|||dos w|th anothor brano, tho rosu|t ot wh|ch |s tho onorg|zod croat|on ot anothor
un|vorso.
84
A ro|atod mu|t|vorso |s dor|vod through str|ng thoory, wh|ch by at |oast ono ca|cu|at|on a||ows tor 10
b00
poss|b|o wor|ds, a|| w|th d|ttoront so|t-cons|stont |aws and constants.
8b
1hat's a 1 to||owod by b00 zoros poss|b|o
un|vorsos (roca|| that 1 to||owod by 12 zoros |s a tr||||on!). lt truo, |t wou|d bo m|racu|ous |t thoro woro not
|nto|||gont ||to |n a numbor ot thom. v|ctor 3tongor croatod a computor modo| that ana|yzos what just 100
d|ttoront un|vorsos wou|d bo ||ko undor constants d|ttoront trom our own, rang|ng trom t|vo ordors ot magn|tudo
abovo to t|vo ordors ot magn|tudo bo|ow tho|r va|uos |n our un|vorso. 3tongor tound that |ong-||vod stars ot at
|oast ono b||||on yoars-nocossary tor tho product|on ot ||to-g|v|ng hoavy o|omonts-wou|d omorgo w|th|n a
w|do rango ot paramotors |n at |oast ha|t ot tho un|vorsos |n h|s modo|.
80
b. Ooootom oom mo|tlvotso. ln th|s modo|, un|vorsos aro croatod out ot noth|ng, but |n tho sc|ont|t|c vors|on ot ox
n|h||o tho noth|ng ot tho vacuum ot spaco actua||y conta|ns quantum toam, wh|ch may t|uctuato to croato baby
un|vorsos. ln th|s cont|gurat|on, any quantum objoct |n any quantum stato may gonorato a now un|vorso, oach
ono ot wh|ch roprosonts ovory poss|b|o stato ot ovory poss|b|o objoct.
87
1h|s |s 3tophon |awk|ng's oxp|anat|on
tor tho t|no-tun|ng prob|om that ho h|mso|t tamous|y prosontod |n tho 1000s:
Why |s tho un|vorso so c|oso to tho d|v|d|ng ||no botwoon co||aps|ng aga|n and oxpand|ng |ndot|n|to|y? ln
ordor to bo as c|oso as wo aro now, tho rato ot oxpans|on oar|y on had to bo choson tantast|ca||y
accurato|y. lt tho rato ot oxpans|on ono socond attor tho b|g bang had boon |oss by ono part |n 10
10
, tho
un|vorso wou|d havo co||apsod attor a tow m||||on yoars. lt |t had boon groator by ono part |n 10
10
, tho
un|vorso wou|d havo boon ossont|a||y ompty attor a tow m||||on yoars. ln no|thor caso wou|d |t havo |astod
|ong onough tor ||to to dovo|op. 1hus ono o|thor has to appoa| to tho anthrop|c pr|nc|p|o or t|nd somo
phys|ca| oxp|anat|on ot why tho un|vorso |s tho way |t |s.
88
|awk|ng's co||aborator logor lonroso |ayorod on ovon moro mystory whon ho notod that tho oxtraord|nary
dogroo ot proc|s|on (or 't|no tun|ng') that sooms to bo roqu|rod tor tho 3|g 3ang ot tho naturo that wo appoar to
155
obsorvo . |s ono part |n 10
1028
at |oast.' lonroso suggostod two pathways to an answor: o|thor |t was an act ot
God, or wo m|ght sook somo sc|ont|t|c/mathomat|ca| thoory.'
80
|awk|ng optod tor tho socond w|th th|s
oxp|anat|on: Ouantum t|uctuat|ons |oad to tho spontanoous croat|on ot t|ny un|vorsos, out ot noth|ng. Vost ot tho
un|vorsos co||apso to noth|ng, but a tow that roach a cr|t|ca| s|zo, w||| oxpand |n an |nt|at|onary mannor, and w|||
torm ga|ax|os and stars, and maybo bo|ngs ||ko us.'
40
0. 7bo oototo| so|octloo mo|tlvotso. |or my monoy tho bost mu|t|vorso modo| |s that prottorod by Amor|can
cosmo|og|st loo 3mo||n, who adds a 0arw|n|an componont to an ovo|v|ng cosmos |n wh|ch thoro |s a natura|
so|oct|on' ot d|ttoront|a||y roproduc|ng bubb|o un|vorsos. 3mo||n th|nks that, ||ko |ts b|o|og|ca| countorpart, thoro
m|ght bo a so|oct|on trom d|ttoront spoc|os' ot un|vorsos, oach conta|n|ng d|ttoront |aws ot naturo. Un|vorsos
||ko ours w||| havo |ots ot stars, wh|ch moans thoy w||| havo |ots ot b|ack ho|os that co||apso |nto s|ngu|ar|t|os, a
po|nt at wh|ch |nt|n|to|y strong grav|ty causos mattor to havo |nt|n|to dons|ty and zoro vo|umo. Vany
cosmo|og|sts today bo||ovo that our un|vorso bogan w|th a b|g bang out ot a s|ngu|ar|ty, so |t |s roasonab|o to
conjocturo that co||aps|ng b|ack ho|os croato now baby un|vorsos out ot thoso s|ngu|ar|t|os. 3aby un|vorsos w|th
|aws ot naturo s|m||ar to ours w||| bo b|oph|||c, whoroas un|vorsos w|th rad|ca||y d|ttoront |aws ot naturo that
d|sa||ow stars, cannot havo b|ack ho|os, and thus w||| not hatch any baby un|vorsos, w||| go oxt|nct. 1ho |ong-torm
rosu|t ot th|s cosm|c ovo|ut|onary procoss wou|d bo a propondoranco ot un|vorsos ||ko ours, so wo shou|d not
bo surpr|sod to t|nd ourso|vos |n a un|vorso su|tab|o tor ||to.
41
|ow can wo tost tho mu|t|vorso hypothos|s? 1ho thoory that now un|vorsos can omorgo trom co||aps|ng b|ack ho|os
may bo |||um|natod through add|t|ona| know|odgo about tho proport|os ot b|ack ho|os. Othor bubb|o un|vorsos m|ght bo
dotoctod |n tho subt|o tomporaturo var|at|ons ot tho cosm|c m|crowavo background rad|at|on |ott ovor trom tho b|g
bang ot our own un|vorso, and lA3A rocont|y |aunchod a spacocratt constructod to study th|s rad|at|on. Anothor way
to tost thoso thoor|os m|ght bo through tho lasor lntortoromotor Grav|tat|ona| Wavo Obsorvatory (llGO) that |s
dos|gnod to dotoct oxcopt|ona||y ta|nt grav|tat|ona| wavos. lt thoro aro othor un|vorsos, porhaps r|pp|os |n grav|tat|ona|
wavos w||| s|gna| tho|r prosonco. Vaybo grav|ty |s such a ro|at|vo|y woak torco (comparod to o|octromagnot|sm and
nuc|oar torcos) bocauso somo ot |t |oaks' out to othor un|vorsos. Vaybo.

ln |ato 2010, 3tophon |awk|ng and loonard V|od|now prosontod tho|r answor to tho b|ggost ot 3|g Ouost|ons (Why
|s thoro somoth|ng rathor than noth|ng?,' Why do wo ox|st?,' and Why th|s part|cu|ar sot ot |aws and not somo
othor?') |n tho|r book, 7bo Otooo Loslgo. 1hoy approach tho prob|om trom what thoy ca|| modo|-dopondont roa||sm,'
basod on tho assumpt|on that our bra|ns torm modo|s ot tho wor|d trom sonsory |nput, that wo uso tho modo| most
succosstu| at oxp|a|n|ng ovonts and assumo that tho modo|s match roa||ty (ovon |t thoy do not), and that whon moro
than ono modo| makos accurato prod|ct|ons, wo aro troo to uso wh|chovor modo| |s most convon|ont.' Emp|oy|ng th|s
mothod, tho authors oxp|a|n, |t |s po|nt|oss to ask whothor a modo| |s roa|, on|y whothor |t agroos w|th obsorvat|on.'
1ho two modo|s that doscr|bo ||ght d|scussod abovo-tho wavo/part|c|o modo|s-sorvo as an oxamp|o ot modo|-
dopondont roa||sm, whoro oach modo| agroos w|th corta|n obsorvat|ons but no|thor ono |s sutt|c|ont to oxp|a|n a||
obsorvat|ons. |awk|ng and V|od|now oxp|a|n tho rosu|ts ot tho doub|o-s||t oxpor|mont through tho modo| dovo|opod by
l|chard |oynman ca||od sum ovor h|stor|os,' |n wh|ch ovory part|c|o |n tho doub|o-s||t oxpor|mont takos ovory
poss|b|o path that |t can, and thus |t |ntoracts w|th |tso|t |n |ts d|ttoront h|stor|os (|nstoad ot |ntoract|ng w|th part|c|os |n
othor un|vorsos |n tho a|tornato modo| prosontod abovo).
1o modo| tho ont|ro un|vorso, |awk|ng and V|od|now omp|oy V-thoory,' an oxtons|on ot str|ng thoory that |nc|udos
o|ovon d|mons|ons (ton ot spaco and ono ot t|mo) and |ncorporatos a|| t|vo curront str|ng thoory modo|s. As |n
|oynman's sum-ovor-h|stor|os' modo| ot ||ght, |awk|ng and V|od|now proposo that tho un|vorso |tso|t takos ovory
poss|b|o path-oxpor|oncos a|| poss|b|o h|stor|os-and th|s rosu|ts |n tho most mu|t|p|o mu|t|vorso |mag|nab|o. ln th|s
v|ow, tho un|vorso appoarod spontanoous|y, start|ng ott |n ovory poss|b|o way,' |awk|ng and V|od|now oxp|a|n. Vost
ot thoso corrospond to othor un|vorsos. Wh||o somo ot thoso un|vorsos aro s|m||ar to ours, most aro vory d|ttoront. ln
tact, many un|vorsos ox|st w|th many d|ttoront sots ot phys|ca| |aws.' A|though, as wo saw, somo poop|o ca|| thoso
d|ttoront un|vorsos tho mu|t|vorso, |awk|ng and V|od|now c|a|m that thoso aro just d|ttoront oxpross|ons ot tho
|oynman sum ovor h|stor|os.' Emp|oy|ng mu|t|p|o modo|s to oxp|a|n mu|t|p|o un|vorsos as noth|ng moro than ono
systom w|th mu|t|p|o h|stor|os, |awk|ng and V|od|now conc|udo, |or thoso roasons V-thoory |s tho on|y cand|dato tor
a comp|oto thoory ot tho un|vorso. lt |t |s t|n|to-and th|s has yot to bo provod-|t w||| bo a modo| ot a un|vorso that
croatos |tso|t.'
42
|ow can a un|vorso croato |tso|t? 1ho answor has to do w|th tho tota| onorgy ot tho un|vorso, wh|ch |awk|ng and
V|od|now stato must bo constant and a|ways roma|n zoro. 3|nco |t costs onorgy to croato a body such as a star or
156
p|anot, |oca||y thoro aro non-zoro onorgy |mba|ancos. 3ocauso grav|ty |s attract|vo, grav|tat|ona| onorgy |s nogat|vo:
Ono has to do work to soparato a grav|tat|ona||y bound systom, such as tho oarth and tho moon,' tho authors oxp|a|n.
1h|s nogat|vo onorgy can ba|anco tho pos|t|vo onorgy noodod to croato mattor.' 3ut how do ont|ro un|vorsos ar|so?
On tho sca|o ot tho ont|ro un|vorso, tho pos|t|vo onorgy ot tho mattor can bo ba|ancod by tho nogat|vo grav|tat|ona|
onorgy, and so thoro |s no rostr|ct|on on tho croat|on ot who|o un|vorsos. 3ocauso thoro |s a |aw ||ko grav|ty, tho
un|vorso can and w||| croato |tso|t trom noth|ng.. 3pontanoous croat|on |s tho roason thoro |s somoth|ng rathor than
noth|ng, why tho un|vorso ox|sts, why wo ox|st.' A|though tho authors adm|t that tho thoory has yot to bo cont|rmod by
obsorvat|on, |t |t |s, thon no croator oxp|anat|on |s nocossary bocauso tho un|vorso croatos |tso|t. l ca|| th|s ooto ox
olbl|o.
At prosont thoro |s no pos|t|vo ov|donco tor tho mu|t|vorso hypothos|s, but no|thor |s thoro pos|t|vo ov|donco tor tho
trad|t|ona| answor to tho quost|on: God. |or both hypothosos wo aro |ott w|th tho roduct|o ad absurdum quost|on ot
bot como booto tbo mo|tlvotso ot Ooo lt God |s dot|nod as that wh|ch doos not nood to bo croatod, thon why can't
tho mu|t|vorso bo dot|nod as that wh|ch doos not nood to bo croatod? lorhaps both aro otorna| and nood no croat|on
oxp|anat|on. ln any caso, wo havo on|y nogat|vo ov|donco a|ong tho ||nos ot l can't th|nk ot any othor oxp|anat|on,'
wh|ch |s no ov|donco at a||.
lt thoro |s ono |osson that tho h|story ot sc|onco has taught us, |t |s that |t |s arrogant to th|nk that wo now know
onough to know that wo cannot know. 3o tor tho t|mo bo|ng |t comos down to cogn|t|vo and omot|ona| protoronco: an
answor w|th on|y nogat|vo ov|donco or no answor at a||. Ooo, mo|tlvotso, or ookoowo. Wh|ch ono you chooso doponds
on your own bo||ot journoy and how much you want to bo||ovo.
157

EiIoguo
1ho 1ruth |a Out 1horo
Whon l ca|| myso|t a skopt|c l s|mp|y moan that l tako a sc|ont|t|c approach to tho ova|uat|on ot c|a|ms. 3c|onco |s
skopt|c|sm and sc|ont|sts aro natura||y skopt|ca|. 3c|ont|sts havo to bo skopt|ca| bocauso most c|a|ms turn out to bo
ta|so. Wood|ng out tho tow korno|s ot whoat trom tho substant|a| p||o ot chatt roqu|ros oxtons|vo obsorvat|on, carotu|
oxpor|montat|on, and caut|ous |ntoronco to tho bost conc|us|on.
What makos sc|onco so potont |s that thoro |s a wo||-dot|nod mothod tor gott|ng at answors to quost|ons about tho
wor|d-a wor|d that |s roa| and knowab|o. Whoro ph||osophy and thoo|ogy dopond on |og|c and roason and thought
oxpor|monts, sc|onco omp|oys omp|r|c|sm, ov|donco, and obsorvat|ona| oxpor|monts. lt |s tho on|y hopo wo havo ot
avo|d|ng tho trap ot bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm.
5cionco and tho NuII Eyothoaia
3c|onco bog|ns w|th somoth|ng ca||od a oo|| bypotbosls. A|though stat|st|c|ans moan somoth|ng vory spoc|t|c about
th|s (hav|ng to do w|th compar|ng d|ttoront sots ot data), l am us|ng tho torm oo|| bypotbosls |n |ts moro gonora| sonso:
tho hypothos|s undor |nvost|gat|on |s not truo, or nu||, unt|| provon othorw|so. A nu|| hypothos|s statos that X doos not
causo Y. lt you th|nk X doos causo Y thon tho burdon ot proot |s on you to prov|do conv|nc|ng oxpor|monta| data to
rojoct tho nu|| hypothos|s.
1ho stat|st|ca| standards ot proot noodod to rojoct tho nu|| hypothos|s aro substant|a|. ldoa||y, |n a contro||od
oxpor|mont, wo wou|d ||ko to bo at |oast 0b to 00 porcont cont|dont that tho rosu|ts woro not duo to chanco botoro wo
ottor our prov|s|ona| assont that tho ottoct may bo roa|. Evoryono |s tam|||ar w|th tho procoss a|roady through nows
stor|os about tho |0A approv|ng a now drug attor oxtons|vo c||n|ca| tr|a|s. 1ho tr|a|s to wh|ch thoy rotor |nvo|vo
soph|st|catod mothods to tost tho c|a|m that 0rug X (say, a stat|n drug) causos 0|soaso Y (say, hoart d|soaso ||nkod
to cho|ostoro|) to docroaso. 1ho nu|| hypothos|s statos that stat|ns do not roduco hoart d|soaso by |owor|ng
cho|ostoro|. lojoct|ng tho nu|| hypothos|s moans that thoro was a stat|st|ca||y s|gn|t|cant d|ttoronco |n ratos ot hoart
d|soaso botwoon tho oxpor|monta| group roco|v|ng tho stat|ns and tho contro| group that d|d not.
|oro |s a ro|at|vo|y s|mp|o oxamp|o ot how th|s mothod ot stat|st|ca| s|gn|t|canco works |n ro|at|on to tho nu||
hypothos|s to answor th|s quost|on: can a psych|c us|ng E3l a|ono dotorm|no whothor a p|ay|ng card trom a dock |s
rod or b|ack? lsych|cs typ|ca||y c|a|m that thoy can do th|s, but |n my oxpor|onco what poop|o soy thoy can do and
what thoy can octoo||y do aro not a|ways tho samo. |ow can wo tost th|s c|a|m? lt wo p|aco tho cards down onto a
tab|o ono by ono w|th tho psych|c stat|ng o|thor rod or b|ack tor oach card, how many corroct h|ts wou|d tho psych|c
nood |n ordor tor us to conc|udo that tho card co|or dotorm|nat|ons woro not duo to chanco? ln th|s sconar|o, tho nu||
hypothos|s |s that tho psych|c w||| do no bottor than chanco, and thus to rojoct tho nu|| hypothos|s wo w||| nood to
ostab||sh a t|guro tor tho numbor ot corroct h|ts noodod |n oach round. 3y chanco, wo wou|d oxpoct tho psych|c to got
about ha|t corroct. ln a dock ot b2 cards, ha|t ot wh|ch aro rod and ha|t ot wh|ch aro b|ack, random guoss|ng or t||pp|ng
a co|n w||| produco, on avorago, 20 corroct h|ts.
Ot courso, as anyono who has t||ppod co|ns tor tun knows, 10 t||ps do not nocossar||y a|ways rosu|t |n b hoads and
b ta||s. 1horo aro stroaks and dov|at|ons trom symmotry-0 hoads and 4 ta||s, or 8 hoads and 7 ta||s-a|| w|th|n tho
roa|m ot chanco. Or as anyono who has gamb|od at a rou|otto whoo| knows, somot|mos rod comos up moro than
b|ack, or v|co vorsa, w|thout any v|o|at|ons ot chanco and randomnoss. ln tact, wo count on such asymmotr|ca| stroaks
|n our bott|ng schomos and hopo that wo'ro d|sc|p||nod onough to wa|k away trom tho tab|o dur|ng a tomporary
dov|at|on trom chanco |n our tavor botoro tho odds sw|ng tho othor way.
3o wo can't just tost our psych|c on ono short sor|os ot card guossos, bocauso by chanco tho psych|c may bo
oxpoctod to got a sor|os ot h|ts. Wo nood to run mu|t|p|o tr|a|s, |n wh|ch somo rounds may rosu|t |n s||ght|y bo|ow
chanco (say, 22, 28, 24, or 2b h|ts) and othor rounds may rosu|t |n s||ght|y abovo chanco (say, 27, 28, 20, or 80 h|ts).
1ho var|at|on may bo ovon groator and st||| bo duo to noth|ng but chanco. What wo nood to dotorm|no |s tho numbor by
wh|ch wo can cont|dont|y rojoct tho nu|| hypothos|s. ln th|s oxamp|o, that numbor |s 8b. 1ho psych|c wou|d nood to got
8b corroct h|ts out ot a b2-card dock |n ordor tor us to rojoct tho nu|| hypothos|s at tho 00 porcont cont|donco |ovo|. 1ho
158
stat|st|ca| mothod by wh|ch th|s t|guro |s dor|vod nood not concorn us horo.
1
1ho po|nt |s that ovon though 8b out ot b2
doosn't sound ||ko |t wou|d bo that hard to obta|n, |n tact by chanco a|ono |t wou|d bo so unusua| that wo cou|d
cont|dont|y stato (at tho 00 porcont cont|donco |ovo|') that somoth|ng o|so bos|dos chanco was go|ng on horo.
What m|ght that bo? lt cou|d bo E3l. 3ut |t cou|d bo somoth|ng o|so as wo||. lorhaps our contro|s woro not t|ght
onough. Vaybo tho psych|c was gott|ng tho rod/b|ack |ntormat|on by somo othor norma| (as opposod to paranorma|)
moans ot wh|ch wo woro not awaro (such as tho rot|oct|on ot tho card taco |n tho tab|o surtaco). loss|b|y tho psych|c
was choat|ng, and wo don't know how. l'vo soon 1amos land| do th|s vory oxpor|mont w|th an ont|ro dock ot cards,
rosu|t|ng |n two portoct p||os ot a|| rod and a|| b|ack cards. 1ho mag|c|an lonnart Groon shutt|os and scramb|os a dock
ot cards, tumb|os w|th thom tor a wh||o as |t ho's a|| thumbs, c|ums||y pushos thom back togothor, thon procoods to
doa| out tour w|nn|ng pokor hands or an ont|ro soquonco ot a su|t |n ordor, a|| wh||o b||ndto|dod.
2
3ut land| and Groon
aro mag|c|ans and thoso aro mag|c tr|cks. 1hat l do not know how thoy aro dono doos not mako thom roa|
(paranorma|) mag|c, and tho tact that most sc|ont|sts do not know how such mag|c tr|cks aro dono moans wo nood to
bo ovon moro v|g||ant |n our contro|s whon tost|ng psych|cs, porhaps ovon attach|ng a mag|c|an to our rosoarch toam.
1ho argumont trom porsona| |ncrodu||ty-|t l can't oxp|a|n |t, thon |t must bo truo-doos not ho|d wator |n sc|onco.
Evon w|th a|| thoso contro|s |n p|aco, corta|nty st||| o|udos sc|onco. 1ho sc|ont|t|c mothod |s tho bost too| ovor
dov|sod to d|scr|m|nato botwoon truo and ta|so pattorns, to d|st|ngu|sh botwoon roa||ty and tantasy, and to dotoct
ba|onoy, but wo must a|ways romombor that wo cou|d bo wrong. lojoct|ng tho nu|| hypothos|s |s not a warranty on
truth, yot ta||uro to rojoct tho nu|| hypothos|s doos not mako tho c|a|m ta|so. Wo must koop an opon m|nd, but not so
opon that our bra|ns ta|| out. lrov|s|ona| truths aro tho bost wo can do.
5cionco and tho Burdon ot Proot
1ho nu|| hypothos|s a|so moans that tho burdon ot proot |s on tho porson assort|ng a pos|t|vo c|a|m, not on tho skopt|cs
to d|sprovo |t. l onco appoarod on Lotty Klog Llvo to d|scuss U|Os (a poronn|a| tavor|to ot h|s), accompan|od by a
tab|o tu|| ot U|O|og|sts (a t|vo-to-ono rat|o ot bo||ovors to skopt|cs sooms to bo tho norm |n to|ov|s|on shows that covor
such top|cs). larry's quost|ons tor us skopt|cs typ|ca||y m|ss th|s contra| tonot ot sc|onco. (0r. 3hormor, do you havo
an oxp|anat|on tor Vr. X's U|O s|ght|ng at throo |n tho morn|ng |n lowhoro, Ar|zona?' lt l don't, tho assumpt|on |s that
|t must bo oxtratorrostr|a|.) 1ho burdon ot proot |s not on tho skopt|cs to d|sprovo U|Os, |t |s on tho U|O c|a|mant to
provo that |t |s oxtratorrostr|a|.
A|though wo cannot run a contro||od oxpor|mont that wou|d y|o|d a stat|st|ca| probab|||ty ot rojoct|ng tho nu||
hypothos|s that a||ons aro not v|s|t|ng Earth, prov|ng that thoy aro wou|d bo s|mp|o: show us an a||on spacocratt or an
oxtratorrostr|a| body. Unt|| thon, koop soarch|ng and got back to us whon you havo somoth|ng. Untortunato|y tor
U|O|og|sts, sc|ont|sts cannot accopt as dot|n|t|vo proot ot a||on v|s|tat|on such ov|donco as b|urry photographs, gra|ny
v|doos, and anocdotos about spooky ||ghts |n tho sky. lhotographs and v|doos aro otton m|sporco|vod and can bo
oas||y doctorod, and ||ghts |n tho sky havo many prosa|c oxp|anat|ons: aor|a| t|aros, ||ghtod ba||oons, oxpor|monta|
a|rcratt, ho||coptors, c|ouds, swamp gas, or ovon tho p|anot vonus, wh|ch, |t you aro dr|v|ng on an undu|at|ng h|ghway
away trom c|ty ||ghts, roa||y doos appoar to bo a br|ght ||ght to||ow|ng your car. lor w||| govornmont documonts w|th
rodactod (b|ackod-out) paragraphs count as ov|donco tor E1 contact, bocauso wo know that govornmonts koop
socrots tor a host ot roasons hav|ng to do w|th m|||tary dotonso and nat|ona| socur|ty. Yos, govornmonts ||o to tho|r
c|t|zons, but |y|ng about X doos not mako Y truo. 1orrostr|a| socrots do not oquato to oxtratorrostr|a| covor-ups.
3o many c|a|ms ot th|s naturo aro basod on oogotlvo ovloooco. 1hat |s, |t sc|onco cannot oxp|a|n X, thon your
oxp|anat|on tor X |s nocossar||y truo. lot so. ln sc|onco |ots ot mystor|os roma|n unoxp|a|nod unt|| turthor ov|donco
ar|sos, and prob|oms aro otton |ott unso|vod unt|| anothor day. l roca|| a mystory |n cosmo|ogy |n tho oar|y 1000s
whoroby |t appoarod that thoro woro stars o|dor than tho un|vorso |tso|t-tho daughtor was o|dor than tho mothor!
1h|nk|ng that l m|ght havo a hot story to wr|to about that wou|d rovoa| somoth|ng doop|y wrong w|th curront
cosmo|og|ca| modo|s that l cou|d pub||sh |n tho |nchoato days ot 5koptlc magaz|no, l t|rst quor|od Ca|toch cosmo|og|st
K|p 1horno, who assurod mo that tho d|scropancy was moro|y a prob|om |n tho curront ost|matos ot tho ago ot tho
un|vorso and that |t wou|d roso|vo |tso|t |n t|mo w|th moro data and bottor dat|ng tochn|quos. lt d|d, as so many
prob|oms |n sc|onco ovontua||y do. ln tho moant|mo, |t's okay to say: l don't know,' l'm not suro,' and lot's wa|t and
soo.'
5cionco and tho Convorgonco Nothod
1o bo suro, not a|| c|a|ms aro subjoct to |aboratory oxpor|monts and stat|st|ca| tosts. 1horo aro many h|stor|ca| and
|ntoront|a| sc|oncos that roqu|ro nuancod ana|ysos ot data and a coovotgooco o ovloooco trom mu|t|p|o ||nos ot
159
|nqu|ry that po|nt to an unm|stakab|o conc|us|on. 1ust as dotoct|vos omp|oy tho convorgonco ot ov|donco tochn|quo to
doduco who most ||ko|y comm|ttod a cr|mo, sc|ont|sts omp|oy tho mothod to doduco tho ||ko||ost oxp|anat|on tor a
part|cu|ar phonomonon. Cosmo|og|sts roconstruct tho h|story ot tho un|vorso through a convorgonco ot ov|donco trom
cosmo|ogy, astronomy, astrophys|cs, spoctroscopy, gonora| ro|at|v|ty, and quantum mochan|cs. Goo|og|sts
roconstruct tho h|story ot tho oarth through a convorgonco ot ov|donco trom goo|ogy, goophys|cs, and goochom|stry.
Archaoo|og|sts p|oco togothor tho h|story ot a c|v|||zat|on trom po||on gra|ns, k|tchon m|ddons, potshords, too|s, works
ot art, wr|tton sourcos, and othor s|to-spoc|t|c art|tacts. Env|ronmonta| sc|ont|sts roconstruct c||mato h|story through tho
onv|ronmonta| sc|oncos, motooro|ogy, g|ac|o|ogy, p|anotary goo|ogy, goophys|cs, chom|stry, b|o|ogy, oco|ogy, and
othors. Evo|ut|onary b|o|og|sts uncovor and oxp|a|n tho h|story ot ||to through goo|ogy, pa|oonto|ogy, botany, zoo|ogy,
b|ogoography, comparat|vo anatomy and phys|o|ogy, gonot|cs, otc.
Evon though thoso |ntoront|a| sc|oncos do not t|t tho modo| ot oxpor|monta| |aboratory sc|oncos, hypothos|s tost|ng
can bo omp|oyod novortho|oss. lndood, sc|ont|sts work|ng w|th|n such h|stor|ca| sc|oncos must tost hypothosos |n
ordor to avo|d tho cont|rmat|on b|as, tho h|nds|ght b|as, and many othor cogn|t|vo b|asos that w||| suro|y co|or tho|r
|ntorprotat|ons ot tho data. As |rank 3u||oway notod at tho ond ot h|s sc|ont|t|c troat|so on tho psycho|ogy ot h|story:
Whon tho m|nd |s controntod w|th moro |ntormat|on than |t can absorb, |t |ooks tor moan|ngtu| (and usua||y
cont|rmatory) pattorns. As a consoquonco, wo tond to m|n|m|zo ov|donco that |s |ncongruous w|th our oxpoctat|ons,
caus|ng tho dom|nant wor|dv|ow to br|ng about |ts own roatt|rmat|on.' ln tact, 3u||oway suggosts that Char|os 0arw|n
may wo|| bo tho groatost h|stor|an who ovor ||vod bocauso ho wont out ot h|s way to tost h|s hypothosos about tho
h|story ot ||to, and th|s bocamo tho toundat|on ot h|s work cu|m|nat|ng |n Oo tbo Otlglo o 5poclos, wh|ch
rovo|ut|on|zod h|s t|o|d, chang|ng |t trom gontoo| spocu|at|ons by amatour natura||sts to tho r|gorous sc|onco |t |s today.
0arw|n ovon omp|oyod h|s now sc|onco to tho h|story ot h|s own ||to, as 3u||oway oxp|a|ns: Char|os 0arw|n
undorstood th|s human prod||oct|on tor roatt|rm|ng tho status quo. ln h|s Aotoblogtopby ho notod how qu|ck|y ho
tondod to torgot any tact that soomod to contrad|ct h|s thoor|os. |o thorotoro mado |t a 'go|don ru|o' to wr|to th|s
|ntormat|on down so that ho wou|d not ovor|ook |t. l|ko 0arw|n's go|don ru|o, hypothos|s tost|ng ovorcomos corta|n
||m|tat|ons |n how tho human m|nd procossos |ntormat|on.'
8
5cionco and tho Comarativo Nothod
|ow do you tost a h|stor|ca| hypothos|s? Ono way |s through tho compototlvo motboo, wh|ch was br||||ant|y omp|oyod
by UClA goographor 1arod 0|amond |n h|s book Ooos, Ootms, ooo 5too|, |n wh|ch ho oxp|a|nod tho d|ttoront|a| ratos
ot dovo|opmont botwoon c|v|||zat|ons around tho g|obo ovor tho past th|rtoon thousand yoars.
4
Why, 0|amond askod,
d|d Europoans co|on|zo tho Amor|cas and Austra||a, rathor than lat|vo Amor|cans and Austra||an Abor|g|nos co|on|zo
Europo? 0|amond rojoctod tho hypothos|s that |nhor|tod d|ttoroncos |n ab|||t|os botwoon tho racos proc|udod somo
groups trom dovo|op|ng as tast as othors. lnstoad 0|amond proposod a b|ogoograph|ca| thoory hav|ng to do w|th tho
ava||ab|||ty ot domost|catod gra|ns and an|ma|s to tr|ggor tho dovo|opmont ot tarm|ng, mota||urgy, wr|t|ng, non-tood-
produc|ng spoc|a||sts, |argo popu|at|ons, m|||tary and govornmont buroaucrac|os, and othor compononts that gavo r|so
to Wostorn cu|turos. W|thout thoso p|ants and an|ma|s, and a concatonat|on ot othor tactors, nono ot thoso
charactor|st|cs ot our c|v|||zat|on cou|d ox|st.
Emp|oy|ng tho comparat|vo mothod, 0|amond comparod Austra||a and Europo and notod that Austra||an
Abor|g|nos cou|d not strap a p|ow to or mount tho back ot a kangaroo, as Europoans d|d tho ox and horso. As wo||,
|nd|gonous w||d gra|ns that cou|d bo domost|catod woro tow |n numbor and |ocatod on|y |n corta|n rog|ons ot tho g|obo
-thoso rog|ons that saw tho r|so ot tho t|rst c|v|||zat|ons. 1ho oast-wost-or|ontod ax|s ot tho Euro-As|an cont|nont |ont
|tso|t to d|ttus|on ot domost|catod gra|ns and an|ma|s as wo|| as know|odgo and |doas, so Europo was ab|o to bonot|t
much oar||or trom tho domost|cat|on procoss. 3y compar|son, tho north-south-or|ontod ax|s ot tho Amor|cas, Atr|ca,
and tho As|a-Va|ays|a-Austra||a corr|dor d|d not |ond |tso|t to such t|u|d transportat|on, and thus thoso aroas a|roady
not wo|| su|tod b|ogoograph|ca||y tor tarm|ng cou|d not ovon bonot|t trom d|ttus|on. ln add|t|on, through constant
|ntoract|ons w|th domost|catod an|ma|s and othor poop|os, Euro-As|ans dovo|opod |mmun|t|os to numorous d|soasos
that, whon brought by thom |n tho torm ot gorms to Austra||a and tho Amor|cas, a|ong w|th tho|r guns and stoo|,
producod a gonoc|do on a h|thorto unsoon sca|o. |urthormoro, |n |oss than ono gonorat|on modorn Austra||an
Abor|g|nos |oarnod to t|y p|anos, oporato computors, and do anyth|ng that any Europoan |nhab|tant ot Austra||a can
do. Comparat|vo|y, whon Europoan tarmors woro transp|antod to Groon|and thoy wont oxt|nct whon tho|r onv|ronmont
changod, not bocauso tho|r gonos dovo|vod.
3uch comparat|vo mothods aro tho rosu|t ot oototo| oxpotlmoots o blstoty, numorous oxamp|os ot wh|ch 0|amond
prosontod |n h|s 2010 book ot that t|t|o, |nc|ud|ng a t|mo|y study compar|ng |a|t| to tho 0om|n|can lopub||c. 3oth
countr|os |nhab|t tho samo |s|and but bocauso ot goopo||t|ca| d|ttoroncos ono ondod up d|rt poor wh||o tho othor
160
t|our|shos.
b
What happonod? 1h|s |s a oototo| oxpotlmoot o botoots, s|m||ar to tho ono on tho Koroan pon|nsu|a.
Add|ng a bordor botwoon lorth and 3outh Koroa |n 104b rosu|tod |n d|ctatorsh|p and povorty tor lorth Koroa, wh|ch
|n 2008 had an annua| G0l ot $18.84 b||||on and $bbb por cap|ta |ncomo, comparod to 3outh Koroa's annua| G0l ot
$020.1 b||||on and $10,20b por cap|ta |ncomo. 1h|nk about how d|ttoront your ||to wou|d bo |t you mado $bbb a yoar
comparod to $10,20b a yoar, and you can too| tho powor ot tho comparat|vo mothod. 1ho bordor that d|v|dos tho
|s|and ot ||span|o|a |s str|k|ng: on ono s|do tho |and |s groon and torostod wh||o on tho othor s|do tho |and |s brown
and troo|oss. la|n-|adon woathor tronts como trom tho oast and dump tho|r watory |oad on tho oastorn 0om|n|can
lopub||c s|do ot tho |s|and, |oav|ng tho wostorn s|do dr|or and w|th |oss tort||o so||s tor agr|cu|tura| product|v|ty.
0otorostat|on ot tho towor troos on tho |a|t|an s|do |od to so|| oros|on, docroasod so|| tort|||ty, |oss ot t|mbor tor tho
bu||d|ng |ndustry and wood tor charcoa| tuo|, hoav|or sod|mont |oads |n r|vors, and docroasod watorshod protoct|on,
|oad|ng to |owor hydroo|octr|c powor. 1h|s sot up a nogat|vo toodback cyc|o ot onv|ronmonta| dogradat|on tor |a|t|.
Compar|ng tho po||t|ca| h|story ot tho two s|dos ot tho |s|and rovoa|s a socond sot ot tactors at work. Chr|stophor
Co|umbus's brothor 3artho|omoo co|on|zod ||span|o|a |n 1400 tor 3pa|n, ostab||sh|ng tho cap|ta| at 3anto 0om|ngo
on tho ogross ot tho Ozama l|vor on tho oastorn s|do ot tho |s|and. 1wo contur|os |ator, dur|ng tons|ons botwoon
|ranco and 3pa|n, tho 1roaty ot lysw|ck |n 1007 grantod |ranco dom|n|on ovor tho wostorn ha|t ot tho |s|and, and tho
bordor was pormanont|y ostab||shod by tho 1roaty ot Aranjuoz |n 1777. 3ocauso |ranco was r|chor than 3pa|n and
s|avory was an |ntogra| part ot |ts oconomy, |t turnod wostorn ||span|o|a |nto a contor ot tho s|avo trado w|th a
popu|at|on cons|st|ng ot 8b porcont s|avos, comparod to tho oastorn ha|t undor 3pa|n w|th on|y 10-1b porcont s|avos.
1ho raw numbors aro staggor|ng: about b00,000 s|avos |n tho wostorn s|do ot tho |s|and comparod to on|y 1b,000 to
80,000 s|avos |n tho oastorn s|do. |or a t|mo, |a|t| was r|chor than tho 0om|n|can lopub||c. |or a t|mo. 3ut tho s|avo
oconomy |od to a s|gn|t|cant|y groator popu|at|on dons|ty that, coup|od w|th |ranco's hungor tor t|mbor trom tho |s|and,
|od to rap|d dotorostat|on and subsoquont onv|ronmonta| squa|or. 1ho tact that tho |a|t|an s|avos dovo|opod tho|r own
Croo|o |anguago spokon by no ono o|so |n tho wor|d turthor |so|atod |a|t| trom tho typo ot oconom|c and cu|tura|
oxchango that |oads to prospor|ty.
Whon both tho |a|t|ans and 0om|n|cans ga|nod tho|r |ndopondonco |n tho n|notoonth contury, anothor comparat|vo
d|ttoronco unto|dod. |a|t|an s|avo rovo|ts woro v|o|ont and lapo|oon's |ntorvont|on to try to rostoro ordor rosu|tod |n tho
|a|t|ans' doop d|strust ot Europoans. 1hoy wantod noth|ng to do w|th tuturo trado and |nvostmonts, |mports and
oxports, or |mm|grat|on and om|grat|on, and so thoy d|d not bonot|t oconom|ca||y trom thoso and othor tactors. 3y
contrast, 0om|n|can |ndopondonco was ro|at|vo|y nonv|o|ont, and |t shutt|od back and torth tor docados botwoon
|ndopondonco and contro| by 3pa|n, wh|ch |n 180b doc|dod that |t d|d not want tho torr|tory. 1hroughout th|s por|od tho
0om|n|cans spoko 3pan|sh, dovo|opod oxports, tradod w|th Europoan countr|os, and attractod Europoan |nvostors
and a d|vorso |mm|grant popu|at|on ot Gormans, lta||ans, lobanoso, and Austr|ans, who ho|pod bu||d a v|brant
oconomy. 3oth countr|os succumbod to tho powor ot ov|| d|ctators |n tho m|d-twont|oth contury. latao| 1ruj|||o's contro|
ot tho 0om|n|can lopub||c |nvo|vod cons|dorab|o oconom|c growth bocauso ot h|s dos|ro to porsona||y onr|ch h|mso|t,
and th|s |od to a v|brant oxport |ndustry (most ot wh|ch ho ownod), sc|ont|sts and torostors woro |mportod to ho|p
prosorvo tho torosts tor 1ruj|||o's porsona| uso and prot|toor|ng through h|s |ogg|ng compan|os. |a|t|'s d|ctator
|rano|s lapa 0oc' 0uva||or d|d nono ot th|s and |nstoad turthor |so|atod tho |a|t|ans trom tho rost ot tho wor|d.
Emp|oy|ng tho compar|son mothod w|th such natura| oxpor|monts ot h|story |s no d|ttoront trom what soc|o|og|sts
and oconom|sts do |n compar|ng natura| oxpor|monts ot soc|oty today. Wo cannot |ntont|ona||y |mpovor|sh ono group
ot poop|o and thon obsorvo |t tho|r hoa|th, oducat|on, and cr|mo ratos chango. 3ut wo can |ook around and t|nd
pockots ot |mpovor|shod poop|o |n |nnor c|t|os and thon moasuro var|ous tactors and comparo thoso to othor
soc|ooconom|c c|assos. 1ho procoss |s as r|gorous a sc|ont|t|c mothodo|ogy as any to bo tound |n tho oxpor|monta|
sc|oncos. Onco an |ntoront|a| or h|stor|ca| sc|onco |s wo|| ostab||shod through tho accumu|at|on ot pos|t|vo ov|donco, |t
bocomos a tostab|o sc|onco.
5cionco and tho PrinciIo ot Poaitivo Evidonco
1ho convorgonco ot ov|donco mothod and tho compar|son mothod aro rout|no|y usod by pa|oonto|og|sts and
ovo|ut|onary b|o|og|sts to tost hypothosos about ovo|ut|on, and tho rosu|ts accumu|ato |n tho torm ot pos|t|vo ov|donco
|n support ot tho thoory ot ovo|ut|on. |or croat|on|sts to d|sprovo ovo|ut|on, thoy wou|d nood to unravo| a|| thoso
|ndopondont ||nos ot ov|donco as wo|| as construct a r|va| thoory that can oxp|a|n thom bottor than tho thoory ot
ovo|ut|on. 1hoy havon't, and |nstoad omp|oy on|y oogotlvo ovloooco |n tho torm ot |t ovo|ut|onary b|o|og|sts cannot
prosont a natura| oxp|anat|on ot X, thon a supornatura| oxp|anat|on ot X must bo truo.' lot so. 1ho ptloclp|o o posltlvo
ovloooco statos that you must havo pos|t|vo ov|donco |n tavor ot your thoory and not just nogat|vo ov|donco aga|nst
r|va| thoor|os.
161
1ho pr|nc|p|o ot pos|t|vo ov|donco app||os to a|| c|a|ms. 3kopt|cs aro ||ko poop|o trom V|ssour|, tho 3how-Vo stato.
3how mo pos|t|vo ov|donco tor your c|a|m. 3how mo a 3asquatch body. 3how mo tho archaoo|og|ca| art|tacts trom
At|ant|s. 3how mo a Ou|ja board that spo||s words w|th socuro|y b||ndto|dod part|c|pants. 3how mo a lostradamus
quatra|n that prod|ctod Wor|d War ll or 0/11 booto (not attor) tho tact (postd|ct|ons don't count |n sc|onco bocauso ot
tho h|nds|ght b|as). 3how mo tho ov|donco that a|tornat|vo mod|c|nos work bottor than p|acobos. 3how mo an E1 or
tako mo to tho mothor sh|p. 3how mo tho lnto|||gont 0os|gnor. 3how mo God. 3how mo and l w||| bo||ovo.
Vost poop|o (sc|ont|sts |nc|udod) troat tho God quost|on soparato trom a|| thoso othor c|a|ms. 1hoy aro r|ght to do
so as |ong as tho part|cu|ar c|a|m |n quost|on cannot-ovon |n pr|nc|p|o-bo oxam|nod by sc|onco. 3ut what m|ght that
|nc|udo? Vost ro||g|ous c|a|ms aro tostab|o, such as prayor pos|t|vo|y |nt|uonc|ng hoa||ng. ln th|s caso, contro||od
oxpor|monts to dato show no d|ttoronco botwoon prayod-tor and not-prayod-tor pat|onts. What wou|d compo| mo to
bo||ovo wou|d bo somoth|ng unoqu|voca|, such as a now ||mb grow|ng on an amputoo. Amph|b|ans can do |t. 1ho now
sc|onco ot rogonorat|vo mod|c|no appoars on tho vorgo ot bo|ng ab|o to do |t. 3uro|y an omn|potont do|ty cou|d do |t.
5cionco and BoIiot
Wo now como to tho ond ot th|s narrat|vo journoy ot bo||ot, but |t |s roa||y just tho bog|nn|ng ot a now undorstand|ng ot
how tho bra|n gonoratos bo||ots and ro|ntorcos thom as truths. Ot tho many mystor|os wo havo uncovorod and
quost|ons wo havo tr|od to answor, ono |n part|cu|ar stands out. lomo totlooo|ls-that spoc|os ot human who carotu||y
wo|ghs a|| doc|s|ons through co|d, hard |og|c and rat|ona| ana|ys|s ot tho data-|s not on|y oxt|nct but probab|y novor
ox|stod. Vr. 3pock |s sc|onco t|ct|on. And |t's a good th|ng, bocauso poop|o who havo suttorod bra|n damago to tho
omot|ona| notworks |n tho|r bra|ns-part|cu|ar|y tho|r ||mb|c systoms-t|nd |t noar|y |mposs|b|o to mako ovon tho
s|mp|ost ot doc|s|ons about tho most mundano cho|cos |n ||to-wh|ch toothpasto to buy, tor oxamp|o: w|th so many
brands and s|zos and qua||t|os and pr|cos to cons|dor, roason a|ono w||| |oavo you stand|ng thoro |n tho storo a|s|o,
trozon |n |ndoc|s|on. Ana|ys|s para|ys|s. An omot|ona| |oap ot ta|th boyond roason |s otton roqu|rod just to got through
tho day, |ot a|ono mako tho b|g doc|s|ons |n ||to.
ln tho ond, a|| ot us aro try|ng to mako sonso ot tho wor|d, and naturo has g|ttod us w|th a doub|o-odgod sword that
cuts tor and aga|nst. On ono odgo, our bra|ns aro tho most comp|ox and soph|st|catod |ntormat|on-procoss|ng
mach|nos |n tho un|vorso, capab|o ot undorstand|ng not on|y tho un|vorso |tso|t but a|so tho procoss ot undorstand|ng.
On tho othor odgo, by tho vory samo procoss ot torm|ng bo||ots about tho un|vorso and ourso|vos, wo aro a|so moro
capab|o than any othor spoc|os ot so|t-docopt|on and |||us|on, ot too||ng ourso|vos ovon wh||o wo aro try|ng to avo|d
bo|ng too|od by naturo.
ln tho ond l want to bo||ovo. l a|so want to know. 1ho truth |s out thoro, and a|though |t may bo d|tt|cu|t to t|nd, sc|onco
|s tho bost too| wo havo tor uncovor|ng |t.
Ao ostto pot ospoto!
0
162

Notoa
ProIoguo: | Want to BoIiovo
1. |arr|s lo|| lovoa|s What loop|o 0o and 0o lot 3o||ovo,' |arr|s, 2000, http://www.harr|s|ntoract|vo.com/.
2. 1hroo |n |our Amor|cans 3o||ovo |n laranorma|,' Ga||up, 1uno 10, 200b, http://www.ga||up.com/po||/1001b/1hroo-|our-Amor|cans-3o||ovo-
laranorma|.aspx. 3|m||ar porcontagos ot bo||ot woro tound |n th|s 200b Ga||up lo||:
lsych|c or sp|r|tua| hoa||ng bb porcont
0omon possoss|on 42 porcont
E3l 41 porcont
|auntod housos 87 porcont
1o|opathy 81 porcont
C|a|rvoyanco (know past / prod|ct tuturo) 20 porcont
Astro|ogy 2b porcont
lsych|cs aro ab|o to ta|k to tho doad 21 porcont
lo|ncarnat|on 20 porcont
Channo||ng sp|r|ts tromtho othor s|do 0 porcont
8. laranorma| 3o||ots Como (3upor)latura||y to 3omo,' Ga||up, lovombor 1, 200b, http://www.ga||up.com/po||/10bb8/laranorma|-3o||ots-Como-
3uporlatura||y-3omo.aspx.
4. 3r|tons loport 'lsych|c lowors,'' 33C lows, Vay 20, 2000, http://nows.bbc.co.uk/2/h|/uk_nows/b017010.stm.
b. Amor|cans' 3o||ot |n lsych|c laranorma| lhonomona ls Up Ovor last 0ocado,' Ga||up lows 3orv|co, 1uno 8, 2001.
0. lat|ona| 3c|onco |oundat|on, 5clooco loolcotots Blooolo| Ropott, 2002. 1ho soct|on on psoudosc|onco, 3c|onco ||ct|on and lsoudosc|onco,' |s
|n chap. 7, 3c|onco and 1ochno|ogy: lub||c Undorstand|ng and lub||c Att|tudos,' http://www.nst.gov/stat|st|cs/so|nd02/c7/c7h.htm.
7. W. l|chard Wa|kor, 3tovon 1. |ookstra, and lodnoy 1. vog|, 3c|onco Educat|on ls lo Guarantoo ot 3kopt|c|sm,' 5koptlc 0, no. 8 (2002): 24-2b.
8. 3tophon |awk|ng and loonard V|od|now, 7bo Otooo Loslgo (low York: 3antam 3ooks, 2010), 7.
Chator 1: Nr. D'Arino'a DiIomma
1. 1ho d|a|oguos |n th|s chaptor aro trom an |ntorv|ow l rocordod w|th Ch|ck on 3aturday, Octobor 17, 2000, |n porson at my homo |n A|tadona,
Ca||torn|a.
2. 0av|d l. losonhan, On 3o|ng 3ano |n lnsano l|acos,' 5clooco 170 (1anuary 1078): 2b0-b8.
8. 1ho rad|o |ntorv|ow |s on a cassotto tapo l'vo had tor th|rty-t|vo yoars. Contrary to tho oxpoctat|ons ot tho t|mo that magnot|c tapo wou|d not |ast moro
than two docados, |t st||| sounds crysta| c|oar.
Chator 2: Dr. CoIIina'a Convoraion
1. |ranc|s Co|||ns, 7bo Loogoogo o Ooo. A 5clootlst Ptosoots Evloooco ot Bo|lo (low York: |roo lross, 2007).
2. lntorv|ow conductod by phono on |r|day, lovombor 0, 2000.
8. 1ho quoto |s |nscr|bod on Kant's tomb and comos trom h|s soct|on on tho mora| |aw |n h|s 1788 book Ctltlqoo o Ptoctlco| Roosoo: 1wo th|ngs t|||
tho m|nd w|th ovor now and |ncroas|ng adm|rat|on and awo, tho ottonor and moro stoad||y wo rot|oct on thom: tho starry hoavons abovo mo and
tho mora| |aw w|th|n mo. l do not moro|y conjocturo thom and sook thom as though obscurod |n darknoss or |n tho transcondont rog|on boyond
my hor|zon: l soo thom botoro mo, and l assoc|ato thom d|roct|y w|th tho consc|ousnoss ot my own ox|stonco.' Accoss|b|o horo:
http://www.utsc.utoronto.ca/-sobo|/Vystory_G|ory/m_g3tarry.pdt.
4. Ouotos trom Co|||ns |n th|s soct|on aro trom 7bo Loogoogo o Ooo. lta||c|zod quotos by Co|||ns |n tho prov|ous and subsoquont soct|ons aro trom
my |ntorv|ow w|th h|m.
Chator 8: A 5kotic'a Journoy
1. 3oo V|chao| 3hormor, by Lotwlo Vottots. 7bo Coso Agolost loto||lgoot Loslgo (low York: 1|mos 3ooks, 2000). 1ho contra| tonot ot tho book,
most notab|y |n tho chaptor on why consorvat|vos and Chr|st|ans shou|d accopt tho thoory ot ovo|ut|on, |s that sc|ont|t|c thoor|os doscr|bo tho wor|d
as |t roa||y |s, whoroas ro||g|on doscr|bos tho wor|d as wo wou|d ||ko to mako |t |n torms ot |mprov|ng tho human cond|t|on.
2. E-ma|| corrospondonco, lovombor 22-28, 2000. 1hat |ast qua||t|or |s v|ntago lavar|ck humor. lntorost|ng|y, on tho mattor ot |ntorna| statos and
m|nd, lavar|ck addod: |owovor, ||ko 3k|nnor, l tu||y acknow|odgo tho roa||ty ot pr|vato ovonts ('consc|ous' oxpor|oncos) that aro d|roct|y sonsod,
||ko a toothacho or |ntorna| spooch. 3ut l do not soo thoso pr|vato ovonts as adoquato oxp|anat|ons ot bohav|or.'
8. 3oo l. Edwards, 3ocratos,' |n Eocyc|opoolo o Pbl|osopby (low York: Vacm|||an, 1007), 7:482.
4. 3ooks 1hat Vado a 0|ttoronco |n loadors' l|vos,' http://www.nob|osou|.com/oro/books/rand/at|as/taq.htm|#O0.4.
b. 3r|an 0ohorty, 3ho's 3ack,' Roosoo, 0ocombor 2000, http://roason.com/arch|vos/2000/11/00/ayn-rand-|s-back.
0. 1onn|tor 3urns, Oooooss o tbo Votkot. Ayo Rooo ooo tbo Amotlcoo Rlgbt (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2000), 280.
7. lathan|o| 3randon, 1oogmoot Loy. Vy Yoots wltb Ayo Rooo (3oston: |oughton V|tt||n, 1080), 2bb-b0.
8. Ga|ambos novor pub||shod h|s |ong-prom|sod book |n h|s ||tot|mo, so my summary ot h|s thoory comos trom my own oxtons|vo notos trom tho v-
b0 c|ass and a sor|os ot throo-by-t|vo |oat|ots ho pr|ntod ca||od 1hrust tor |roodom,' numborod soquont|a||y and prosont|ng tho dot|n|t|ons quotod
horo. ln 1000, Ga|ambos's ostato |ssuod vo|umo ono ot 5lc ltot Ao Astto (7bo oy to tbo 5tots) , a 042-pago tomo pub||shod by tho Un|vorsa|
3c|ont|t|c lub||cat|ons Company lnc. Ga|ambos's droam was to bo a spaco ontropronour and t|y customors to tho moon. ln ordor to roa||zo th|s
droam ho bo||ovod that spaco oxp|orat|on had to bo pr|vat|zod, wh|ch moant that soc|oty |tso|t, |n |ts ont|roty, wou|d havo to bo pr|vat|zod.
0. As omb|azonod |n lat|n on a p|aquo postod at tho lanama Cana| that a|so sorvod as tho |nst|tuto's motto: Apotlto 7ottom Oootlbos.
10. ludw|g von V|sos, lomoo Actloo, 8rd od. (Ch|cago: Contomporary 3ooks, 1000), 2.
11. 1hoso havo novor boon pub||shod, and l havo no |ntont|on ot ovor pub||sh|ng thom.
12. |r|odr|ch A. von |ayok, 7bo Rooo to 5otoom (Ch|cago: Un|vors|ty ot Ch|cago lross, 1044), |ayok, 7bo Coostltotloo o Llbotty (Ch|cago: Un|vors|ty
ot Ch|cago lross, 1000), |onry |az||tt, Ecooomlcs lo Ooo Lossoo (low York: |arpor and 3rothors, 1040), V||ton |r|odman, ltoo to Cbooso. A
Potsooo| 5totomoot (low York: |arcourt 3raco 1ovanov|ch, 1080).
163
18. V|sos, lomoo Actloo, 800.
14. |rooman 0yson, Ono |n a V||||on,' a rov|ow ot Lobookoo! E5P, 7o|okloosls, ooo Otbot Psoooosclooco , by Goorgos Charpak and |onr| 3roch,
trans. 3art K. |o||and, Now Yotk Rovlow o Books b1, no. b (Varch 2b, 2004).
1b. l am horo paraphras|ng a ||no usod by tho comod|an 3||| Vahor |n h|s t||m Ro|lgo|oos, who |s much tunn|or than l am whon ho makos that
argumont.
Chator 4: Pattornicity
1. Kov|n l. |ostor and |anna Kokko, 1ho Evo|ut|on ot 3uporst|t|ous and 3uporst|t|on-l|ko 3ohav|our,' Ptocooologs o tbo Royo| 5ocloty B 270, no.
10b4 (2000): 81-87.
2. W||||am 0. |am||ton, 1ho Evo|ut|on ot A|tru|st|c 3ohav|or,' Amotlcoo Nototo|lst 07 (1008): 8b4-b0, |am||ton, 1ho Gonot|ca| Evo|ut|on ot 3oc|a|
3ohav|or,' 1ootoo| o 7boototlco| Blo|ogy 7, no. 1 (1004): 1-b2.
8. V|chao| 3hormor, 7bo 5clooco o Oooo ooo Evl| (low York: 1|mos 3ooks, 2008), 3hormor, 7bo Vloo o tbo Votkot (low York: 1|mos 3ooks, 2008).
4. |ostor and Kokko bog|n w|th a s||ght|y d|ttoront tormu|a than m|no-pb ~ c-whoro a bo||ot may bo ho|d whon tho probab|||ty (p) ot tho bonot|t (b) |s
groator than tho cost (c). |or oxamp|o, bo||ov|ng that tho rust|o |n tho grass |s a dangorous prodator whon |t |s on|y tho w|nd doosn't cost much, but
bo||ov|ng that a dangorous prodator |s tho w|nd may cost an an|ma| |ts ||to. As |ostor and Kokko noto, wo aro vory poor at ost|mat|ng such
probab|||t|os (p). 3|nco tho cost (c) ot bo||ov|ng that tho rust|o |n tho grass |s a dangorous prodator whon |t |s just tho w|nd |s ro|at|vo|y |ow
comparod to tho oppos|to, thoro wou|d havo boon a bonot|c|a| (b) so|oct|on tor bo||ov|ng that most pattorns aro roa|.
b. 3. |. 3k|nnor, 3uporst|t|on |n tho l|goon,' 1ootoo| o Expotlmooto| Psycbo|ogy 88 (1048): 108-72.
0. Ko|ch| Ono, 3uporst|t|ous 3ohav|or |n |umans,' 1ootoo| o tbo Expotlmooto| Aoo|ysls o Bobovlot 47 (1087): 201-71.
7. Char|os Catan|a and 0av|d Cutts, Expor|monta| Contro| ot 3uporst|t|ous lospond|ng |n |umans,' 1ootoo| o tbo Expotlmooto| Aoo|ysls o
Bobovlot 0, no. 2 (1008): 208-8.
8. Konrad loronz, Oo Aggtossloo, trans. Varjor|o Korr W||son (low York: |arcourt, 3raco and Wor|d, 1000).
0. Edvard A. Wostormarck, 7bo llstoty o lomoo Vottlogo, bth od. (london: Vacm|||an, 1021), 3tovon l|nkor, low tbo Vloo otks (low York: W. W.
lorton, 1007).
10. l|ko 1|nborgon, 7bo 5tooy o lostloct (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 10b1).
11. v|ncont do Gardo||o and 3|d Kou|dor, |ow 3pat|a| |roquonc|os and v|sua| Awaronoss lntoract 0ur|ng |aco lrocoss|ng,' Psycbo|oglco| 5clooco,
lovombor 2000, 1-0, http://pss.sagopub.com/contont/oar|y/2000/11/11/00b07070008b4004.tu||.pdt+htm|.
|or a s||ght|y d|ssont|ng v|ow |n wh|ch tac|a| rocogn|t|on d|d not appoar to bo procossod ho||st|ca||y, soo th|s rocont study: Yaros|av Konar,
latr|ck 1. 3onnott, and A|||son 3. 3oku|or, |o||st|c lrocoss|ng ls lot Corro|atod w|th |aco-ldont|t|cat|on Accuracy,' Psycbo|oglco| 5clooco,
0ocombor 2000, http://pss.sagopub.com/contont/oar|y/2000/12/10/00b07070008b0b08.tu||.
An art|c|o pub||shod just botoro th|s book wont to pross arguos that tho b|zarronoss ot tho rovorsod toaturos |s duo to d|ttoront|a| ||ght|ng,
whothor trom tho top down or bottom up, wh|ch wou|d rosu|t |n tho rovorsod toaturos show|ng a d|ttoront shad|ng than tho rost ot tho taco. And yot
tho ottoct |s st||| ov|dont |n tho Obama oxamp|o l prosont horo. 3oo Zonob|a 1a|at|, G||||an lhodos, and l|nda 1ottroy, low You 3oo lt, low You
0on't: 3hodd|ng l|ght on tho 1hatchor l||us|on,' Psycbo|oglco| 5clooco, 1anuary 2010,
http://pss.sagopub.com/contont/oar|y/2010/01/08/00b07070008b78b4.tu||.
12. 3onjam|n l|bot, Unconsc|ous Corobra| ln|t|at|vo and tho lo|o ot Consc|ous W||| |n vo|untary Act|on,' Bobovlot ooo Btolo 5cloocos 8 (108b): b20-
00.
18. lronus E|b|-E|bosto|dt, Etbo|ogy. 7bo Blo|ogy o Bobovlot, trans. Er|ch K|nghammor (low York: |o|t, l|nohart and W|nston, 1070).
14. lau| Ekman, Emotloos Rovoo|oo. Rocogolzlog locos ooo loo|logs to lmptovo Commoolcotloo ooo Emotlooo| Llo (low York: 1|mos 3ooks,
2008).
1b. 3. Wornor and |. E|ko, On tho |unct|on ot Warn|ng Co|orat|on: A3|ack and Yo||ow lattorn lnh|b|ts lroy-Attack by la|vo 0omost|c Ch|cks,'
Bobovlot Eco|ogy ooo 5ocloblo|ogy 10 (108b): 240.
10. 0. W. ltonn|g, W. l. |arcombo, and K. 3. ltonn|g, |roquoncy-0opondont 3atos|an V|m|cry,' Nototo 410, no. 828 (Varch 1b, 2001).
17. v. 3ourj|k and |. C. 3org, locoptor 3ons|t|v|ty |n 3actor|a| Chomotax|s,' Ptocooologs o tbo Notlooo| Acooomy o 5clooco 00, no. 1 (1anuary 8,
2002): 128-27.
18. l|ko 1|nborgon, Aolmo| Bobovlot (low York: 1|mo lnc., 100b).
10. 0o|rdro 3arrott, 5opotootmo| 5tlmo|l. low Ptlmo| Utgos Ovottoo 7bolt Evo|otloooty Potposo (low York: W. W. lorton, 2010).
20. lb|d., 41.
21. lb|d., 122.
22. l. v. Ex||no and l. C. W|ntor, Attoct|on lo|at|ons and Vutua| Gazo |n 0yads,' |n Aoct, Cogoltloo, ooo Potsooo|lty. Empltlco| 5toolos, od. 3||van 3.
1onk|n and Carro|| E. lnyard (low York: 3pr|ngor, 100b).
28. 1. 3. lottor, Gonora||zod Expoctanc|os tor lntorna| vorsus Extorna| Contro| ot lo|ntorcomont,' Psycbo|oglco| Vooogtopbs 80, no. 1 (1000): 1-28.
24. G. l. Varsha|| ot a|., 1ho ||vo-|actor Vodo| ot lorsona||ty as a |ramowork tor lorsona||ty-|oa|th losoarch,' 1ootoo| o Potsooo|lty ooo 5oclo|
Psycbo|ogy 07, no. 2 (August 1004): 278-80, 1. 1obacyk and G. V||tord, 3o||ot |n laranorma| lhonomona: Assossmont lnstrumont 0ovo|opmont
and lmp||cat|ons tor lorsona||ty |unct|on|ng,' 1ootoo| o Potsooo|lty ooo 5oclo| Psycbo|ogy 44, no. b (Vay 1088): 1020-87.
2b. 3ron|s|aw Va||nowsk|, Voglc, 5clooco, ooo Ro|lgloo (low York: 0oub|oday, 10b4), 180-40.
20. V|chao| 3hormor, by Poop|o Bo|lovo olto 7blogs. Psoooosclooco, 5opotstltloo, ooo Otbot Cooosloos o Oot 7lmos (low York: W. |.
|rooman, 1007), 20b-00.
27. 1hoso stud|os aro c|tod |n 1onn|tor A. Wh|tson and Adam 0. Ga||nsky, lack|ng Contro| lncroasos l||usory lattorn lorcopt|on,' 5clooco 822
(Octobor 8, 2008): 11b-17.
28. 3usan 3|ackmoro and lacho| Vooro, 3oo|ng 1h|ngs: v|sua| locogn|t|on and 3o||ot |n tho laranorma|,' Eotopooo 1ootoo| o Potopsycbo|ogy 10
(1004): 01-108.
20. 1. Vusch and K. Ehronborg, lrobab|||ty V|sjudgmont, Cogn|t|vo Ab|||ty, and 3o||ot |n tho laranorma|,' Btltlsb 1ootoo| o Psycbo|ogy 08, no. 2 (Vay
2002): 100-77, lotor 3ruggor, 1hoodor land|s, and Var|anno logard, A'3hoop-Goat Ettoct' |n lopot|t|on Avo|danco: Extra-3onsory lorcopt|on
as an Ettoct ot 3ubjoct|vo lrobab|||ty?' Btltlsb 1ootoo| o Psycbo|ogy 81 (1000): 4bb-08.
80. Wh|tson and Ga||nsky, lack|ng Contro| lncroasos l||usory lattorn lorcopt|on.'
81. 3atosh| Kanazawa, Outcomo or Expoctancy? Antocodont ot 3pontanoous Causa| Attr|but|on,' Potsooo|lty ooo 5oclo| Psycbo|ogy Bo||otlo 18, no.
0 (1002): 0b0-08, 3. Wo|nor, '3pontanoous' Causa| 1h|nk|ng,' Psycbo|oglco| Bo||otlo 07, no. 1 (108b): 74-84, |. |. Ko||oy, Atttlbotloo lo 5oclo|
lototoctloo (Vorr|stown, l.1.: Gonora| loarn|ng lross, 1071).
82. 0. l. |am||ton and 3. 1. 3horman, lorco|v|ng lorsons and Groups,' Psycbo|oglco| Rovlow 108, no. 2 (1000): 880-bb.
88. 1h|s rosoarch, and many othors ||ko |t, aro n|co|y summar|zod |n E||on langor's |atost book, Cooototc|ockwlso. Vlooo| loo|tb ooo tbo Powot o
Posslbl|lty (low York: 3a||ant|no 3ooks, 2000).
84. Assoc|at|on tor tho 1roatmont and 1ra|n|ng |n tho Attachmont ot Ch||dron, http://www.A11ACh.org/.
164
8b. 1oan Vorcor, larry 3arnor, and l|nda losa, Attocbmoot 7botopy oo 7tlo|. 7bo 7ottoto ooo Lootb o Cooooco Nowmokot (low York: lraogor,
2008). 3oo a|so tho Wob s|to tor Advocatos tor Ch||dron |n 1horapy, http://www.Ch||dronln1horapy.org/.
Chator 5: Agonticity
1. 1ho concopt ot ogootlclty |s dor|vod, |n part, trom what tho ph||osophor 0an|o| 0onnott ca||s tho lotootlooo| stooco, whoroby wo prod|ct tho act|ons
ot othors basod on what wo bo||ovo about tho|r |ntont|on, a|though l tako |t much turthor. 0onnott oxp|a|ns tho concopt th|s way: ||rst you doc|do to
troat tho objoct whoso bohav|or |s to bo prod|ctod as a rat|ona| agont, thon you t|guro out what bo||ots that agont ought to havo, g|von |ts p|aco |n
tho wor|d and |ts purposo. 1hon you t|guro out what dos|ros |t ought to havo, on tho samo cons|dorat|ons, and t|na||y you prod|ct that th|s rat|ona|
agont w||| act to turthor |ts goa|s |n tho ||ght ot |ts bo||ots. A||tt|o pract|ca| roason|ng trom tho choson sot ot bo||ots and dos|ros w||| |n most
|nstancos y|o|d a doc|s|on about what tho agont ought to do, that |s what you prod|ct tho agont w||| do.' 0an|o| 0onnott, 7bo lotootlooo| 5tooco
(Cambr|dgo, Vass.: Vl1 lross, 1087).
2. l t|rst |ntroducod tho concopt ot agont|c|ty |n my 1uno 2000 co|umn |n 5clootllc Amotlcoo.
8. 3ruco V. |ood, 5opotsooso. by o Bo|lovo lo tbo Uobo|lovob|o (low York: |arporCo|||ns, 2000), x.
4. lb|d., 188.
b. lb|d., 218.
0. lb|d., 214.
7. lb|d., 247-48.
8. V|chao| A. lors|ngor, Nootopsycbo|oglco| Bosos o Ooo Bo|los (low York: lraogor, 1087).
0. 1ho show or|g|na||y a|rod |n 2000-2001. C||ps trom tho sor|os can bo accossod on You1ubo, koyword Vlcboo| 5botmot.
10. 1ho to|ov|s|on sogmont on V|chao| lors|ngor and my part|c|pat|on |n h|s oxpor|mont can bo v|owod at http://www.youtubo.com/watch?
v=nCvzz00zKA0.
11. 1on lonson, 7bo Voo bo 5toto ot Ooots (london: l|cador, 2004).
12. You can soo th|s and othor str|k|ng v|sua| and aud|tory |||us|ons |n my 1E0 ta|k postod at http://www.skopt|c.com/ undor 3kopt|c|sm 101.' 1horo
aro ont|ro Wob pagos dod|catod to t|nd|ng rovorso |yr|cs and words |n songs and spoochos, tor oxamp|o, http://www.rovorsospooch.com/.
18. 3uch aud|tory pr|m|ng and |||us|ons havo boon stud|od sc|ont|t|ca||y by Un|vors|ty ot Ca||torn|a-3an 0|ogo psycho|og|st 0|ana 0outsch. |or
oxamp|o, a ropot|t|vo tapo |oop ot a two-sy||ab|o word oducos d|ttoront words and phrasos |n d|ttoront poop|o's m|nds, otton dopond|ng on what
thoy aro th|nk|ng about at tho momont thoy hoar tho ropoatod sy||ab|os. 0|ana 0outsch, Vus|ca| l||us|ons,' |n Eocyc|opoolo o Nootosclooco, od.
larry l. 3qu|ro (3oston: E|sov|or, 2000), b:11b0-07.
14. lotor 3uodto|d and 1ano 3. l. Voco|||n, 1ho 3onsod lrosonco |n Unusua| Env|ronmonts,' Eovltoomoot ooo Bobovlot 10, no. 1 (1anuary 1087):
88-b2.
1b. 1ho comp|oto poom and oxp|anatory notos aro ava||ab|o at http://www.bart|oby.com/201/1.htm|.
10. 1ohn Go|gor, 7bo 7blto Voo loctot. 7bo 5octot o 5otvlvo| lo Exttomo Eovltoomoots (low York: Wo|nsto|n 3ooks, 2000).
17. Ouotod |n |b|d., 84-8b. Or|g|na||y rocountod |n Char|os A. l|ndborgh, 88 |ours to lar|s,' 5ototooy Evoolog Post, 1uno 0, 10b8, and l|ndborgh,
7bo 5pltlt o 5t. Lools (low York: Char|os 3cr|bnor's 3ons, 10b8).
18. lo|nho|d Vossnor and |orst |t|or, lotmooo Bob|. C|lmblog ltboot Comptomlso (3oatt|o: 1ho Vounta|noors, 2000), 1b0.
10. Ouotod |n Go|gor, 7blto Voo loctot, 17b-70.
20. W||||am la|rd VcK|n|ay, 7bo Lost Voyogo o tbo Kot|ok. A 5otvlvot`s Vomolt o Atctlc Llsostot (low York: 3t. Vart|n's lross, 1070), b7.
21. 1amos A||an Choyno, 3onsod lrosoncos |n Extromo Contoxts: A lov|ow ot 7bo 7blto Voo loctot,' 5koptlc 1b, no. 2 (2000): 08-71.
22. 1ho t|na| rank|ng was as to||ows: (8) |awa|| lronman 1r|ath|on, (7) 3adwator U|tramarathon 140-V||o Cross-Country lun, (0) la 1ravorsoo
lntornat|ona|o (2b-m||o sw|m), (b) la|d Gau|o|sos W||dornoss Compot|t|on, (4) U.3. Army's 3ost langor Compot|t|on, (8) ld|tarod s|od dog raco,
(2) vondoo G|obo around-tho-wor|d sa|||ng raco, and (1) laco Across Amor|ca.
28. l documont thoso oxpor|oncos, and many othors, |n V|chao| 3hormor, Roco Actoss Amotlco. 7bo Agoolos ooo O|otlos o tbo ot|o`s Loogost ooo
Ctoo|ost Blcyc|o Roco (Waco, 1ox.: Wl3 lub||sh|ng, 1008).
24. Ouotod |n 0an|o| Coy|o, 1hat Wh|ch 0oos lot K||| Vo Vakos Vo 3trangor,' Now Yotk 7lmos, |obruary b, 2000,
http://www.nyt|mos.com/2000/02/0b/sports/p|aymagaz|no/0brob|cpm.htm|.
2b. lyan |udson, 1ho ld|tarod, Voro |a||uc|nat|ons 1han 3urn|ng Van,' 33 lat|on, Varch 10, 2010,
http://www.sbnat|on.com/2010/8/10/1870108/|d|tarod-ha||uc|nat|on-2010-|anco-mackoy-nowton-marsha||.
20. low |roodman, Aocbotogo Lol|y Nows, Varch 10, 1008, quotod at http://www.ho|ps|oddogs.org/romarks-
mushorsm|stroat|ngdogs.htm#ha||uc|nato.
27. 3amuo| V. VcC|uro, 0av|d l. la|bson, Goorgo loowonsto|n, and 1onathan 0. Cohon, 3oparato loura| 3ystoms va|uo lmmod|ato and 0o|ayod
Vonotary lowards,' 5clooco 800, no. b00b (Octobor 1b, 2004): b08-7.
28. Anton|o l. 0amas|o, Loscottos` Ettot. Emotloo, Roosoo, ooo tbo lomoo Btolo (low York: lutnam, 1004), E||on lotors and lau| 3|ov|c, 1ho
3pr|ngs ot Act|on: Attoct|vo and Ana|yt|ca| lntormat|on lrocoss|ng |n Cho|co,' Potsooo|lty ooo 5oclo| Psycbo|oglco| Bo||otlo 20, no. 12 (0ocombor
2000): 140b-7b, 1on E|stor, U|yssos ooo tbo 5ltoos. 5toolos lo Rotlooo|lty ooo lttotlooo|lty (low York: Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty lross, 1070), loy |.
3aumo|stor, 1odd |. |oathorton, and 0|anno V. 1|co, Loslog Cootto|. low ooo by Poop|o lol| ot 5o|-Rogo|otloo (3an 0|ogo: Acadom|c lross,
1004), Goorgo loowonsto|n, Out ot Contro|: v|scora| lnt|uoncos on 3ohav|or,' Otgoolzotlooo| Bobovlot ooo lomoo Loclsloo Ptocossos 0b, no. 8
(Varch 1000): 272-02, Goorgo |. loowonsto|n and 1onn|tor lornor, 1ho lo|o ot Attoct |n 0oc|s|on Vak|ng,' |n looobook o Aoctlvo 5cloocos,
od. l. 1. 0av|dson, K. l. 3choror, and |. |. Go|dsm|th (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2008), 010-42.
20. Andy C|ark, 5opotslzlog tbo Vloo. Emboolmoot, Actloo, ooo Cogoltlvo Extoosloo (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2008).
80. lotor 3ruggor and Chr|st|no Vohr, Out ot tho 3ody, but lot Out ot V|nd,' Cottox 4b (2000): 187-40.
81. A. lowborg, E. 0'Aqu|||, and v. lauso, by Ooo oo`t Oo Awoy (low York: 3a||ant|no 3ooks, 2001).
82. v. 3. lamachandran and Er|c l. A|tschu|or, 1ho Uso ot v|sua| |oodback, |n lart|cu|ar V|rror v|sua| |oodback, |n lostor|ng 3ra|n |unct|on,' Btolo
182, no. 7 (2000): 1008-1710.
88. lama's 1E0 ta|k about th|s rosoarch can bo v|owod horo: http://www.tod.com/ta|ks/v||ayanur_ramachandran_on_your_m|nd.htm|.
84. V|chao| Gazzan|ga, 7bo Etblco| Btolo (low York: 0ana lross, 200b), 1b0.
Chator 0: 1ho BoIioving Nouron
1. l|chard 0awk|ns, 7bo Aocostot`s 7o|o. A Pl|gtlmogo to tbo Lowo o Evo|otloo (low York: |oughton V|tt||n, 2004), bb1-b2.
2. 1horo aro many oxco||ont books on nourosc|onco. 1wo rocont onos l consu|t otton aro 1osoph lo0oux, 5yooptlc 5o|. low Oot Btolos Bocomo
bo o Ato (low York: v|k|ng, 2002), and Chr|stot Koch, 7bo Ooost ot Cooscloosooss. A Nootoblo|oglco| Apptoocb (0onvor: loborts and
Company, 2004).
8. Gabr|o| Kro|man, ltzhak |r|od, and Chr|stot Koch, 3|ng|o louron Corro|atos ot 3ubjoct|vo v|s|on |n tho |uman Vod|a| 1ompora| lobo,'
Ptocooologs o tbo Notlooo| Acooomy o 5cloocos U5A 00, no. 12 (1uno 11, 2002): 8878-88.
4. 1amos O|ds and lotor V||nor, los|t|vo lo|ntorcomont lroducod by E|octr|ca| 3t|mu|at|on ot 3opta| Aroa and Othor log|ons ot lat 3ra|n,' 1ootoo|
165
o Compototlvo ooo Pbyslo|oglco| Psycbo|ogy 47 (10b4): 410-27.
b. V. E. O|ds and 1. l. |obos, 1ho Contra| 3as|s ot Vot|vat|on: lntracran|a| 3o|t-3t|mu|at|on 3tud|os,' Aoooo| Rovlow o Psycbo|ogy 82 (1anuary 1081):
b28-74, V. l. 3|shop, 3. 1. E|dor, and l. G. |oath, lntracran|a| 3o|t-3t|mu|at|on |n Van,' 5clooco 140, no. 8b0b (Apr|| 20, 1008): 804-00.
0. Vorton Kr|ngo|bach and Kont C. 3orr|dgo, ods., P|oosotos o tbo Btolo (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2010).
7. lorsona| corrospondonco, 1anuary 10, 2010.
8. lotor 3ruggor and Chr|st|no Vohr, 1ho laranorma| V|nd: |ow tho 3tudy ot Anoma|ous Expor|oncos and 3o||ots Vay lntorm Cogn|t|vo
lourosc|onco,' Cottox 44, no. 10 (lovombor/0ocombor 2008): 1201-08.
0. l. lood, 0. Wakot|o|d, 1. |arr|s, 1. larry, V. Co||a, and E. 1sakan|kos, 3oo|ng lon-Ex|stont Evonts: Ettocts ot Env|ronmonta| Cond|t|ons,
3ch|zotypa| 3ymptoms, and 3ub-C||n|ca| Charactor|st|cs,' 1ootoo| o Bobovlot 7botopy ooo Expotlmooto| Psycblotty 80, no. 8 (3optombor 2008):
270-01.
10. Chr|st|no Vohr, 1hoodor land|s, and lotor 3ruggor, latora||zod 3omant|c lr|m|ng: Vodu|at|on by lovodopa, 3omant|c 0|stanco, and
lart|c|pants' Vag|ca| 3o||ots,' Nootopsycblottlc Llsooso ooo 7tootmoot 2, no. 1 (Varch 2000): 71-84.
11. lotor Krummonachor, Chr|st|no Vohr, |o|ono |akor, and lotor 3ruggor, 0opam|no, laranorma| 3o||ot, and tho 0otoct|on ot Voan|ngtu| 3t|mu||,'
1ootoo| o Cogoltlvo Nootosclooco 22, no. 8 (August 2010): 1-12.
12. 1. K. 3oamans and C. l. Yang, 1ho lr|nc|pa| |oaturos and Vochan|sms ot 0opam|no Vodu|at|on |n tho lrotronta| Cortox,' Ptogtoss lo
Nootoblo|ogy 74, no. 1 (3optombor 2004): 1-b8.
18. Car| 3agan, 7bo Ltogoos o Eooo. 5poco|otloos oo tbo Evo|otloo o lomoo loto||lgooco (low York: 3a||ant|no 3ooks, 1077).
14. l. 3ruggor, A. Gamma, l. Vur|, V. 3chtor, and K. l. 1ay|or, |unct|ona| |om|sphor|c Asymmotry and 3o||ot |n E3l: 1owards a 'louropsycho|ogy
ot 3o||ot,'' Potcoptoo| ooo Votot 5kl||s 77, no. 8 (0ocombor 1008): 1200-808.
1b. lb|d., 1200.
10. lorsona| corrospondonco, 1anuary 18, 2010. 3oo a|so Androa Var|o Kuszowsk|, 1ho Gonot|cs ot Croat|v|ty: A3orond|p|tous Assomb|ago ot
Vadnoss' (VE1O0O Work|ng lapors, no. b8, 2000), http://ssrn.com/abstract=1808008.
17. Anna Abraham, 3ab|no W|ndmann, lrono 0aum, and Onur Gntrkn, Concoptua| Expans|on and Croat|vo lmagory as a |unct|on ot
lsychot|c|sm,' Cooscloosooss ooo Cogoltloo 14, no. 8 (3optombor 200b): b20-84.
18. lorsona| corrospondonco, 1anuary 18, 2010.
10. lb|d.
20. Kary Vu|||s, Looclog Nokoo lo tbo Vloo llo|o (low York: landom |ouso, 1008), b.
21. As l was t|n|sh|ng up th|s chaptor l saw Kary at tho 1E0 2010 contoronco and askod h|s porm|ss|on to |nc|udo our oxchango, wh|ch ho k|nd|y
grantod, add|ng that my skopt|c|sm hadn't tazod h|s cont|donco |n h|s bo||ots |n tho |oast!
22. V|chao| 3hormor, lo Lotwlo`s 5booow. 7bo Llo ooo 5clooco o A|too Rosso| o||oco (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2002).
28. 1ho h|stor|an ot sc|onco l|chard V||nor ottors th|s |ns|ght trom Wa||aco that ho app||od to Vu|||s: A|trod lusso| Wa||aco, tho groat v|ctor|an
natura||st and ovo|ut|on|st, wroto |n h|s 1874 Loooso o 5pltltoo|lsm that |ndood 'tho puro dry a|r ot Ca||torn|a' was known to produco 'powortu|
and . start||ng man|tostat|ons.'' 3oo l|chard V||nor, Lotwlo`s Uolvotso. Evo|otloo tom A to Z (3orko|oy: Un|vors|ty ot Ca||torn|a lross, 2000),
800-10. Ot courso, bra|n pattorn t||tors havo to oporato |n an onv|ronmont, and as a nat|vo Ca||torn|an t|rm|y onsconcod |n l.A., l can attost that th|s
|s, |ndood, la la land.
24. V. l. losnor and G. 1. 0|G|ro|amo, Exocut|vo Attont|on: Cont||ct, 1argot 0otoct|on, and Cogn|t|vo Contro|,' |n 7bo Attootlvo Btolo, od. laja
larasuraman (Cambr|dgo, Vass.: Vl1 lross, 1008).
2b. C. 3. Cartor, 1. 3. 3ravor, 0. V. 3arch, V. V. 3otv|n|ck, 0. lo||, and 1. 0. Cohon, Antor|or C|ngu|ato Cortox, Error 0otoct|on, and tho On||no
Von|tor|ng ot lortormanco,' 5clooco 280, no. b804 (1008): 747-40.
20. 0an|o| |. Vatha|on, Kaspor W. 1orgonson, 3r|an 1. loacha, and 1ud|th V. |orda, Error 0otoct|on |a||uros |n 3ch|zophron|a,' lototootlooo| 1ootoo|
o Psycbopbyslo|ogy 78, no. 2 (August 2000): 100-17. A|though tho|r data showod docroasod orror dotoct|on |n sch|zophron|cs comparod to
hoa|thy subjocts, thoy d|d not t|nd docroasod act|v|ty |n tho ACC ot tho sch|zophron|c pat|onts. 3omo nourosc|ont|sts bo||ovo that tho ACC |s
|nvo|vod |n a |ot ot cogn|t|on, not just orror dotoct|on. 3oo V. |. lushworth, V. E. Wa|ton, 3. W. Konnor|oy, and 0. V. 3annorman, Act|on 3ots and
0oc|s|ons |n tho Vod|a| |ronta| Cortox,' 7tooos lo Cogoltlvo 5clooco 8, no. 0 (3optombor 2004): 410-17, V. |. lushworth, 1. E. 3ohrons, l. |.
ludobock, and V. E. Wa|ton, Contrast|ng lo|os tor C|ngu|ato and Orb|totronta| Cortox |n 0oc|s|ons and 3oc|a| 3ohav|our,' 7tooos lo Cogoltlvo
5cloocos 11, no. 4 (Apr|| 2007): 108-70.
27. lau| 3|oom, Loscottos` Boby. low tbo 5clooco o Cbl|o Lovo|opmoot Exp|olos bot Vokos Us lomoo (low York: 3as|c3ooks, 2004). 3oo a|so
lau| 3|oom, low P|oosoto otks. 7bo Now 5clooco o by o Llko bot o Llko (low York: W. W. lorton, 2010).
28. latura|-3orn 0ua||sts: A 1a|k w|th lau| 3|oom,' Edgo |oundat|on lnc., Vay 18, 2004,
http://www.odgo.org/8rd_cu|turo/b|oom04/b|oom04_|ndox.htm|.
20. O||vor 3acks, 7bo Voo bo Vlstook lls lo ot o lot ooo Otbot C|lolco| 7o|os (low York: 3umm|t 3ooks, 108b).
80. 3acks doscr|bos th|s and othor ha||uc|nat|ons and tho|r causa| oxp|anat|ons |n h|s 1E0 ta|k ava||ab|o horo:
http://www.tod.com/ta|ks/o||vor_sacks_what_ha||uc|nat|on_rovoa|s_about_our_m|nds.htm|.
81. lb|d.
82. |o|on l. Ga||aghor and Chr|stophor 0. |r|th, |unct|ona| lmag|ng ot '1hoory ot V|nd,'' 7tooos lo Cogoltlvo 5cloocos 7, no. 2 (|obruary 2008): 77-
88.
88. G|acomo l|zzo|att|, luc|ano |ad|ga, v|ttor|o Ga||oso, and loonardo |ogass|, lromotor Cortox and tho locogn|t|on ot Votor Act|ons,' Cogoltlvo
Btolo Rosootcb 8, no. 2 (Varch 1000): 181-41.
84. l. |ogass|, l. |. |orrar|, 3. Gos|or|ch, 3. lozz|, |. Chors|, and G. l|zzo|att|, lar|ota| lobo: |rom Act|on Organ|zat|on to lntont|on Undorstand|ng,'
5clooco 808, no. b722 (Apr|| 20, 200b): 002-07, v. Ga||oso, l. |ad|ga, l. |ogass|, and G. l|zzo|att|, Act|on locogn|t|on |n tho lromotor Cortox,'
Btolo 110, no. 2 (1000): b08-000.
8b. V. lacobon|, l. l. Woods, V. 3rass, |. 3okkor|ng, 1. C. Vazz|otta, and G. l|zzo|att|, Cort|ca| Vochan|sms ot |uman lm|tat|on,' 5clooco 280, no.
b440 (0ocombor 24, 1000): 2b20-28, G. l|zzo|att| and l. Cra|ghoro, 1ho V|rror-louron 3ystom,' Aoooo| Rovlow o Nootosclooco 27 (1u|y 2004):
100-02.
lt shou|d bo notod that tho act|v|ty |magod |n such tVll stud|os |s not tho samo as tho rocord|ng ot |nd|v|dua| nourons |n monkoys' bra|ns. As
Un|vors|ty ot Gron|ngon psycho|og|st Chr|st|an Koysors oxp|a|nod, Whon wo rocord s|gna|s trom nourons |n monkoys, wo can roa||y know that a
s|ng|o nouron |s |nvo|vod |n both do|ng tho task and soo|ng somoono o|so do tho task. W|th |mag|ng, you know that w|th|n a ||tt|o box about throo
m||||motors by throo m||||motors by throo m||||motors, you havo act|vat|on trom both do|ng and soo|ng. 3ut th|s ||tt|o box conta|ns m||||ons ot
nourons, so you cannot know tor suro that thoy aro tho samo nourons-porhaps thoy'ro just no|ghbors.' 3oo loa W|norman, 1ho V|nd's V|rror,'
Vooltot oo Psycbo|ogy 80, no. 0 (Octobor 200b): 48, http://www.apa.org/mon|tor/oct0b/m|rror.htm|.
80. v|ttor|o Ga||oso and A|v|n Go|dman, V|rror lourons and tho 3|mu|at|on 1hoory ot V|nd-load|ng,' 7tooos lo Cogoltlvo 5cloocos 2, no. 12
(0ocombor 1008): 408-b01.
87. l. |ogass|, l. |. |orrar|, 3. Gos|or|ch, 3. lozz|, |. Chors|, and G. l|zzo|att|, lar|ota| lobo: |rom Act|on Organ|zat|on to lntont|on Undorstand|ng,'
166
5clooco 808 (200b): 002-07.
88. 3am |arr|s, 3amoor A. 3hoth, and Varks 3. Cohon, |unct|ona| louro|mag|ng ot 3o||ot, 0|sbo||ot, and Uncorta|nty,' Aooo|s o Nooto|ogy 08
(2007): 141-47.
80. 3am |arr|s, 1onas Kap|an, Ash|oy Cur|o|, 3usan 3ookho|mor, Varco lacobon|, and Vark Cohon, 1ho loura| Corro|atos ot lo||g|ous and
lonro||g|ous 3o||ot,' P|o5 Ooo 4, no. 10 (2000): o0007272.
40. lorsona| corrospondonco, 0ocombor 28, 2000.
41. l shou|d noto that thoro aro good roasons to bo caut|ous whon oxtrapo|at|ng trom bra|n scann|ng rosoarch stud|os such as thoso d|scussod |n
th|s book, most notab|y thoso omp|oy|ng tVll scans, tor a numbor ot roasons, |nc|ud|ng t|vo that l out||nod |n an art|c|o tor 5clootllc Amotlcoo
Vloo (V|chao| 3hormor, Why You 3hou|d 3o 3kopt|ca| ot 3ra|n 3cans,' 5clootllc Amotlcoo Vloo, Octobor/lovombor 2008, 07-71): (1) 1ho Vll
tubo |s a vory unnatura| onv|ronmont, |t |s c|austrophob|c, w|th tho subjocts' hoads |ockod |nto p|aco to provont movomont, (2) scans moasuro
b|ood t|ow chango, not noura| act|v|ty, and thoro |s a do|ayod roact|on trom nourona| t|r|ng to b|ood rush|ng to tho aroa, (8) tho bra|n scan co|ors
aro art|t|c|a| and oxaggorato tho d|ttoroncos botwoon act|v|ty |n ono aroa and surround|ng aroas, wh|ch aro otton vory subt|o, (4) bra|n scan
t|nd|ngs aro stat|st|ca| comp||at|ons across many subjocts, not any ono porson's bra|n, and (b) bra|n aroas act|vato tor var|ous roasons. 1ho
nourosc|ont|st lusso|| lo|drack to|d mo: lt |s tompt|ng to |ook at ono ot thoso spots and say '1h|s |s whoro X happons |n your bra|n,' whon |n tact
that aroa cou|d bo ||ght|ng up whon |nvo|vod |n a|| sorts ot tasks. 1ako tho r|ght protronta| cortox that ||ghts up whon you do a|most any d|tt|cu|t task.
Ono way to th|nk about |t |s |n torms ot notworks, not modu|os. Whon you aro ongagod |n th|nk|ng about monoy, thoro's a notwork ot sovora|
d|ttoront aroas |nvo|vod |n commun|cat|ng w|th oach othor |n a part|cu|ar way. 3o, tho protronta| cortox may bo |nvo|vod |n a |ot ot d|ttoront tasks. 3ut
|n commun|cat|on w|th spoc|t|c othor bra|n notworks, |t bocomos act|vo whon ongagod |n ono part|cu|ar task, such as th|nk|ng about monoy.'
Chator 7: BoIiot in tho AttorIito
1. Er|c lax, Oo Bolog loooy. oooy A||oo ooo Comooy (low York: Chartorhouso, 107b), 208.
2. Ouotod |n Garr|son Ko|||or, A Ptoltlo lomo Compooloo Ptotty Oooo 1oko Book (low York: ||ghbr|dgo Co., 2001), 18.
8. |arr|s lo|| lovoa|s What loop|o 0o and 0o lot 3o||ovo,' |arr|s 2000, http://www.harr|s|ntoract|vo.com. 1hoso rosu|ts cont|rm thoso ot a 2007
low |orum survoy show|ng that 74 porcont ot Amor|cans bo||ovo |n hoavon w|th Vormons tho |argost cohort at 0b porcont, b|ack lrotostant
churchgoors at 01 porcont, wh|to Evango||ca|s at 80 porcont, and Vus||ms (w|th or w|thout sovonty-two v|rg|ns) at 8b porcont. On tho othor ond ot
tho bo||ot spoctrum, not count|ng atho|sts, agnost|cs, and socu|ar|sts, on|y b1 porcont ot ||ndus, 40 porcont ot 1ohovah's W|tnossos, 88 porcont
ot 1ows, and 80 porcont ot 3uddh|sts bo||ovo that thoy w||| ||vo on, not just |n tho|r apartmonts (paco Woody A||on), but |n somo othoroa| p|aco
boyond tho|r bod|os. 1o|||ng|y, across tho board on|y b0 porcont bo||ovo |n ho||, domonstrat|ng onco aga|n tho powor ot w|shtu| th|nk|ng. U.3.
lo||g|ons landscapo 3urvoy, 3ummary ot Koy ||nd|ngs,' low |orum on lo||g|on 8 lub||c l|to, http://ro||g|ons.powtorum.org/pdt/roport2ro||g|ous-
|andscapo-study-koy-t|nd|ngs.pdt (l=8b,000). 1ho oddost t|nd|ng |n tho low survoy was that 12 porcont ot atho|sts and 18 porcont ot agnost|cs
sa|d that thoy bo||ovo |n hoavon and-cons|stont w|th tho w|shtu| th|nk|ng so|t-sorv|ng b|as-thoro woro |owor porcontagos tor bo||ot |n ho|| (10
porcont tor atho|sts, 12 porcont tor agnost|cs)! |opo spr|ngs otorna|.
4. |o|on l. Ga||aghor and Chr|stophor 0. |r|th, |unct|ona| lmag|ng ot '1hoory ot V|nd,'' 7tooos lo Cogoltlvo 5cloocos 7, no. 2 (|obruary 2008): 77.
b. 1wo rocont books that uso thoso ||nos ot ov|donco aro 0oopak Chopra, Llo Atot Lootb. 7bo Botooo o Ptoo (low York: |armony 3ooks, 2000),
and 0|nosh 0'3ouza, Llo Atot Lootb. 7bo Evloooco (Wash|ngton, 0.C.: lognory lross, 2000).
0. luport 3ho|drako, A Now 5clooco o Llo. 7bo lypotbosls o lotmotlvo Coosotloo (los Ango|os: 1. l. 1archor, 1081), 3ho|drako, 7bo Ptosooco o
tbo Post. Votpblc Rosooooco ooo tbo loblts o Nototo (low York: |arpor Co|||ns, 1088).
7. luport 3ho|drako, 5ovoo Expotlmoots tbot Coo|o Cboogo tbo ot|o. A Lo-lt-Yootso| Ooloo to Rovo|otloooty 5clooco (low York: l|vorhoad
3ooks, 100b).
8. luport 3ho|drako, 7bo 5ooso o Bolog 5totoo At. Aoo Otbot Aspocts o tbo Extooooo Vloo (low York: Crown, 2008). 3oo a|so 3ho|drako's Wob
pago oxpor|monta| protoco|, http://www.sho|drako.org/oxpor|monts/o|t/start.htm|, and
http://www.sho|drako.org/oxpor|monts/star|ng/star|ng_oxpor|mont.htm|.
3ho|drako's papors on th|s rosoarch, g|v|ng tho rosu|ts ot thousands ot tr|a|s pub||shod |n sovora| journa|s, aro a|so ava||ab|o |n tu|| toxt
vors|ons at http://www.sho|drako.org.
0. http://www.cs|cop.org/s|/show/psych|c_star|ng_ottoct_an_art|tact_ot_psoudo_random|zat|on/.
10. l|chard W|soman and Var||yn 3ch||tz, Expor|montor Ettocts and tho lomoto 0otoct|on ot 3tar|ng,' 1ootoo| o Potopsycbo|ogy 01 (1007): 107-
207.
11. 1ho to||ow|ng rat|ngs woro mado by mo trom tho 1ootoo| o Cooscloosooss 5toolos 12, no. 0 (200b), an opon poor commontary on 3ho|drako
and ||s Cr|t|cs: 1ho 3onso ot 3o|ng G|arod At.' 3ho|drako prov|dod two targot art|c|os on wh|ch tourtoon poors commontod. 3ho|drako was thon
g|von tho |ast word w|th a conc|ud|ng art|c|o. Commontators, att|||at|ons, and my rat|ngs ot tho|r rosponso to 3ho|drako's targot art|c|os to||ow.
3ca|o: 1 to b (1, cr|t|ca|, 2, m||d|y cr|t|ca|, 8, noutra|, 4, m||d|y support|vo, b, support|vo).
Anthony Atk|nson, |octuror |n psycho|ogy, 0urham Un|vors|ty: 1
lan 3akor, postgraduato rosoarchor, Koost|or larapsycho|ogy Un|t, Ed|nburgh: 4
3usan 3|ackmoro, v|s|t|ng |octuror, psycho|ogy, Un|vors|ty ot Wost Eng|and: 1
W||||am 3raud, protossor, G|oba| lrograms, lnst|tuto ot 1ransporsona| lsycho|ogy: b
1oan 3urns, phys|c|st, tound|ng od|tor ot tho 1ootoo| o Cooscloosooss 5toolos: 2
logor Carpontor, roador |n ocu|omotor phys|o|ogy, Un|vors|ty ot Cambr|dgo: 1
Chr|s C|arko, v|s|t|ng protossor ot app||od mathomat|cs, Un|vors|ty ot 3outhampton: 8
la|ph E|||s, protossor ot ph||osophy, C|ark At|anta Un|vors|ty: 1
0av|d |ontana, v|s|t|ng protossor ot transporsona| psycho|ogy, 1ohn Vooros Un|vors|ty: b
Chr|stophor |ronch, protossor ot psycho|ogy, Un|vors|ty ot london: 2
0oan lad|n, lnst|tuto ot loot|c 3c|oncos, pros|dont, larapsycho|og|ca| Assoc|at|on: b
Var||yn 3ch||tz, d|roctor ot rosoarch, lnst|tuto ot loot|c 3c|oncos: 4
3totan 3chm|dt, lnst|tuto ot Env|ronmonta| Vod|c|no, Un|vors|ty |osp|ta| |ro|burg: 2
Vax vo|mans, protossor ot psycho|ogy, Un|vors|ty ot london: 8
12. luport 3ho|drako, losoarch on tho |oo||ng ot 3o|ng 3tarod At,' 5koptlco| loqoltot, Varch/Apr|| 2000, b8-01.
18. 0ary| 1. 3om and Char|os |onorton, 0oos ls| Ex|st? lop||cab|o Ev|donco tor an Anoma|ous lrocoss ot lntormat|on 1ranstor,' Psycbo|oglco|
Bo||otlo 11b (1004): 4-18.
14. lay |yman, Anoma|y or Art|tact? Commonts on 3om and |onorton,' Psycbo|oglco| Bo||otlo 11b (1004): 10-24.
1b. 1u||o V||ton and l|chard W|soman, 0oos ls| Ex|st? lack ot lop||cat|on ot an Anoma|ous lrocoss ot lntormat|on 1ranstor,' Psycbo|oglco|
Bo||otlo 12b, no. 4 (1u|y 1000): 887-01.
10. 0ary| 1. 3om, losponso to |yman,' Psycbo|oglco| Bo||otlo 1b, no. 1 (1004): 2b-27.
167
17. lrov|dod at |amorott's Wob pago: http://www.quantumconsc|ousnoss.org/.
18. lntormat|on about tho t||m may bo accossod at http://www.whatthob|oop.com/.
10. l hoard Go||-Vann uso th|s torm |n tho 1080s attor ho do||vorod a |octuro by th|s t|t|o at Ca|toch, and |t has caught on ovor s|nco. 3ocauso ho
oarnod h|s lobo| lr|zo |n quantum phys|cs ho |s om|nont|y qua||t|od to so judgo c|a|ms mado on |ts boha|t.
20. 3tuart |amorott and logor lonroso, Orchostratod loduct|on ot Ouantum Cohoronco |n 3ra|n V|crotubu|os: AVodo| tor Consc|ousnoss,' |n
7owoto o 5clooco o Cooscloosooss-7bo lltst 7ocsoo Llscossloos ooo Lobotos, od. 3. l. |amorott, A. W. Kaszn|ak, and A. C. 3cott (Cambr|dgo,
Vass.: Vl1 lross, 1000), b07-40.
21. v|ctor 3tongor, 7bo Uocooscloos Ooootom. Votopbyslcs lo Voooto Pbyslcs ooo Cosmo|ogy (3utta|o, l.Y.: lromothous 3ooks, 100b).
22. 1. E. Wh|nnory and A. V. Wh|nnory, Acco|orat|on-lnducod loss ot Consc|ousnoss: Alov|ow ot b00 Ep|sodos,' Atcblvos o Nooto|ogy 47 (1000):
704-70.
28. K. August|no, loar-0oath Expor|oncos w|th |a||uc|natory |oaturos,' 1ootoo| o Noot-Lootb 5toolos 20, no. 1 (2007): 8-81.
24. 1amos E. Wh|nnory, lsychophys|o|og|c Corro|atos ot Unconsc|ousnoss and loar-0oath Expor|oncos,' 1ootoo| o Noot-Lootb 5toolos 1b, no. 4
(1007): 281-b8.
2b. 1. E. Wh|nnory, 1ochn|quo tor 3|mu|at|ng G-lnducod 1unno| v|s|on,' Avlotloo ooo 5poco Eovltoomooto| Voolcloo b0 (1070): 1070.
20. 0av|d E. Com|ngs, Llo Voo Ctooto Ooo ls Yoot 5pltltoo| Btolo ot Pooco wltb Yoot 7bloklog Btolo (0uarto, Ca||t.: |opo lross, 2008).
27. O. 3|anko, 3. Ort|guo, 1. land|s, and V. 3oock, louropsycho|ogy: 3t|mu|at|ng l||usory Own-body lorcopt|ons,' Nototo 410 (3optombor 10, 2002):
200-70.
28. lowborg, Aqu|||, and lauso, by Ooo oo`t Oo Awoy.
20. Cos|mo Urgos|, 3a|vatoro V. Ag||ot|, V|ran 3krap, and |ranco |abbro, 1ho 3p|r|tua| 3ra|n: 3o|oct|vo Cort|ca| los|ons Vodu|ato |uman 3o|t-
1ranscondonco,' Nootoo 0b, no. 8 (2010): 800-10.
80. l. v. lommo|, l. v. Woos, v. Voyors, and l. E|ttor|ch, loar-0oath Expor|onco |n 3urv|vors ot Card|ac Arrost: A lrospoct|vo 3tudy |n tho
lothor|ands,' Loocot 8b8, no. 0208 (2001): 2080.
81. Vark Cr|sp||n, loar-0oath Expor|oncos and tho Vod|ca| l|toraturo,' 5koptlc 14, no. 2 (2008): 14-1b.
82. Var|ono 0obk|n do l|os, lo||ocloogoos. Ctoss-co|toto| Potspoctlvo (A|buquorquo: Un|vors|ty ot low Vox|co lross, 1084).
88. l|chard 3trassman, LV7. 7bo 5pltlt Vo|oco|o (lochostor, vt.: lark 3troot lross, 2001).
84. Com|ngs, Llo Voo Ctooto Ooo, 884-8b.
8b. |or a gonora| d|scuss|on ot bra|n-gonoratod psycho|og|ca| statos and oxpor|oncos, soo Anton|o 0amas|o, 7bo loo|log o bot loppoos. Booy,
Emotloos, ooo tbo Voklog o Cooscloosooss (london: v|ntago, 2000).
80. lt l33's Char||o loso and h|s hour-|ong ono-on-ono |ntorv|ow sty|o on a m|n|ma||st sot |s on ono ond ot tho |ntorv|ow spoctrum, and 1orry
3pr|ngor's c|rcus s|doshow |s on tho othor ond, larry K|ng hovors somowhoro |n tho m|dd|o ground botwoon sa|ac|ty and so|omn|ty.
87. A|| quotos |n th|s soct|on aro trom tho comp|oto transcr|pt ot tho show ava||ab|o at http://transcr|pts.cnn.com/1lAl3Clll13/0012/22/|k|.01.htm|.
88. Chopra, Llo Atot Llo, 222-28.
80. lb|d., 228.
Chator 8: BoIiot in Cod
1. 0. 3. 3arrott, G. 1. Kur|an, and 1. V. 1ohnson, ods., ot|o Cbtlstloo Eocyc|opoolo. A Compototlvo 5otvoy o Cbotcbos ooo Ro|lgloos lo tbo Voooto
ot|o, 2 vo|s. (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2001).
2. U.3. lo||g|ons landscapo 3urvoy, 3ummary ot Koy ||nd|ngs.'
8. Char|os 0arw|n, 7bo Loscoot o Voo (london: 1ohn Vurray, 1871), 2:80b.
4. lb|d., 1:108.
b. lb|d., 1:100.
0. V|chao| 3hormor, low o Bo|lovo (low York: 1|mos 3ooks, 1000).
7. 0ona|d E. 3rown, lomoo Uolvotso|s (low York: VcGraw-||||, 1001).
8. Chr|s 3oohm, Ega||tar|an 3oc|oty and lovorso 0om|nanco ||orarchy,' Cottoot Aotbtopo|ogy 84 (1008): 227-b4, 3oohm, llototcby lo tbo lotost.
Ego|ltotloolsm ooo tbo Evo|otloo o lomoo A|ttolsm (Cambr|dgo, Vass.: |arvard Un|vors|ty lross, 1000).
0. l. G. Wa||or, 3. Kojot|n, 1. 3ouchard, 0. lykkon, and A. 1o||ogon, Gonot|c and Env|ronmonta| lnt|uoncos on lo||g|ous Att|tudos and va|uos: A3tudy
ot 1w|ns loarod Apart and 1ogothor,' Psycbo|oglco| 5clooco 1, no. 2 (1000): 188-42.
10. l. G. Vart|n, l. 1. Eavos, A. C. |oath, l. 1ard|no, l. V. |o|ngo|d, and |. 1. Eysonck, 1ransm|ss|on ot 3oc|a| Att|tudos,' Ptocooologs o tbo Notlooo|
Acooomy o 5cloocos U5A 88 (1080): 4804-08.
11. l. 1. Eavos, |. 1. Eysonck, and l. G. Vart|n, Oooos, Co|toto ooo Potsooo|lty. Ao Empltlco| Apptoocb (london: Acadom|c lross, 1080), 88b.
12. 0av|d E. Com|ngs ot a|., 1ho 0l04 Gono and 3p|r|tua| 1ranscondonco 3ca|o ot tho Charactor 1omporamont lndox,' Psycblottlc Ooootlcs 10
(2001): 18b-80.
18. 0oan |amor, Llvlog wltb Oot Oooos. by 7boy Vottot Voto 7boo Yoo 7blok (low York: Anchor, 1000).
14. 0oan |amor, 7bo Ooo Oooo. low loltb ls lotowltoo loto Oot Oooos (low York: Anchor, 200b).
1b. 3cho|ar|y rosoarch on ro||g|on bogan |n oarnost |n tho |ato n|notoonth contury whon anthropo|og|sts such as Edward 1y|or and 1amos |razor
arguod that ro||g|ous bo||ot |s an oxtons|on ot pr|m|t|vo an|m|sm and suporst|t|ous mag|c. 1ho psycho|og|st 3|gmund |roud v|owod |t as an
obsoss|ona| nouros|s, or an |||us|on ot tho m|nd. 3oc|o|og|st Em||o 0urkho|m c|a|mod that ro||g|on roprosonts tho sacrod part ot tho soc|a|
structuro, |n contrast w|th Kar| Varx's thoory that |t |s |argo|y a too| ot a||onat|on and an op|ato ot tho massos. 1ho h|stor|an ot ro||g|on V|rcoa E||ado
thought ro||g|on to bo tho most sacrod part ot tho human psycho, wh||o anthropo|og|st E. E. Evans-lr|tchard saw ro||g|on as soc|oty's construct ot
tho hoart,' wh|ch |t noods as much as sc|onco's construct ot tho m|nd.' Anthropo|og|st C||ttord Goortz bo||ovod that ro||g|on |s a cu|tura| systom ot
symbo|s that act to ompowor, g|vo moan|ng, and prov|do mot|vat|on, whoroas tho ronownod soc|o|og|sts ot ro||g|on lodnoy 3tark and W||||am
3a|nbr|dgo havo suggostod that ro||g|on |s a torm ot oconom|c oxchango tor goods and sorv|cos unava||ab|o through socu|ar sourcos. 3oo
Edward 3. 1y|or, Ptlmltlvo Co|toto. Rosootcbos loto tbo Lovo|opmoot o Vytbo|ogy, Pbl|osopby, Ro|lgloo, Loogoogo, Att, ooo Costom (london:
1ohn Vurray, 1871), 1amos G. |razor, 7bo Oo|ooo Boogb. A 5tooy lo Voglc ooo Ro|lgloo (low York: Vacm|||an, 1024), 3|gmund |roud, 7bo lototo
o oo l||osloo, trans. 1. 3trachoy (low York: lorton, 1027, 1001), Em||o 0urkho|m, E|omoototy lotms o tbo Ro|lgloos Llo, trans. 1. W. 3wa|n (low
York: Co|||or 3ooks, 1012, 1001), Kar| Varx, 7bo Votx-Eogo|s Roooot, od. l. C. 1uckor (low York: W. W. lorton, 1800, 1078), V|rcoa E||ado, 7bo
5octoo ooo tbo Ptoooo. 7bo Nototo o Ro|lgloo, trans. W. l. 1rask (low York: |arcourt 3raco, 10b7), E. E. Evans-lr|tchard, 7bootlos o Ptlmltlvo
Ro|lgloo (Oxtord, U.K.: C|arondon lross, 100b), C||ttord Goortz, lo||g|on as a Cu|tura| 3ystom,' |n Aotbtopo|oglco| Apptoocbos to tbo 5tooy o
Ro|lgloo, od. V. 3anton (london: 1av|stock lross, 1000), lodnoy 3tark and W. 3. 3a|nbr|dgo, A 7booty o Ro|lgloo (low 3runsw|ck, l.1.: lutgors
Un|vors|ty lross, 1087).
10. 1homas |. |ux|oy, Co||octoo Essoys (low York: 0. App|oton and Co., 1804), b: 287-88.
17. Arthur C. C|arko's th|rd |aw statos Any sutt|c|ont|y advancod tochno|ogy |s |nd|st|ngu|shab|o trom mag|c.' C|arko's t|rst |aw: Whon a
d|st|ngu|shod but o|dor|y sc|ont|st statos that somoth|ng |s poss|b|o ho |s a|most corta|n|y r|ght. Whon ho statos that somoth|ng |s |mposs|b|o, ho
168
|s vory probab|y wrong.' C|arko's socond |aw: 1ho on|y way ot d|scovor|ng tho ||m|ts ot tho poss|b|o |s to vonturo a ||tt|o way past thom |nto tho
|mposs|b|o.' C|arko's t|rst |aw was t|rst pub||shod |n |azards ot lrophocy: 1ho |a||uro ot lmag|nat|on,' an ossay |n h|s 1002 book Ptol|os o tbo
lototo. 1ho socond |aw was or|g|na||y a dor|vat|vo ot tho t|rst and |t bocamo C|arko's socond |aw' |ator, attor C|arko proposod tho th|rd |aw |n a
rov|sod 1078 od|t|on ot Ptol|os o tbo lototo. |o sa|d, As throo |aws woro good onough tor lowton, l havo modost|y doc|dod to stop thoro.'
18. l t|rst proposod 3hormor's |ast |aw |n V|chao| 3hormor, 3hormor's last law,' 5clootllc Amotlcoo, 1anuary 2002, 88. 3|nco l do not bo||ovo |n
nam|ng |aws attor onoso|t, as tho good book warns: tho |ast sha|| bo t|rst and tho t|rst sha|| bo |ast.
10. lay Kurzwo||, 7bo 5logo|otlty ls Noot (low York: longu|n, 2000). 3oo a|so http://s|ngu|ar|ty.com/.
20. 0an|o| G. G|bson ot a|., Croat|on ot a 3actor|a| Co|| Contro||od by a Chom|ca||y 3ynthos|zod Gonomo,' 5clooco 820, no. b087 (1u|y 2, 2010): b2-
b0.
21. V|ch|o Kaku, 7bo Pbyslcs o tbo lmposslb|o. A 5clootllc Exp|ototloo lo tbo ot|o o Pbosots, lotco llo|os, 7o|opottotloo, ooo 7lmo 7tovo| (low
York: Anchor 3ooks, 2000).
22. V|ch|o Kaku, Poto||o| ot|os. A 1ootooy 7btoogb Ctootloo, llgbot Llmoosloos, ooo tbo lototo o tbo Cosmos (low York: Anchor 3ooks, 2007).
28. Wa|tor lsaacson, Elostolo. lls Llo ooo Uolvotso (low York: 3|mon and 3chustor, 2007).
24. lb|d., 201.
2b. |or an oxco||ont summary ot E|nsto|n's ro||g|ous att|tudos and bo||ot |n God, soo lsaacson, Elostolo, chap. 17, E|nsto|n's God.'
20. lsaacson, Elostolo, 880.
27. lb|d., 888.
28. lb|d., 88b.
20. V|chao| G||moro, E|nsto|n's God: 1ust What 0|d E|nsto|n 3o||ovo About God?' 5koptlc b, no. 2 (1007): 02-04,
http://www.thooway.com/skopt|cc/arch|vosb0.htm|.
80. load tho ont|ro dobato horo: http://www.tomp|oton.org/bo||ot/dobatos.htm|#groopman.
Chator 0: BoIiot in AIiona
1. You can road tho book |n |ts ont|roty at 1osoph l. ||rmago, 7bo 7totb (lntornat|ona| 3paco 3c|oncos Organ|zat|on, 1000),
http://www.b|b||otocap|oyados.not/c|onc|a/c|onc|a_thotruth.htm.
2. 1on 3wartz, CEO Ou|ts 1ob Ovor U|O v|ows,' 5oo ltooclsco Cbtoolc|o, 1anuary 0, 1000, http://www.stgato.com/cg|-b|n/art|c|o.cg|?
t||o=/chron|c|o/arch|vo/1000/01/00/ Vl101b8.01l.
8. lntornat|ona| 3paco 3c|oncos Organ|zat|on, http://orgs.t|gwob.org/108.
4. ||rmago, 7totb, 287.
b. 7bo 7totb, condonsod od., pt. 4, U|Osook, http://www.utosook.org/part4.htm.
0. lb|d.
7. 3wartz, CEO Ou|ts 1ob.'
8. ||rmago, 7totb, pt. 2, 1oachors |avo 1aught Us.'
0. lb|d., 220.
10. Car| 3agan, 7bo Lomoo-loootoo ot|o. 5clooco os o Cooo|o lo tbo Lotk (low York: 3a||ant|no 3ooks, 1000).
11. 1. A. Choyno, 3. 0. luottor, and l. l. lowby-C|ark, |ypnagog|c and |ypnopomp|c |a||uc|nat|ons 0ur|ng 3|oop lara|ys|s: louro|og|ca| and
Cu|tura| Construct|on ot tho l|ghtmaro,' Cooscloosooss ooo Cogoltloo 8, no. 8 (1000): 810-87.
12. l|chard 1. Vcla||y, latasha 3. lasko, 3usan A. C|ancy, V|chao| l. Vack||n, logor K. l|tman, and 3cott l. Orr, lsychophys|o|og|ca| lospond|ng
0ur|ng 3cr|pt-0r|von lmagory |n loop|o loport|ng Abduct|on by 3paco A||ons,' Psycbo|oglco| 5clooco 1b, no. 7 (2004): 408-07.
18. l|chard Vcla||y, Romombotlog 7toomo (Cambr|dgo, Vass.: |arvard Un|vors|ty lross, 2008).
14. 3usan A. C|ancy, Abooctoo. low Poop|o Como to Bo|lovo 7boy oto Kloooppoo by A|loos (Cambr|dgo, Vass.: |arvard Un|vors|ty lross, 200b),
1b4.
1b. lb|d., 1b0. 3oo a|so Grogory l. looco, UlO Ro|lgloo. losloo l|ylog 5oocot Co|ts ooo Co|toto (low York: la|gravo, 2007).
10. http://www.youtubo.com/watch?v=X2_10otlvqg.
17. |or a h|gh|y roadab|o and vory ontorta|n|ng account ot poop|o who soarch tor a||ons, trom gootba|| tr|ngors to hardcoro sc|ont|sts, soo 1oo|
Achonbach, Coptotoo by A|loos. 7bo 5ootcb ot Llo ooo 7totb lo o Voty Lotgo Uolvotso (low York: 3|mon and 3chustor, 1000).
18. 1ho bost s|ng|o-vo|umo summary covor|ng a|| aspocts ot tho quost|on |n a h|gh|y roadab|o and yot scho|ar|y troatmont |s V|chao| A. G. V|chaud,
Cootoct wltb A|loo Clvl|lzotloos. Oot lopos ooo loots Aboot Eocooototlog Exttotottosttlo|s (low York: Coporn|cus 3ooks, 2007).
10. 3tophon Wobb, l tbo Uolvotso ls 7oomlog wltb A|loos . boto ls Evotybooy llty 5o|otloos to tbo lotml Potooox ooo tbo Ptob|om o
Exttotottosttlo| Llo (low York: Coporn|cus 3ooks, 2002).
20. You can watch tho v|doo horo: http://www.youtubo.com/watch?v=1KAXrmkx12g.
21. lorsona| corrospondonco, August 10, 2000.
22. 1h|s ptogtosslvlst blos, |n tact, |s porvas|vo |n noar|y a|| ovo|ut|onary accounts and |s d|roct|y cha||ongod by countortactua| th|nk|ng. l onco
oxp|a|nod to my young daughtor that po|ar boars aro a good oxamp|o ot a trans|t|ona| spoc|os botwoon |and and mar|no mamma|s, s|nco thoy aro
wo|| adaptod tor both |and and mar|no onv|ronmonts. 3ut th|s |s not corroct. lo|ar boars aro not bocom|ng' mar|no mamma|s. 1hoy aro not
trans|t|on|ng' to anyth|ng. 1hoy aro portoct|y wo|| adaptod tor do|ng just what thoy do. 1hoy may bocomo mar|no mamma|s shou|d, say, g|oba|
warm|ng mo|t tho po|ar |co caps. 1hon aga|n, thoy may just go oxt|nct. ln o|thor caso, thoro |s no |ong-torm dr|vo tor po|ar boars to progross to
anyth|ng, s|nco ovo|ut|on croatos |mmod|ato adaptat|ons on|y tor |oca| onv|ronmonts. 1ho samo app||os to our hom|n|d ancostors.
28. l|chard G. K|o|n, 7bo lomoo Cotoot. lomoo Blo|oglco| ooo Co|toto| Otlglos (Ch|cago: Un|vors|ty ot Ch|cago lross), 807-408.
24. l|chard loakoy, 7bo Otlglo o lomookloo (low York: 3as|c3ooks, 1004), 184.
2b. K|o|n, lomoo Cotoot, 441-42.
20. Chr|stophor W|||s, Cbl|otoo o Ptomotboos (load|ng, Vass.: lorsous 3ooks, 1008), 148-4b.
27. 3hormor, low o Bo|lovo.
28. K|o|n, lomoo Cotoot, 400.
20. lan 1attorsa||, Onco Wo Woro lot A|ono,' 5clootllc Amotlcoo, 1anuary 2000, b0-02.
80. lan 1attorsa||, 7bo lossl| 7tol|. low o Koow bot o 7blok Aboot lomoo Evo|otloo (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 100b), 212.
81. loakoy, Otlglo o lomookloo, 182.
82. lb|d., 188.
88. lb|d., 20.
84. 1attorsa||, lossl| 7tol|, 240.
8b. Goorgo 3asa||a, Clvl|lzoo Llo lo tbo Uolvotso. 5clootlsts oo loto||lgoot Exttotottosttlo|s (low York: Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty lross, 2000), 10-12.
80. V|chao| 3hormor, 7bo Botoot|ooos o 5clooco. boto 5ooso Voots Noosooso (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2001).
87. 0av|d 3w|tt, 5E7l Ploooots. 5clootlsts 7o|k Aboot 7bolt 5ootcb ot Exttotottosttlo| loto||lgooco (1ucson: Un|vors|ty ot Ar|zona lross, 1000), b7.
169
88. |rank 0rako and 0ava 3obo|, ls Aoyooo Oot 7boto 7bo 5clootllc 5ootcb ot Exttotottosttlo| loto||lgooco (low York: 0o|acorto, 1002), 100.
80. 0av|d 3r|n, 3hout|ng at tho Cosmos . Or |ow 3E1l |as 1akon a Worr|somo 1urn |nto 0angorous 1orr|tory,' 2000, http://www.dav|dbr|n.com/.
40. V|chao| Cr|chton, A||ons Causo G|oba| Warm|ng' (spooch at tho Ca||torn|a lnst|tuto ot 1ochno|ogy, 1anuary 17, 2008), http://www.cr|chton-
ott|c|a|.com/.
41. lau| 0av|os, Ato o A|ooo Pbl|osopblco| lmp|lcotloos ot tbo Llscovoty o Exttotottosttlo| Llo (low York: 3as|c3ooks, 100b), 18b.
42. lau| 0av|os, 7bo Eotlo 5l|ooco. Rooowlog Oot 5ootcb ot A|loo loto||lgooco (low York: |oughton V|tt||n, 2010), 102-08.
48. 3w|tt, 5E7l Ploooots, 210.
44. Car| 3agan, Cootoct (low York: lockot 3ooks, 1080), 481.
4b. lobort l|ank, 7bo Emotlooo| 5lgollcooco o lmoglooty Bologs. A 5tooy o tbo lototoctloo Botwooo Psycbopotbo|ogy, Lltotototo, ooo Roo|lty lo tbo
Voooto ot|o (3pr|ngt|o|d, l||.: 1homas, 1008).
40. 3asa||a, Clvl|lzoo Llo, 14.
47. 3tovon 1. 0|ck, P|oto|lty o ot|os. 7bo Otlglos o tbo Exttotottosttlo| Loboto tom Lomoctltos to Koot (low York: Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty lross,
1082), 0|ck, 7bo Blo|oglco| Uolvotso. 7bo 7wootlotb-Coototy Exttotottosttlo| Llo Loboto ooo tbo Llmlts o 5clooco (low York: Cambr|dgo
Un|vors|ty lross, 1000).
48. C|ancy, Abooctoo, 1b4.
40. V|chao| 3hormor, 0o|t|os tor Atho|sts,' 5clooco 811 (Varch 8, 2000): 1244.
b0. lorsona| corrospondonco, Varch 10, 2000.
Chator 10: BoIiot in Conairacioa
1. Arthur Go|dwag, Co|ts, Coospltoclos, ooo 5octot 5oclotlos. 7bo 5ttolgbt 5coop oo ltoomosoos, tbo l||omlootl, 5ko|| ooo Booos, B|ock lo|lcoptots,
tbo Now ot|o Otoot, ooo Vooy, Vooy Voto (low York: v|ntago 3ooks, 2000).
2. V|chao| 3hormor, Looylog llstoty. bo 5oys tbo lo|ocoost Novot loppoooo ooo by Lo 7boy 5oy lt (3orko|oy: Un|vors|ty ot Ca||torn|a lross,
2000).
8. lh|| Vo|o, 0/11 Consp|racy 1hoor|os: 1ho 0/11 1ruth Vovomont |n lorspoct|vo,' o3kopt|c, 3optombor 11, 2000,
http://www.skopt|c.com/oskopt|c/00-00-11.
4. 1h|s c|a|m |s mado by 1|m |ottman |n h|s book oklog Up tom Oot Nlgbtmoto. 7bo 0/11/01 Ctlmos lo Now Yotk Clty (3an |ranc|sco:
lrros|st|b|o/lovo|ut|onary, 2004), and on h|s Wob pago, http://011rosoarch.wtc7.not/ta|ks/towors/toxt/|ndox.htm|.
b. 3|anchard's ont|ro ana|ys|s may bo tound on tho Wob s|to ho od|ts: http://www.|mp|os|onwor|d.com.
0. 1ho Wob pago Wor|d tor 011 1ruth, tor oxamp|o, dod|catod an ont|ro soct|on to rotut|ng mo: http://wor|d011truth.org/rosponso-to-m|chao|-shormor/.
7. Vy cha||ongo to tho 0/11 truthors' and tho|r rosponso can bo tound horo: http://truos|ant.com/m|chao|shormor/2000/12/28/011-truthors-to||od-by-
122b-attack/#commonts.
Chator 11: PoIitica ot BoIiot
1. 1ohn 1. 1ost, 1ack G|asor, Ar|o W. Krug|ansk|, and |rank 1. 3u||oway, lo||t|ca| Consorvat|sm as Vot|vatod 3oc|a| Cogn|t|on,' Psycbo|oglco| Bo||otlo
120, no. 8 (2008): 880-7b.
2. ls Consorvat|sm a V||d |orm ot lnsan|ty?' Psycbo|ogy 7oooy, 3optombor 0, 2008, http://www.psycho|ogytoday.com/b|og/gon|us-and-
madnoss/200800/|s-po||t|ca|-consorvat|sm-m||d-torm-|nsan|ty.
8. 1u||an 3orgor, 3tudy ot 3ush's lsycho 1ouchos a lorvo,' Oootoloo, August 18, 2008, http://www.guard|an.co.uk/wor|d/2008/aug/18/usa.rodbox.
4. 1onathan |a|dt, What Vakos loop|o voto lopub||can?' Edgo |oundat|on lnc., 3optombor 0, 2008,
http://www.odgo.org/8rd_cu|turo/ha|dt08/ha|dt08_|ndox.htm|.
b. Arthur C. 3rooks, bo Roo||y Cotos 7bo 5otptlslog 7totb Aboot Compossloooto Coosotvotlsm (low York: 3as|c3ooks, 2007).
0. 0an|o| 3. K|o|n and Char|otta 3torn, lrotossors and 1ho|r lo||t|cs: 1ho lo||cy v|ows ot 3oc|a| 3c|ont|sts,' Ctltlco| Rovlow 17, no. 8-4, 2b7-804.
7. 3tan|oy lothman, 3. lobort l|chtor, and lo|| lov|tto, lo||t|cs and lrotoss|ona| Advancomont Among Co||ogo |acu|ty,' lotom, 200b,
http://www.cmpa.com/documonts/0b.08.20.|orum.3urvoy.pdt.
8. 1ohn VcG|nn|s, Vatthow A. 3chwartz, and 3onjam|n 1|sdo||, 1ho lattorns and lmp||cat|ons ot lo||t|ca| Contr|but|ons by E||to law 3choo| |acu|ty,'
Oootgotowo Low 1ootoo| 08 (200b): 1107-1212.
0. 1|m Grosoc|oso and 1ottroy V||yo, A Voasuro ot Vod|a 3|as,' Ooottot|y 1ootoo| o Ecooomlcs, lovombor 200b, 1101-1287.
10. 0ona|d Groon, 3rad|oy la|mqu|st, and Er|c 3ch|ck|or, Pottlsoo lootts ooo Vloos. Po|ltlco| Pottlos ooo tbo 5oclo| loootltlos o Votots (low |avon:
Ya|o Un|vors|ty lross, 2002).
11. 1onathan |a|dt, 1ho Vora| Emot|ons,' |n looobook o Aoctlvo 5cloocos, od. l. 1. 0av|dson, K. 3choror, and |. |. Go|dschm|dt (low York:
Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2008).
12. 1onathan |a|dt, 1ho Emot|ona| 0og and lts lat|ona| 1a||: A3oc|a| lntu|t|on|st Approach to Vora| 1udgmont,' Psycbo|oglco| Rovlow 108 (2001):
814-84.
18. lb|d. 3oo a|so |. Cushman, l. Young, and V. |ausor, 1ho lo|o ot Consc|ous loason|ng and lntu|t|on |n Vora| 1udgmont: 1ost|ng 1hroo
lr|nc|p|os ot |arm,' Psycbo|oglco| 5clooco 17, no. 12 (2000): 1082-80, and Vora| |oundat|ons 1hoory, http://www.mora|toundat|ons.org/.
14. Ernst |ohr and 3|mon Gachtor, A|tru|st|c lun|shmont |n |umans,' Nototo 41b (2002): 187-40. 3oo a|so l. 3oyd and l. 1. l|chorson,
lun|shmont A||ows tho Evo|ut|on ot Cooporat|on (Or Anyth|ng E|so) |n 3|zab|o Groups,' Etbo|ogy ooo 5ocloblo|ogy 18 (1002): 171-0b.
1b. l out||no th|s h|story and dovo|op a thoory around |t |n 3hormor, 5clooco o Oooo ooo Evl|.
10. |or an oxco||ont summary ot tho ov|donco tor our tr|ba| naturo and what wo can do about |t, soo 0av|d 3oroby, Us ooo 7bom. 7bo 5clooco o
loootlty (Ch|cago: Un|vors|ty ot Ch|cago lross, 200b).
17. l. 1. Eavos, |. 1. Eysonck, and l. G. Vart|n, Oooos, Co|toto ooo Potsooo|lty. Ao Empltlco| Apptoocb (london: Acadom|c lross, 1080). 1ho
corro|at|on coott|c|ont was .02. 3quar|ng th|s numbor g|vos us an ost|mato ot tho porcontago ot var|anco accountod tor by gonot|cs, wh|ch |s .884,
or rough|y 40 porcont w|th orror var|anco.
18. 1homas 3owo||, A Coo|lct o Vlsloos. looo|oglco| Otlglos o Po|ltlco| 5ttogg|os (low York: 3as|c3ooks, 1087), 24-2b.
10. 3tovon l|nkor, 7bo B|ook 5|oto. 7bo Voooto Loolo| o lomoo Nototo (low York: v|k|ng, 2002), 200-01.
20. l prosont th|s data |n much groator dota|| |n two ot my books: 7bo 5clooco o Oooo ooo Evl| and 7bo Vloo o tbo Votkot.
21. 1amos Vad|son, 1ho |odora||st lo. b1: 1ho 3tructuro ot tho Govornmont Vust |urn|sh tho lropor Chocks and 3a|ancos 3otwoon tho 0|ttoront
0opartmonts,' looopooooot 1ootoo|, |obruary 0, 1788.
22. Abraham l|nco|n, ||rst lnaugura| Addross,' Varch 4, 1801, 3art|oby.com, http://www.bart|oby.com/124/pros81.htm|.
28. l just mado up tho word looo|po|ltlk, but a qu|ck Goog|o soarch shows mo that |t |s not or|g|na|. A|as.
24. 1ohn 3tuart V|||, Oo Llbotty (low York: longu|n 3ooks, 2000), 18.
2b. lb|d., 7.
20. 1|mothy |orr|s, 7bo 5clooco o Llbotty. Lomoctocy, Roosoo, ooo tbo Lows o Nototo (low York: |arpor, 2010), 202. 1h|s |s an oxco||ont troat|so
on tho ro|at|onsh|p ot sc|onco and soc|oty.
170
27. lorsona| corrospondonco, Varch 18, 2010.
28. Ed |usa|n, 7bo ls|omlst. by l 1olooo Roolco| ls|om lo Btltolo, bot l 5ow losloo, ooo by l Lot (low York: longu|n, 2008).
20. Ouotod |n Varc Er|kson, ls|am|sm, |asc|sm, and 1orror|sm,' Aslo 7lmos, lovombor b, 2002,
http://www.at|mos.com/at|mos/V|dd|o_East/0K0bAk01.htm|.
80. lorsona| corrospondonco, Varch 18, 2010.
81. 0av|d |rum and l|chard lor|o, Ao Eoo to Evl|. low to lo tbo ot oo 7ottot (low York: landom |ouso, 2004).
Chator 12: Contirmationa ot BoIiot
1. loonard V|od|now, 7bo Ltookoto`s o|k. low Roooomooss Ro|os Oot Llvos (low York: v|ntago, 2000), 170-70.
2. laymond l|ckorson, Cont|rmat|on 3|as: A Ub|qu|tous lhonomonon |n Vany Gu|sos,' Rovlow o Ooooto| Psycbo|ogy 2, no. 2 (1008): 17b-220.
8. Vark 3nydor, 3ook and Yo 3ha|| ||nd: 1ost|ng |ypothosos About Othor loop|o,' |n 5oclo| Cogoltloo. 7bo Oototlo 5ymposlom oo Potsooo|lty ooo
5oclo| Psycbo|ogy, od. E. 1. ||gg|ns, C. l. |o|man, and V. l. Zanna (||||sda|o, l.1.: Er|baum, 1081), 277-808.
4. 1ohn V. 0ar|oy and lagot |. Gross, A|ypothos|s-Cont|rm|ng 3|as |n labo||ng Ettocts,' 1ootoo| o Potsooo|lty ooo 5oclo| Psycbo|ogy 44 (1088):
20-88.
b. 3onn|o 3horman and Z|va Kunda, Vot|vatod Eva|uat|on ot 3c|ont|t|c Ev|donco' (papor prosontod at tho annua| moot|ng ot tho Amor|can
lsycho|og|ca| 3oc|oty, Ar||ngton, va., 1080).
0. 0oanna Kuhn, Ch||dron and Adu|ts as lntu|t|vo 3c|ont|sts,' Psycbo|oglco| Rovlow 00 (1080): 074-80.
7. 0oanna Kuhn, V|chao| Wo|nstock, and lob|n ||aton, |ow Wo|| 0o 1urors loason? Compotonco 0|mons|ons ot lnd|v|dua| var|at|on |n a 1uror
loason|ng 1ask,' Psycbo|oglco| 5clooco b (1004): 280-00.
8. 0. Woston, C. K||ts, l. 3|agov, K. |aronsk|, and 3. |amann, 1ho loura| 3as|s ot Vot|vatod loason|ng: An tVll 3tudy ot Emot|ona| Constra|nts on
lo||t|ca| 1udgmont 0ur|ng tho U.3. lros|dont|a| E|oct|on ot 2004,' 1ootoo| o Cogoltlvo Nootosclooco 18 (2000): 1047-b8.
0. 3aruch ||schhott, |or 1hoso Condomnod to 3tudy tho last: |our|st|cs and 3|asos |n ||nds|ght,' |n 0an|o| Kahnoman, lau| 3|ov|c, and Amos
1vorsky, 1oogmoot Uooot Uocottoloty. lootlstlcs ooo Blosos (low York: Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty lross, 1082), 88b-b1.
10. 1ohn C. Z|mmorman, loar| |arbor lov|s|on|sm,' loto||lgooco ooo Notlooo| 5ocotlty 17, no. 2 (2002): 127-40.
11. lh|||p 1ot|ock, Expott Po|ltlco| 1oogmoot. low Oooo ls lt low Coo o Koow (lr|ncoton, l.1.: lr|ncoton Un|vors|ty lross, 200b).
12. Goottroy Cohon, larty Ovor lo||cy: 1ho 0om|nat|ng lmpact ot Group lnt|uonco on lo||t|ca| 3o||ots,' 1ootoo| o Potsooo|lty ooo 5oclo| Psycbo|ogy
8b (2008): 808-82.
18. ln Caro| 1avr|s and E|||ot Aronson, Vlstokos oto Vooo (Bot Not by Vo). by o 1ostly loo|lsb Bo|los, Boo Loclsloos, ooo lotto| Acts (low
York: Var|nor 3ooks, 2008), 180-82. 3oo a|so tho lnnoconco lrojoct, http://www.|nnoconcoprojoct.org/.
14. V. loss and |. 3|co|y, Egocontr|c 3|asos |n Ava||ab|||ty and Attr|but|on,' 1ootoo| o Potsooo|lty ooo 5oclo| Psycbo|ogy 87 (1070): 822-80, l. V.
Ark|n, |. Coopor, and 1. Ko|d|tz, A3tat|st|ca| lov|ow ot tho l|toraturo Concorn|ng tho 3o|t-sorv|ng 3|as |n lntorporsona| lnt|uonco 3|tuat|ons,'
1ootoo| o Potsooo|lty 48 (1080): 48b-48, V. |. 0av|s and W. G. 3tophan, Attr|but|ons tor Exam lortormanco,' 1ootoo| o App|loo 5oclo|
Psycbo|ogy 10 (1080): 28b-48. |or a gonora| summary ot tho attr|but|on b|as soo Caro| 1avr|s and Caro|o Wado, Psycbo|ogy lo Potspoctlvo, 2nd
od. (low York: longman/Add|son Wos|oy, 1007).
1b. l. E. l|sbott and l. loss, lomoo lootooco. 5ttotoglos ooo 5bottcomlogs o 5oclo| 1oogmoot (Eng|owood C||tts, l.1.: lront|co-|a||, 1080).
10. lro||m|nary rosu|ts ot our study woro or|g|na||y pub||shod |n 3hormor, low o Bo|lovo.
17. 1ho tu|| data sot and ana|ys|s w||| bo pub||shod |n V|chao| 3hormor and |rank 1. 3u||oway, lo||g|on and 3o||ot |n God: An Emp|r|ca| 3tudy.' ln
proparat|on.
18. l|sa |arwo|| and 3ornard Wo|nor, 3|ood|ng |oarts and tho |oart|oss: lopu|ar lorcopt|ons ot l|bora| and Consorvat|vo ldoo|og|os,' Potsooo|lty
ooo 5oclo| Psycbo|ogy Bo||otlo 20, no. 7 (2000): 84b-b2.
10. Costs, doaths, casua|t|os ot lraq war: |omo and Away: lraq and Atghan|stan War Casua|t|os,' Cll,
http://www.cnn.com/3lEClAl3/2008/|raq/torcos/casua|t|os/, 3ush quoto: http://mod|amattors.org/rosoarch/20001222001b.
20. W||||am 3amuo|son and l|chard Zockhausor, 3tatus Ouo 3|as |n 0oc|s|on Vak|ng,' 1ootoo| o Rlsk ooo Uocottoloty 1 (1088): 7-b0.
21. 3amuo|son and Zockhausor, 3tatus Ouo 3|as |n 0oc|s|on Vak|ng', 0an|o| Kahnoman, 1. l. Knotsch, and l|chard |. 1ha|or, Anoma||os: 1ho
Endowmont Ettoct, loss Avors|on, and 3tatus Ouo 3|as,' 1ootoo| o Ecooomlc Potspoctlvos b, no. 1 (1001): 108-200, E. 1. 1ohnson, 1. |orshoy, 1.
Voszaros, and |. Kunrouthor, |ram|ng, lrobab|||ty 0|stort|ons, and lnsuranco 0oc|s|ons,' 1ootoo| o Rlsk ooo Uocottoloty 7 (1008): 8b-b1.
22. l|chard 1ha|or, 0an|o| Kahnoman, and 1ack Knotsch, Expor|monta| 1osts ot tho Endowmont Ettoct and tho Coarso 1hoorom,' 1ootoo| o Po|ltlco|
Ecooomy, 0ocombor 1000, 182b-48.
28. Amos 1vorsky and 0an|o| Kahnoman, 1ho |ram|ng ot 0oc|s|ons and tho lsycho|ogy ot Cho|co,' 5clooco 211 (1081): 4b8-b8, 1vorsky and
Kahnoman, lat|ona| Cho|co and tho |ram|ng ot 0oc|s|ons,' 1ootoo| o Boslooss b0, no. 4 (1080): 2, 3. 0o Vart|no, 0. Kumaran, 3. 3oymour, and
l. 3. 0o|an, |ramos, 3|asos, and lat|ona| 0oc|s|on-Vak|ng |n tho |uman 3ra|n,' 5clooco 818 (2000): 084-87.
24. Amos 1vorsky and 0an|o| Kahnoman, Ava||ab|||ty: A |our|st|c tor 1udg|ng |roquoncy and lrobab|||ty,' Cogoltlvo Psycbo|ogy b (1078): 207-82.
2b. 3. Combs and l. 3|ov|c, lowspapor Covorago ot Causos ot 0oath,' 1ootoo|lsm Ooottot|y b0 (1070): 887-48.
20. 3arry G|assnor, 7bo Co|toto o loot. by Amotlcoos Ato Atolo o tbo toog 7blogs (low York: 3as|c3ooks, 1000).
27. Amos 1vorsky and 0an|o| Kahnoman, Ava||ab|||ty: A |our|st|c tor 1udg|ng |roquoncy and lrobab|||ty,' |n Kahnoman, 3|ov|c, and 1vorsky,
1oogmoot Uooot Uocottoloty, 108.
28. Amos 1vorsky and 0an|o| Kahnoman, Extons|on vorsus lntu|t|tvo loason|ng: 1ho Conjunct|on |a||acy |n lrobab|||ty 1udgmont,' Psycbo|oglco|
Rovlow 00 (1088): 208-81b.
20. 0an|o| 1. 3|mons and Chr|stophor Chabr|s, Gor|||as |n Our V|dst: 3usta|nod lnattont|ona| 3||ndnoss tor 0ynam|c Evonts,' Potcoptloo 28 (1000):
10b0-74. You can watch tho v|doo c||p at http://v|scog.bockman.u|uc.odu/djs_|ab/.
80. Em||y lron|n, 0. Y. l|n, and l. loss, 1ho 3|as 3||nd 3pot: lorcopt|ons ot 3|as |n 3o|t vorsus Othors,' Potsooo|lty ooo 5oclo| Psycbo|ogy Bo||otlo
28 (2002): 800-81.
81. lotor 3ruggor and K|rston l. 1ay|or, E3l: Extrasonsory lorcopt|on or Ettoct ot 3ubjoct|vo lrobab|||ty?' 1ootoo| o Cooscloosooss 5toolos 10
(2008): 221-40. 3ruggor and 1ay|or domonstrato, |n tho|r words: (1) as human subjocts' guossos aro h|gh|y nonrandom and (2) as no t|n|to
soquonco ot targot a|tornat|vos |s troo ot b|as, abovo-chanco match|ng ot guossos to targots s|mp|y rot|octs tho amount ot soquont|a| |ntormat|on
common to both targot and guoss soquoncos.'
82. lobort l. Covoyou, landom Gonorat|on ls 1oo lmportant to 3o lott to Chanco,' App|loo Votbomotlcs 8 (1000): 70-111.
Chator 18: Coograhioa ot BoIiot
1. 1ohn K. Wr|ght, 1orrao lncogn|tao: 1ho l|aco ot tho lmag|nat|on |n Goography,' Aooo|s o tbo Assoclotloo o Amotlcoo Ooogtopbots 87, no. 1
(1047): 1-1b.
2. W||||am 0. lh||||ps and Car|a lahn lh||||ps, 7bo ot|os o Cbtlstopbot Co|ombos (low York: Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty lross, 1002).
8. Chr|stophor Co|umbus, 7bo loot Voyogos. Bolog lls Owo Log-Book, Lottots ooo Llspotcbos wltb Cooooctlog Nottotlvos, od. and trans. 1. V.
171
Cohon (low York: longu|n C|ass|cs, 1002).
4. lotor C. Vanca||, 7tovo| Nottotlvos tom tbo Ago o Llscovoty. Ao Aotbo|ogy (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2000), lona|d 3. lovo, Votltlmo
Exp|ototloo lo tbo Ago o Llscovoty, 1415-1800 (low York: Groonwood lross, 2000).
b. l|cho|as 1homas, Cook. 7bo Exttootolooty Voyogos o Coptolo 1omos Cook (low York: Wa|kor and Company, 2004).
0. Ouotod |n G|org|o do 3ant|||ana, 7bo Ctlmo o Oo|l|oo (low York: 1|mo lnc., 1002), 28.
7. Ouotod |n Var|o 3|ag|o||, Oo|l|oo Coottlot. 7bo Ptoctlco o 5clooco lo tbo Co|toto o Abso|otlsm (Ch|cago: Un|vors|ty ot Ch|cago lross, 1008), 280.
8. Ouotod |n 0o 3ant|||ana, Ctlmo o Oo|l|oo.
0. |or a rocount|ng ot Ga|||oo's tr|a|s and tr|bu|at|ons w|th tho church, soo l|chard O|son, 5clooco Lolloo ooo 5clooco Loloo (3orko|oy: Un|vors|ty ot
Ca||torn|a lross, 1082), and A. C. Cromb|o, Aogostloo to Oo|l|oo (Cambr|dgo, Vass.: |arvard Un|vors|ty lross, 1070).
10. Ouotod |n Vaur|co ||nocch|aro, od. and trans., 7bo Oo|l|oo Aolt. A Locomoototy llstoty (3orko|oy: Un|vors|ty ot Ca||torn|a lross, 1080).
11. Ouotod |n 0o 3ant|||ana, Ctlmo o Oo|l|oo, 812.
12. lona|d lumbors, od., Oo|l|oo Ooos to 1ol|. Aoo Otbot Vytbs Aboot 5clooco ooo Ro|lgloo (Cambr|dgo, Vass.: |arvard Un|vors|ty lross, 2000).
18. Add|t|ona| scho|ar|y works on Ga|||oo, tho tr|a|, and h|s ro|at|onsh|p w|th tho church |nc|udo: l|vka |o|dhay, Oo|l|oo ooo tbo Cbotcb (low York:
Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty lross, 100b), Ann|ba|o |anto||, Oo|l|oo. lot Copotolcoolsm ooo ot tbo Cbotcb (vat|can C|ty: vat|can Obsorvatory
lub||cat|ons, 2008), W||||am l. 3hoa and Var|ano Art|gas, Oo|l|oo lo Romo (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 2008), Ernan VcVu|||n, od., 7bo
Cbotcb ooo Oo|l|oo (lotro 0amo, lnd.: Un|vors|ty ot lotro 0amo lross, 200b), Var|o 3|ag|o||, Oo|l|oo`s losttomoots o Ctoolt (Ch|cago: Un|vors|ty
ot Ch|cago lross, 2000), and l|chard 1. 3|ackwo||, Bobloo tbo 5cooos ot Oo|l|oo`s 7tlo| (lotro 0amo, lnd.: Un|vors|ty ot lotro 0amo lross, 2000).
14. lopo 1ohn lau| ll, ||do| 0opos|tum,' L`Ossotvototo Romooo 44, no. 1204 (lovombor 4, 1002).
1b. Ouotod |n Edw|n Arthur 3urtt, 7bo Votopbyslco| loooootloos o Voooto 5clooco (low York: 0oub|oday, 10b4), 88.
10. Ouotod |n l. 3ornard Cohon, Rovo|otloo lo 5clooco (Cambr|dgo, Vass.: |arvard Un|vors|ty lross, 108b).
17. l|chard |oynman, quotod |n 1ho 3ost V|nd 3|nco E|nsto|n,' Novo, WG3| 3oston, 1008.
18. 1. 3tannard, latura| ||story,' |n 0av|d l|ndborg, od., 5clooco lo tbo Vloo|o Agos (Ch|cago: Un|vors|ty ot Ch|cago lross, 1078).
10. A||on 0obus, Voo ooo Nototo lo tbo Rooolssooco (low York: Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty lross, 1078).
20. |ranc|s 3acon, Novom Otgooom (1020), |n E. A. 3urtt, od., 7bo Eog|lsb Pbl|osopbots tom Bocoo to Vl|| (low York: landom |ouso, 1080).
21. lb|d.
22. 1ohn |. W. |orscho|, Pto|lmlooty Llscootso oo tbo 5tooy o Nototo| Pbl|osopby (london: longmans, loos, Ormo, 3rown and Groon, 1880),
W||||am Whowo||, 7bo Pbl|osopby o tbo loooctlvo 5cloocos (london: 1. W. larkor, 1840), 1ohn 3tuart V|||, A 5ystom o Loglc, Rotloclootlvo ooo
loooctlvo, Bolog o Cooooctoo Vlow o tbo Ptloclp|os o Evloooco, ooo tbo Votboos o 5clootllc lovostlgotloo (london: longmans, Groon, 1848).
28. 3tophon 1ay Gou|d, 1ho 3harp-Eyod lynx, Outtoxod by laturo,' Nototo| llstoty, Vay 1008, 10-21, 70-72.
24. Ouotod |n Gou|d, 3harp-Eyod lynx,' 10, trans|at|on by Gou|d.
2b. Edward l. 1utto, Boootlo| Evloooco (Chosh|ro, Conn.: Graph|cs lross, 2000).
20. Edward l. 1utto, Vlsoo| Exp|oootloos. lmogos ooo Ooootltlos, Evloooco ooo Nottotlvo (Chosh|ro, Conn.: Graph|cs lross, 1007), 100-8.
27. Gou|d, 3harp-Eyod lynx,' 10.
Chator 14: CoamoIogioa ot BoIiot
1. 1homas Wr|ght, Ao Otlgloo| 7booty, ot, Now lypotbosls o tbo Uolvotso (london: |. Chapo||o, 17b0).
2. lmmanuo| Kant, Uolvotso| Nototo| llstoty ooo 7booty o tbo loovoos, trans. W. |ast|o (Ann Arbor: Un|vors|ty ot V|ch|gan lross, 1000), 01-04.
8. Varc|a 3artus|ak, 7bo Loy o loooo tbo Uolvotso (low York: lanthoon 3ooks, 2000), Ga|o E. Chr|st|anson, Eowlo lobb|o. Votloot o tbo
Nobo|oo (Ch|cago: Un|vors|ty ot Ch|cago lross, 100b), 1|mothy |orr|s, Comlog o Ago lo tbo Vl|ky oy (low York: |arpor loronn|a|, 1088).
4. Char|os Voss|or, Coto|ogoo oos Nobo|oosos ot Amos o`Etol|os Obsotvoos Potls (lar|s: lmpr|mor|o loya|, 1781).
b. W||||am |orscho|, On tho Construct|on ot tho |oavons,' Pbl|osopblco| 7toosoctloos o tbo Royo| 5ocloty o Looooo 7b (178b): 218-00.
0. W||||am |orscho|, On lobu|ous 3tars, lropor|y 3o Ca||od,' Pbl|osopblco| 7toosoctloos o tbo Royo| 5ocloty o Looooo 81 (1701): 71-78.
7. W||||am |orscho|, Cata|oguo ot a 3ocond 1housand ot low lobu|ao and C|ustors ot 3tars, w|th a |ow lntroductory lomarks on tho Construct|on
ot tho |oavons,' Pbl|osopblco| 7toosoctloos o tbo Royo| 5ocloty o Looooo 70 (1780): 212-bb.
8. Ear| ot losso, Obsorvat|ons on tho lobu|ao,' Pbl|osopblco| 7toosoctloos o tbo Royo| 5ocloty o Looooo 140 (18b0): 400-b14.
0. 1ohn l. l|cho|, 7bo 5to||ot Uolvotso (Ed|nburgh: 1ohn 1ohnstono, 1848).
10. W||||am |ugg|ns and lady |ugg|ns, 7bo 5clootllc Popots o 5lt l||lom logglos (london: Wos|oy and 3on, 1000), 100.
11. Agnos V. C|orko, 7bo 5ystom o tbo 5tots (london: longmans, Groon, and Co., 1800). Adocado |ator C|orko turthor ro|ntorcod tho nobu|ar
hypothos|s |n Agnos V. C|orko, A Popo|ot llstoty o Asttooomy Lotlog tbo Nlootoootb Coototy (london: Adam and Char|os 3|ack, 1002).
12. Arthur C. C|arko, |azards ot lrophocy: 1ho |a||uro ot lmag|nat|on,' |n Ptol|os o tbo lototo. Ao Eoqolty loto tbo Llmlts o tbo Posslb|o (low York:
|arpor and low, 1002), 14. 3ut noto as wo||, lsaac As|mov's coro||ary to C|arko's |aw: Whon, howovor, tho |ay pub||c ra|||os round an |doa that |s
donouncod by d|st|ngu|shod but o|dor|y sc|ont|sts and supports that |doa w|th groat torvor and omot|on-tho d|st|ngu|shod but o|dor|y sc|ont|sts
aro thon, attor a||, probab|y r|ght.'
18. Edward A. |ath, 1ho 3poctra ot 3omo 3p|ra| lobu|ao and G|obu|ar 3tar C|ustors,' Llck Obsotvototy Bo||otlo 140 (1008): 71-77.
14. l am gratotu| to tho curront d|roctor ot tho l|ck Obsorvatory, V|chao| 3o|to, a|ong w|th tho astronomor lom|ngton 3tono, tor a porsona||y gu|dod
tour ot tho obsorvatory and to|oscopos, a|ong w|th a co|ortu| narrat|vo h|story ot tho construct|on, dovo|opmont, and h|story ot th|s h|stor|c
monumont to sc|onco.
1b. Ouotod |n lobort 3m|th, 7bo Expooolog Uolvotso (low York: Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty lross, 1082), 48.
10. A. C. 0. Crommo||n, Aro tho 3p|ra| lobu|ao Extorna| Ga|ax|os?' 1ootoo| o tbo Royo| Asttooomlco| 5ocloty o Cooooo 12 (1018): 40.
17. vosto 3||phor, 3poctrograph|c Obsorvat|ons ot lobu|ao,' Popo|ot Asttooomy 28 (101b): 21-24.
18. |rom a |ottor datod 1uno 8, 1021, |arvard Un|vors|ty Arch|vos, quotod |n 3artus|ak, Loy o loooo tbo Uolvotso, 104.
10. logbook, 100-|nch lot|octor, 3ox 20, 1b0. Ouotod |n Chr|st|anson, Eowlo lobb|o, 1b8.
20. Ouotod |n Chr|st|anson, Eowlo lobb|o, 1b0.
21. Ouotod |n Kathor|no |aramundan|s, od., Cocl|lo Poyoo-Ooposbklo. Ao Aotoblogtopby ooo Otbot Roco||octloos (low York: Cambr|dgo Un|vors|ty
lross, 1084), 200.
22. Ouotod |n Chr|st|anson, Eowlo lobb|o, 101.
28. 3tongor has mado th|s and s|m||ar argumonts tor tho natura| or|g|n ot tho un|vorso |n sovora| ot h|s oxco||ont books. 3oo, tor oxamp|o, v|ctor
3tongor, 7bo Now Atbolsm (3utta|o, l.Y.: lromothous 3ooks, 2000), 3tongor, Ooo. 7bo lol|oo lypotbosls (3utta|o, l.Y.: lromothous 3ooks,
2008), and 3tongor, Ooootom Ooos. Ctootloo, Cboos, ooo tbo 5ootcb ot Cosmlc Cooscloosooss (3utta|o, l.Y.: lromothous 3ooks, 2000).
24. E|nsto|n so|vod th|s prob|om through h|s thoory ot ro|at|v|ty by domonstrat|ng that spaco objocts such as stars d|stort tho spaco-t|mo around thom
-p|anots aro not attractod' to tho star bocauso ot a mystor|ous torco ca||od grav|ty', p|anots ta||' around tho star by mov|ng through tho curvod
spaco-t|mo around |t.
2b. Vart|n loos, 1ost 5lx Nombots. 7bo Loop lotcos 7bot 5bopo tbo Uolvotso (low York: 3as|c3ooks, 2000).
172
20. 1ohn 0. 3arrow and |rank 1|p|or, 7bo Aotbtoplc Cosmo|oglco| Ptloclp|o (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 1088), v||.
27. lh||osophor lobort lawronco Kuhn out||nod tho prob|om and at |oast twonty-sovon d|ttoront so|ut|ons to |t |n a br||||ant|y oxocutod art|c|o: Why
1h|s Un|vorso? 1oward a 1axonomy ot loss|b|o Exp|anat|ons,' 5koptlc 18, no. 8 (2007): 28-80.
28. 1ohn 3arrow and 1ohn Wobb, lnconstant Constants,' 5clootllc Amotlcoo, 1uno 200b, b7-08.
20. 3oan Carro||, ltom Etotolty to loto. 7bo Ooost ot tbo U|tlmoto 7booty o 7lmo (low York: 0utton/longu|n, 2010), b0.
80. Vart|n 1. loos, Booto tbo Bogloolog. Oot Uolvotso ooo Otbots (low York: lorsous 3ooks, 1008), loos, Oot Cosmlc lobltot (lr|ncoton, l.1.:
lr|ncoton Un|vors|ty lross, 2004), loos, Exp|or|ng Our Un|vorso and Othors,' 5clootllc Amotlcoo, 0ocombor 1000, 1ohn los||o, Uolvotsos
(london: lout|odgo, 1080).
81. Carro||, ltom Etotolty to loto, b1, 04.
82. lau| 1. 3to|nhardt and lo|| 1urok, A Cyc||c Vodo| ot tho Un|vorso,' 5clooco 200, no. bb72 (Vay 2002): 1480-80.
88. A|an Guth, 1ho lnt|at|onary Un|vorso: Aloss|b|o 3o|ut|on to tho |or|zon and ||atnoss lrob|oms,' Pbyslco| Rovlow L 28, no. 2 (1081): 847, Guth,
7bo lo|otloooty Uolvotso. 7bo Ooost ot o Now 7booty o Cosmlc Otlglos (3oston: Add|son-Wos|oy, 1007), Andro| l|ndo, 1ho 3o|t-loproduc|ng
lnt|at|onary Un|vorso,' 5clootllc Amotlcoo, lovombor 1001, 48-bb, l|ndo, Curront Undorstand|ng ot lnt|at|on,' Now Asttooomy Rovlows 40
(200b): 8b-41, A|ox v||onk|n, Vooy ot|os lo Ooo. 7bo 5ootcb ot Otbot Uolvotsos (low York: |||| and Wang, 2000).
84. 1ust|n Khoury, 3urt A. Ovrut, lau| 1. 3to|nhardt, and lo|| 1urok, 0ons|ty lorturbat|ons |n tho Ekpyrot|c 3conar|o,' Pbyslco| Rovlow L 00, no. 4
(2002): 04000b, 1orom|ah l. Ostr|kor and lau| 3to|nhardt, 1ho Ou|ntossont|a| Un|vorso,' 5clootllc Amotlcoo, 1anuary 2001, 40-b8.
8b. laphao| 3ousso and 1osoph lo|ch|nsk|, 1ho 3tr|ng 1hoory landscapo,' 5clootllc Amotlcoo, 3optombor 2004.
80. v|ctor 3tongor, 7bo Uocooscloos Ooootom. Votopbyslcs lo Voooto Pbyslcs ooo Cosmo|ogy (3utta|o, l.Y.: lromothous, 100b), 3tongor, ls tho
Un|vorso ||no-1unod tor Us?' |n by loto||lgoot Loslgo lol|s. A 5clootllc Ctltlqoo o tbo Now Ctootloolsm, od. Vatt Young and 1anor Ed|s (low
3runsw|ck, l.1.: lutgors Un|vors|ty lross, 2004).
87. |ugh Evorott, 'lo|at|vo 3tato' |ormu|at|on ot Ouantum Vochan|cs,' Rovlows o Voooto Pbyslcs 20, no. 8 (10b7): 4b4-02, ropr|ntod |n 7bo Vooy-
ot|os lototptototloo o Ooootom Vocboolcs, od. 3. 3. 0oW|tt and l. Graham (lr|ncoton, l.1.: lr|ncoton Un|vors|ty lross, 1078), 141-40, 1ohn
Arch|ba|d Whoo|or, Oooos, B|ock lo|os & Ooootom loom (low York: W. W. lorton, 1008), 208-70.
88. 3tophon |awk|ng, Ouantum Cosmo|ogy,' |n 3tophon |awk|ng and logor lonroso, 7bo Nototo o 5poco ooo 7lmo (lr|ncoton, l.1.: lr|ncoton
Un|vors|ty lross, 1000), 80-00.
80. logor lonroso, 7bo Rooo to Roo|lty. A Comp|oto Ooloo to tbo Lows o tbo Uolvotso (low York: Knopt, 200b), 720-82, 702-0b.
40. 3tophon |awk|ng, 1ho |uturo ot 1hoorot|ca| lhys|cs and Cosmo|ogy: 3tophon |awk|ng 00th 3|rthday 3ympos|um' (|octuro at tho Contro tor
Vathomat|ca| 3c|oncos, Cambr|dgo, U.K., 1anuary 11, 2002).
41. loo 3mo||n, 7bo Llo o tbo Cosmos (low York: Oxtord Un|vors|ty lross, 1007). 3oo a|so Ouont|n 3m|th, Alatura| Exp|anat|on ot tho Ex|stonco
and laws ot Our Un|vorso,' Aostto|osloo 1ootoo| o Pbl|osopby 08 (1000): 22-48. |or an o|ogant summary soo 1amos Gardnor, Blocosm (Vau|,
||.: lnnor Ocoan lub||sh|ng, 2008).
42. 3tophon |awk|ng and loonard V|od|now, 7bo Otooo Loslgo (low York: 3antam 3ooks, 2010), 0-0, 40, 7b, 88, 180, 170-80.
EiIoguo: 1ho 1ruth |a Out 1horo
1. 1hanks to Arthur 3onjam|n, protossor ot mathomat|cs at |arvoy Vudd Co||ogo and tho tamous mathomag|c|an, tor th|s ca|cu|at|on. Art
rocommonds th|s Wob pago tor such ca|cu|at|ons (whoro l = b2 and p = 0.b): http://www.stat.tamu.odu/-wost/app|ots/b|nom|a|domo.htm|.
2. lonnart Groon 0oos C|oso-up Card Vag|c,' 1E0, |obruary 200b,
http://www.tod.com/ta|ks/|ang/ong/|onnart_groon_doos_c|oso_up_card_mag|c.htm|.
8. |rank 1. 3u||oway, Boto to Robo|. Blttb Otoot, loml|y Lyoomlcs, ooo Ctootlvo Llvos (low York: lanthoon 3ooks, 1000), 880.
4. 1arod 0|amond, Ooos, Ootms, ooo 5too|: 7bo lotos o lomoo 5oclotlos (low York: W. W. lorton, 1007).
b. 1arod 0|amond, Nototo| Expotlmoots o llstoty (Cambr|dgo, Vass.: |arvard Un|vors|ty lross, 2010), 120-20.
0. 7o tbo stots wltb ollco|ty. 3omot|mos rondorod Pot ospoto oo ostto. 1ho phraso or|g|natod w|th tho loman poot 3onoca tho Youngor and was
mado tamous on a p|aquo honor|ng tho Apo||o 1 astronauts who por|shod |n a t|ro on tho |aunchpad at Capo Canavora|.
173

AcknowIodgmonta
1ho construct|on ot a book |s not un||ko that ot a bu||d|ng, |n wh|ch tho road|ng pub||c soos on|y tho t|n|shod od|t|co
attor tho scatto|d|ng |s takon down and tho construct|on crows havo movod on to othor projocts. 1ho toundat|on and
assomb|y ot th|s book-a|ong w|th my work |n gonora|-woro a|dod by a numbor ot |nd|v|dua|s, start|ng w|th my
agonts, Kat|nka Vatson, 1ohn 3rockman, and Vax 3rockman, who togothor cont|nuo to ho|p shapo tho gonro ot
sc|onco wr|t|ng |nto what l ca|| |ntograt|vo sc|onco, wh|ch |ntogratos data, thoory, and narrat|vo |nto a un|t|od who|o.
And to my |octuro agont, 3cott Wo|tman, and h|s amb|t|ous toam at Wo|tman lroduct|ons, tor hav|ng tho toros|ght to
markot sc|onco and skopt|c|sm as a v|ab|o torm ot ontorta|nmont and oducat|on. 1hanks as wo|| to 3tophon lub|n,
lau| Go|ob, and lob|n 0onn|s at |onry |o|t/1|mos 3ooks, who ovorsaw tho projoct, and ospoc|a||y to my gonora|
od|tor, 3orona 1onos, who d|sc|p||nod mo |nto t|ghton|ng tho manuscr|pt, and to tho romarkab|o copy od|tor, V|cho||o
0an|o|, who wont through tho manuscr|pt ||no by ||no and thoroby savod mo much ||torary ombarrassmont w|th hor
many oxco||ont suggost|ons. And rocogn|t|on goos to tho dos|gnor ot tho book, Vory| 3ussman lovav|, whoso
typography, |ayout, and dos|gn o|ovatod tho book to o|oganco, and to Vagg|o l|chards |n sa|os and markot|ng and
l|co|o 0owoy |n pub||c|ty tor br|ng|ng tho manuscr|pt to markot, tho t|na| and |n many ways tho most |mportant stop |n
tho ovor-chang|ng wor|d ot book pub||sh|ng.
l a|so w|sh to rocogn|zo tho ott|co statt ot tho 3kopt|cs 3oc|oty and 5koptlc magaz|no, |nc|ud|ng lat l|nso, l|co|o
VcCu||ough, Ann Edwards, 0an|o| loxton, W||||am 3u||, 1|m 3m|th, 1orry |r|odman, and 1orosa lovo||o, as wo|| as
3on|or Ed|tor |rank V|o|o, 3on|or 3c|ont|sts 0av|d la|d|tch, 3ornard lo|k|nd, l|am Vc0a|d, C|aud|o Vaccono, and
1homas Vc0onough, contr|but|ng od|tors 1|m Ca||ahan, |arr|ot |a||, lh|| Vo|o, and 1amos land|, od|tor|a| ass|stant
3ara Vor|c, photographor 0av|d latton and v|doographor 3rad 0av|os tor tho|r v|sua| rocord ot tho 3kopt|cs' Ca|toch
3c|onco locturo 3or|os. l wou|d a|so ||ko to rocogn|zo 5koptlc magaz|no's board mombors: l|chard Abanos, 0av|d
A|oxandor, tho |ato 3tovo A||on, Arthur 3onjam|n, logor 3|ngham, lapo|oon Chagnon, K. C. Co|o, 1arod 0|amond,
C|ayton 1. 0roos, Vark Edward, Goorgo ||schbock, Grog |orbos, tho |ato 3tophon 1ay Gou|d, 1ohn Gr|bb|n, 3tovo
|arr|s, W||||am 1arv|s, lawronco Krauss, Gora|d laruo, W||||am VcComas, 1ohn Vos|oy, 3||| lyo, l|chard O|son,
0ona|d lrothoro, 1amos land|, v|ncont 3ar|ch, Eugon|o 3cott, lancy 3oga|, E||o 3hnoour, 1ay 3tuart 3no|son, 1u||a
3woonoy, |rank 3u||oway, Caro| 1avr|s, and 3tuart vyso. 3poc|a| thanks to lat l|nso tor rondor|ng much ot tho
artwork tor tho book.
1hanks as wo|| tor tho |nst|tut|ona| support tor tho 3kopt|cs 3oc|oty at tho Ca||torn|a lnst|tuto ot 1ochno|ogy goos to
3usan 0av|s, Er|c Wood, |a|| 0a||y, lauro| Auchampaugh, Chr|stot Koch, loonard V|od|now, 3oan Carro||, and K|p
1horno. l|kow|so, l approc|ato tho |nst|tut|ona| support ot tho 3choo| ot lo||t|cs and Econom|cs at C|aromont
Graduato Un|vors|ty, most notab|y lau| Zak, Wondy Vart|n, Vary E||on Wandor||ngh, laura 3oav|n, 1homas W|||ott,
1homas 3orchord|ng, and Arthur 0onzau. As a|ways, l acknow|odgo my tr|onds at KlCC 80.8 |V rad|o |n lasadona,
most notab|y larry Vant|o, 1ack|o Oc|aray, Karon |r|tscho, and l|nda Othon|n-G|rard. l wou|d ||ko to acknow|odgo tho
gonorous support ot tho 3kopt|cs 3oc|oty trom 1oromo v. 3roschart, 1om G|ovor, 1yson 1acobson, Vatthow 0.
Vad|son and 3haron E. Vad|son, 1od A. 3omon, 0an|o| Vondoz, lobort and Vary Engman, and Wh|tnoy l. 3a||.
||na||y, spoc|a| thanks go to thoso who ho|p at ovory |ovo| ot our organ|zat|on: 3tophon Asma, 1a|mo 3otoro, 1ason
3owos, 1oan lau| 3uquot, Adam Ca|dwo||, 3onn|o Ca||ahan, 1|m Ca||ahan, C||tt Cap|an, landy Cass|ngham,
3hoshana Cohon, 1ohn Cou|tor, 3rad 0av|os, 1anot 0royor, 3ob |r|odhottor, V|chao| G||moro, 1yson G||moro,
Androw |artor, 0|ano Knudtson, and 1oo loo.
Var|otto 0|Chr|st|na and 1ohn lonn|o at 5clootllc Amotlcoo dosorvo spoc|a| rocogn|t|on tor bo|ng such trustod
tr|onds and tor shophord|ng tho 3kopt|c co|umn to tru|t|on oach month. Vy co|umn |n thoso august pagos ot what |s
now tho |ongost pub||shod magaz|no |n Amor|can h|story (10b yoars and count|ng) |s tho most tu|t||||ng th|ng l do |n my
work|ng days.
1ho dod|catoo ot th|s book, 0ov|n Z|o| 3hormor, has now startod hor own ||to's journoy, and l thank hor tor tho
opportun|ty to oxpross uncond|t|ona| |ovo and tor g|v|ng my ||to doop purposo and u|t|mato moan|ng as wo contr|buto
to tho throo-and-a-ha|t-b||||on-yoar ovo|ut|onary |mporat|vo ot ||to's cont|nu|ty trom ono gonorat|on to tho noxt,
romombor|ng a|ways that thoro's no p|aco ||ko homo .
174

1ho |ndox that appoarod |n tho pr|nt vors|on ot th|s t|t|o doos not match tho pagos |n your o3ook. l|oaso uso tho soarch tunct|on on your oload|ng
dov|co to soarch tor torms ot |ntorost. |or your rotoronco, tho torms that appoar |n tho pr|nt |ndox aro ||stod bo|ow.
Abooctoo (C|ancy)
Abdu|muta||ab, Umar |arouk (undorwoar bombor)
Abraham, Anna
Abu Ghra|b
Accooot o tbo Llscovotlos (0a|rymp|o)
act|on potont|a|
add|ct|on
adrona||no
attor||to
agont|c|ty
attor||to and
a||ons and
bo||ot cont|rmat|on and
ClA and
consp|racy and
dot|nod
domon-hauntod bra|n and
God and
|ott-bra|n |ntorprotor and
nourosc|onco ot
po||s on bo||ot and
powor ot
sc|onco and
sonsod-prosoncos and
to|ophon|ng doad and
thoory ot m|nd and
agnost|c|sm
A|dobaran
A|otho|a |oundat|on
a||ons
abduct|on by
God and
rosomb|anco to humans
A||on, Woody
A|| o Vo (t||m)
A|pha Contaur|
a|-Oaoda
a|tru|sm
Amotlco Robol|os (1v spoc|a|)
amphotam|nos
amygda|a
Aootomlco| Exotclso (|arvoy)
anchor|ng b|as
anc|ont ropot|t|vo o|omonts (AlEs)
Andromoda (V81)
anocdota| th|nk|ng
Aogo|s ooo Lomoos (3rown)
antor|or c|ngu|ato cortox (ACC)
antor|or |nsu|a
antor|or parac|ngu|ato cortox
Aotbtoplc Cosmo|oglco| Ptloclp|o, 7bo (3arrow and 1|p|or)
anthrop|c pr|nc|p|o
Apo||on|us
Aqu|nas, 3t. 1homas
Arch|modos
Ar|stot|o
Armstrong, lanco
As|mov, lsaac
assoc|at|on |oarn|ng
astrophotography
astrophys|cs
175
atho|sm
bo||ot |n a||ons and
skopt|c|sm vs.
At|os 5btoggoo (land)
atrop|no
attachmont thorapy (A1)
Attocbmoot 7botopy oo 7tlo| (Vorcor, 3arnor, and losa)
attr|but|on b|as
Austra||an Abor|g|nos
austra|op|thoc|nos
Austr|an 3choo| ot Econom|cs
author|ty, book ot, vs. book ot naturo
author|ty b|as
author|ty/rospoct va|uos
aut|sm
ava||ab|||ty hour|st|c
Awokoologs (t||m)
axon
ayahuasca
3acon, |ranc|s
bandwagon ottoct
3arnum ottoct
3arrott, 0o|rdro
3arrow, 1ohn
3artus|ak, Varc|a
3asa||a, Goorgo
batt|o ot tho books and
Boootlo| Evloooco (1utto)
Boootlo| Vloo, A (t||m)
3ock, G|onn
3odo||, 1ohn latr|ck
bo||ot. 5oo o|so agont|c|ty, God, bo||ot |n, pattorn|c|ty, ooo spocllc bo|los ooo sclootllc oobotos
3acon tour |do|s and
causos ot
Co|||ns's op|phany and
cont|rmat|ons ot
croat|v|ty and
0'Arp|no's vo|co and
dot|nod
0yson on
ov|donco and
gonot|cs and
Groopman on
journoy to skopt|c|sm trom
V|dd|o land ot
natura| vs. supornatura| and
nourochom|stry ot
po||s ot
powor ot
rosponso t|mo and
typos ot
wor|dv|ow and
bo||ot-dopondont roa||sm
bo||ovab|||ty b|as
3o||, Art
3om, 0ary|
3orgson, |onr|
3orra, Yog|
3osso, V|cho|o
3oto|gouso
3|b|o
b|g bang
Blg (t||m)
3|g Ga|axy' |ypothos|s
3||| ot l|ghts
b|nd|ng, nouro|og|ca| procoss ot
Blo|oglco| Uolvotso, 7bo (0|ck)
3|ackmoro, 3usan
3|anchard, 3ront
3|anko, O|at
B|ook 5|oto, 7bo (l|nkor)
3|oom, lau|
176
Boolos lo otot (Ga|||oo)
body schoma
3Ol0 (3|ood Oxygon lovo|-0opondont) s|gna|
3ouchard, 1homas
bra|n. 5oo o|so spocllc potts
agont|c|ty and
automat|c vs. contro||od procossos and
bo||ot and
cont|rmat|on b|as and
ovo|ut|on ot
taco rocogn|t|on and
God and
ha||uc|nat|ons and
|ott vs. r|ght hom|sphoro and
m|nd and
noura| notworks and
pattorn|c|ty |n
sc|ont|t|c study ot
sonsod prosoncos and
storyto|||ng and
thoory ot m|nd and
bra|n scan stud|os
3ranch 0av|d|ans
3randon, lathan|o|
3rattstrom, 3ayard
3r|n, 0av|d
3rossos, Char|os do
3rown, 0an
3ruggor, lotor
3uh|, |ormann
3unson, lobort
burdon ot proot
3urns, 1onn|tor
3ush, Goorgo |. W.
3ush, Goorgo W.
Cabr|nov|c, lodo|jko
Ca||andor, 1ohn
Ca|v|n, Vo|v|n
Coooloo (vo|ta|ro)
cap|ta||sm
Carroy, 1|m
Carro||, 3oan
Carson, 1ohnny
Cartor, Chr|s
Catan|a, Char|os
Catho||c Church
CB5 Evoolog Nows
Contra| lnto|||gonco Agoncy (ClA)
Copho|d var|ab|os
corobra| cortox
Chabr|s, Chr|stophor
Cbo||oogot d|sastor
changoovor do|ay (CO0)
Channon, lt. Co|. 1|m
Char|os 3onnott syndromo
Cbootlog Lootb (Gupta)
chom|ca| transm|ttor substancos (C13)
Chonoy, 0|ck
Chowong poop|o
Choyno, 1amos A||an
Chopra, 0r. 0oopak
Chr|st|ans and Chr|st|an|ty
born-aga|n or ovango||ca|
Chr|st|anson, Ga|o
Cbtoolc|os o Notolo, 7bo (low|s)
Church|||, W|nston
Clvl|lzoo Llo lo tbo Uolvotso (3asa||a)
C|ancy, 3usan A.
C|ark, Andy
C|arko, Arthur C.
C|orko, Agnos
C||nton, 3|||
177
C|on|ngor, lobort
c|ustor|ng |||us|on
Coost to Coost (rad|o show)
Coba|n, Kurt
cogn|t|vo b|asos
sc|onco to dotoct
cogn|t|vo nourosc|onco
Cohon, Goottroy
Cohon, Vark 3.
Co|o, U33
Co|||ns, 0r. |ranc|s
Co|omblo spaco shutt|o
Co|umbus, 3artho|omoo
Co|umbus, Chr|stophor
Co|wo||, 1ohn
Comlog o Ago lo tbo Vl|ky oy (|orr|s)
Com|ngs, 0r. 0av|d
Commooloo (3tr|obor)
comparat|vo mothod
contabu|at|on b|as
cont|rmat|on b|as
Coo|lct o Vlsloos, A (3owo||)
consc|ousnoss
consorvat|vos
cons|stoncy b|as
consp|racy thoor|os
dot|nod
roa| consp|racy vs.
why poop|o bo||ovo
Coostltotloo o Llbotty, 7bo (von |ayok)
constra|nod v|s|on (ot human naturo)
Cootoct (3agan)
contro|, |nt|uonco on bo||ots
convorgonco zonos, bra|n rog|ons and
Conway-Vorr|s, 3|mon
Cook, 1amos
cooporat|on
Coporn|cus
corpus ca||osum
cortox
cosm|c chauv|n|sm
Covoyou, lobort
croat|on
God and quost|on ot
sc|ont|t|c thoor|os ot
croat|on|sts
croat|v|ty
Cromon|n|, Cosaro
Cr|chton, V|chao|
Cr|sp||n, 0r. Vark
cr|t|ca| po|nt, nourona| procoss and
Cro-Vagnons
Crommo||n, A. C.
Cubr||ov|c, vaso
cu|ts
Co|ts, Coospltoclos, ooo 5octot 5oclotlos (Go|dwag)
Curt|s, |obor
Cutts, 0av|d
0a|rymp|o, A|oxandor
0amos, Ed
0'Aqu|||, Eugono
dark onorgy and dark mattor
0ar|oy, 1ohn
0'Arp|no, Em|||o Ch|ck'
0arw|n, Char|os
data
cont||ct|ng, and nobu|ao
rop||cab|o
thoory and
thoory and prosontat|on and
Loto|loo NBC
0av|os, lau|
178
0av|s, Edward
0av|s, W||||am 3.
0awk|ns, l|chard
Loy o loooo tbo Uolvotso, 7bo (3artus|ak)
0oarmoro, 0arro|| C.
doath, moan|ng ot
doath promon|t|on droams
docontor|ng, cogn|t|vo procoss ot
doduct|on
doop mod|tat|on
doop t|mo
Lo llstotlo 5tltplom (|uchs)
domocracy
0omocrats
dondr|tos
Looylog llstoty (3hormor)
0oscartos, lono
Loscottos` Boby (3|oom)
Loscoot o Voo, 7bo (0arw|n)
Llo|ogoo (Ga|||oo)
0|amond, 1arod
0|ana, lr|ncoss ot Wa|os
d|mothy|tryptam|no (0V1)
0|oscor|dos
d|spos|t|ona| attr|but|on b|as
0lA
0obk|n do l|os, Var|ono
0oos ls| Ex|st?' (3om and |onorton)
0om|n|can lopub||c
dopam|no
dopam|norg|c systom
0opp|or ottoct
dorso|atora| protronta| cortox
doub|o-s||t oxpor|mont
Ltogoos o Eooo, 7bo (3agan)
0rako oquat|on
0l04 gono
Ltookoto`s o|k, 7bo (V|od|now)
0'3ouza, 0|nosh
dua||sm
0uva||or, |rano|s lapa 0oc'
0yson, |rooman
Ea (3aby|on|an god)
Eagor, 0r. 1homas
Earth
Eavos, l|ndon
Ecc|os, 3|r 1ohn
E. co|l
oconom|cs
Ecooomlcs lo Ooo Lossoo (|az||tt)
oducat|on
Eowlo lobb|o (Chr|st|anson)
Eotlo 5l|ooco, 7bo (0av|os)
Egypt, anc|ont
E|b|-E|bosto|dt, lronus
E|nsto|n, A|bort
E|nsto|n lapors lrojoct
Ekman, lau|
o|octron, mass ot
E||ot, 1. 3.
ombod|od cogn|t|on
omot|ona| attr|but|on b|as
omot|ons
convors|ons and
truth and
Emoto, Vasaru
omp|r|c|sm
ondorph|ns
ondowmont ottoct
Eoo to Evl|, Ao (|rum and lor|o)
op|nophr|no
op|stomo|ogy
179
Eratosthonos
orror-dotoct|on notworks
ossont|a||sm
otho|ogy
Euthyphro's d||omma
ovango||ca|s
Evorost, Vount
ov|donco
convorgonco ot
nogat|vo
pos|t|vo
ov||, prob|om ot
ovo|ut|on
cosm|c chauv|n|sm and
ondowmont ottoct and
ov|donco and
tac|a| rocogn|t|on and
human naturo and
|nduct|on vs. doduct|on and
mora||ty and
loandortha|s and
pattorn|c|ty and
3hormor's |ast |aw and
thoory ot m|nd and
ovo|ut|onary b|o|ogy
ovo|ut|onary psycho|ogy
Evo|ut|on ot 3uporst|t|ous, 1ho' (|ostor and Kokko)
oxaptat|on
oxc|tatory postysynapt|c potont|a| (El3l)
ox|stonco, quost|on ot
oxpoctat|on b|as
oxpor|montor b|as
Expott Po|ltlco| 1oogmoot (1ot|ock)
Exp|otlog tbo Uokoowo (1v sor|os)
oxtrasonsory porcopt|on (E3l)
oxtratorrost|a| |nto|||gonco. 5oo o|so a||ons
Eysonck, |ans
taco rocogn|t|on
ta|rnoss/roc|proc|ty va|uos
ta|so-consonsus ottoct
ta|so nogat|vo. 5oo 1ypo ll orror
ta|so pos|t|vo. 5oo 1ypo l orror
|arwo||, l|sa
|ath, Edward
|odora| 3uroau ot lnvost|gat|on (|3l)
|odora||st lapor lumbor b1'
toodback |oop, cogn|t|vo procoss ot
|ohr, Ernst
|orm|'s paradox
|orr|s, 1|mothy
low Oooo Voo, A (t||m)
|oynman, l|chard
t|ght-or-t||ght rosponso
t|no-tun|ng prob|om
||rmago, 1oo
t|xod act|on pattorn
t|ood myths
to|k numoracy
|ood and 0rug Adm|n|strat|on (|0A)
|ord, Gora|d
|ostor, Kov|n l.
lox Nows` 5poclo| Ropott
tracta| pattorn
tram|ng ottocts
|rank's 3ox'
|ranz |ord|nand, archduko ot Austr|a
|raunhotor, 1osoph von
ltooky ltlooy (t||m)
|rodor|ck tho Groat
troodom
|roo Entorpr|so lnst|tuto
troo markot oconom|cs
180
ltoo to Cbooso (|r|odman)
troo w|||
|r|od, ltzhak
|r|odman, V||ton
|r|th, Chr|stophor
|rum, 0av|d
|uchs, loonhart
tus|torm gyrus
Gachtor, 3|mon
Ga|ambos, Androw
ga|ax|os
Ga|||oo Ga|||o|
Ga||nsky, Adam
Ga||aghor, |o|on
Gamow, Goorgo
ganzto|d procoduro
Garn|o, 1oo
Gazzan|ga, V|chao|
Go|vott, 0oug
Go||or, Ur|
Go||-Vann, Vurray
gonora| ro|at|v|ty
gonot|cs
goograph|os ot bo||ot
ghost danco
G||bort, W||||am
G||gamosh, Ep|c ot
G||moro, V|chao|
G|onda|o Co||ogo
g|oba| oqu|||br|um thoory
G-lOC
goa|-ro|atod th|nk|ng
God, bo||ot |n. 5oo o|so bo||ot, ooo spocllc to|lgloos
agont|c|ty and
a||ons and 3E1l and
bo|ng wrong about
bra|n and
burdon ot proot and
comparat|vo ro||g|ons and
dot|nod
E|nsto|n and
ox|stonco ot un|vorso and
ovo|ut|on and
tam||y background and
t|no-tun|ng prob|om and
gonoros|ty vs. troo r|dors and
gonot|cs and
hardw|r|ng ot bra|n and
m|nd and
mu|t|vorsos and
pattorn|c|ty and
porsona|
po|| on
pos|t|vo ov|donco and
prob|om ot ov|| and
sc|ont|t|c soarch tor
sc|ont|sts and bo||ot |n
Oooooss o tbo Votkot (3urns)
Ooo Oooo, 7bo (|amor)
Ooo lo|mot
God ot tho Gaps' argumont
Go|dwag, Arthur
go/no-go task
Oooo Votolog Amotlco (1v show)
Goro, A|
gor|||a oxpor|mont
Gou|d, 3tophon 1ay
Graboz, 1r|tun
Graham, 1osso
Otooo Loslgo, 7bo (|awk|ng and V|od|now)
grandmothor nourons
grand un|t|od thoory ot phys|cs
181
grav|ty
Grook and loman gods
Groon, 0ona|d
Groon, lonnart
Grogory, Andro
Groopman, 1oromo
Grosoc|oso, 1|m
Gross, lagot
Oootoloo
Ooos, Ootms, ooo 5too| (0|amond)
Gupta, 0r. 3anjay
|a|dt, 1onathan
|a|t|
|a|o, Goorgo E||ory
|a|o to|oscopo
ha||uc|nat|ons
bra|n and
dopam|no and
oxtromo ovonts and
hypnagog|c and hypnopomp|c
sch|zophron|a and
s|oop anoma||os and
stross-|nducod
v|sua| |mpa|rmont and
ha||uc|nogon|c drugs
ha|o ottoct
|amor, 0oan
|amorott, 3tuart
|am||ton's ru|o
|ann|ty, 3oan
|annon, Vauroon
|anson, Chr|s
|ard|son, l|chard
harm/caro va|uos
|arr|s, 3am
|arr|s, 3ydnoy
|arvoy, W||||am
loootoo 7lmos
|awk|ng, 3tophon
|az||tt, |onry
|o|sonborg's uncorta|nty pr|nc|p|o
lotbotlos
hord b|as
horot|c porsona||ty
|orscho|, 1ohn
|orscho|, W||||am
hour|st|c
lloooo Vossogos o otot, 7bo (Emoto)
h|orarchy
h|nds|ght b|as
||ppocampus
||span|o|a
llstolto oos Novlgotloos oox 7ottos Aostto|os (do 3rossos)
h|stor|ca| hypothos|s
llstotlo o lootoootoo Boostos, 7bo (1opso||)
||tchons, Chr|stophor
|lv/Al0s
|odgk|n, A|an
|otta, 1|mmy
|o|ocaust don|ors
lomo soploos
loooymoooots, 7bo (1v sor|os)
|onorton, Char|os
|ood, 3ruco
|oward, 1ohn
low o Bo|lovo
|ubbard, l. lon
|ubb|o, Edw|n
|ubo|, 0av|d
|ugg|ns, W||||am
lomoo Actloo (von V|sos)
lomoo Cotoot, 7bo (K|o|n)
182
human gonomo
human naturo
huntor-gathorors
|usa|n, Ed
|ux|oy, Androw
|ux|oy, 1u||an
|ux|oy, 1homas |onry
|uygons, Chr|st|aan
|yman, lay
hyportons|on
hypnos|s
hypotha|amus
hypothos|s tost|ng
lacobon|, Varco
ld|tarod dog raco
|||usory corro|at|on ottoct
|||usory pattorn dotoct|on
|m|tat|on
|mp||c|t soquonco |oarn|ng
|mpr|nt|ng
|nan|mato torco
|nattont|ona| b||ndnoss b|as
|ncost taboo
|nd|v|dua||sm
|nduct|on
|ntor|or tronta| rog|on
|ntor|or par|ota| |obo
|ntorotompora| cortox
|nt|n|ty
|nt|at|onary cosmo|ogy
|ntormat|on t|o|ds
|ntormat|on procoss|ng
|ntrastructuro
|n-group b|as
|n-group/|oya|ty va|uos
|nh|b|tory postsynapt|c potont|a| (ll3l)
|nnato ro|oas|ng mochan|sm (llV)
lnqu|s|t|on
lo 5ootcb o . (1v sor|os)
|ntograt|vo sc|onco
|nto||octua| attr|but|on b|as
|nto|||gonco
|nto|||gont dos|gn croat|on|sts. 5oo o|so croat|on|sts
lnto|||gont 0os|gnor (l0)
|ntont|ona| agont
lntornat|ona| 3paco 3c|oncos Organ|zat|on
lraq War
lrv|ng, 0av|d
ls Aoyooo Oot 7boto (0rako)
ls|omlst, 7bo (|usa|n)
ls|am|sts
|s|and un|vorsos'
1oans, 1amos
1ohovah's W|tnossos
1osus Chr|st
1ows and 1uda|sm
1lK (t||m)
1ohn lau| ll, lopo
1ohn tho 0|v|no, 3t.
1ost, 1ohn
jump|ng gonos
junk 0lA
1up|tor, moons ot
1ost 5lx Nombots (loos)
just-wor|d b|as
Katka, |ranz
Kahnoman, 0an|o|
Ka|ros, lrojoct
Kant, lmmanuo|
Koo|or, 1amos
183
Konnody, 1ohn |.
Konnody, lobort |.
Kop|or, 1ohannos
Korry, 1ohn
kotam|nos
Khobar 1owars attack
Khomo|n|, Ayato||ah
K|orkogaard, 3ron
K||sho|mor, A||yn E.
K|ng, larry
K|ng, Vart|n luthor, 1r.
K|rchhott, Gustav
K|r||an photography'
K|ss|ngor, |onry
K|o|n, 0an|o|
K|o|n, l|chard
Kn|ght, 1. Z.
Koch, Chr|stot
Kokko, |anna
Koroa
Kormos-3uchwa|d
Kro|man, Gabr|o|
Kuhn, 0oanna
Kunda, Z|va
Kuszowsk|, Androa Var|o
ladon, Osama b|n
langor, E||on
Loogoogo o Ooo, 7bo (Co|||ns)
Lotty Klog Llvo
lasor lntortoromotor Grav|tat|ona| Wavo Obsorvatory (llGO)
Lost Voyogo o tbo Kot|ok, 7bo (VcK|n|au)
loakoy, l|chard
|oap ot ta|th
loav|tt, |onr|otta 3wan
|ott-hom|sphoro |ntorprotor
|ott par|ota| cortox
|ott-r|ght po||t|ca| systom
|ott tompora| |obo
lo|n|ngor, 1amos
low|s, C. 3.
l|ar, lunat|c, or lord' argumont
||bora|s
||bortar|an|sm
l|bot, 3onjam|n
l|ck Obsorvatory
l|ddy, G. Gordon
Llo Atot Lootb (Chopra)
Llo Atot Lootb (0'3ouza)
Llo Atot Llo (Voody)
||ght
spood ot
l|mbaugh, lush
l|nco|n, Abraham
l|ndborgh, Char|os
l|nno, Car| von
l|pporshoy, |ans
locko, 1ohn
lommo|, l|m van
|ookback t|mo
Looso Cboogo (t||m)
loronz, Konrad
|oss avors|on
lowo||, lorc|va|
|uc|d droams
lunar 3oc|oty
luthor, Vart|n
V88 ga|axy
Vb1 Wh|r|poo| ga|axy
V81 nobu|a
V101 l|nwhoo| nobu|a
Vaanon, Adr|aan van
184
Vac0ouga||, 0uncan
Vackoy, lanco
Vad|son, 1amos
Vago||an, |ord|nand
Vag|ca| ldoat|on 3ca|o
magnot|c t|o|ds
magnot|c thorapy
magnoco||u|ar pathway
Vahor, 3|||
Va|co|m X
Va||nowsk|, 3ron|s|aw
Va||o, lou|s
Var|no, 1ohn
Var|nus ot 1yro
Vars
Vart|n, l|cho|as
Varx|sm
Vauportu|s
Vawdud|, Abu| A|a
VcCarthy, 1onny
VcG|nn|s, 1ohn
VcK|n|ay, W||||am la|rd
VcVonoag|o, 1oo
Vcla||y, l|chard 1.
mod|a b|as
mod|tat|on
Vohmodbas|c, Vuhamod
momory
monta| |||noss (psychos|s)
Voo bo 5toto ot Ooots, 7bo (lonson)
Vorcor, 1oan
Voto Cbtlstloolty (low|s)
Voss|or cata|og
Vossnor, lo|nho|d
Votomotpbosls (Katka)
mothy|ono-d|oxyamphotam|no (V0A)
Voyssan, 1h|orry
V|cho|son, A|bort
m|croso|zuros
V|dd|o land ot bo||ot
V||ky Way
V|||, 1ohn 3tuart
V|||or, 3|||
V||nor, lotor
V||ton, 1u||o
V||yo, 1ottroy
m|m|cry
m|nd
body vs.
bra|n as
E3l and
God as
quantum consc|ousnoss and
sou| and
un|vorsa|
Vloo o tbo Votkot, 7bo (3hormor)
m|nd schoma
m|rac|os
m|rror box
m|rror nourons
V|sos, ludw|g von
V|od|now, loonard
modo|-dopondont roa||sm
Vohr, Chr|st|no
mon|sm
monoam|no ox|daso (VAO)
monothos|m
Voody, laymond
Voon, Chr|stophor
Vooro's |aw
mora| |ntu|t|on thoory
mora||st|c pun|shmont
mora||ty
185
Euthyphor's d||omma
ovo|ut|on and
toundat|ons ot
||bortar|an|sm and
Vor|oy, Edward
Vormons
morph|c rosonanco t|o|ds
Vosos
Voss, 1ho|ma
mot|vat|on
motor nourons
mounta|noors
V-thoory
Vuhammad
Vu|||s, Kary
mu|t|vorsos
otorna|-roturn
many-wor|ds
mu|t|d|mons|ona| str|ng thoory
mu|t|p|o-croat|ons
natura| so|oct|on
quantum toam
Vus||m brothorhood
Vus||ms
Vy Llooot wltb Aooto (t||m)
lango larbat mounta|n
lapo|oon 3onaparto
narrat|vo ot oxp|anat|on, vs. pract|co
lash, 1ohn
lat|ona| Aoronaut|c and 3paco Adm|n|strat|on (lA3A)
natura| oxpor|monts ot h|story
natura||st|c ta||acy (|s-out)
natura| so|oct|on
Nototo
naturo and natura| |aw
book ot author|ty vs.
Co|||ns's oxcopt|ons to
supornatura| vs.
lavar|ck, 0oug|as
loandortha|s
noar-doath oxpor|oncos (l0E)
nobu|ao, r|dd|o ot
nobu|ar hypothos|s
nogat|vo d|scovor|os
nogat|vo ovonts
nogat|vo toodback cyc|o
nogat|v|ty b|as
noura| b|nd|ng
nourons and noura| notworks
nourop|ast|c|ty
nourosc|onco. 5oo bra|n, ooo spocllc coocopts ooo ooctloos
nourotransm|ttors
lowborg, Androw
low Gonora| Cata|og (lGC)
lowmakor, Candaco
lowmakor, 1oano
Now 5clooco o Llo, A (3ho|drako)
Nowsloot (1v show)
NowsNlgbt (1v show)
lowton, 3|r lsaac
low Wor|d
Now Yotk 7lmos
lGC 801
lGC 0822
lGC 0040
l|cho|, 1ohn
Nlgbt|loo (1v show)
n|ghtmaros
0/11
truthors
0/11. 7bo Blg Llo (Voyssan)
l|xon, l|chard
186
norop|nophr|no
norma|cy b|as
not-|nvontod-horo b|as
Novom Otgooom (3acon)
nuc|ous accumbons (lAcc)
nu|| hypothos|s
Obama, 3arack
Objoct|v|sm
obsoss|vo-compu|s|vo d|sordor (OC0)
O|ds, 1amos
On 3o|ng 3ano |n lnsano l|acos' (losonhan)
ono-tr|a| |oarn|ng
Oo Llbotty (V|||)
Ono, Ko|ch|
Oo tbo lobtlc o tbo lomoo Booy (vosa||us)
Oo tbo Vogoot ooo Vogootlc Boolos (G||bort)
Oo tbo Otlglo o 5poclos (0arw|n)
oppross|on-rodompt|on' myth
orb|ta| tronta| cortox
O'lo|||y, 3|||
or|ontat|on assoc|at|on aroa (OAA)
Otlgloo| 7booty, Ao (Wr|ght)
Or|on lobu|a
Os|r|s (Egypt|an god)
Ootot Llmlts, 7bo (1v show)
out-ot-body oxpor|oncos (O3Es)
Ootsloo (magaz|no)
ovor|nc|us|vo cogn|t|vo sty|o
oxygon dopr|vat|on
oxytoc|n
pa|n rocoptors
la||n, 3arah
la|mqu|st, 3rad|oy
parad|gms
para||o| un|vorsos
paranorma| bo||ot sca|o
paranorma| rosoarch
par|ota| |obo
lark|nson's d|soaso
larsons, W||||am, oar| ot losso
Pottlsoo lootts ooo Vloos (Groon, la|mqu|st, and 3ch|ck|or)
parvoco||u|ar pathway
pattorn|c|ty
agont|c|ty and
bo||ot cont|rmat|on and
bra|n and
consp|racy thoor|os and
contro| and
croat|v|ty vs. madnoss and
dot|nod
dopam|no and
ovo|ut|on ot
tac|a| rocogn|t|on
God and
|ott-hom|sphoro |ntorprotor and
m|m|cry and
nobu|ao r|dd|o and
porsona||ty and
powors and por||s ot
probab|||ty and
sc|onco and
supornorma|
truo vs. ta|so
loar| |arbor attack
pondu|um
l-E-l modo|
lonroso, logor
por|patot|cs
lor|o, l|chard
lors|ngor, V|chao|
phantom ||mbs
187
l|nkor, 3tovon
l|anck's constant
p|anotary systoms
sun vs. oarth contorod
l|ank, lobort
l|ato
p|oasuro contor
P|oto|lty o ot|os (0|ck)
loo, Edgar A||an
lo|drack, lusso||
po||t|ca| bo||ots
Po|ltlco| Btolo, 7bo (Woston)
lo||t|ca| Consorvat|sm' (1ost)
Po|ltlco||y locottoct (1v show)
Po|ltlco| Vloo, 7bo (lakott)
lo|o, Varco
Po|totgolst (t||m)
po|ymoraso cha|n roact|on (lCl)
londor, 1u||o
lopov|c, Cvjotko
postor|or supor|or par|ota| |obo
postsynapt|c nouron
post-traumat|c stross d|sordor (l130)
lraogor, 0onn|s
prayor
protronta| cortox (l|C)
Ptosooco o tbo Post, 7bo (3ho|drako)
prosynapt|c nouron
pr|macy ottoct
pr|mary v|sua| cortox
lr|nc|p, Gavr||o
pr|nc|p|od va|uos
probab|||ty
lrobst, 1ott
projoct|on b|as
lron|n, Em||y
propagat|on
proporty r|ghts
lrotagoras's b|as
lrotoc 0ocumontat|on 3orv|cos
lrotostant lotormat|on
lrozac
ps| rosoarch
psych|atr|sts
psych|cs, corroct prod|ct|ons ot
Psycbo|oglco| Bo||otlo
lsycho|og|ca| Oporat|ons (lsyOps)
Psycbo|ogy 7oooy
lto|omy
poooo r|tua|
pur|ty/sanct|ty va|uos
qua||a
quantum consc|ousnoss
quantum mochan|cs
laco Across Amor|ca (lAAV)
lamachandran, v. 3. (lama')
land, Ayn
land|, 1amos
lanor, Guy |.
rat|ona||zat|on
loagan, lona|d
loa||st|c v|s|on (ot human naturo)
roason and |og|c
roconcy ottoct
roc|proca| a|tru|sm
roduct|on|sm
rodup||cat|vo paramnos|a
loos, 3|r Vart|n
ro|ncarnat|on
ro|ntorcomont
ro||g|ons, compar|ng wor|d. 5oo o|so spocllc to|lgloos
188
Romombotlog 7toomo (Vcla||y)
ropot|t|on avo|danco
roprosontat|vo b|as
lopub||cans
rosorp|no
ros|dua| prob|om
lossam, Ahmod
rosurroct|on myths
lh|no, 1osoph
r|ght angu|ar gyrus
r|ght cortox
r|ght-hom|sphoro, |ott-hom|sphoro vs.
r|ght par|ota| cortox
r|ght tompora| |obo
r|sk tak|ng
l|tchoy, Goorgo
l|zzo|att|, G|acomo
Rooo to 5otoom, 7bo (von |ayok)
lob|c, 1uro
lod|n, 1ud|th
lonson, 1on
loosovo|t, |rank||n 0.
losa, l|nda
losonhan, 0av|d
loswo||, low Vox|co
rosy rotrospoct|on b|as
lothman, 3tan|oy
ru|o ot |aw
ru|os ot thumb
lumsto|d, 0ona|d
lusso||, 0a|o A.
lysw|ck, 1roaty ot
3acks, O||vor
3agan, Car|
3amuo|son, W||||am
3arnor, larry
3aturn
3avo|||, Guy
3cho|nor, 1u||us
3ch|ck|or, Er|c
sch|zophron|a
3ch||tz, Var||yn
3chr|ovor, 3ob
3chwarz, 1ack
3chwarz, 1ottroy
3chwarzonoggor, Arno|d
5clooco
sc|onco
bo||ot vs.
burdon ot proot and
causo-and-ottoct and
comparat|vo mothod and
convorgonco mothod and
d|sputo roso|ut|on |n
oxpor|mont dotorm|nos objoct|vo truth
t|no-tun|ng prob|om and
ga|ax|os and
hard vs. sott
|ntoront|a|
nu|| hypothos|s and
or|g|n ot un|vorso
pattorn rocogn|t|on and
pos|t|vo ov|donco and
skopt|c|sm and
supornatura| |ncorporatod |nto
too| tor truth
sc|onco oducat|on
sc|onco t|ct|on
5clooco o Oooo ooo Evl|, 7bo
5clooco o Llbotty, 7bo (|orr|s)
sc|onco wr|t|ng
5clootllc Amotlcoo
189
3c|onto|og|sts
so|t-att|rmat|on
so|t-tu|t||||ng prophocy
so|t-hypnos|s
so|t|sh gono modo|
so|t|shnoss
so|t-just|t|cat|on b|as
so|t-sorv|ng b|as
so|t-transcondonco
sonsod-prosonco ottoct
sonso ot so|t
soroton|n
3E1l (3oarch tor Extratorrostr|a| lnto|||gonco)
3hack|oton, Ernost |onry
3hap|oy, |ar|ow
3hawn, Wa||aco
3ho|drako, luport
3horman, 3onn|o
3hormor's last law
3hoth, 3amoor A.
short-torm tronds
s|gna|-to-no|so rat|on (3ll)
s|gn st|mu|us
3||vorsto|n, larry
3|mons, 0an|o|
3|mpson, 1oo
5lmpsoos, 7bo (1v show)
3|nc|a|r, Upton
s|ng|o nouron |ovo|
3|u|a Grando
s|x cosm|c numbors
s|x numbors
5lxtb 5ooso, 7bo (t||m)
5koptlc
skopt|c|sm
atho|sm vs.
dot|nod
|ntorna| |ocus ot contro| and
|ott-bra|n and
noura| corro|atos ot
porsona| journoy toward
pos|t|vo ov|donco and
3k|nnor, 3. |.
s|oop anoma||os
s|oop para|ys|s
3||phor, vosto
3ma|| Vago||an|c C|oud
3m|th, Adam
3m|th, 1osoph
3mo||n, loo
3no|son, 1ay 3tuart
3nydor, Vark
soc|a| bohav|or
soc|a| |nto|||gonco
soc|a||sm
3oc|oty tor lsych|ca| losoarch
3ocratos
sou|
5oo| 5otvlvot (lo|n|ngor)
3owo||, 1homas
spat|a| summat|on
spoctroscopy
3p|noza, 3aruch
sp|ra| nobu|ao
sp||t-bra|n stud|os
33-llV-|Al procoss
standard cand|os
5totgoto spy program
stat|st|ca| standards ot proot
status quo b|as
3tongor, v|ctor
storootyp|ng b|as
3tono, O||vor
190
3tosso|, 1ohn
3tr|obor, Wh|t|oy
str|ng thoory
3troop task
3tubb|ob|no, Gon. A|bort, lll
3u|||van, Androw
3u||oway, |rank
summat|on
sum-ovor-h|stor|os modo|
3umpt|on, |rank
sunk-cost b|as
supor|or tompora| su|c|
supornorma| st|mu||
supornatura|. 5oo bo||ot, ooo spocllc typos
5opotootmo| 5tlmo|l (3arrott)
suporsonso
5opotsooso (|ood)
suporst|t|ous bohav|or
5otvlvot (1v sor|os)
synapsos
5ystomo 5ototolom (|uygons)
5ystom o tbo 5tots, 7bo (C|orko)
1artor, 1|||
1asman, Abo| 1anszoon
tasto avors|on ottoct
1attorsa|, lan
1ay|or, K|rston
1oa larty
1octon|c 3tra|n 1hoory
to|opathy
to|ophono to tho doad'
to|oscopos
Cross|oy
|ookor
1o||or, Edward
1omp|oton |oundat|on
tompora| |obos
tompora| po|os
tompora| summat|on
7otto locogolto
torr|tor|a| |mporat|vo
tostostorono
1ot|ock, lh|||p
1ha|or, l|chard
tho|sm. 5oo o|so God, bo||ot |n
thoory
thoory ot m|nd (1oV)
18 golog oo 80 (t||m)
7blto Voo loctot, 7bo (Go|gor)
1homson, lotor
1horno, K|p
throat d|sp|ay
801 C|ub
7lmo
1|nborgon, l|ko
1|p|or, |rank
1o|stoy, loo
1opso||, Edward
trado
1rag|c v|s|on (ot human naturo)
tra|t-ascr|pt|on b|as
transcondonta||sts
trauma
tr|ba| |nst|ncts
1robr|and ls|andors
1ruj|||o, latao|
7totb, 7bo (||rmago)
1utto, Edward
1vorsky, Amos
7wl|lgbt Zooo, 7bo (1v show)
tw|n stud|os
1ypo l orror (ta|so-pos|t|vo)
191
1ypo ll orror (ta|so-nogat|vo)
tyranny ot tho mag|strato
tyranny ot tho major|ty
U|Os
uncorta|nty
unconsc|ous
Uocooscloos Ooootom, 7bo (3tongor)
unconstra|nod v|s|on (ot human naturo)
un|vorsa| ||to torco
Uolvotso| Nototo| llstoty (Kant)
un|vorso, modo|s ot
Uptako l and ll
Uranus
Urban vll, lopo
Urgos|, Cos|mo
U5A 7oooy
U.3. Congross
U.3. Const|tut|on
U.3. Embassy, attacks
Utop|a v|s|on
vacc|nat|ons
var|ab|o |ntorva| (vl) ro|ntorcomont
vontor, 1. Cra|g
vontra| promotor cortox
vontra| str|atum
vontromod|a| protronta| cortox
vorr|||, Gary
vosa||us, Androas
v|rg|n b|rth myths
v|s|on
v|sua| cortox
vVA12 gono
vo|cos, hoar|ng
vo||t|ona| sc|onco
vo|ta|ro
von |ayok, |r|odr|ch A.
Voyogot l spacocratt
Wa||aco, A|trod lusso|
Wa||or, l|o|s
Wardon, lob
osblogtoo 7lmos
Wasto land, 1ho' (E||ot)
Watorgato scanda|
Watk|ns, Conno||
wavo/part|c|o modo|s
Wobb, 1ohn
Wo|nor, 3ornard
Woston, 0row
What Vakos loop|o voto lopub||can?' (|a|dt)
bot tbo #$! Lo o Koow! (t||m)
Whowo||, W||||am
Wh|nnory, 0r. 1amos
Wh|to, Vargarot
Wh|tson, 1onn|tor
by Ooo oo`t Oo Awoy (lowborg and 0'Aqu|||)
by Poop|o Bo|lovo olto 7blogs (3hormor)
loo ot|o o 5potts
W|oso|, 1orston
W||||ams, lob|n
W||||ams, 1od
W|||s, Chr|stophor
W||son, Ed
W||son, Vount, Obsorvatory
W|soman, l|chard
Wor|d 1rado Contor
attack ot 1008
co||apso ot
wor|dv|ows, d|ttoroncos among
Wor|d War l
Woundod Knoo massacro
192
Wovoka (la|uto v|s|onary)
Wr|ght, 3tovon
Wr|ght, 1homas
X-ll|os, 7bo (1v show)
Yahwoh
Y|n|ugon 3ud (Chowong god)
Zockhausor, l|chard
Zoltgolst (t||m)
Z|o|, |rod
Z|on|st |obby
193

Abor
VlC|AEl 3|ElVEl |s tho author ot by Poop|o Bo|lovo olto 7blogs, 7bo 5clooco o Oooo ooo Evl|, and o|ght othor
books on tho ovo|ut|on ot human bo||ots and conduct. |o |s tho tound|ng pub||shor ot 5koptlc magaz|no, tho od|tor ot
3kopt|c.com, a month|y co|umn|st tor 5clootllc Amotlcoo, and an adjunct protossor at C|aromont Graduato Un|vors|ty.
|o ||vos |n 3outhorn Ca||torn|a.
194

Al3O 3Y VlC|AEl 3|ElVEl
7bo Vloo o tbo Votkot
by Lotwlo Vottots
5clooco ltlctloo
7bo 5clooco o Oooo ooo Evl|
lo Lotwlo`s 5booow. 7bo Llo ooo 5clooco o A|too Rosso| o||oco
7bo 5koptlc Eocyc|opoolo o Psoooosclooco (gonora| od|tor)
7bo Botoot|ooos o 5clooco
Looylog llstoty
lowo Bo|lovo
by Poop|o Bo|lovo olto 7blogs
195

1|mos 3ooks
|onry |o|t and Company, llC
Pob|lsbots sloco 1800
17b ||tth Avonuo
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t
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Copyr|ght t 2011 by V|chao| 3hormor
A|| r|ghts rosorvod.
|or turthor |ntormat|on on tho 3kopt|cs 3oc|oty and 5koptlc magaz|no, contact l.O. 3ox 888, A|tadona, CA 01001, www.skopt|c.com
l|brary ot Congross Cata|og|ng-|n-lub||cat|on 0ata
3hormor, V|chao|.
1ho bo||ov|ng bra|n : trom ghosts and gods to po||t|cs and consp|rac|os-how wo construct bo||ots and ro|ntorco thom as truths / by V|chao|
3hormor.
p. cm.
lnc|udos b|b||ograph|ca| rotoroncos and |ndox.
l33l 078-0-80b0-012b-0
1. 3o||ot and doubt. 2. Know|odgo, 1hoory ot. 8. Cogn|t|vo nourosc|onco. l. 1|t|o.
3|778.3b4 2011
1b8.4-dc22 2010080700
||rst Ed|t|on 2011
ol33l 078-1-4200-7201-1
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196