B6a Understanding Bacteria!

A bacteria cell
Compare the structure of bacterial cells with plant and animal cells. Bacteria do not have a proper nucleus; they have a nucleoid (which unlike a nucleus doesnt have a membrane around it). Bacteria do not contain mitochondria, chloroplasts or a vacuole.

Shape of Bacterial Cells Rod shaped Spherical shaped Spiral shaped Curved Rod shaped
2 Micrometers

Capsule a sticky coat that stops the bacterium from drying out (not all bacterium have this) Ribosomes small spherical structures that build protein from amino acids Nucleoid contains most of the bacteriums DNA (no membrane around it) Flagellum tails that enables the bacteria to swim (not all have this) Cell Wall a rigid protective wall that gives the cell its shape and stops it from bursting Cell Surface Membrane - controls which substances can enter and leave the bacterium. Why are bacteria able to exploit a wide range of habitats? Some bacteria can make their own organic nutrients (a form of photosynthesis) instead of having to consume them This means bacteria can survive on a wide range of energy sources Making yoghurt 1. Sterilisation of the equipment using bleach or steam 2. Pasteurisation of milk (the milk is heated to 72c for 15secs and cool rapidly killing active bacteria in the raw milk) 3. Bacteria is added (Lactobacillus and Streptococcus), and the milk is incubated 4. The milk turns sour, the bacteria turns lactose (sugar in milk)lactic acid, pH drop so milk curdles and sharpens in flavour 5. Producer takes samples to check the bacteria population 6. When ready the yoghurt is cooled and addition of flavours and colours, then

How bacteria reproduce Bacteria reproduce asexually BINARY FISSION The cell splits in two. The chromosomes are copied The cell grows The cells then divides into two cells Products that are made using bacteria 1. Cheese 2. Yoghurt 3. Beer 4. Wine 5. Olives/Pickles

How can bacteria be grown industrially for the use of man? A bacteria left in ideal conditions can split into 2 every 20 mins Bacteria can be grown in large tanks called fermenters Fermenters can be used to produce medicines, enzymes, fuels and food

How very rapid reproductions of bacteria can cause food spoilage and disease In ideal conditions bacteria reproduced really quickly. Food can become contaminated when touched by unclean hands and flies spread bacteria so you must heat food to 65c before eating to kill bacteria. Explain reasons for the safe handling of bacteria. Harmful bacteria can contaminate cultures and cause damage (e.g. disease) So you seal Petri dishes, wash hands thoroughly, disinfect equipment and when finished dont throw bacteria away, disinfect and sterilise the dish.

B6b Harmful Microorganisms

Pathogens: A disease causing microorganism e.g. viruses, some bacteria and protozoa.
Diseases Disease Food Poisoning Cholera Dysentery Influenza Septicemia

Cause? Salmonella, E Coli (Rod shaped bacteria) Vibrio (Comma Shaped bacteria) Entamoeba (single-celled bacteria) Influenza (RNA) Virus (various types) Staphylococcus (spherical bacteria)

How is it spread? Eating raw or undercooked food contaminated with faeces, poor personal hygiene. Drinking water contaminated with faeces Drinking water contaminated with faeces Tiny drops of mucus and saliva containing the virus are spread by either coughs, sneezes or touch Infected puncture wound, animal bites or by sharing hypodermic needles.

Condition

Tuberculosis Influenza Athletes Foot Malaria

Type of Microorganism that causes it. A Bacteria Virus Fungus One Celled Parasites (Plasmodium)

The main ways disease-causing organisms can enter the body Cheese
6. Direct Contact touching, kissing. 7. By an object e.g. touching something someones sneezed on. 8. Through the air cough/ sneezes 9. By a vector malaria and mosquitoes

Stages of an infectious disease.

Earthquakes and flooding cause disruption to water and sewage supplies breakdown in the electricity supply so there is no refrigeration and food decays quickly damaged roads and transport systems so health workers cannot get to the people to treat them communications destroyed Some diseases that can be caused are cholera (broken sewage pipes), dysentery (broken sewage pipes) and food poisoning (not fridge = decaying food). Stages of an infectious disease Pasteur Showed microbes turned wine into vinegar By heating wine you kill the microbes that cause this Microbes cause disease by being passed from one to another Carbolic acid in operations as a disinfectant. Chemical used to kill microbes on skin Mould (Penicillium) killed bacteria Florey and Chain mass produced it, extract antibiotic.

7. Pathogen enters your body, (e.g. throat) 8. Incubation Period - pathogen reproduces rapidly and numbers increase but there are not symptoms because not enough of the pathogen 9. Immune system starts to respond. 10. Pathogen produced toxins 11. Symptoms affect you (sore throat, fever) depending on type of pathogen.

Lister Fleming

Antibiotics and Antiseptics Antibiotics can be swallowed or injected into the body, kill or slow growth of bacterium, dont harm the person. Antiseptics used outside the body, kill bacteria on the skin; kill bacteria on the surface of equipment.

B6c Microorganisms - factories for the future?

Yeast Yeast is classified in the kingdom of Fungi Yeast cells reproduce asexually by budding Fermentation is the breakdown of sugars by yeast in the absence of oxygen. Fermentation equation: Glucose ethanol (alcohol) + carbon dioxide C6H12O6 2C2H5OH + 2CO2 The factors that reduce the optimum rate of yeast are: o When there is little food (simple sugars, fructose, maltose) there for the yeast to digest o A very high temp (yeast die at over 40c) o A very low temp (yeast slow down) o pH is too alkaline of acidic of the yeast to work o The alcohol produced isnt removed, alcohol is a poison so will kill the yeast (above 12% and the yeast will die) The quantitative relationship between yeast growth and temperature = yeast growth rate doubles for every 10c rise in temperature, until above 40 (when the yeast starts to die) Yeast can undergo aerobic and anaerobic respiration. Fermentation only happens when there is not oxygen so if the yeast is doing aerobic respiration then there must be oxygen so fermentation cant happen, Drinks made by fermentation
1. 2. 3. 4. 5. Wine is made from grapes Beer is made from barley Cider is made from apples Saki is made from rice Rum is made from the sugar in molasses (sugar cane) 6. Vodka is made from digested potato starch 7. Malt Whisky is made from the sugar from barley. Brewing Process 1. Beer is made by malting and mashing the starch from the barley and convert to sugar 2. Hops are added for flavour 3. Water and yeast added and the mixture is kept warm 4. Fermentation a layer forms on the surface keeping out air and microbes 5. Clarification to get rid of the sediment and clear the mixture 6. The beer is pasteurised then casked or bottled.

How can yeast be used to treat water contaminated by sugars?

The yeast will break down the sugars, so the sugar will not be left in the water from food processing factories.

How are different strains of yeast useful to brewers?

Different strains of yeasts can tolerate different levels of alcohol, so some yeast will be able to make a more concentrated beer. Pasteurisation Pasteurisation is heating the mixture up and cooling fast to kill any of the remaining yeast so that no more fermentation can happen It is needed because otherwise fermentation would occur and the casks and bottle would burst which is dangerous

Distillation Pure alcohol is separated from the fermented sugar by boiling and condensing the vapours (the alcohol has a lower boiling point). You need a license to be able to distil alcohol so you can make beer and wine at home but not vodka or whisky.

B6d Biofuels
Rotting
The waste gas produced from rotting organic material is biogas The type of organism that causes rotting is decomposing bacteria Different types of bacteria break down different things

Biogas
What is Biogas? o Methane (CH4), CO2, H2, N and HS (Hydrogen Sulphide) o HS comes from proteins How is Biogas produced? 1. Anaerobic bacteria turn the organic material into methanol, hydrogen, formic acid and ethanoic acid 2. Methanogenic turn the mixture into methane and carbon dioxide How can it be produced on a large scale?

1. Waste is put into the digester 2. The Biogas is collected in the gas holder. 3. Pathogenic material cannot survive in the digester so the sludge can be used as a fertiliser Why is Biogas used in certain remote parts of the world? o The people living there do not have access to electricity or gas so they have to make their own. China has millions of villages run on biogas. Sources and uses of Biogas o Uses 1. Burned to create electricity 2. Burned to produce hot water and steam for central heating 3. Used as a fuel for buses o Sources 1. Cow Dung 2. Human Waste 3. Vegetable Matter Methane content in Biogas o Biogas that contains more than 50% methane burns easily o Biogas that contains about 10% methane is explosive Why is Biogas production affected by temperature? o At low temperatures the bacteria reproduce slowly and the gas production is reduced o At high temperature (60 or over) the enzymes are denatured and the bacteria die o Optimum temperature is between 35 and 45 o If there is oxygen present no biogas is produced (only water and carbon dioxide are) Advantages of Biofuels over Fossil Fuels Biofuels Fossil Fuel Once burned more can be Takes millions of years to grown, it is a sustainable be made resource Return the same amount Add carbon dioxide to the of CO2 to the air as it took atmosphere to grow it (carbon neutral) Methane is a greenhouse Produces other polluting gas but Biofuels are gases overall cleaner Dont produce Particulates can cause particulates so are less health issues dangerous to your health. How is gasohol made and used in countries such as Brazil? The sugarcane is milled and pressed This makes a sugary juice (garapa) and a fibrosis residue called bagasse The Garapa is fermented to make alcohol The Bagasse is burned to make electricity Disadvantages of Biofuels Less land to grow food if used to grow Biofuels Decreases biodiversity Countries cutting down rainforests so increased pollution.

B6e The Fertile Soil

Main Components of Soil
Rock Particles Dead Organic Material Water Air

Why do most plants rely on soil?

They need the soil for water They need oxygen They need the minerals from the soil

Groups of Living Organism that Soil Contains

Herbivores (slugs, snails and wireworms), eat plant material Detritivores (earthworms, millipedes, springtails), feed on dead organic material Carnivores (centipedes, spiders and ground beetles) feed on other animals

Chemical Elements that are recycled in the soil

Carbon the basis for all organic molecules Sulphur and Phosphorus used to make proteins. Without Phosphorus plants couldnt make DNA, respire or photosynthesize Nitrogen essential in the production of plant protein

Food Web in the Soil

Slugs, snails and millipedes (Herbivores) feed on the grass. Springtails and Woodlice (Detritivores) feed on the dead leaves. Centipedes, spiders and Ground Beetles (Carnivores) eat the slugs, springtails, snails, millipedes and woodlice. Wireworms and earthworms eat the dead leaves and the soil (Detritivores)

Factors that limit soil organism populations

Soil is too acidic plants are unable to take up minerals. You add lime to neutralise the pH and make minerals available to the plants Heavy, waterlogged soil oxygen is kept out of the soil. You aerate the soil by making holes, adding compost and gravel. This helps oxygen enter and water drain. Infertile Soil mixing up the soil layers, stirs up and mixes in humus (decaying organic matter) which is broken down by fungi and bacteria to improves the soil fertility

Why does some life in the soil depend on oxygen and water?
Oxygen is needed for respiration Water is needed for chemical reactions and to enable plant roots to take up minerals

Darwins Ideas about Earthworms in Agriculture

Earthworms come to the surface when you stamp on the soil or it rains, they drag leaves down their burrows Used a wormery to see this He realised the importance of Earthworms in improving the structure of the soil and fertility.

Importance of Earthworms in Soil Structure and Fertility

Earthworms bury organic matter for decomposition by fungi and bacteria They aerate and drain the soil with their burrows They mix the layers in the soil up by burrowing They help neutralise the acid soil, Earthworm poo is less acidic that the soil they live in

Role of different types of Bacteria in the Nitrogen Cycle

Saprophytic Soil Bacteria Nitrifying Bacteria Nitrogen Fixing Bacteria Denitrifying Bacteria Decompose Dead Organic matter, TURN IT INTO AMMONIA Live in the soil, TURN AMMONIA INTO NITRATES Can live in the soil or root nodules. TURN NITROGEN GAS INTO NITRATES Usually in waterlogged soils. TURN NITRATES INTO NITROGEN GAS. Decomposers Nitrobacter and Nitrosomonas Azotobacter and Clostridium Rhizobium (in root nodules) Pseudomonas

B6f A Watery Life

How does Pollution and Acid Rain Affect Aquatic Microorganisms
Pollution makes the water have less dissolved oxygen so less organisms are able to survive Acid Rain makes the water acidic; some microbes need a specific pH to survive.

Advantages of Living in Water

No problems of water shortage or dehydration Easy waste disposal the water washes it away Less variation in temperature (due to a high SHC), so less energy needed to maintain body temperature. Organisms have more support of their body so you can grow bigger.

Difference between Phytoplankton and Zooplankton

Phytoplanktons are microscopic plants that do photosynthesis to make food. Zooplanktons are microscopic organisms.

Main Producers in Aquatic Food Chains

Phytoplankton are the main producers

Seasonal Variations Shown in the Growth in Plankton

The size of a plankton depends on light, temperature and availability of nutrients More light in summer and spring means more phytoplankton, so more for the other planktons to eat Warmer temperatures in summer mean faster growth of all plankton Ocean currents move nutrients, warm or cold water. Storms make more cold water added. Algal blooms happen when there is a rapid increase in the amount of Plankton caused by warmer water, more light and storm bringing nutrients.

Pollution Source
Pesticides and fertiliser cause eutrophication. Sewage, oil and PCBs cannot be broken down in the food chain so build up in the animals at the top of the food chain.

Problems of Water Balance Caused by Osmosis

If the body fluid of an animal is more concentrated that its surroundings, water will enter by osmosis so their bodies swell up. The extra water then has to be removed The reverse happens if the liquid is more concentrated than the body fluid, their cells shrivel and die

Action of Contractile Vacuoles in Amoeba

The singled-celled organisms pump the surplus water into a contractile vacuole The vacuole empties when it is full.

How fertiliser and sewage run off can cause Eutrophication

1. Nutrients are washed into the water by rain 2. They cause a rapid growth of algae, algal bloom which cuts of the light for the creatures at the bottom 3. Plants die because of lack of light, the plants are decayed by bacteria 4. The bacteria use up the oxygen in the water, which causes the oxygen levels to drop 5. The animals die because they cannot respire.

Problems of Salmon moving from salt water to fresh water

When the salmon is at sea (when they are young until they mature) they lose water by osmosis and produce little urine (to reduce water loss) When they enter fresh water (when they are mature they breed and die) they produce lots of dilute urine, to get rid of excess water. They also secrete mucus to stop water entering their body.

Indicator organisms for pH and oxygen

The number of species of the indicator organisms show how clean or polluted the water is Mayfly and stonefly larvae only live in very clean water Freshwater shrimps and water lice only tolerate some pollution Bloodworms and rat-tailed maggots only like

Effect of PCBs and DDTs on Whales

The chemicals are absorbed by the plankton and are passed up the food chain The chemicals become concentrated in fats and are not broken down There is a high concentration in the top carnivores whic can cause cancer, liver damage and death

B6g Enzymes in Action

Everyday uses of Enzymes
Enzymes are in biological washing powders to get rid of food stains To make sugar sweeter To make the soft-centre in some chocolates

The pH and Temperature where biological washing powders work best

pH about 7.5, acidic and alkaline water make the active site of the enzyme change. Washing Soda makes the water alkaline so stops the enzymes working Temperature because enzymes are proteins high temperature changes the shape of the active site so denatures them. Too low and they work very slowly. Optimum temperature is 30-40 degrees Celsius.

How and Why Diabetics test their urine for glucose

HOW Using a regent strip (a strip of paper with enzymes and chemical in them), changes colour if there is glucose present WHY too see if there is sugar in their urine

What is meant by a immobilised enzyme?

An immobilised enzyme is an enzyme attached to something like a sheet of metal or plastic and even surrounding the enzyme is a permeable jelly called alginate beads. This allows them to be removed from the mixture when the reaction is done. Or a continuous reaction if the alginate beads are used.

Example of immobilised enzymes

In regents strips an immobilised enzyme is used to check the amount of sugar in the blood by changing colour depending on how much glucose is on the blood

Types of Enzymes used in Biological Washing Powders

Types of Enzyme Lipase Protease Amylase The types of stain Fats and Oils Proteins Carbohydrates such as starch The Soluble Product (which can easily be washed out) Fatty Acids and Glycerol Amino Acids Simple Sugars (usually glucose)

How Sucrose can be broken down

Sucrose is a disaccharide (made out of two simple sugars fructose and glucose Sucrase and water make sucrose into glucose and fructose. C12H22O11 + H2O C6H12O6 + C6H12O6 Sucrose + Water Sucrase Glucose + Fructose Glucose and Fructose are much sweeter than sucrose (used in food industry to make things sweet without soo many calories because little sugar is needed for the same sweetness) Soft Centred Chocolates, sucrase is used to make sucrose to make it slightly softer.

Advantage of Immobilising Enzymes

The product is not contaminated with the enzymes Enzymes in alginate beads can be used in continuous flowing process, which is convenient and cost effective than treating separate batches of liquid. Can be reused, without having to separate from the mix.

How is lactose-free milk made?

The enzyme, lactase, is mixed with a solution of sodium alginate This mixture is dripped into a solution of calcium chloride where it forms beads of immobilised enzyme Milk is passed through the beads, the lactase is turned into glucose and galactose. The milk is not contaminated by the enzyme and the enzyme is not lost because it is in the

Why is lactose-free milk useful

Some people and cats cannot digest lactose (which is in cows milk) If the people drink milk it travels through the gut into the large intestine where it is fermented by bacteria to form lots of gas The undigested lactose interferes with the absorption of water in the colon so can cause diarrhoea.

B6h Genetic Engineering

Where is DNA found?
DNA is found in the nucleus of the cell, in the genes which are in the chromosomes.

What is meant by genetic engineering?

Moving genes from one organism to another It alters the genetic code of one organism by inserting different genes into it Uses of Genetic Engineering o Making insulin o Genetic modified crops

What is meant by genetic code?

The sequence of bases that code for the amino acids to make a new living organism The genetic code is a universal code, it codes for the same in all living things.

The Main Stages of Genetic Engineering

1. Extraction of DNA 1. Cells containing the require gene are broken to release their DNA 2. The DNA is mixed with restriction enzymes 2. Cutting the DNA with enzymes 1. The restriction enzymes cut the DNA at a specific point. 3. Isolating the Gene 1. Ligase enzymes are used to stick the DNA into the recipient DNA 4. Inserting the Gene 1. The genes are put into the host cell 2. Some of the cells take up the gene, when they divide the daughter cells have been transformed 5. Replicating the Gene (large numbers of the cells can be cultivated by cloning

Example Genetic Engineered Crops and How they are better

Golden Rice has vitamin A in it (because an Asia diet lacks vitamin A), the rice now produces the gene so the Asians havent got a vitamin A deficient diet.

What is a Transgenic Organism?

An organism that contains DNA from different species e.g. bacteria contains DNA to make human insulin.

How can Bacteria be used to produce human insulin

1. 2. 3. Extraction of the insulin gene Gene for producing human insulin is identified The gene is extracted from the DNA using restriction enzymes Insertion of gene into a plasmid The plasmids (rings of DNA) are cut open Human insulin gene is inserted in the plasmid Transgenic bacteria cultured The plasmid containing the insulin gene is returned to the bacteria using Ligase enzymes Transgenic bacteria are cloned and grown in huge fermenters 4. Human Insulin is Harvested Insulin is extracted from the transgenic bacteria and purified for diabetics to use

Restriction Enzymes and Ligase Enzymes

Restriction Enzymes cut the DNA at a certain place, the same restriction enzymes are used to cut the DNA in the organism that will gain the gene. Ligase Enzymes are used as the glue to stick the cut gene into the recipient DNA.

Methods used to check that the new gene has be transferred

Assaying Technique o The new gene is attached to a marker gene (e.g. bioluminescence gene that cause glow in the dark or gene that causes anti biotic resistance) o Not all of the genes splice correctly but the ones that do will glow in the dark or have antibiotic resistance. Disadvantages of Genetic Engineering Do not know enough about genetic engineering which could cause unexpected allergic reaction when the food is eaten and human illness Pest resistance may spread to wild plants Lasting environmental damage The people who make the animals and crops will say that they own them and only distribute them to people they like.

Advantages of Genetic Engineering Produces crops which can resist draught, need less fertiliser, make their own pesticides and produce a greater yield. Can make chemical, e.g. human without killing animals Can help humans who have diets deficient in certain trace elements Faster than selective breeding