A Study of the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Selected Demographics of West Virginia Teachers and Their Intent

to Stay in the Teaching Profession

Kevin Joe Smith

Dissertation submitted to the College Of Human Resources and Education at West Virginia University In partial fulfillment of the requirements For the degree of

Doctor of Education In Educational Leadership

Paul A. Leary, Ed.D., Chair Teresa L. Eagle, Ed.D. Ernest R. Goeres, Ph.D. John Hough, Ph.D. David M. Specht, O.D.

Department of Leadership Studies

Morgantown, West Virginia 2002

Keywords: Job Satisfaction, Intent to Stay, Teacher Attrition Copyright 2002 Kevin Joe Smith

Abstract A Study of the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Selected Demographics of West Virginia Teachers and Their Intent to Stay in the Teaching Profession by Kevin Joe Smith The purpose of this study was to examine the relationships between job satisfaction and selected demographics of West Virginia teachers and their intent to stay in the teaching profession. Teacher demographics collected included age, number of dependent children, type of educator, grade level, subjects taught, education level, teaching experience, and household income. Teacher intent to stay in the teaching profession, teacher demographics, and overall job satisfaction were both collected using the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory. Intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfactions were assessed using the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale. The Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory and the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale were mailed to a randomly selected sample of West Virginia public school teachers. General and special educators were both included in the sample of n = 243 teachers. Responses were received from 166 (68%) teachers. Data analysis revealed that gender, grade level taught, intrinsic job satisfaction, extrinsic job satisfaction, and overall job satisfaction had significant statistical relationships with intent to stay in the teaching profession. Female teachers were more likely than male teachers to express a strong intent to stay in teaching. Elementary teachers expressed stronger intent to stay in teaching than secondary teachers did. All measures of job satisfaction, intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction, were found to have statistically significant relationships with a teachers intent to stay in the teaching profession.

Acknowledgements Completing this dissertation has been a lengthy process, requiring a great deal of hard work and the support of many family members, friends, and professors. Those who supported my endeavor with encouragement, guidance, and belief in my capabilities should be recognized. To my dear wife, Rosalind, whose support and reassurance has been unwavering during the last three years. Writing this dissertation would have been impossible without her love and support. To my sons Nathanael and Joshua, who always took the time to ask how I was progressing and offer encouragement. To my brother, Jeff, for words of advice gleaned from working on his dissertation. Thanks for the advice and constant encouragement. To my mother, Maxine Smith, who kept me in her prayers and offered daily words of support. To Ferrell Mills, my principal, and Mike Rutherford, my co-assistant principal, for words of encouragement and always being flexible when I needed time off to drive to South Charleston for classes and meetings. To Dr. Paul Leary, my chairman, for his encouragement, knowledge and expertise that guided me to the completion of this dissertation. I wish that I could have had your knowledge and expertise when I wrote my masters thesis. To my committee members, Dr. Ernest Goeres, Dr. Teresa Eagle, Dr. John Hough, and Dr. David Specht, thank you for the time and effort you put into providing me with helpful guidance.

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Table of Contents Abstract Acknowledgements Table of Contents List of Tables Chapter 1 Introduction Background Characteristics of Teachers Gender Age Number of Dependent Children Type of Educator Grade Level Special Educators Subjects Taught Education Level Experience Salary Job Satisfaction Teacher Satisfaction Motivation Factors of Teachers Hygiene Factors of Teachers ii iii iv viii 1 1 3 5 5 6 6 7 8 8 9 10 11 11 12 14 15 16

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Teacher Retention Problem Statement Operational Definitions Significance of the Study Limitations and Assumptions Chapter 2 Review of the Literature Introduction Characteristics of Teachers Gender Age Number of Dependent Children Type of Educator Grade Level Subjects Taught Educational Level Experience Salary Job Satisfaction Teacher Satisfaction Hygiene Factors of Teachers Motivation Factors of Teachers Teacher Retention

18 20 21 23 24 26 26 26 28 28 29 31 32 34 35 37 38 39 41 46 46 51 56

Summary Chapter 3 Methodology Population and Sample Instrumentation Methods Data Analysis Summary Chapter 4 Presentation and Analyses of the Data Descriptive Data Major Findings Research Question One Research Question Two Research Question Three Research Question Four Research Question Five Research Question Six Research Question Seven Research Question Eight Research Question Nine Research Question Ten Research Question Eleven

57 59 59 59 60 61 63 64 66 66 66 67 67 68 69 70 71 73 74 75 76 78 78

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Research Question Twelve Ancillary Findings Chapter Summary Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations Purpose of the Study Summary of the Procedures Descriptive Data Summary of Findings Conclusions Ancillary Findings Implications Recommendations for Further Research References Appendices Appendix A Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory Appendix B Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale Appendix C Cover Letter Appendix D Reminder Post Card Appendix E Panel of Experts Curriculum Vitae

81 83 85 88 88 88 89 91 92 93 99 101 106 109 127 128 131 133 135 137 139

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List of Tables Table 1 Correlation Analysis of Intrinsic Job Satisfaction and Intent to Stay Table 2 Correlation of Extrinsic Job Satisfaction and Intent to Stay Table 3 Correlation Analysis of Overall Job Satisfaction and Intent to Stay Table 4 Frequencies and Percentages of Female and Male Respondents Table 5 Frequencies and Percentages of Respondents by Age Table 6 Correlation Analysis of Age and Intent to Stay Table 7 Frequencies and Percentages of the Number of Dependent Children Living in a Teachers Home Table 8 Correlation Analysis of the Number of Dependent Children Living in a Teachers Home and Intent to Stay Table 9 Mean Score for the Type of Educator and Intent to Stay Table 10 Mean Score of Grade Level Taught and Intent To Stay Table 11 Frequencies and Percentages of Subjects Taught Table 12 Correlation Analysis of Classes Taught and Intent to Stay Table 13 Correlation Analysis of Degree Level and Intent to Stay Table 14 Frequencies and Percentages of Teaching Experience Table 15 Frequencies and Percentage of Inexperienced and Experienced Teachers Table 16 Correlation Analysis of Years of Teaching Experience and Intent to Stay Table 17 Frequencies and Percentages of Household Incomes Table 18 Correlation Analysis of Household Income and Intent to Stay Table 19 Correlation Between Ancillary Findings and Intent to Stay 74 75 76 77 77 78 79 80 80 82 82 84 73 68 68 69 70 72 72

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Chapter 1 Introduction The loss of teacher talent has been a serious problem for American schools for a number of years. McQuinn (1957) reported in the American School Board Journal that 40.4% of school board presidents listed teacher turnover as a major problem. A 1999 article in the American School Board Journal again cited staffing as a major issue in most school districts, noting that increasing the rate of teacher attrition is a greater problem than teacher recruitment. (Hardy, 1999). Approximately 7% of the teachers in Americas schools leave the profession annually. Another 7% will change teacher jobs each year (Hardy, 1999). The combination of attrition and within-field migration has a negative impact on the continuity of education across the United States. Corporations in the United States expect to lose about 6% of their employees each year. High tech companies may easily lose 30% of their workforce annually (Norton, 1999). While the numbers vary, it is estimated that as high as 25% of teachers will leave the profession in their first year, with only 50% remaining after five years (Norton, 1999; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Shann, 1998). With the estimated replacement cost at 25% of each persons salary, the cost to school districts is immense. More important than the monetary cost is the price of the intellectual capital lost as teachers leave the profession (Norton, 1999, p. 52). In the next 10 years, American schools will need to hire approximately two million new teachers. Estimates are that only about 100,000 teachers per year will enter the profession during this period (Gursky, 2001; Hope, 1999). Teacher shortages are not

uniform across the United States. Various social, economic, and political forces influence teachers desire to stay or leave teaching positions and the ability of school districts to attract and retain qualified teachers. With the average starting salary for new teachers at $26,639 and an average of $37,194 for other college graduates, attracting and retaining quality teachers is a challenge for school districts nationwide (Gursky, 2001). While thousands of new teachers graduate from colleges each year, only 15% prefer teaching positions in urban areas with high racial diversity and low socioeconomic status (Melnick & Zeichner, 1998; Zeichner & Hoeft, 1996). Rural school districts encounter more difficulty recruiting and retaining teachers than urban areas (Tatel, 1999). The majority of new teachers prefer suburban school districts (Haberman, 1992; National Commission, 1996). Struggles to hire experienced and qualified personnel are similar in business. Rural areas are less desirable to many employees, forcing businesses to hire inexperienced workers to fill positions in rural locations. New graduates compose 43% of new hires in rural research laboratories compared to a 6 % average in research laboratories nation wide (Cappelli, 2000). Teacher shortages have resulted in many districts adopting policies that permit the hiring of uncertified teachers or using alternative certification to fill their classrooms. Uncertified and novice teachers lack the pedagogical skills necessary to maximize student performance in the classroom (Clarridge, 1990; Feiman-Nemser, 2000; Westerman, 1991). The retention of qualified teachers is essential if students are to receive adequate academic preparation.

Background Literature dealing with teacher career choices and the intent of teachers to remain in teaching is abundant. Despite the abundance of literature, no clear nomenclature describing teacher career choices and the intent of teachers to remain in teaching exists. Adams and Dial (1994) noted that these topics occur under several titles in the literature: (a) teacher retention; (b) teacher turnover; (c) teacher burnout; (d) teacher survival; and (e) teacher attrition. Attracting and retaining excellent teachers is of interest to all school systems. The problems of attracting and retaining excellent teachers are most challenging in underresourced areas (Tatel, 1999, p. 37). Under-resourced schools characteristically serve economically poor students who have social and academic problems. Often these schools lack optimal supplies and facilities (Tatel, 1999, p. 37). Many of the urban and rural school districts in the United States fall into the under-resourced category. Relative to teacher retention, West Virginia schools fall into the under-resourced category due to the states rural nature and the high incidence of poverty. According to United States Census data, West Virginia is the second most rural state in the United States (Carney, 1999). According to the 1999 United States Census, 16.7 %of West Virginian live in poverty compared to 12.6 % average for the nation. These two factors combine to make teacher recruitment and retention difficult (Haberman, 1992; The National Commission, 1996). Several researchers have studied the intent of teachers to stay in teaching in urban areas, but little research has been done about the intent of teachers in rural areas to stay in the teaching profession. Job satisfaction and the intention to leave teaching were highly

correlated among the urban teachers surveyed (Adams & Dial, 1994; Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Tatel, 1999). Billingsley and Cross (1991) investigated attrition among West Virginia public school teachers and found that most of the attrition was the result of teachers transferring from special to general education. A majority (60.4%) of the special and general educators in the study expressed dissatisfaction with non-instructional aspects of their job (e.g. paperwork). Over 66.8 % of the respondents expressed satisfaction with the instructional aspects of their job. Teacher attrition is not as high as it was in the 1960s and 1970s, but it continues to be the dominating factor determining the demand for additional teachers in the United States. Six percent of full-time public school teachers who taught during the 1993-1994 school year left teaching before the beginning of the 1994-1995 school year. Three out of ten left due to retirement. Attrition rates were highest among teachers aged 60 and older and among teachers aged 25-29 (Wirt, J., Choy, S. P., Yupin, B., Sable, J., Gruner, A., Stennett, J., & Perie, M., 1999). West Virginia had 1,408 educators eligible for retirement in 2000. For the years 2001 through 2009, the number of eligible retirees will increase steadily from 577 to 1,418. Although the need for teachers in West Virginia parallels the states decline in population, the need to recruit and retain excellent teachers is urgent. Of the 216.5 positions not filled for the 2000-2001, 53% were not filled due to a lack of qualified applicants. For the 2000-2001 school year, 1,217.9 West Virginia teachers did not return. The two largest groups of non-returning teachers were retirees (555.49) and teachers who resigned to accept positions in other states (166.0) (Educational Personnel, 2001). Non-

returning teachers exhibit several common characteristics that will be discussed in the following section. Characteristics of Teachers Gender Previous research of teachers and other public employees has shown a relationship between gender and employee retention (Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; George & George, 1995; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; Schonfeld, 2000; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1998; Xin Ma & MacMillian, 1999). Crewson (1997) found that male employees and managers leave public employment at a higher rate than female employees. Xin Ma and MacMillan (1999) found positive correlations between gender and retention of elementary school teachers in New Brunswick, Canada. Researchers in Malta found female teachers more likely to remain in teaching than their male colleagues (Borg & Riding, 1991). Studies in Michigan and North Carolina revealed that gender was an important determinant in the length of a teachers career, with females more likely to remain in teaching than males (Murnane & Olsen, 1990; Murnone & Schwinden, 1989; Murnane, Singer & Willett, 1989). A study of general and special educators in Virginia found females are more likely to remain in teaching than their male counterparts (Billingsley & Cross, 1992). In a study of West Virginia educators, researchers found that white females expressed a higher intent to stay in teaching than other West Virginia teachers (Singh & Billingsley, 1996).

Age Age has been strongly associated with teachers staying or leaving the teaching profession. Younger teachers are the most likely to leave the teaching profession (Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991, 1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; George & George, 1995; Heck & Wolcott, 1997; Murnane, Singer, & Willett, 1989; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1998; Xin Ma & MacMillian, 1999). Boe and Bobbitt (1997) found that higher attrition occurs in teachers younger than or older than the 30 to 49 age group. They found age to be the strongest and most reliable demographic variable related to attrition. When considered together, teacher age and attrition consistently produces a U-shaped function for both general education and special education teachers. The U-shaped curve illustrates the high attrition rate among young teachers, new to the teaching profession and older teachers near retirement at each end of the curve. The middle of the U-shaped curve indicates low attrition rates among middle-aged teachers (Baker & Smith, 1997; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Brock & Grady, 1998; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Darling-Hammond & Sclan, 1996; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987; Heck & Wolcott, 1997; Murnane, Singer, & Willet, 1988; Singer, 1993). Number of Dependent Children In a survey of 23 countries, mostly industrialized, widespread agreement existed, despite cultural differences, that married women should work, but that mothers of young children should reduce their labor force involvement (Treas & Widmer, 2000, pp. 409437). Heyns (1988) found that women with children were more likely to remain in teaching or to reenter teaching than unmarried women or women without children.

Teachers, both female and male, who gained one or more minor dependents were more likely to leave the teaching profession. Analysis of general educators and special educators, both male and female, showed that teacher turnover increased among teachers with children under the age of six (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997). Type of Educator An increase in teacher turnover has been forecast for both general and special educators since the 1980s (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997). Shortages of special educators have been a growing concern due to the implications for special needs children. Personnel shortages and turnovers lead to insufficient and inadequate services (Billingsley, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Brownell & Smith, 1992; Smith-Davis & Billingsley, 1983). A mixture of observed relationships between predictor variables and teacher turnover relative to special education and general education teachers exists in the literature. Boe and Bobbitt (1997) found that teacher age and salary were the only statistically significant predictors for special education teacher turnover. Other studies have found few significant differences that act as reliable predictors of teacher turnover between special education and general education teachers (Boe, Bobbitt, Cook, Whitener, & Weber, 1994). Several investigations have found that special education teachers showed less stress and slightly higher job satisfaction than the general education teachers (Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Sutton & Huberty, 1984). Another study of special educators reported low levels of job satisfaction among the respondents, indicating that 36.5 % of teachers of students with emotional disorders intended to leave the teaching field in the next year. The same study found that 10.4 % of the teachers of students with emotional

disorders were unsure about how long the would continue their teaching career (George & George, 1995; George, George, Gersten, & Grosenick, 1995). Grade Level The literature is mixed on the effect that the grade level a teacher works at has on the teachers intent to stay in the teaching profession. A study of North Carolina and Michigan teachers indicated that secondary teachers were more likely to leave the teaching profession than elementary teachers (Murnane, Singer, Willett, & Olsen, 1991). Brownell & Smith (1992) note that in some cases elementary teachers leave at higher rates than secondary. Using data from the 1987-1988 Schools and Staffing Survey administered by the National Center for Education Statistics, Boe and Bobbitt (1997) found little difference between the attrition rates of elementary and secondary public school teachers. Elementary teachers had an attrition rate of 6.1 % and secondary teachers had a rate of 5.9%. Returning teachers are a major source of teacher supply for school districts (Murnane, Singer, & Willet, 1989). Elementary teachers who leave teaching are more likely to return to the teaching profession than former secondary teachers (Heyns, 1988; Murnane, et al., 1989). Returning teachers are also more likely to be female than male and to have lower scores on the National Teachers Exam than non-returning, former teachers (Murnane, et al., 1989). Special Educators Special educators are employed at all levels of public education K-12. A great deal of literature has explored the intention of special education teachers to stay in the teaching profession. Singer (1992) conducted a 13-year, longitudinal study of special

education teachers in two states. Results of the study indicated that teachers of students with emotional disabilities teach a median of five to six years at the secondary level and six to seven years at the elementary level before leaving the teaching profession or taking a job as a general educator. Teachers of elementary students with learning disabilities teach a median of 9.5 years. Brownell, Smith, and Miller (1994) reported that the attrition rate for teachers of students with emotional disorders was nearly double that of teachers in other teaching areas. George and George (1995), surveying teachers of students with emotional behaviors, reported that 53 % of the elementary teachers, 16 % of the middle school teachers, and 24 % of the high school teachers expressed a desire to leave the field. Subjects Taught As the number of students grows in the United States toward an estimated 52.7 million students, finding qualified teachers becomes more difficult. Often the more academically qualified teachers leave teaching (Darling-Hammond, 1984, 2000; Mark & Anderson, 1985; Murnane, Singer, & Willett, 1989; Rhodda, 2000; Schlechty & Vance, 1983). The more highly qualified former teachers are, the less likely they will return to the profession (Murnane et al, 1989). New York needed 3,000 teachers the week before school opened in 1997. In 1998, New York recruited teachers from abroad to help fill in specialty areas. They imported seven Spanish teachers from Spain and 24 math and science teachers from Austria. Math, Science, and Spanish positions are the most difficult for New York to fill (Chaddock & Baldauf, 1998). The Southern Regional Education Board found that the shortage of teachers is often subject related. Math teachers, for example, can sometimes triple their salary in the computer industry (Rhodda, 2000). A

study in Michigan revealed that chemistry and physics teachers were more likely to leave after a few years of teaching than biology and social studies teachers (Murnane, 1987). Another study in North Carolina found that math and social studies teachers were more likely to remain in teaching after one or two years than chemistry, physics, biology, and English teachers (Murnane, Singer, & Willett, 1989). The National Science Teachers Association recently surveyed 5,000 middle school and high school science teachers. When asked if they were considering leaving the teaching profession, 32% of the respondents with one to three years of experience responded yes. Thirty-seven percent of the teachers with four to six years of experience, 33% of the teachers with seven to nine years of experience, and 37 % of the teachers with 10-15 years of experience affirmed that they were considering leaving the teaching profession. In all four of the age categories, the primary reason for science teachers to consider leaving the profession was their dissatisfaction with teaching. The second leading reason for the teachers to consider leaving the profession was to pursue another career (NSTA, 2000). Education Level Studies on the relationship between education level and intent to stay in the teaching profession are mixed. A study by Billingsley and Cross (1992) found no significant relationship between education level and teachers commitment to the profession. Other studies showed an indirect effect between education level and commitment to stay in the profession through employability (Cross & Billingsley, 1994; Singh & Billingsley, 1996). Adams and Dial (1994) found that teachers with graduate degrees were more likely to remain in the teaching field than teachers with a bachelors

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degree. Heyns (1988) also found that current teachers were significantly more likely to have graduate training and advanced degrees. Teachers with advanced degrees have a greater investment in their career and are more likely to stay (Bloland & Shelby, 1980; Dworkin, 1987). The high number of teachers with graduate degrees could reflect the linkage between salary and education level practiced by many school districts. The market appeal of a teachers specific degree outside of the teaching profession can be a factor in their intent to remain in the teaching profession. Teachers with degrees that are of less value outside of teaching are more likely to remain in teaching. Irrespective of destination or reason, teachers with professional postgraduate degrees are more likely to exit teaching (Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999). Experience Singh and Billingsley (1998) reported a negative correlation between teacher experience and their commitment to continue teaching. They noted that more experienced teachers frequently continue teaching for reasons unrelated to job commitment, such as accrued investments and lifestyle. Colarelli and Bishop (1990) noted that as individuals settle into a career they tend to in effect close off other career options. Bobbitt (1991) found that the highest attrition of teachers occurred among teachers with less than five years of experience. Using national data, Shen (1998) reported that teachers with less than three years of experience were more likely to leave teaching. Salary Positive correlations between salary and the retention of teachers have been noted by numerous researchers (Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Boe &

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Bobbitt, 1997; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Klein, 1997; Murnane & Olsen, 1990; Murnone & Vegas, 1997; Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Shann,1998; Shen,1998; Young, 1997). Results from a study by Dolton and van der Klaauw (1999) suggested that the greater the opportunity for higher wages outside of teaching, the more likely teachers will leave for alternative jobs. Conversely, the higher wages are in the teaching profession, the more likely career or family choices are to influence a teacher to stay in the profession. A study by Ballou and Podgursky (1997) supported other research that higher salaries would reduce teacher turnover, but would have the negative effect of increasing the retention of less effective teachers along with the more effective ones. Job Satisfaction Motivation and job satisfaction and their relationship to worker productivity and innovation have been studied at length (Herzberg, Mausner & Snyderman, 1959; Herzberg, 1968; Lawler, 1973; Maslow, 1954; Maslow, 1970; Porter, Lawler & Hackman, 1974; Vroom, 1964). Victor Vroom developed the expectancy theory in the mid-1960s. Vroom believed that all people follow a common thought process when evaluating opportunities. He concluded that three forces collectively determined an individuals motivation. The three forces are: 1. Valence: how attractive the goal is to the employee. 2. Expectancy: the degree to which the employee believes he can accomplish the goal. 3. Instrumentality: the belief by the employee that achieving a particular goal will produce a desired reward (Vroom, 1964).

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Expectancy theory concludes that job satisfaction is the result of a quality job performance by the employee (Guthrie & Reed, 1991; Hanson, 1979). The need hierarchy theories, such as those of Herzberg and Maslow, assumed that job satisfaction would create a quality job performance (Guthrie & Reed, 1991; Hanson, 1979). Based on his views that people seek to avoid pain and derive growth from tasks and research, Herzberg began to conduct research in businesses. In a study involving 200 accountants and engineers, Herzberg and his team asked their subjects to describe various job situations based on whether the situation caused them to feel very good or very bad. The results of this and similar studies, coupled with Herzbergs views about motivation, were used to develop the two-factor theory (Herzberg, et al., 1957; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Herzberg, 1966). The two sets of factors associated with the two-factor theory deal with job satisfaction and motivation. One set of factors, referred to as hygiene factors or dissatisfiers, such as salary and working conditions, is extrinsic. Hygiene factors can prevent job dissatisfaction when present, but often fail to promote substantial levels of job satisfaction on their own. The second set of factors, referred to as motivators or satisfiers, are intrinsic factors, such as motivation, responsibility, recognition, and achievement. These factors were found to satisfy workers needs of self-actualization leading to positive attitudes and job satisfaction (Herzberg, et al., 1957; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Herzberg, 1968). Based on the belief that hygiene factors and motivation factors are distinct and unipolar, Herzberg stated that the opposite of job satisfaction was not dissatisfaction, rather no satisfaction (Herzberg, et al., 1957; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1968). The

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two sets of factors, hygiene factors and motivation factors, functions along two independent continua. One continuum, hygiene factors, runs from dissatisfied to neutral. A second continuum, motivation factors, runs from satisfied to neutral (Herzberg, et al., 1957; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1968). Several interesting findings were postulated in the two-factor theory. One was that workers could be very satisfied and very dissatisfied simultaneously. The theory also implies those hygiene factors, such as an increase in salary, cannot increase worker satisfaction, only decrease their dissatisfaction (Herzberg, et al., 1957; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1968). Before Herzbergs work, little research had been done in the area of work motivation (Steers & Porter, 1975, p. 88). Laboratory findings or clinical observations formed the basis for most of the early motivation research, such as Maslows need hierarchy theory and Nurray, McClelland, and Atkinsons research on achievement motivation (Steer & Porter, 1975). Herzbergs research contributed significantly to the field of management organization by focusing attention on the impact of work itself as a factor influencing worker motivation and performance (Steers & Porter, 1975; Tosi, Mero, & Rizzo, 2000). Teacher Satisfaction In educational settings, job satisfaction is a present- and past-oriented affective state of like or dislike that results when an educator evaluates her or his work role (Hoy & Miskel, 1991, 392). Taylor and Tashaklori (1995) noted that teachers describe their job satisfaction in relation to how they feel about coming to work and the amount of success they feel when working with students.

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Motivation Factors of Teachers Teachers who express a high degree of job satisfaction are less likely to leave than highly dissatisfied teachers. March and Simon (1958) noted, the greater the individuals satisfaction with the job, the less the perceived desirability of movement (p. 94). Staying cognizant of the intrinsic merits of teaching allows administrators to help teachers stay in the profession (Shen, 1998). Both general and special education teachers are influenced by motivation factors present in Herzbergs (1968) theory (Adams & Dial, 1994; Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; George & George, 1995; Hope, 1999; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1994, 1997; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Norton, 1999; Shann, 1998; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Tatel, 1999; Xin Mia & MacMillan, 1999). Herzbergs (1968) two-factor theory listed a number of employee motivation factors. Studies have identified the following factors from the two-factor theory as potential motivators for teacher retention and attrition: achievement (Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Tatel, 1999); recognition (Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; George & George, 1995; Hope, 1999; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Scott, 1999;Shen, 1998); the work itself (Checkley & Kelly, 1999; George & George, 1995; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Norton, 1999;Shann, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Xin Mia & MacMillan, 1999); responsibility (12 Ways, 2001; George & George, 1995; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Norton, 1999; Singh & Billingsley, 1996); growth or

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advancement (Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991, 1992; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; George & George, 1995; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1994,1997; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Norton, 1999; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shen, 1998; Tatel, 1999; Xin Mia & MacMillan, 1999). Hygiene Factors of Educators General and special education fields have many of the potential hygiene factors identified by Herzbergs (1968) two-factor theory (Adams, 1999; Adams & Dial, 1994; Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991, 1992; Blair-Larsen & Bercik, 1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Brock & Grady, 1998; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Evans & Johnson, 1990; George & George, 1995; Hope, 1999; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Klein, 1997; Lankard, 1994; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1994,1997; Murnane & Olsen, 1990; Murnane & Vegas, 1997; Norton, 1999; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shann, 1998; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Tatel, 1999; Weasmet & Woods, 2000; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Xin Mia & MacMillan, 1999; Young, 1997). The Herzberg (1968) study indicated the following factors as hygienic in the work place: (a) company policy and administration; (b) supervision, interpersonal relationships; (c) working conditions; (d) salary; (e) status; and (f) job security. Numerous studies have identified the following factors as causes of dissatisfaction among educators: organizational policy and administration (Adams, 1999; Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Evans & Johnson, 1990; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993,

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1995; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Scott, 1999; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Singh & Billingsley, 1998); supervision (Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Brock & Grady, 1998; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; Eric Digest, 2000; Evans & Johnson, 1990; Hope, 1999; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Singh & Billingsley, 1998; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Xin Ma & Mac Millan, 1999); interpersonal relationships (Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Brock & Grady, 1998; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; Eric Digest, 2000; Hope, 1999; Lankard, 1994; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; NEA Today, 2000; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Singh & Billingsley, 1998; Tatel, 1999; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Weasmer & Woods, 2000); working conditions (Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; George & George, 1995; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Scott, 1999; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shann,1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Tatel, 1999; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Xin Ma & Mac Millan, 1999); salary (Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Klein, 1997; Murnane & Olsen, 1990; Murnone & Vegas, 1997; Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Shann,1998; Shen,1998; Young, 1997); status (Adams & Dial, 1994; Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der

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Klaauw, 1999; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Rhodes & Doering, 1993); and job security (Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Shann,1998). Motivators and hygiene factors together create an employees sense of job satisfaction. Herzberg (1968) found that of all the elements contributing to worker satisfaction, 81% were motivators. Examination of the elements that contributed to worker dissatisfaction found that 69% were related to hygiene factors. In turn, an employees job satisfaction is a primary influence associated with an employees intent to stay or leave a job (Bilingsley & Cross, 1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Evans & Johnson, 1990; George & George, 1995; Herzberg, 1958; Littrell & Billingsley, 1994; March & Simon, 1958; Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Schonfeld, 2000; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996, 1998; Shann, 1998; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999). Teacher Retention Educational researchers have exhibited a great interest in job satisfaction (Thompson & McNamara, 1997) and its effect on employee turnover (Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Green-Reese & Johnson, 1991; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shen, 1998; Thompson & McNamara, 1997; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999). The turnover of teachers has been a long time concern among general and special educators (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Henke, Choy, Geis, & Broughman, 1996). Teacher turnover leads to instability of the teaching force and increases the prospect of shortages of qualified replacements (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997). Universities and colleges in West Virginia continue to supply the state with more new education graduates than there are job opportunities (Educational Personnel, 2001). In this regard, public education is more fortunate than many other areas of the nation

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where the job opportunities exceed the number of applicants. Unfortunately, West Virginias good fortune at having an ample supply of teachers has been created by a decrease in public school enrollment of 18,639 students between 1997 and 2000. The declining student enrollment produced a net loss of 271 teachers between 1999 and 2000 (Educational Personnel, 2001). Shifting needs within the states school systems created 2,615 professional personnel vacancies in the 1999-2000 school year. The county school systems filled twothirds of these vacancies with educators already employed (Educational Personnel, 2001). While filling these positions with experienced educators provides expertise in the classroom, it minimizes the opportunities for new employees with new energy and ideas (Henke, et al., 1996). Competing demands for specific areas of expertise and the development of national and state policies demanding student preparation for the work place, some teaching specializations are in higher demand. Fourteen specializations were identified by the West Virginia Department of Education as being in critically short supply within the state. The five specialists in the critical need areas are Speech-Language Pathologists, Reading Specialists, School Counselors, School Nurses, and School Librarians/Media Specialists. In addition, teachers in the fields of Foreign Language, Physics, Chemistry, Biology, Mathematics, American Sign Language, English as a Second Language, Dance, and Theater are in short supply (Educational Personnel, 2001). During the 1999-2000 school year, West Virginia lost 772.99 educators. As expected, the majority of the non-returning educators (500.49) were retirees. The number of public educators eligible for retirement will decrease for 2000-2001 and then increase

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through 2009 (Educational Personnel, 2001). While retiring teachers take expertise out of the classroom, retirement is expected and somewhat predictable. The loss of teachers due to reductions in force associated with decreased enrollments and the migration of teachers out of state, often for higher wages, is difficult to forecast. Classroom teachers in West Virginia have an average salary of $35,888.36, among the lowest in the nation (Educational Personnel, 2001). For the 1999-2000 school year, the West Virginia lost 166 teachers to other state and 119.5 due to reductions in force (Educational Personnel, 2001). Given these facts, West Virginia schools must cut staff to accommodate a declining student population, while simultaneously trying to retain its best educators and attract a high quality workforce to replace those who leave the teaching profession. Problem Statement The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of selected demographics and perceived intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction have on the intent of West Virginia general and special educators to stay in the teaching profession. A review of the literature concerning the intent of general and special educators to stay in teaching and job satisfaction indicates that the following questions need to be addressed: 1. Is there a significant relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? 2. Is there a significant relationship between extrinsic job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? 3. Is there a significant relationship between overall job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession?

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4. Is there a significant relationship between the gender of teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? 5. Is there a significant relationship between the age of teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? 6. Is there a significant relationship between the number of dependent children living in teachers homes and the teachers intent to remain in the profession? 7. Is there a significant relationship between the type of educator teachers are and their intent to remain in the profession? 8. Is there a significant relationship between the grade level taught by teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? 9. Is there a significant relationship between the primary subjects taught by teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? 10. Is there a significant relationship between teachers education level and their intent to remain in the profession? 11. Is there a significant relationship between teachers years of experience and their intent to remain in the profession? 12. Is there a significant relationship between teachers household income and their intent to remain in the profession? Operational Definitions For the purpose of this study, the following definitions will be used: 1. Intrinsic job satisfaction - the teachers intrinsic job satisfaction score on the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale.

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2. Extrinsic job satisfaction the teachers extrinsic job satisfaction score on the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale. 3. Overall job satisfaction the teachers overall job satisfaction score on the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale. 4. Gender the gender (male or female) of the teacher as reported on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory. 5. Age the age (in years) of the teacher as reported on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory. 6. Number of children under the age of six, living at home the number of children living in the teachers home below the age of six as reported on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory. 7. General educator - any K-12 teacher teaching in a non-special education field as reported on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory. 8. Special educator any K-12 teacher teaching in a field considered as special education by the West Virginia Department of Education as reported on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory. 9. Grade level the primary grade level (K-12) that a teacher is assigned as reported on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory. 10. Subject the primary subject taught by a teacher as reported on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory. 11. Education level the highest degree completed by the teacher (bachelors, masters, masters plus, and doctorate) as reported on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory.

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12. Experience years of experience teaching at a K-12 institution as reported on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory.
13. Intent to stay the response of teachers on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory. 14. Related Arts this category includes both music and art teachers.

Significance of the Study Henri Fayol (1949) was among the initial proponents of universal administrative functions or principals of management. Fayol listed the essential elements of management as planning, organizing, commanding, coordinating, and controlling. Gulick (1937) later augmented Fayols list. He listed the seven tasks of administrators as planning, organizing, staffing, directing, coordinating, reporting, and budgeting (POSDCoRB). Information from this study will be useful to legislators involved in educational issues and school administrators at the state, regional, county, and local-level. Determining the degree to which teachers intend to stay and/or can be retained, is an important educational issue with implications at all levels of administration (Shen, 1998). Superintendents, supervisors, and principals face high recruitment and retraining costs as teachers leave their districts (Norton, 1999). As older teachers retire, the socialization of new teachers existing staffs is primarily the responsibility of the principals (Hope, 1999; Weasmer & Woods, 2000). Since inexperienced teachers leave at an unusually high rate, superintendents, supervisors, and principals need to implement induction programs that nurture inexperienced teachers (Hope, 1999; Kestner, 1994; Urzua, 1999; Weasmer & Woods, 2000). Recruiting teachers into the subjects area of math, science, and foreign languages is often difficult for administrators. As experienced teachers leave these areas,

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principals and personnel directors are often left with less competent replacements, uncertified replacements, and/ or unfilled positions. Knowledge from this study will allow principals to organize the structures of their schools to retain and attract teachers based on the intrinsic and extrinsic factors that influence job satisfaction for teachers. Superintendents and county boards can utilize knowledge of the factors effecting job satisfaction and their effect on teacher retention to create staff development that enhances job satisfaction among teachers. In addition, county personnel directors can employ the information from this study to develop new teacher induction programs that satisfy the intrinsic and extrinsic factors influencing teacher job satisfaction, increasing the retention of newly recruited teacher. Job satisfaction will improve the continuity of education programs at all levels by improving teacher attitudes and commitment, allowing the implementation of these programs by experienced and well-trained staffs. Limitations and Assumptions 1. The sample of special and general educators in public school was restricted to those currently teaching in West Virginia and may not generalized to public school teachers working in other states (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). 2. The study used a self-reporting questionnaire survey and was limited based on the accuracy of the participants responses (Kerlinger, 1964, p. 358). 3. The study was limited by the researchers inability to manipulate the independent variables (Kerlinger, 1964, p.358). 4. The study was limited by the researchers risk of improper interpretations (Kerlinger, 1964, p.358).

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5. The reliability and validity of the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale presents limitations on the study results. 6. The reliability and validity of the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory presents limitations on the study results.

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Chapter 2 Review of the Literature Introduction The primary purpose of this study will be to identify how selected personal factors (demographics) and job satisfaction influence the intent of teachers to remain in the teaching profession. A secondary purpose of this study will be to determine to what extent these variables are similar and dissimilar among general and special educators. The West Virginia Department of Education (Educational Personnel, 2000) reported that between 1997 and 2000 the number of West Virginia public school educators in West Virginia decreased from 24,524 in 1999 to 24,253 in 2000, a decline of 271 teachers. This loss of educators paralleled the trend of declining enrollment in West Virginias public schools. Between 1997 and 2000, West Virginias public schools had a net loss of 18,639 students. During the same period, West Virginias population of exceptional students increased by 1,822 students. Teacher attrition in public schools is a major factor undermining the quality and stability of education. Each year public schools are subject to a high staff turnover due to the reassignment of teachers within the district, teachers migrating to other districts, and teachers leaving the profession for other pursuits (Boe and Bobbitt, 1997). Several researchers have noted that teacher turnover is higher among special educators than among general educators (Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Bobbitt, Fauupel, & Burns, 1991; Educational Personnel, 2000; George & George, 1995). Combining national data on the turnover of special educators due to school reassignment, migration to other districts and those leaving the profession shows that

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21% of special educators will leave the school in which they had been teaching each year (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997). A national survey reported that the attrition rate among public school educators was 6.6 % for the school years 1993-1994 and 1994-1995 (Whitener, Gruber, Lynch, Tingos, Perona, & Fondelier, 1997). In a similar study, Hardy (1999) found that approximately 7% of the teachers in American schools leave teaching each year. Hardys study also found that an additional 7% of the teachers change teaching jobs each year. Nationally, of the approximately 200,000 teachers hired each year, 150,000 are either teachers returning to the profession or teachers transferring from another state. The remaining 50,000 are new graduates (Darling-Hammond, 2000, 2001). Colleges and universities graduate nearly 190,000 new teachers annually, enough to fill the vacancies, yet California alone has 40,000 teachers with emergency credentials or waivers. Poor salaries, unacceptable working conditions, and undesirable locations create teacher shortages across the United States, despite the presence of credentialed teachers (DarlingHammond, 2000, 2001). Of the 24,253 West Virginia public school educators employed in the 1999-2000 school year, 1,217.99 did not return to the classroom for the 2000-2001 school year. General educators accounted for 63.46% (772.99) of the non-returning educators. Nonreturning special educators totaled 12.97% (158) (Educational Personnel, 2000). The West Virginia Department of Education reported non-returning educators as follows: (a) 500.49 retired, (b) 15 deceased, (c) 119.5 terminated due to a reduction in force, (d) 14 terminated due to reasons other than reduction in force, (e) 166 resigned to accept an education position out-of-state, (f) 161 resigned accept a education position in West

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Virginia, (g) 46 resigned to accept employment in a non-education position in West Virginia, (h) 6 resigned to pursue full-time graduate studies, (i) 65.5 received a leave of absence, and (j) 131.5 reasons other or unknown (Educational Personnel, 2000). Characteristics of Teachers Numerous researchers have used personal factors as predictors of teachers who are more likely to stay in or leave the teaching profession. This study will examine the following personal factors about West Virginia educators: (a) gender, (b) age, (c) number of dependent children, (d) type of educator, (e) grade level taught, (f) subjects taught, (g) education level, (h) experience, and (i) salary. Gender Gender and employee retention have exhibited positive correlations in previous research of teachers and other public employees (Ball & Stenlund, 1990: Billingsley, 1993: Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997: Bolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; George& George, 1995; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; Schonfled, 2000; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1998; Xin Ma & MacMillian, 1999). In a study of public employees, Crewson (1997) observed that the greatest source of quality exits by federal employees was due to the loss of higher quality males and managers. The greatest source of quality exits from local governments was due to the loss of higher quality females and clerical staff (Crewson, 1997). Elementary school teachers are mostly female and largely viewed as a female profession. A study of elementary teachers found that 14% of the male elementary teachers planned to leave the classroom for administration within 5 years, opposed to only 3% of the female subjects (Klecker & Loadman, 1999). In a study of 1,098 recent

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education graduates, male elementary teachers reported the lowest job satisfaction, with female high school teachers reporting the highest job satisfaction. The job satisfaction of female elementary teachers and male high school teachers ranked between the two groups (Brookhart & Loadman, 1996). Surveying 207 Connecticut teachers, Ellis and Bernhart (1992) found that female teachers viewed their job as being of greater significance than their male counterparts. Female teachers expressed more satisfaction with the feedback they received, overall job satisfaction, quality of supervision, and found the challenges of teaching more satisfying. Several researchers have profiled the teachers most likely to leave public education as being single, male, high school teachers with less than 10 years of teaching experience (Bobbit, 1991; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995). Data from a North Carolina and Michigan study shows that young women are the most likely to leave teaching, while mature women are the most likely to stay (Murnane, Singer, Willett, Kemple, & Olsen, 1991). Age Numerous researchers have found strong association between a teachers age and the teachers intent to stay in teaching (Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; George & George, 1995; Heck & Wolcott, 1997; Murnane, Singer, & Willett, 1989; Shen, 1998; singh & Billingsley, 1998; Xin Ma & MacMillian, 1999). Typically, the highest attrition rates among teachers occur between the ages of 30 and 49 (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997). Age is the strongest and most reliable personal factor related to attrition (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997). Since the teachers that are most likely to leave are the youngest

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and the oldest, a U-shaped graph forms when plotting teacher attrition. The bottom of the U-shaped graph represents the middle-aged teachers, who are the most likely to stay in the teaching profession. The top ends of the U-shaped graph mark the high attrition among the younger and older teachers (Baker & Smith 1997; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Brock & Grady, 1998; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Darling-Hammond & Sclan, 1996; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987; Heck & Wolcott, 1997; Murnane, Singer, & Willet, 1988; Singer, 1993). Younger teachers and older teachers leave teaching for different reasons. Older teachers show a high attrition rate due to retirements (Baker & Smith 1997; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Brock & Grady, 1998; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Darling-Hammond & Sclan, 1996; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987; Heck & Wolcott, 1997; Murnane, Singer, & Willet, 1988; Singer, 1993). A national survey conducted in 1994-1995 found that retirement was the primary reason (27.4%) cited by public school teachers for leaving teaching (Whitener, Bruber, Lynch, Tingoes, Perona, & Fondelier, 1997). Several factors contribute to the high attrition rates among younger teachers. Young female teachers frequently leave teaching at least temporarily because of pregnancy and child rearing (Baker & Smith, 1997). Younger teachers have less time and energy invested in teaching as a career and find it easier to move to higher paying jobs, return to college, or change careers (Billingsley, 1993; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987). Layoffs favor tenured teachers, forcing the younger teachers to involuntarily leave teaching (Billingsley, 1993; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987). Tenure tracks, which protect older

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teachers, are a source of frustration for school districts trying to reduce the teaching force to comply with budgetary constraints, while trying to recruit and retain new teachers in specific teaching areas. The fact that 75% of new teachers view teaching as life-long career choice makes the loss of new teachers to reductions in teaching force an even greater loss (Wadsworth, p. 28). Middle-aged teachers make up the majority of the practicing teachers for several reasons. First, the longer a teacher teaches the more they identify with their career. With aging, people are more occupationally stable and focused on their career (Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Gottfredson, 1977). Second, as people age they have invested more time and energy into their career. This investment of time and energy increases their commitment to the career (Colarelli & Bishop, 1990). Third, the longer a teacher teaches the more settled they become in their career and the more career options they close off (Billingsley, 1993; Chapman & Green, 1986; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Rosenholtz, 1989). Number of Dependent Children Changes in the structure of a teachers family can cause attrition from teaching and/or the school district (Grissmer & Kirby, 1987). Murnane, Singer & Willet (1988, 1989) note that many teachers leave teaching and return later, with child-rearing being a likely cause. In a 1994-1995 national survey, pregnancy and child rearing was the second most common reason (14.3%) cited by public school teachers for leaving the teaching profession (Whitener, Bruber, Lynch, Tingoes, Perona, & Fondelier, 1997). McNab (1983) found that maternity was one of the major reasons for the attrition of young female teachers in Kansas. In a study of Maltese secondary schools, maternity was again

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noted as a primary reason for the high attrition of young females from teaching (Borg & Riding, 1991). The results from research examining general and special educators, both male and female, shows that teacher turnover increased among teachers with children under the age of six (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997). Women with children are more likely to stay in teaching or to renter teaching than unmarried women or women without children (Heyns, 1988). Consistent with Heyns research on teachers, research of multiple professions in the Untied States and other industrialized nations found widespread beliefs that women should be a part of the workforce, but that their involvement in work outside of the home should be reduced when they have young children (Treas & Widmer, 2000). Type of Educator Turnover and shortages of both general and special educators is a growing concern among the nations schools (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Wadsworth, 2001). At the beginning of the 2000-2001 school year, West Virginia public schools had hired teachers for 1,625.97 general education positions while 89.0 positions were unfilled. Of the general educators employed in West Virginia for the 1999-2000 school year who did not return for the 2000-2001 school year, fifty-eight and one-half were employed in an out of state school system, three were employed by higher education, and 64.5 were no longer employed in education (Educational Personnel, 2000). For the 2000-2001 school year, West Virginia public schools employed 509.16 special educators, but were unable to fill 86.0 positions. Of the special educators employed in West Virginia for the 1999-2000 school year who did not return for the 2000-2001 school year, twenty-two and one-half were employed in an out of state school system, one was employed by higher education, and 18.5 were no longer employed in education (Educational Personnel, 2000).

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Shortages of special educators are problematic due to the implications for special needs children. Special needs students by definition require teachers skilled to accommodate needs not present in other students. Turnovers and shortages of special educators lead to insufficient and inadequate services for special needs children (Billingsley, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Brownell & Smith, 1992; Smith-Davis & Billingsley, 1983). Previous research concerning general and special educators has produced varied relationships between predictor variables and teacher turnover. Teacher age and salary were the only statistically significant predictors for turnover among special educators observed by Boe and Bobbitt (1997). Several researchers have observed age as a predictor of turnover for both special and general educators, noting the highest attrition among both younger and older teachers (Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991; Boe and Bobbitt, 1997a, 1997b; Brownell & Smith 1992; Darling-Hammond & Sclan, 1996). Many special educators are younger teachers who accept teaching jobs in special education in order to secure a job, not out of preference or because of their certification. Since younger teachers have higher rates of attrition in the teaching profession, some of the high teacher attrition experienced by the special education field may be related to the age of the teachers (Billingsley & Cross, 1991; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987; Murnane, Singer, & Willett, 1989). The examinations of other predictor variables of teacher turnover, such as job stress and job satisfaction, have produced mixed results. A study of special educators reported low levels of job satisfaction, indicating that 36.5% of emotional disorder teachers intended to leave the teaching field in the next year. An additional 10.4% of the

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respondents from the same study reported that they were unsure of their future career plans (George & George, 1995; George, Gersten, & Grosenick, 1995). Since job satisfaction and job stress often produce a negative correlation (Borg & Riding, 1991), the previous studies would suggest that special educators are more stressed than general educators. However, observations by several investigators have found special educators to express less stress and better job satisfaction than their general educator colleagues (Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Sutton & Huberty, 1984). Grade Level Researchers have made numerous studies linking grade level and the intent of general and special educators to stay in the teaching profession. The results of these studies have failed to produce a definite association between grade level and the intent of teachers to stay or leave teaching. Secondary educators in the states of Michigan and North Carolina were found to be more likely to leave teaching than elementary teachers in these states (Murnane, Singer, Willett, & Olsen, 1991). Other researchers also found higher attrition among secondary educators (Bentzen, Williams, & Heckman, 1980; Heyns, 1988; Keith, Warren, & Bilts, 1983). Some research indicates that elementary teachers leave at higher rates than secondary teachers (Bownell & Smith, 1992). Some of the reported attrition among elementary teachers could be due to their leaving a particular school or school district. Boe and Bobbitt (1997) found that elementary teachers change schools at a rate of 9.2% while secondary teachers switched schools at the rate of 6.1%. Results from a national survey, conducted in 1987-1988, indicated virtually no difference in attrition rates for elementary and secondary educators, reporting attrition rates of 6.1% and 5.9%, respectively (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997).

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Many of the teachers who leave teaching return to teaching later. Returning general and special educators are major source of teachers for school districts (Murnane, Singer, & Willett, 1989). Secondary teachers who have left teaching are less likely to return to the profession than elementary teachers (Heyns, 1988; Murnane, et. al., 1989). Teachers returning to the profession are more likely to be female than male and to have lower scores on the National Teachers Exam than non-returnees (Murnane, et. al., 1989). A great deal of research has been done on the turnover of special educators. Special education turnover is problematic due to its K-12 nature and the federal mandate of these services. When former West Virginia special educators were asked if they would considers returning to special education, the responses were 14% yes, 50% possibly, and 36% no (Billingsley & Cross, 1991). A 13-year, longitudinal study of special educators in two states found that teachers of students with emotional disabilities teach a median of five to six years at the secondary level and six to seven years at the elementary level. Teachers of students with learning disabilities taught an average of 9.5 years (Singer, 1992). Attrition rates for special educators of students with emotional disorders are nearly double that of teachers in other areas (Brownell, Smith, & Miller, 1994). A survey of teachers of students with emotional and behavioral disorders reported that 53% of the elementary teachers, 16% of the middle school teachers, and 24% of the high school teachers expressed a desire to leave special education (George & George, 1995). Subjects Taught The National Commission on Teaching (1996) estimated that over the following 10 years the United States would need to hire 2.2 million teachers in order to meet projected enrollment increases. Since only approximately 100,000 new teachers will enter

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the teaching profession each year (Hope, 1999), finding and retaining qualified educators is of increasing importance. Research shows that the more academically qualified teachers are the most likely to leave teaching (Darling-Hammond, 1984, 2000, 2001; Mark & Anderson, 1985; Murnane, Singer, & Willett, 1989; Rhodda, 2000; Schlechty & Vance, 1983). While teachers who leave the teaching profession may return, the more highly qualified a teacher is, the more likely they will not return to teaching (Murnane, et al, 1989). Teacher shortages and attrition is more acute in some fields than others. The West Virginia Department of Education reported 14 critical needs specializations: (a) SpeechLanguage Pathologists, (b) Reading Specialists, (c) School Counselors, (d) School Nurses, (d) School Librarians/Media Specialists, (e) Foreign Language Teachers, (f) Physics Teachers, (g) Chemistry Teachers, (h) Biology Teachers, (i) Mathematics Teachers, (j) American Sign Language Teachers, (k) English as a Second Language Teachers, (l) Dance Teachers, and (m) Theater Teachers (Educational Personnel, 2000). Similar critical needs specializations exist in other states. In 1997, New York needed 3,000 teachers the week before school was scheduled to open. The following year, New York recruited teachers abroad. Seven Spanish teachers were imported from Spain and 24 Math and Science teachers from Austria (Chaddock & Baldauf, 1998). Teacher shortages are often subject related, as with Spanish, Math, and Science in New York. The Southern Regional Education reported math teachers to be in short supply, in part because teachers in the math field could sometimes triple their salary in the computer field (Rhodda, 2000). A Michigan study found that chemistry and physics teachers were more likely to leave teaching after a few years than biology and social studies teachers

36

(Murnane, 1987). In a North Carolina study, math and social studies teachers were found to be more likely to remain in teaching after one or two years than their colleagues in chemistry, physics, biology, and English (Murnane, Singer, & Willet, 1989). A survey of 5,000 middle and secondary science teachers by the National Science Teachers Foundation revealed two major reasons why science teachers choose to leave teaching. The primary reason science teachers gave for considering quitting teaching was their dissatisfaction with teaching. The second major reason was to pursue another career. When asked if they were considering leaving teaching, approximately one out of three responded yes, with respondents having 1-15 years of experience (NSTA, 2000). Educational Level While numerous studies of teacher attrition have included the educational level of teachers, these studies have produced mixed results with regard to the intent of teachers to stay in teaching. Research on West Virginia (Singh & Billingsley, 1996) and Virginia (Cross & Billingsley, 1991) general and special educators found an indirect effect between a teachers education level and their intent to stay. A later study of Virginia general and special educators found that a larger percentage of special educators (52.0%) had masters degrees compared to general educators (33.1%), but no significant relationship between a teachers education level and their intent to stay in teaching (Billingsley & Cross, 1992). The high number of special education teachers with advanced degrees is due to the extensive and perpetual education required for these teachers to maintain certification in special education (Billingsley, 1993; Cross & Billingsley, 1991; Singh & Billingsley, 1996).

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Teachers with advanced degrees have a greater financial investment and time commitment in their careers, which may make them more likely to stay (Bloland & Shelby, 1980; Dworkin, 1987). Heyns (1988) found that teachers have significantly more graduate training and advanced degrees than other fields. The linkage between education level, experience, and salary may account for the high number of teachers with graduate degrees. Shen (1998), using data from a national survey, reported that schools with higher salaries for teachers with masters degrees and 20 years experience had lower attrition than other schools. The market appeal of the teachers specific degree influences a teachers intent to stay in teaching (Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999). Teachers who have degrees that are in high demand outside of teaching leave at higher rates than their colleagues in other fields (Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999), for example math teachers (Rhodda, 2000) and teachers in chemistry, physics, and biology (Murnane, 1987; Murnane, Singer, & Willett, 1989). Because professional postgraduate degrees are more marketable than a bachelors degree in education, teachers who have professional postgraduate degrees are more likely to leave teaching (Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999). Experience Less experienced teachers tend to leave teaching more frequently than experienced teachers. The highest attrition rates of teachers occur among teachers with less than 5 years of experience (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997b; Hope, 1999; Merseth, 1992). Merseth (1992) reported that one-third to one-half of teachers will leave teaching within five years of employment. Singer (1993) reported that 12% of first year special educators

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in Michigan and 13% in North Carolina leave by the end of their first year. By the end of 5 years, both states had experienced a 43% attrition of these special education teachers. A negative correlation between teaching experience and teacher commitment to continue teaching were observed among West Virginia general and special educators (Singh & Billingsley, 1998). This negative correlation is due in part to the fact that as teachers settle into their career, they tend to close off other career options, causing them to continue teaching even if they have a desire to change careers (Colarelli & Bishop, 1990). More experienced teachers often continue teaching despite a lack of job commitment because of accrued investments and lifestyle (Singh & Billingsley, 1998). Teachers with more experience are also more likely to return to teaching following an interruption of their teaching career (Singer, 1993b). Salary Efforts to booster teacher salaries have been less successful than hoped for, largely because the educational system in the United States is primarily local or regional (Gursky, 2000/2001). Across the board salary increases for teachers and/or higher spending by central offices are known to increase the movement of teachers from one classroom position to another. However, higher spending on classified staff tends to prompt teachers to leave public education (Theobald & Gritz, (1996).Districts often raise salaries to be competitive with neighboring districts. The sporadic nature of teacher salary increases and the fact that raises frequently occur only in response to nearby districts can lead to teachers jumping from district to district in search of better pay and benefits (Gursky, 2000/2001; Wagner & Porter, 2000).

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For 1999, the average starting salary for teachers was $26,639. The overall beginning wage for college graduates in 1999 was $37,194 (Gursky, 2000/2001). Beginning teachers in West Virginia were paid $24,889 for the 2000-2001 school year (Educational Personnel, 2000). Teachers nationwide had average wage of $40,574 and 16 years of experience. Engineers with comparable experience earn $68,294 and computer systems analyst earns $66,782 (Gursky, 2000/2001). The typical West Virginia teacher is 45.66 years old, with a Masters degree, and has 18.24 years experience. He/she earns approximately $37,000 for the 2000-2001 school year. This salary is a slight increase from the previous year (Educational Personnel, 2000). Teacher retention has been positively correlated with salary by numerous researchers (Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Gursky, 2000/2001; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Klein, 1997; Murnane & Olsen, 1990; Murnone & Vegas, 1997; Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Shann,1998; Shen,1998; Wagner & Porter, 2000; Young, 1997). The opportunity for higher wages outside of teaching attracts teachers to change careers (Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Rhodda, 2000). Higher wages attract new teachers and to aid in the retention of teachers (Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Gursky, 2000/2001; Rhodda, 2000; Wagner & Porter, 2000). Ballou and Podursky (1997) note that higher teacher salaries sometimes have the negative effect of increasing the retention of less effective teachers along with the effective teachers.

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Job Satisfaction Numerous researchers have studied the relationship between motivation and job satisfaction and worker productivity, innovation, and commitment to their job (Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Herzberg, 1968; Holdaway, (1978); Lawler, 1973; Maslow, 1954; Maslow, 1970; Mohrman, Cooke, & Mohrman, 1978; Porter, Lawler, & Hackman, 1974; Vroom, 1964). The expectancy theory developed by Victor Vroom and the need hierarchy theories developed by Herzberg and Maslow examine connections between motivation and job satisfaction and worker productivity, innovation, and job commitment. Expectancy theory has its roots in hedonism and research efforts of English utilitarians (Lawler, 1994). During the 1930s, expectancy theory began to evolve as Tolman (1932) championed the theorys cognitive orientation and Kurt Lewin (1935) added the terms valence and force to the cognitive approach. Victor Vrooms expectancy theory, developed in the early 1960s, concludes that a quality job performance by an employee results in employee job satisfaction (Hanson, 1979; Guthrie & Reed, 1991). The concept that all people follow a common thought process when evaluating opportunities forms the foundation for expectancy theory. Three forces constitute the basis for the common thought process in expectancy theory. These three forces are: 1. Valence: how attractive the goal or opportunity is to the employee. 2. Expectancy: the degree to which the employee believes he can accomplish the goal. 3. Instrumentality: the belief by the employee that achieving a particular goal will produce a desired reward (Vroom, 1964).

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A combination of an individuals valence, expectancy, and instrumentality relative to a particular situation determines an employees motivation to act on an opportunity. An employees decision to view opportunities on the job as positive or negative means that employee have the power to determine their behavior within organizations (Vroom, 1964). The assumption that job satisfaction will lead to quality performance by employees forms the basis for need hierarchy theories, such as those of Herzberg and Maslow (Hanson, 1979; Guthrie & Reed, 1991). Herzbergs research, with businesses, lead to the development of the two-factor theory, also known as the motivation-hygiene theory. He believed that people seek to avoid pain and accomplish personal growth through tasks and research. His research began with 200 accountants and engineers. The subjects were asked to describe work situations that made them feel very good or very bad. Results from this study and subsequent studies revealed that job situations that caused workers to feel very good were intrinsic to the job. Job situations that caused worker to feel very bad were extrinsic to the job (Herzberg, et al., 1957; Herzberg, Mausner, & Snyderman, 1959; Herzberg, 1966). Herzberg and his colleagues used the two groups of job situations found to be very satisfying or very dissatisfying to develop the two-factor theory. Job situations that caused workers to feel very satisfied are called motivators. Job situations that caused workers to feel very dissatisfied are called hygiene factors (Herzberg, et al. 1957; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966). Job satisfaction and dissatisfaction are not opposites according to the two-factor theory. The opposite of job satisfaction is no satisfaction, not dissatisfaction (Herzberg, et

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al. 1957; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1966). Herzberg viewed hygiene factors and motivators as distinct and unipolar. The hygiene continuum runs from dissatisfied to neutral. Motivation factors run along a continuum from satisfied to neutral (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, et al. 1957; Herzberg, et al., 1959). Because of their similarity to hygiene factors in the medical field, Herzberg referred to worker satisfiers as hygiene factors. Just as good hygiene from a medical perspective promotes the health of the body, Herzbergs hygiene factors promote a healthy psychological environment for workers (Herzberg, et al., 1959). Hygiene factors used by Herzberg are supervision, interpersonal relations, physical working conditions, salary, company policies, administrative practices, benefits, and job security. Worker job satisfaction follows the degree to which workers find the hygiene factors as acceptable. When the factors deteriorate to a level workers consider unacceptable, the result is dissatisfaction. However, optimizing these factors does not produce greater job satisfaction among employees, rather more positive attitudes. Hygiene factors satisfy an employees need for fair treatment (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Knoop, 1994). People will continue to work at a job despite a lower salary if they enjoy the work and believe that they are being treated fairly (Caggiano, 1992). Motivation factors stimulate greater employee job satisfaction by allowing the self-actualization of the employee (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Medved, 1982). People tend to seek self-actualization throughout life (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Maslow, 1970). The factors in the workplace that Herzberg identified as selfactualizing are referred to as motivators or satisfiers. These motivation factors are: recognition, the work itself, responsibility, advancement, professional growth, and

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achievement (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, et al., 1959). Motivators provide for an employees need for creativity and allow the receipt of rewards that provide reinforcement of the employees aspirations (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Knoop, 1994). Administrators are frequently more interested in motivators than in hygiene factors because motivators provide workers with the kind of job satisfaction that improves a workers job performance (Herzberg et al., 1959; Knoop, 1994). Herzberg lists salary as a hygiene factor, but there is some disagreement about salary being a hygiene factor (Herzberg, 1966; Herzberg, et al., 1959). Greater worker dissatisfaction results from salary inequity than from the amount of the salary (Herzberg, 1959). Across the board raises by businesses generally have a hygienic effect. Basing salary increases on job performance reinforces the motivators, particularly recognition and achievement (Herzberg, 1959). Salary increases effectively reduce worker dissatisfaction for a short time, an average of only 6 months (Herzberg, 1979). Money does provide a stimulus for increased worker productivity, but it will not motivate or satisfy workers by itself because of its failure to fulfill workers desire for self respect and success (Herzberg, 1959). Salary complaints by workers are often an indication that other needs of the workers are not being satisfied (Caggiano, 1992). American workers want more out of their employers than just a job. While employees want time to do their job, they also want to have time with family and friends and for themselves. Other wants are a challenging, yet interesting job, financial security, and an opportunity for advancement (Braus, 1992; Caggiano, 1992). With such a diversity of wants, needs, and perceived needs, it is important that employers control hygiene factors (Braus, 1992; Caggiano, 1992; Fey, 1994; Herzberg, 1959, 1979). When

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workers are content with their salaries, supervision, working conditions, and interpersonal relationships, then they are more tolerant of the work, lack of recognition, and opportunities for achievement (Herzberg, 1959, 1979). Taken together the hygiene factors and motivators comprise a workers overall job satisfaction (Herzberg, 1969). Overall job satisfaction was defined by Locke (1969) as the pleasurable emotional state resulting from the appraisal of ones job as achieving or facilitating ones job values(p. 316). Locke (1969) viewed job satisfaction and dissatisfaction as the relationship the worker perceives to exist between what the worker wants from the job and what the job provides. Lawler (1973) defines overall job satisfaction as Thus, job satisfaction is determined by the difference between all the things a person feels he should receive from his job and all those things he actually does receive(p.77). With an increase in bureaucracy in the workplace, the opportunity for workers to find self-actualization on the job has become more difficult (Herzberg et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1967, 1976; Verdugo, Greenberg, Henderson, Uribe, & Schneider, 1997). Workers frequently seek self-actualization through activities outside of the job, e.g. hobbies, sports, etc. (Herzberg, 1967, 1976). If workers are focusing their attention and energy toward self-actualizing activities that are primarily outside of the workplace, then it is unlikely that they will achieve their full potential on the job (Herzberg, et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1967, 1976). Workers who perceive that they cannot find satisfaction in the workplace are more likely to leave, strike, sabotage, produce poor quality work, or demonstrate high absenteeism (Paul, Robertson, & Herzberg, 1969). Structuring jobs to allow workers to

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achieve their highest job potential minimizes worker dissatisfaction and its consequences (Herzberg et al., 1959; Paul, et al., 1969; Verdugo, Greenberg, Henderson, Uribe, & Schneider, 1997). Workers treated with respect, as valuable employees respond positively (Verdugo et al., 1997). When workers have input into the decisions that affect them, they feel a sense of achievement. Achievement creates a sense of professional growth and an increase in personal responsibility (Herzberg, et al., 1959; Paul, et al., 1969; Verdugo, et al., 1997). Paul, et al. (1969) discussed that the traditional method of job design used by industrial engineers has been to use geniuses to create jobs designed to be accomplished by idiots, further insulting and alienating the workers. Unfortunately, the business community has sought to use some of these same methods on Americas public schools. Teachers have responded with the same sense of dissatisfaction as workers in other areas of Americas workforce. Teacher Satisfaction Scholars have frequently assessed teachers job satisfaction by examining the intrinsic and extrinsic influences present in the teaching profession. Some intrinsic (hygiene) factors found in education include classroom control, student traits, and class size. Common extrinsic (motivation) factors in teaching would include such things as administrative rules, regulations, philosophies, and policies; salary; and benefits. Hygiene Factors of Teachers As previously stated, hygiene factors function to worker decrease dissatisfaction, not eliminate it (Herzberg, et al., 1959; Herzberg, 1967, 1976). Many researchers have documented the presence of the hygiene factors discussed in Herzbergs two-factor

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theory among general and special educators (Adams, 1999; Adams & Dial, 1994; Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991, 1992; Blair-Larsen & Bercik, 1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Brock & Grady, 1998; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Evans & Johnson, 1990; George & George, 1995; Hope, 1999; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Klein, 1997; Lankard, 1994; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1994,1997; Murnane & Olsen, 1990; Murnane & Vegas, 1997; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Norton, 1999; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shann, 1998; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Tatel, 1999; Weasmet & Woods, 2000; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Xin Mia & MacMillan, 1999; Young, 1997). Research has found the following factors to be hygienic in the workplace: (a) company policy and administration, (b) supervision and interpersonal relationships; (c) working conditions; (d) salary; (e) status; and (f) job security (Herzberg, 1968; Herzberg, et al., 1959). A plethora of studies have identified the following hygienic factors as dissatisfiers among public educators: (a) company policy and administration (Adams, 1999; Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Evans & Johnson, 1990; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Scott, 1999; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Singh & Billingsley, 1998); (b) supervision (Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Brock & Grady, 1998; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; Eric Digest, 2000; Evans & Johnson, 1990; Hope, 1999; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Scott &

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Dinham, 1999; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Singh & Billingsley, 1998; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Xin Ma & Mac Millan, 1999); (c) interpersonal relationships (Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Brock & Grady, 1998; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; Eric Digest, 2000; Hope, 1999; Lankard, 1994; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; NEA Today, 2000; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Singh & Billingsley, 1998; Tatel, 1999; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Weasmer & Woods, 2000); (d) working conditions (Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; George & George, 1995; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Scott, 1999; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shann,1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Tatel, 1999; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Xin Ma & Mac Millan, 1999); (e) salary (Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Klein, 1997; Murnane & Olsen, 1990; Murnane & Vegas, 1997; Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Shann,1998; Shen,1998; Young, 1997); (f) status (Adams & Dial, 1994; Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Rhodes & Doering, 1993); and (g) job security (Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Shann,1998). Several hygiene factors are more problematic for general and special educators than other factors. Interpersonal relationships is one such hygiene factor (Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Brock & Grady, 1998; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; Eric Digest, 2000; Hope, 1999; Lankard, 1994; Litrell

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& Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; NEA Today, 2000; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Singh & Billingsley, 1998; Tatel, 1999; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Weasmer & Woods, 2000). The majority of a teachers workday passes in isolation from colleagues (Brock & Grady, 1998; Wong & Wong, ). Job satisfaction and retention has been associated with collegiality among general educators (Abel & Sewell, 1999; Billingsley, 1993; Bloland & Selby, 1980; Marlow & Inman, 1997; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997). Research done with special educators exhibited positive correlations between job satisfaction and collegiality (Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991; George, George, & Grosenick, 1992). Administrative support is another important hygiene factor for teachers (Adams, 1999; Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Brock & Bercik, 1992; Evans & Johnson, 1990; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Scott, 1999; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Singh & Billingsley, 1998). Building principals are key people for retaining new teachers and teachers new to their staff. Principals are responsible for the socialization of new teachers into the profession and their staff (Brock & Grady, 1998; Littrell & Billingsley, 1994). Lack of support from the school administration has been related to attrition in both general and special educators (Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991; Bloland & Shelby, 1980; Evans & Johnson, 1990; Marlow & Inman, 1997; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Whitener, Bruber, Lynch, Tingos, Perona, & Fondelier, 1997). Student discipline, class size, and student traits, among other things, combine to create the working conditions of a public school. Abel and Sewell (1999) found that urban teachers suffered more from poor working conditions (overcrowded classrooms,

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inadequate supplies, and poor funding) than their rural colleagues did. Similarly, Colbert and Wolff (1992) found the poor working conditions to be a primary contributor to the high attrition rates found within the urban districts of the Los Angeles Unifies School District. Poor working conditions contribute to job dissatisfaction and attrition among educators (Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; George & George, 1995; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1995; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Scott, 1999; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shafer, 2001; Shann, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Tatel, 1999; Weiss & Weiss, 1999; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999). Numerous researchers have noted the association of working conditions with job dissatisfaction and attrition among special educators (Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997b; Cohen, 1991). Additional paperwork, special meetings, and legal stipulations add burdens to special educators that general educators seldom encounter (Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997b; Cohen, 1991; George, et al., 1995). A third hygiene factor that has a major impact on teacher attrition is salary. Research shows that salary impacts attrition among both general and special education teachers (Ball & Stenuland, 1990; Ballou & Podgursky, 1997; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Klein, 1997; Murnane & Olsen, 1990; Murnane & Vegas, 1997; Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Shann,1998; Shen,1998; Young, 1997). Baker and Smith (1997) note that despite lower yearly earnings than many other professionals, people continue to be attracted to the teaching field for other reasons, such as job security, an

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opportunity to work with children, and a shorter work year. While workers continue to be attracted to teaching, Abraham (1999) found that when an employees pay failed to meet his expectations, the employees job satisfaction and self-esteem were lowered and their intent to turnover increased. Higher salaries increase the retention of both general and special educators (Billingsley, 1993; Brownell & Smith, 1992; Darling-Hammond, 1996; Murnane & Olsen, 1990). Research shows that teachers and other professionals are more likely to look for more lucrative job opportunities when their salaries are not competitive with other fields (Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Lawler, 1994; Murnane & Olsen, 1990). While salary is a major concern for most educators, many teachers who have chosen to stay in the classroom cite student discipline and safety issues as needing more immediate attention (Klein, 1997; Marlow & Inman, 1993). A downside to higher salaries is that the reduction in teacher turnover would lead to the retention of more of the less effective teachers (Ballou & Podgursky, 1997). Murnane and Vegas (1997) note that many other, such as New Zealand, Germany, and Ireland, compensate their teachers better than the United States. These countries also have more stringent requirements for entering the teaching profession and view teaching as more prestigious than the United States does. Motivation Factors of Teachers Motivation factors or satisfiers act to move a workers job satisfaction along the continuum from a feeling of neutrality to one of high satisfaction (Herzberg, et al., 1959). The intrinsic factors or motivators described by the two-factor theory are primarily responsible for producing the quality of job satisfaction and resulting work attitude desired by employers (Herzberg, et al., 1959). Lawler and Porter (1967) concur that

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intrinsic rewards are more likely to produce positive job performances, since the use of intrinsic rewards causes less disruption in the workplace than extrinsic rewards often cause. Administrators who are mindful of their employees intrinsic needs are likely to experience less employee turnover (Herzberg, et al., 1959; Shen, 1998). Educators share similar motivational needs. A number of researchers have noted the influence motivational needs referenced in the two-factor theory have on educators (Adams & Dial, 1994; Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; George & George, 1995; Hope, 1999; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1994, 1997; Odell & Ferraro, 1992; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Norton, 1999; Shann, 1998; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Tatel, 1999; Xin Mia & MacMillan, 1999). The two-factor theory lists the following six motivators: (a) achievement, (b) recognition for achievement, (c) work itself, (d) responsibility, (e) advancement, and (f) growth (Herzberg, 1968; Herzberg, et al., 1959). All six of these factors have been shown to influence teacher job satisfaction and attrition in these studies as well: (a) achievement (Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Tatel, 1999); (b) recognition (Colbert & Wolff, 1992; Curriculum Review, 2001; George & George, 1995; Hope, 1999; Litrell & Billingsley, 1994; Scott, 1999;Shen, 1998); (c) the work itself (Checkley & Kelly, 1999; George & George, 1995; Klecker & Loadman, 1999; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Norton, 1999;Shann, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Xin Mia & MacMillan, 1999); (d) responsibility (12 Ways, 2001; George & George, 1995; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Norton, 1999; Singh &

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Billingsley, 1996); (e) growth or advancement (Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991, 1992; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; George & George, 1995; Marlow & Inman, 1993, 1994,1997; Ponticell & Zepeda, 1997; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Norton, 1999; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shen, 1998; Tatel, 1999; Xin Mia & MacMillan, 1999). Achievement is a primary motivator among educators. Ball and Stenlund (1990) found that teachers were highly motivated by success at school. Women teachers were found to have more intense attitudes about success and work-related thinking than their male counterparts. Teachers expressed a similar desire for their students success. Littrell and Billingsley (1994) observed that teacher retention increased when teachers received adequate administrative support to facilitate their success in the classroom and as a part of the staff. Caggiano (1992), reporting on a national survey of workers, stated that 62% of American workers rank recognition by their coworkers as important, while only 24% were satisfied with the amount of recognition they receive. Like all workers, teachers respond positively to recognition. Approximately two-thirds of teachers and former teachers cite the lack of prestige afforded teachers as a reason for leaving teaching (Marlow and Inman, 1995). Murnane and Inman (1993) note that teachers expressing an intent to leave teaching cite the lack of prestige as one of their top three reasons. Ellis and Bernhardt (1992) note that teachers reported higher job satisfaction and motivation than workers in many other fields. Female teachers viewed their jobs as having more significance than male teachers did. Xin Ma and MacMillan (1999) found that more

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experienced teachers were more satisfied with their professional role than inexperienced teachers. The work itself plays a larger role as an intrinsic motivator for special educators than general educators. Special educators leave teaching more often due to work related problems than do general educators (Billingsley, 1993). Excessive paperwork, extra meetings, lack of support from parents and administrators, and difficult students increase the work related problems experienced by special educators (Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1991). Beginning teachers experience more work related problems, trying to learn the profession, resulting in the high attrition among new teachers (Billingsley, 1993; Brock & Grady, 1998; Heck & Wolcott, 1997; Hope, 1999; Kestner, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1997; Norton, 1999). Teachers report that students are the most gratifying part of the teaching profession (Baker & Smith, 1997; Billingsley, 1993; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shann, 1998). Herzberg, et al. (1959) defined the motivation factor responsibility as a worker being given responsibility for his own work or the work of other employees or additional responsibility. Workers reported increased job satisfaction when given responsibility in this fashion, but responded negatively when denied the authority needed to accomplish those responsibilities (Herzber, et al., 1959). General and special educators both report that support by the building principals is necessary for them to succeed at their responsibilities. Since principals control the scheduling of classes, principals are the determiners of who gets additional and achievable responsibilities (12 Ways, 2001; George & George, 1995; Quaglia & Marion, 1991). New teachers frequently suffer from too much responsibility too soon. Often they have the most difficult students, least

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desirable course assignment, and poorest equipment. Given these circumstances, their chances of fulfilling their responsibilities are poor. This is a major factor for the high attrition among beginning teachers (Hope, 1999; NEA, 2000; Norton, 1999; Odell & Ferrao, 1992). As described by Herzberg, et al. (1959), growth and advancement are closely related. Growth refers to opportunities that provide new skills and responsibilities that position an individual to advance to a new position. Xia Ma and MacMillan (1999) state that professional competence is a major contributor to teacher job satisfaction. Teachers who recognized the importance of and were provided opportunities to obtain professional development were more satisfied and less likely to consider leaving the profession. Providing teachers with realistic growth opportunities is essential for teacher retention. Verdugo and Greenberg (1997) found that negligence in teacher preparation and recruitment sometimes allows teachers to enter the profession with growth and advancement goals that they are unlikely to achieve. Allowing teachers more involvement in school decision-making can alleviate teacher frustration and provide them with growth opportunities (Verdugo & Greenberg, 1997). Collegial and principal support that fosters professional growth is associated with increased job satisfaction and teacher retention (Singh & Billingsley, 1998; Verdugo & Greenburg, 1997). Lack of advancement opportunities is associated with the intent to leave a profession (Doering & Rhodes, 1989, 1993). Unfortunately, the only career advancement open to most teachers is to enter education administration, contributing to teacher attrition (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997a; Gilman & Lanman-Givens, 2001; Shen, 1998).

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Teacher Retention The instability of public schools due to teacher turnover and the intention of teachers to turnover has been a concern of administrators and researchers for a number of years (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997a, 1997b; Darling-Hammond, 2001; Gurdsky, 2001; Henke, Choy, Geis, & Broughman, 1996). Numerous researchers cite job satisfaction as contributing to teacher turnover and the desire of teachers to leave the profession (Billingsley & Cross, 1991,1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Green-Reese & Johnson, 1991; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shen, 1998; Thompson & McNamara, 1997; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999). A decision of teachers to change careers is a combination of factors observed in the organization of the school, the school environment, and demographics (Rhodes & Doering, 1993). Organizational and environmental aspects known to influence teachers intent to stay are: (a) compensation, (b) social status, (c) opportunities for advancement, (d) job security, and (e) job satisfaction (Norton, 1999; Rhodes & Doering, 1993; Singh & Billingsley, 1996). Inadequate compensation, lack of social prestige, lack of job security, and low job satisfaction are linked to teachers considering career changes (Norton, 1999; Rhodes & Doering, 1989, 1993; Singh & Billingsley, 1996). High levels of job satisfaction among teachers are associated with higher salaries, recognition, and job security (Norton, 1999; Rhodes & Doering, 1989, 1993; Singh & Billingsley, 1996). Workers who report high levels of job satisfaction are less likely to seek employment elsewhere (Lawler, 1994; Norton, 1999; Rhodes & Doering, 1989, 1993; Singh & Billingsley, 1996). Lawler (1994) notes that while some aspects are due to changes in the employees themselves over time, but many of the aspects that facilitate employee

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turnover are within the control of the organization. Time and effort on the part of supervisors and other administrators can reduce employee turnover and the costs associated with it (Lawler, 1994; Herzberg, 1968; Herzberg, et al., 1959; Norton, 1999; Rhodes & Doering, 1989, 1993; Singh & Billingsley, 1996). Teachers with certain demographic profiles are more likely to stay in teaching than others. These factors are generally beyond the control of the organization (Lawler, 1994; Herzberg, 1968; Herzberg, et al., 1959).Teachers more likely to stay in teaching are female, middle age, teach elementary, do not have any children at home under the age of five, are not the primary breadwinner, have education beyond their bachelors degree, and are married (Hope, 1999; NEA, 2000; Norton, 1999; Odell & Ferrao, 1992; Singer, 1993; Whitner, et al., 1997). Marlow & Inman (1993) profiled the teachers most likely to leave as: (a) male, (b) single, (c) teaching secondary, (d) had parental support for college, (e) 5-10 years teaching experience, (f) had a white collar work ethic, (g) perceived the intellectual stimulation to be less than that of business, (h) holding a second job, (i) had a pupil ideology different from their colleagues, (j) poor first year teaching experience, (k) stifling support from the principal, (l) in a school with a different racial composition, (m) had expressed a previous interest in leaving teaching, and (n) perceived poor professional prestige. Summary Like the rest of the United States, West Virginias public schools are dealing with a decrease in the number of qualified general and special educators applicants. While the decline in student enrollment across the state has lowered the number of educators required in the classroom, the need for educators in the 14 specializations, mentioned

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earlier in this chapter, has increased. West Virginia colleges and universities continue to graduate more education majors each year (Educational Personnel, 2000). However, many of these students are unwilling to relocate, have degrees that are in adequate supply, or move out of state. Currently the states special education population continues to increase, while the overall student population has declined. Adding to the problem in West Virginia is the fact that West Virginia educators have an average age of 45.6 year and administrators have an average age of 50.16 years. The West Virginia Department of Education predicts the number of educators eligible for retirement to increase steadily through the year 2008, declining thereafter (Educational Personnel, 2000). While several authors have studied teachers intent to change careers or intent to stay in teaching (Abraham, 1999; Baker & Smith, 1997; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Billingsley & Cross, 1991; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997a, 1997b; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; George & George, 1995; Littrell & Billingsley, 1994; Marlow & Inman, 1995; Norton, 1999; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Rhodes & Doering ,1993; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1996), few authors have studied intent to stay among educators in rural states (Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Singh & Billingsley, 1996). Singh and Billingsley (1996) study of special educators was the only study found profiling intent to stay among West Virginia educators. This study will profile intent to stay among general and special educators in West Virginia, a rural state (Carney, 1998), adding information that will help administrators provide West Virginia with a stable and qualified educational workforce.

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Chapter 3 Methodology The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of selected personal factors and perceived intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction have upon the intent of West Virginia general and special educators to stay in the teaching profession. The sample consisted of West Virginia general and special educators, n = 243. Methodology and research design employed in this study will be described in this chapter. Population and Sample The population for this study consists of the general and special educators employed to teach in the West Virginia public schools, N = 24,253 (Educational Personnel, 2001). General educators from all subjects and grades K-12 were included in the population. All program categories of special educators K-12 were included in the population. The population included both full-time and part-time public school educators. General and special educators were surveyed during the summer of 2001, utilizing the Smith Intent to Stay Survey and the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale. A random sample of 243 subjects was surveyed. The subjects were selected from individuals employed as public school general or special educators in West Virginia for the 20002001 school year. The sample size of 243 was determined using the formula constructed by Randolph, Tseng, and Greever (1974) as sufficient for a population of 24,253. A sample of this size should be sufficient to reduce the likelihood of Type I and type II errors within the population (Campbell & Stanley, 1963; Kerlinger, 1986). Sample selection and randomization were done with the help of the West Virginia Department of Education.

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An assessment response rate of 50% plus one overall was considered satisfactory. The return rate was designed to allow sufficient representation of West Virginia public school general and special educators so that inferences between intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction and selected personal factors and the intent of teachers to remain in the teaching profession could be made (Barlow & Hersen, 1984; Dillman, 2000; Kerlinger, 1986; Long, Convey, & Chwalek, 1985). Findings from this research study can be generalized to include general and special educators throughout West Virginia. Caution should be used generalizing the results to educators in other states due to differences that might exist between school systems in other states and the economic climate found in other states. Instrumentation Personal factors were gathered using questions 1-12 on the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory. Questions 1-12 were adapted from the National Center for Education Statistics Characteristics of Stayers, Movers, and Leavers: Results from the Teacher Followup Survey; 1994-95 (Whitener, Bruber, Lynch, Tingoes, Perona, & Fondelier, 1997). Intent to stay was assessed using questions 2 and 13. Question two requests the respondents age. Works by numerous authors, as stated in Chapters One and Two, have established a strong correlation between age and intent to stay. Question 13 was used by Billingsley and Cross (1992) to assess intent to stay among special and general educators in Virginia. Choices for question 13 will be scored one to five, with five indicating the strongest intent to stay.

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Teacher job satisfaction was assessed utilizing the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale (STJSS) and question 14 on the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory. The STJSS was developed using the Mohrman-Cooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Survey (MCMJS) as a template. Like MCMJS, the STJSS is designed to measure subjects intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction, but focused on questions related to the school as a workplace. A four-point Likert Scale was used for the STJSS, ranging from low satisfaction to high satisfaction. How satisfied teachers are with various aspects of the teaching profession were assessed by question 13 of the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory. Question 13 inquires about 23 aspects of teaching. A four-point Likert Scale was used for question 13, ranging from very dissatisfied to very satisfied. Question 13 was modified using questions found in the National Center for Education Statistics Characteristics of Stayers, Mover, and Leavers: Results from the Teacher Followup Survey; 1994-95 (Whitener, Bruber, Lynch, Tingoes, Perona, & Fondelier, 1997). Methods This study was a one-shot case study (Campbell & Stanley, 1963) research method of determining selected demographics and the perceived intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction have on the intent of public school general and special educators to stay in the teaching profession. The Smith Intent to Stay Inventory and the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale were piloted using a panel of educational experts (Appendix E). Selection bias of the sample was controlled by randomization (Campbell & Stanley, 1963; Dillman, 2000). The sample size of n = 243 subjects was determined using a formula suggested by Randolph, Tseng, and Greever (1974). A sample of this size was

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used to reduce the likelihood of Type I and Type II errors (Campbell & Stanley, 1963; Johnson & Christensen, 2000; Kerlinger, 1986). Subjects were contacted by mail, with an overall minimum response rate of 50% plus one considered acceptable. A cover letter was sent to each subject explaining the purpose of the study with an assurance of anonymity, along with the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory, the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale, and an addressed and stamped return envelope. The Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory (STISI) contains two questions assessing the intent of teachers to remain in the teaching profession and 13 questions of selected demographics. Demographic questions include information about (a) gender, (b) age, (c) number of dependent children, (d) number of dependent children living at home, (e) type of educator, (f) grade levels taught, (g) subjects taught, (h) years of teaching experience, (i) years at the current teaching assignment, and (j) household income. Job satisfaction was assessed using the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale (STJSS). The STJSS was created by modifying the Mohrman-Cooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Survey (MCMJSS) into a more teacher-focused questionnaire. In addition, two questions were added to the original MCMJSS, one in the intrinsic satisfaction section and one in the extrinsic satisfaction section. Random selection of the subjects was used to control for selection bias (Campbell & Stanley, 1963) and insure that both general and special educators were adequately represented. Randomization will also reduce the effect non-respondents might have on the results of the study (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). History and maturation (Campbell &

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Stanley, 1963) was controlled for by using a follow-up mailing two weeks after the initial mailing. In order to increase response rates, one week after the initial mailing a reminder postcard was sent (Dillman, 2000). Two weeks after the initial mailing a second packet containing a cover letter explaining the purpose of the study with an assurance of anonymity, along with the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory, the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale, and an addressed and stamped return envelope was mailed to teachers in the sample. Data Analysis Data collected in questions two, four, six, seven and eight were collected as continuous variables and categorized using multiple regression analysis. Correlation analyses and t tests were used to establish whether or not a significant difference exists among these data items. Question 14 was used to assess a teachers intent to stay in the teaching profession. Answers were scored from 1-5, with the answer I definitely plan to leave teaching as soon as I can valued at 1 and I intent to remain in teaching until I am forced to retire due to age valued at 5. The relationships between teacher intent to stay and the independent variables were assessed using Pearsons r, Spearmans rho, and/or t tests as deemed appropriate. Gender, question 1, was collected as a dichotomous variable. The effect of gender was assessed using a t test and Pearsons r. Question 15 was composed of 23 items. The first 22 items assess teacher satisfaction with 22 aspects of teaching. A four-point Likert scale, with choices ranging

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from very dissatisfied to very satisfied, was used to measure all 23 items. Question 15w measures overall job satisfaction, providing a useful comparison to the overall job satisfaction score derived from the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale. The Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale contains 10 items. This survey is a modification of the Mohrman-Cooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Survey. The MohrmanCooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Survey originally used a 6-point Likert scale to assess satisfaction and eight questions. The Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale uses a 4-point Likert scale ranging from low satisfaction to high satisfaction. Question 2 was added to assess the differences teachers express between being a part of the teaching profession verses their satisfaction in a particular teaching position. Question 7 was added to assess the amount of respect and fair treatment teachers feel they receive from their principal (Question 6) verses respect and fair treatment teachers feel they receive from their central office. Correlation analysis, multiple regression analysis and t tests were utilized for most, if not all, of the data analysis. Post hoc analyses were conducted as appropriate. Summary The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of selected demographics (as measured by responses on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory) and perceived intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction (as measured by responses on the Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale) have upon the intent of West Virginia general and special educators to stay in the teaching profession (as measured by responses on the Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory). A sample of 243 West Virginia educators was surveyed for this study. Data collected during the survey were analyzed using correlation

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analysis, multiple regression analysis and t tests. Post hoc analyses were conducted as appropriate.

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Chapter 4 Presentation and Analyses of the Data The purpose of this study was to determine the effect of perceived intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction on the intent of West Virginia general and special educators to stay in the teaching profession. During the investigation, information about gender, age, number dependent children, type of educator, grade level of instruction, primary subjects taught, education level, experience, household income, intrinsic job satisfaction, extrinsic job satisfaction, overall job satisfaction, and the intent of teachers to stay in the teaching profession was collected. The sample consisted of 243 West Virginia general and special educators (N = 24,253). A randomized sample was obtained through the West Virginia Department of Education. One hundred and sixty-six (68%) surveys were returned. The Smith Intent to Stay Inventory was used to collect demographics and to assess the intent of teachers to remain in the teaching profession. A modification of the Mohrman-Cooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Survey, the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale, was used to assess the intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction of respondents. This chapter is divided into four sections. A profile of the descriptive data is presented first, followed by discussions of the major and ancillary findings. The final section provides a summary of the findings from this study. Descriptive Data This section provides a summary of the data collected using the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory and the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale. The Smith Intent to Stay Inventory collected respondent information about gender, age, number dependent children, type of

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educator, grade level of instruction, primary subjects taught, education level, experience, household income, overall job satisfaction, and the intent of teachers to stay in the teaching profession. Of the 166 respondents, 114 (68.7%) were female, 44 (26.5%) were male, and 8 (4.8%) did not report their gender. Age was collected as a continuous variable and grouped into ten year age spans for analysis. Eight (4.8%) of the respondents did not report their age. Of the 158 respondents reporting age, (a) five (3.0) were ages 20-29 years; (b) 16 (9.6) were ages 30-39; (c) 54 (32.5%) were ages 40-49; (d) 74 (44.6) were ages 50-59; (e) 8 (4.8%) were ages 60-69; and (f) 1 (0.6%) was age 70-79. The Smith Job Satisfaction Scale was used to measure job satisfaction. Scores from the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale were tallied to provide measures of teacher intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction. Respondents reported a mean overall job satisfaction of 26.93, with a range of 12 to 40. Analysis of the data revealed a mean intrinsic job satisfaction score of 14.64 and a mean extrinsic job satisfaction score of 12.38, with a range of 5 to 20. Major Findings Major findings of this investigation are presented in this section of the chapter. The research questions and related findings are discussed in the order in which the questions appeared in Chapter 1 of this study. Q1. Is there a significant relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? Respondents had a mean intrinsic job satisfaction score of 14.64. The scores had a range of 5-20. Table 1 shows the correlation between intrinsic job satisfaction and teacher

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intent to stay. Correlation analysis of the data reveals that a positive significant relationship exists between a teachers intrinsic job satisfaction and their intent to stay (r = .286, p < .01). This study found that teachers expressing higher levels of intrinsic job satisfaction also expressed higher intent to stay. Table 1 Correlation Analysis of Intrinsic Job Satisfaction and Intent to Stay n Intrinsic Job Satisfaction **p < .01 Q2. Is there a significant relationship between extrinsic job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? The correlation between extrinsic job satisfaction and teacher intent to stay is found in Table 2. Analysis of the data shows a positive significant relationship between teachers extrinsic job satisfaction and their intent to stay (r = .272, p < .01). Respondents reported mean extrinsic job satisfaction scores of 12.38, with a range of 5 to 20. Data in this study reveals that teachers with higher levels of extrinsic job satisfaction also expressed higher levels of intent to stay. Table 2 Correlation of Extrinsic Job Satisfaction and Intent to Stay n Extrinsic Job Satisfaction **p < .01 136 r .272** 152 r .286**

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Q3. Is there a significant relationship between overall job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? Overall job satisfaction was assessed by two different methods. Analysis of the data collected by both methods are in Table 3. First, overall job satisfaction derived from the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale is referred to as Overall Job Satisfaction A. These data were obtained by totaling the intrinsic and extrinsic scores of the respondents on the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale. Analysis of the data from the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale revealed a positive significant relationship between overall job satisfaction and intent to stay (r = .311, p < .01). The overall job satisfaction mean score on the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale was 26.93, with a range of 12 to 40. Second, overall job satisfaction was obtained directly as a question on the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory. Data obtained by this specific question of the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory are referenced as Overall Job Satisfaction B in Table 3. Correlation analysis of this data revealed a significant relationship between overall job satisfaction and intent to stay (r = .403, p < .01). Data obtained from both instruments used in this study indicates that teachers who have a higher degree of overall job satisfaction also express greater intent to stay. Table 3 Correlation Analysis of Overall Job Satisfaction and Intent to Stay n Overall Job Satisfaction A Overall Job Satisfaction B ** p < .01 136 151 r .311** .403**

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As a test of the reliability of the instruments, the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale and the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory, a Pearson r correlation was performed to compare the results obtained by both instruments. The correlation showed a positive significant relationship (r = .610, p < .01) upholding the reliability of the instruments. Q4. Is there a significant relationship between the gender of teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? The gender question was reported by 158 of the 166 respondents. Of those reporting, 144 (68.7%) were female and 44 (26.5%) were male (see Table 4). Table 4 Frequencies and Percentages of Female and Male Respondents Gender Female Male Total Non-reporters Total Frequency 114 44 158 8 166 Percent 68.7 26.5 95.2 4.8 100.0

Intent to stay was measured with a choice of five responses. Possible responses ranged from I definitely plan to leave teaching as soon as I can, with a value of one to I intend to remain in teaching until I am forced to retire due to age, with a value of five. Of the 166 respondents, 152 reported both their gender and their intent to stay. The 110 female respondents had a mean score of 3.22 with a standard deviation of 1.06. Male respondents, 42, had a mean score of 2.57 with a standard deviation of 1.40. A positive
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significant relationship between gender and intent to stay was observed through a t test, which was used to determine if there was a significant difference between the mean scores of gender and intent to stay (t = 2.712, p < .01). Based on this data a significant difference exists between gender and intent to stay, with female teachers expressing a greater intent to stay than male teachers. Q5. Is there a significant relationship between the age of teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? Frequencies and percentages of each age group are found in Table 5. Age was collected as a continuous variable and grouped into 10-year age span for analysis. The 50-59 year old age category was the largest group of respondents, comprising 44.6% of those reporting age. Ages 70-79 (0.6%) composed the smallest category, with only one person reporting.

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Table 5 Frequencies and Percentages of Respondents by Age Age in Years 20-20 30-39 40-49 50-59 60-69 70-74 Total Non-reporting Total 158 8 100.0 Frequency 5 16 54 74 8 1 Percent 3.0 9.6 32.5 44.6 4.8 0.6 100.0 4.8 100.0

Correlation analysis of teacher age and intent to stay is contained in Table 6. Data analysis revealed that the relationship between teacher age and intent to stay was not significant (r = .083, p > .05). This study found that age was not a reliable indicator of intent to stay among West Virginia educators. Table 6 Correlation Analysis of Age and Intent to Stay n Age 152 r .083 Significance .312

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Q6. Is there a significant relationship between the number of dependent children living in teachers homes and the teachers intent to remain in the profession? The number of dependent children reported by respondents ranged from zero to four (see Table 7). A majority, 44.6% of the respondents reported having no dependent children living at home. Table 7 Frequencies of the Number of Dependent Children Living in a Teachers Home Number of Dependent Children 0 1 2 3 4 Total Non-reporters Total 74 36 30 13 5 158 8 166 44.6 21.7 18.1 7.8 3.0 95.2 4.8 100.0 Frequency Percent

Table 8 shows the data analysis between the number of dependent children living in a teachers home and intent to stay. The relationship between the number of dependent children living in a teachers home and the teachers intent to stay in teaching was not significant (r = .011, p > .05). These findings indicate that the number of dependent children living in a teachers home did not have a substantial influence on the teachers intent to stay in teaching.
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Table 8 Correlation Analysis of the Number of Dependent Children Living in a Teachers Home and Intent to Stay n Number of Dependent Children Living at Home Q7. Is there a significant relationship between the type of educator teachers are and their intent to remain in the profession? General educators comprised 76.2% (127) of the respondents. Special educators made up 13.3% (22) of the respondents. Seventeen (10.2%) of the respondents did not report their educator type. Table 9 contains the mean scores for the type of educator, general or special, and their intent to stay. Analysis of the data, using a t tests, revealed that the relationship between the mean scores for general and special educators was not significant (t = -.489, p > .05). Based on these results, whether a teacher is a general or special educator does not provide a reliable indicator for intent to stay. 152 r .011 Significance .892

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Table 9 Mean Score for the Type of Educator and Intent to Stay Type of Educator General Special n 127 22 M 3.05 3.18 SD 1.21 1.05

Q8. Is there a significant relationship between the grade level taught by teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? For the purposes of this study, teachers in grades K-6 were considered elementary and grades 7-12 were considered secondary. If a teacher responded to the question concerning which grade level they taught with middle school, then the response was classified as secondary. Of the 150 respondents reporting the grade level at which they teach, 70 (42.2%) were elementary and 80 (48.2%) were secondary. Table 10 shows the mean scores between the grade levels the teachers taught and their intent to stay. Analysis of the data, using t test, revealed a positive significant difference between the mean scores of the grade level taught and intent to stay (t = 2.054, p < .05). Results from these data indicate that elementary teachers are more likely to remain in the teaching profession than secondary teachers.

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Table 10 Mean Score of Grade Level Taught and Intent to Stay Grade Level Elementary Secondary n 70 80 M 3.26 2.86 SD 1.07 1.28

Q9. Is there a significant relationship between the primary subjects taught by teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? Table 11 lists the frequency of distribution and the percentage of the respondents for each of the subject areas. The two largest groups of respondents were elementary (33.3%) and special education (12.8%). Due to the small number of music and art teachers in the sample and frequent classification grouping of music and art together, these teachers were grouped as related arts. Health and physical education teachers were grouped into one category due to the small number of respondents and the closed relationship of the two subject areas.

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Table 11 Frequencies and Percentages of Subjects Taught Subjects Taught Elementary Special Education Vocational Language Arts Science Math Social Studies Related Arts Physical Ed./Health Foreign Language Total Non-reporting Total Table 12 Correlation Analysis of Classes Taught and Intent to Stay n Classes Taught 150 r -.078 Significance .343 Frequency 52 20 11 14 7 13 13 11 10 5 156 10 166 Percent 31.3 12.0 6.6 8.4 4.2 7.8 7.8 6.6 6.0 3.0 94.0 6.0 100.0

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Table 12 provides the correlation analysis between the subjects taught by teachers and the teachers intent to stay. The relationship between subjects taught and intent to stay was not significant. Based on this research the subjects taught by West Virginia teachers is not a significant indicator of teacher intent to stay. Q10. Is there a significant relationship between teachers education level and their intent to remain in the profession? West Virginia public school teachers in this study held degrees ranging from associate degrees to doctorates. Of the 157 respondents reporting their degree level, two (1.2%) held associate degrees, 40 (24.1%) held bachelor degrees, 111 (66.9%) held masters degrees, and four (2.4%) held doctorate degrees. Table 13 shows the correlation analysis data between teachers degree level and their intent to stay. No significance was found between a teachers degree level and their intent to stay (r = .082, p > .05). Based on this data, the degree level achieved by a West Virginia educator is not a reliable indicator of intent to stay. Table 13 Correlation Analysis of Degree Level and Intent to Stay n Degree Level 152 r .082 Significance .315

Q11. Is there a significant relationship between teachers years of experience and their intent to remain in the profession? Years of teaching experience was collected as a continuous variable. Teachers with five or less years of experience were classed as inexperienced teachers. Those
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teachers with more than five years in the teaching profession were considered experienced teachers. The mean number of years experience for teachers sampled in this study was 22.4162 years. Teachers in the study reported a mean of 12.061 years in their current position. Table 14 contains the frequencies and percentages for teachers based on teaching experience. The largest category of reporting respondents was the 21-30 years of experience category with 46 respondents (39.2%). Teachers with 41-50 years of experience comprised the smallest category, with three respondents (1.8%). Table 14 Frequencies and Percentage of Teaching Experience Years of Teaching Experience 1-5 6-10 11-20 21-30 31-40 41-50 Total Non-reporters Total 7 10 46 65 24 3 155 11 166 4.2 6.0 27.7 39.2 14.5 1.8 93.4 6.6 100.0 Frequency Percent

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As observed in Table 15, the number of experienced teachers in West Virginia public schools greatly out number inexperienced teachers. Inexperienced teachers accounted for 4.2% of the respondents, experienced teachers 89.2%, and non-reporters 6.6%. Table 15 Frequencies and Percentage of Inexperienced and Experienced Teachers Experience Level Inexperienced Experienced Total Non-reporting Total Frequency 7 148 155 11 166 Percent 4.2 89.2 93.4 6.6 100.0

Correlation analysis between years of teaching experience and intent to stay is contained in Table 16. Analysis of the data revealed that this relationship was not significant (r = 0.072, p > .05). Based on these findings, years of teaching experience does not have a substantial relationship with their intent to stay among West Virginia educators. Table 16 Correlation Analysis of Years of Teaching Experience and Intent to Stay n Years of Teaching Experience
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r -.072

Significance .383

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Mean scores for the inexperienced and experienced teachers were similar. Inexperienced teachers (n = 7) had a mean of 3.29 and experienced teachers (n = 142) had a mean of 3.03. When these data were analyzed using a t test, no significant differences were found between the mean intent to stay scores of inexperienced and experienced teachers (t = .550, p > .05). These findings did not establish a relationship between teachers experience level and their intent to stay in teaching. Q12. Is there a significant relationship between teachers household income and their intent to remain in the profession? Table 17 contains the frequencies and percentages of the household incomes of respondents. The majority of the respondents reported a household income between $60,000 and $74,999 (37%). Respondents reported a mean household income of $50,000 to $59,999.

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Table 17 Frequencies and Percentages of Household Incomes Household Income $25,000-29,999 $30,000-34,999 $35,000-39,999 $40,000-49,999 $50,000-59,000 $60,000-74,999 $75,000-99,999 $100,000 or more Total Non-reporters Total Frequency 4 11 16 18 20 37 30 13 149 17 166 Percent 2.4 6.6 9.6 10.8 12.0 22.3 18.1 7.8 89.8 10 .2 100.0

Table 18 shows the relationship between household income and the intent of teachers to stay in the teaching profession. Correlation analysis, using Spearmans rho, between teachers household income and their intent to remain in the profession was not significant (rs = .006, p > .05). Table 18 Correlation Analysis of Household Income and Intent to Stay n Household Income 147
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rs .006

Significance .941

Ancillary Findings In addition to previously discussed data, other data were collected as a part of the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory. Table 19 contains the correlation analysis between these data and intent to stay. These data contain information that could be useful to public school administrators in developing plans to encourage teacher retention. Correlation analysis revealed that eleven criteria collected in question 15 of the survey have a positive significant relationship with intent to stay and are likely to strongly influence whether or not teachers will stay in the profession. The following nine criteria have the strongest correlation with intent to stay (p < .01): (a) professional advancement (r = .284), (b) professional development (r = .363), (c) influence over school policy (r = .242), (d) benefits (r = .295), (e) work conditions (r = .264), (f) intellectual challenge (r = .247), (g) student discipline (r = .276), (h) school learning environment (r = .216), and (i) parental support (r = .227). The analysis found that the following three criteria had a positive significant relationship with intent to stay at the p < .05 level: (a) salary (r = .209), (b) administrative support (r = .184), (c) professional prestige (r = .173), and (d) job security (r = .198). Significant relationships were not established between intent to stay and (a) school safety, (b) autonomy in the classroom, (c) evaluation procedures, (d) availability of resources, (e) professionalism of colleagues, (f) class size, (g) the social esteem of the teaching profession, and (h) teaching load.

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Table 19 Correlation of Ancillary Findings and Intent to Stay n Salary Professional Advancement Professional Development Administrative Support School Safety Influence Over School Policy Autonomy in the Classroom Professional Prestige Benefits Evaluation Procedures Teaching Load Availability of Resources Working Conditions Job Security Professionalism of Colleagues 149 152 152 152 152 .160 .076 .264** .198* .130 152 151 151 .173* .295** .113 151 .138 149 150 150 151 152 151 r .209* .284** .363** .184** .091 .242**

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n Intellectual Challenge Student Discipline School Learning Environment Class Size Parental Support Social Esteem of Teaching Profession *p < .05. **p < .01. 152 152 152 152 152 152

r .247** .276** .216**

.109 .227** .013

Data collected in this study included the age of the respondents youngest child. These data were collected as a continuous variable. Correlation analysis of the data revealed that the relationship between the age of a teachers youngest child and the teachers intent to stay was not significant (r = .053, p > .05). Chapter Summary The purpose of this study is to determine the effect of selected personal factors and perceived intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction have upon the intent of West Virginia general and special educators to stay in the teaching profession. Personal factors collected included: (a) gender, (b) age, (c) number of dependent children, (d) age of oldest child, (e) teaching assignment, (f) number years in teaching, (g) number of years in current teaching position, (h) number of years until retirement, (i) household income, (j) type of educator, (k) grade level of assignment, and (l) highest degree. The research sample was randomly selected from West Virginia public school teachers. This
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population included general and special educators in grades K-12. Of the 243 teachers selected for this study, 166 (68%) participated in the study. Two surveys were used to collect information for this study. The Smith Intent to Stay Inventory was used to collect information about the teachers (a) gender, (b) age, (c) number of dependent children, (d) age of oldest child, (e) teaching assignment, (f) number years in teaching, (g) number of years in current teaching position, (h) number of years until retirement, (i) household income, (j) type of educator, (k) grade level of assignment, (l) highest degree, (m) intent to stay in teaching, and (n) teacher satisfaction about various elements within the school environment. A second survey instrument, the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale, was a modification of the Mohrman-Cook-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Survey. The modifications were made to increase the surveys application for public school teachers. The Smith Intent to Stay Inventory and the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale were both designed by the researcher and were reviewed by a panel of experts of readability and validity. Data collect during this research were analyzed using means, frequencies, Pearsons r, Spearmans rho, and t tests. Analyses were conducted using SPSS. Analysis of the data collected in this survey has revealed that several factors have significant relationships with a teachers intent to stay in the teaching profession. Intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfactions were all found to have significant relationship with intent to stay. Intent to stay scores were significantly higher for female teachers than male teachers. Elementary teachers had significantly higher intent to stay scores than did secondary teachers. Data analysis did not support significant relationships

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between intent to stay and age, number of dependent children, years of teaching experience, type of educator, degree level, or household income.

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Chapter 5 Summary, Conclusions, and Recommendations This chapter provides the purpose of the study and summaries of the procedures employed during the study, the descriptive data used in the study, and of the findings from the study. Next, the conclusions are presented, followed with implications and recommendations for further research. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study was to examine the relationship job satisfaction and demographic characteristics have on West Virginia general and special educators intent to stay in the teaching profession. Analyses of the data were guided by the following research questions: 1. Is there a significant relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? 2. Is there a significant relationship between extrinsic job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? 3. Is there a significant relationship between overall job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? 4. Is there a significant relationship between the gender of teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? 5. Is there a significant relationship between the age of teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? 6. Is there a significant relationship between the number of dependent children living in teachers homes and the teachers intent to remain in the profession?
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7. Is there a significant relationship between the type of educator teachers are and their intent to remain in the profession? 8. Is there a significant relationship between the grade level taught by teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? 9. Is there a significant relationship between the primary subjects taught by teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? 10. Is there a significant relationship between teachers education level and their intent to remain in the profession? 11. Is there a significant relationship between teachers years of experience and their intent to remain in the profession? 12. Is there a significant relationship between teachers household income and their intent to remain in the profession? Summary of the Procedures This study was a one-shot case study designed to investigate the relationship between gender, age, number dependent children, type of educator, grade level of instruction, primary subjects taught, education level, experience, household income, overall job satisfaction, and the intent of teachers to stay in the teaching profession (Campbell & Stanley, 1963). The population used in this study was West Virginia public school general and special educators (N = 24,253). For the purposes of this study, a random sample of West Virginia public school educators was obtained from the West Virginia Department of Education (n = 243). Each educator in the research sample was mailed a survey packet that included a cover letter, the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory, the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale, and a stamped, self-addressed return envelope. The

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following week a post card was mailed to members of the research sample as a reminder. In order to increase the response a second survey packet containing a cover letter, the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory, the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale, and a stamped, selfaddressed return envelope was mailed the next week. Of the 243 surveys mailed, 166 (68%) were returned. This response rate exceeds the 50% plus one response rate requirement for survey studies (Kerlinger, 1986). Two surveys were used in this study, the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory and the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale. A panel of experts reviewed both instruments used in this study for validity and reliability. The Smith Intent to Stay Inventory was designed by the researcher from several existing instruments to meet the needs of this study. Intent to stay was assessed using a question posed by Billingsley and Cross (1992) in previous studies on the subject and using the age of the educator, collected as a continuous variable. Demographic questions and teacher satisfaction about specific aspects of the educational environment were adapted from the National center for Education Statistics Characteristics of Stayers, Movers, and Leavers: Results from the Teacher Followup Survey; 1994-1995 (Whitener, Gruber, Lynch, Tingos, Perona, & Fondelier, 1997). The Smith Job Satisfaction Scale was designed by the researcher to measure intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction of educators. Modifications were made to the Mohrman-Cooke-Mohrman Job Satisfaction Survey creating a survey specifically for educators. Responses to the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory and the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale were analyzed using the SPSS. SPSS was used to conduct Pearsons r, Spearmans

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rho, and t tests. Frequencies, means, and percentages were also produced using SPSS. Statistical significance was determined using an alpha level of 0.05. Descriptive Data Responses to the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory provide information about the educators gender, age, number dependent children, type of educator, grade level of instruction, primary subjects taught, education level, experience, household income, overall job satisfaction, and the intent of teachers to stay. Of the 166 respondents, 144 (68.7%) were female, 44 (26.5%) were male, and eight (4.8%) did not identify their gender. Respondents varied in age from 22 years to 71 years with a mean of 48.63 years. The largest age category of respondents was ages 50 years to 59 years with 74 (44.6%) respondents. Respondents reported having from zero to four dependent children. General educators (127) accounted for 76.5% of the respondents, special educators (22) accounted for 13.3%, and 17 (10.2%) respondents did not identify themselves as general or special educators. Elementary educators comprised 42.2% (70) of the respondents, secondary educators comprised 48.2% (80), and 9.6% (16) of the respondents did not report their teaching level. Subjects taught were reported by 156 of the respondents, with 10 not reporting the data. The subjects taught by respondents were placed into the following 10 categories for analysis: (a) elementary, 52 (31.3%); (b) special education, 20 (12%); (c) vocational, 11 (6.6%); (d) language arts, 14 (8.4%); (e) science, 7 (4.2%); (f) math, 13 (7.8%); (g) social studies, 13 (7.8%); (h) related arts, 11 (6.6%); (i) physical education and health 10 (6%); and foreign language, 5 (3%). The degree levels reported by respondents revealed that associates degrees, bachelors degrees, masters degrees, and doctorate degrees. Teaching experience reported by respondents ranged from 3 years to

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47 years. The 155 respondents reporting their teaching experience fell into the following categories: (a) 1-5 years, 7 (4.2%); (b) 6-10 years, 10 (6%); (c) 11-20 years, 46 (27.7%); (d) 21-30 years, 65 (39.2%); (e) 31-40 years, 24 (14.5%); and 41-50, 3 (1.8%). Intent to stay was assessed with a five-part question. Twenty-seven (16.3%) responded to the statement I definitely plan to leave teaching as soon as I can. Fourteen (8.4%) responded to the statement I will probably continue in teaching unless something better comes along. Forty-seven (28.3%) responded to the statement I will continue teaching until eligible for early retirement. Fifty-four (32.5%) responded to the statement I intend to remain in teaching until normal retirement. Ten (6%) responded to the statement I intend to remain in teaching until I am forced to retire due to age. Fourteen respondents did not answer the intent to stay question. Job satisfaction was determined using the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory and the Smith Job Satisfaction Scale. The Smith Job Satisfaction Scale was used to assess intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction. For the purpose of comparison, overall job satisfaction was assessed a second time using the Smith Intent to Stay Inventory. Summary of Findings Responses to intent to stay were compared to each of the independent variables. In order to facilitate analysis of the data, continuous independent variables were grouped before analysis. Data analysis revealed positive significant relationships between intrinsic, extrinsic, and overall job satisfaction with the intent of teachers to stay in the profession. Comparison of gender and intent to stay showed a positive significant relationship, with females expressing greater intent to stay than males. Correlation analysis between grade level and intent to stay revealed a positive significant

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relationship. Elementary teachers expressed greater intent to stay than their counter-parts in secondary education. Conclusions Data collected during this research study directed the following conclusions. Discussion of the research questions follows in the same order of their presentation in Chapter 1. Q1. Is there a significant relationship between intrinsic job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? Studies show that employees with higher levels of intrinsic job satisfaction are more likely to produce positive job performance and less likely to change jobs (Adams & Dial, 1994; Billingsley, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999). Correlation of educators scores on the Smith Job Satisfaction Survey with their responses to intent to stay revealed a positive significant relationship (r = .286, p < .01). The data supports findings by other researchers that teachers who express a high degree of intrinsic job satisfaction also express greater intent to stay. Q2. Is there a significant relationship between extrinsic job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? Previous studies have shown that extrinsic job satisfaction is strongly correlated with worker dissatisfaction (Adams & Dial, 1994; Billingsley, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999). Workers that express a high level of extrinsic job satisfaction are less dissatisfied with their jobs and are less likely to change jobs. This research found that West Virginia educators exhibit a positive significant relationship between extrinsic job satisfaction and their intent to stay (

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r = .610, p < .01). This study supports findings in other studies showing that the higher a teachers extrinsic job satisfaction, the greater their intent to stay. Q3. Is there a significant relationship between overall job satisfaction and the intent of teachers to remain in the profession? Overall, job satisfaction and low levels of dissatisfaction have been shown to improve the retention of teachers and workers in general. In this study, the correlation of overall job satisfaction based on the Smith Job Satisfaction Survey with intent to stay revealed a positive significant relationship (r = .311, p < .01). Correlation of overall job satisfaction scores from the Smith Intent to Stay Survey with intent to stay also exhibited a positive significant relationship (r = .403, p < .01). Data from this study confirms findings by other researchers that the greater a teachers overall job satisfaction, the greater their intent to stay (Adams & Dial, 1994; Billingsley, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999). Q4. Is there a significant relationship between the gender of teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? Intent to stay was measured with a five part question and responses scored on a 5-point Likert scale, with one being the weakest intent to stay and five being the strongest intent to stay. Female respondents had a mean score of 3.22, while their male counterparts had a mean of 2.57. Results of t test revealed a positive significant difference between the mean scores of male and female respondents (t = 2.712, p < .01). Possible skewing of the data could have occurred since females account for 68.7% (114) of the sample and males account for only 26.5% (44) of the sample.

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Other researchers have observed that females tend to express a higher degree of satisfaction with the teaching profession and less intent to seek employment outside of teaching (Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Goerge & George, 1995; Singh & Billingsley, 1998). Data collected and analyzed in this study confirm other findings showing that females express greater intent to stay in the teaching profession than their male counterparts. Q5. Is there a significant relationship between the age of teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? Other researchers have noted strong correlations between age and intent to stay (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999). Younger teachers and retirement age teachers have shown the least intent to stay in previous research. In this study, correlation analysis of age and intent to stay revealed no positive significant relationship (r = .083, p > .05). Based on this study, age is not a major factor influencing the intent to stay among West Virginia teachers. Q6. Is there a significant relationship between the number of dependent children living in teachers homes and the teachers intent to remain in the profession? Studies conducted by other researchers have shown that increasing the number of dependent children increased the likelihood that teachers would leave the profession (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997). This study found no positive significant relationship between the number of dependent children living in the teachers home and their intent to stay (r = .011, p > .05). Based on this study, the number of dependent children living a teachers home is not a major influence on their intent to stay in teaching.

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Q7. Is there a significant relationship between the type of educator teachers are and their intent to remain in the profession? Studies previously conducted regarding intent to stay and type of educator have had mixed results. In some studies, special educators expressed higher job satisfaction and higher intent to stay than general educators (Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Sutton & Huberty, 1984). Other studies have shown only minor differences of intent to stay between general and special educators (Boe, Bobbitt, Cook, Whitener, & Weber, 1994; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997). General educators had a mean score of 3.05 for intent to stay and special educators had a mean score of 3.18. A t test revealed that the relationship between the mean scores for the general and special educators were not significant. Analysis of the data collected in this study did not find the type of educator to be a good indicator of intent to stay among West Virginia teachers. Q8. Is there a significant relationship between the grade level taught by teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? Findings by other researchers have consisting found that elementary teachers express greater intent to stay in teaching than secondary teachers do (Heyns, 1988; Murnane, Singer, Willett, & Olsen, 1991). Of the 150 respondents reporting the grade level they teach, 70 (42.2%) were elementary and 80 (48.2%) were secondary. Elementary teachers had a mean of 3.26 and secondary had a mean of 2.86. A t test determined that the relationship between the grade levels taught by teachers to be significant (t = 2.054, p < .05). In agreement with previously cited studies, this research study revealed that elementary educators in West Virginia are more likely to stay in teaching than secondary educators.

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Q9. Is there a significant relationship between the primary subjects taught by teachers and their intent to remain in the profession? A number of previous studies have found that teachers in the fields of special education, math, science, and foreign language express less intent to stay in teaching than educators in other fields (Chaddock & Baldauf, 1998; Murnane, 1987; Rodda, 2000). For the purposes of this study, the teachers were asked to state the primary subjects they taught. The list of subjects were then placed into the following 10 categories: (a) elementary, (b) special education, (c) vocational, (d) language arts, (e) science, (f) math, (g) social studies, (h) related arts, (i) physical education/health, and (j) foreign languages. Correlation analysis performed on the data revealed no significant relationship between the subjects taught by a teacher and intent to stay (r = -.078, p > .05). This study did not find the major subject area taught to be a good indicator of the intent to stay among West Virginia educators. Q10. Is there a significant relationship between teachers education level and their intent to remain in the profession? Previous research examining teacher education level and their intent to stay has produced mixed findings. Some researchers have found that having an advanced degree will increase the chance that a teacher will leave the teaching profession. Teachers who acquire masters degrees sometimes leave to more lucrative job opportunities in their field of study, others leave teaching for administrative positions in education. Educators who attain a doctorate leave teaching for education administration or to teach in higher education (Cross & Billingsley, 1994; Singh & Billingsley, 1996; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999). Other research findings have revealed that many teachers were likely to

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pursue advanced degrees due to the linkage of degree level and salary by many school districts. These findings also revealed that teachers with advanced degrees expressed a greater intent to stay due to their career investment (Bloland & Shelby, 1980; Dworkin, 1987). Correlation analysis of the data collected in this study revealed no significant relationship between the education level of the teacher and their intent to leave the profession (r = .082, p > .05). Based on this study, the education level achieved by an educator in West Virginia is not a good indicator of their intent to stay. Q11. Is there a significant relationship between teachers years of experience and their intent to remain in the profession? Previous research has shown that the two groups expressing the least intent to stay are teachers with less than five years of experience and those nearing retirement (Bobbitt, 1991; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Singh & Billingsley, 1998). In this study, teachers with five or less years in the teaching profession were categorized as inexperienced. Teachers with more than five years of experience in teaching were categorized as experienced. Inexperienced teachers comprised 4.2% (7) of the reporting respondents. Experienced teachers were 89.2% (148) of the reporting respondents. A mean score of 3.29 was recorded for inexperienced teachers and 3.03 for experienced teachers. The mean scores were compared using a t test, showing the relationship between inexperienced and experienced teachers to not be significant (t = .550, p > .05). Correlation analysis found that the relationship between years of teaching experience and intent to stay was not significant (r = -.072, p > .05). These results differ from those of other researchers, with no significant difference of intent to stay found between the inexperienced and experienced West Virginia public school teachers.

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Q12. Is there a significant relationship between teachers household income and their intent to remain in the profession? Some previous studies have found that household income to significantly impact the intent of teachers to stay in the profession (Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Rhodes & Boering, 1993). The application of correlation analysis to the data collected in this study revealed no significant relationship between household income and teacher intent to stay (rs = .006, p > .05). This study found that household income was not a good indicator of intent to stay among West Virginia educators. These results are consistent with the findings of Dolton and van der Klaauw (1999) who observed that teachers are more likely to leave the profession when greater economic opportunities are available elsewhere. Since the average salary earned by West Virginia public school teachers is greater than the average household income in West Virginia, salary was not found to be a good indicator of intent to stay on a statewide basis. Ancillary Findings The statistics conducted in this study and the data collected revealed additional information not included in the research questions. Correlations between 21 factors known to influence teachers to stay or leave the teaching profession were included within the Smith Intent to Stay Survey. Correlation analysis using Pearsons r showed positive significant relationships between the following intrinsic factors of job satisfaction and intent to stay: (a) salary, (b) administrative support, (c) professional prestige, (d) benefits, (e) work conditions, (f) parent support, and (g) job security. The data established positive significant relationships between the following extrinsic factors of job satisfaction and

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intent to stay: (a) professional advancement, (b) professional development, (c) influence over school policy, (d) intellectual challenge, (e) student discipline, and (f) school learning environment. Numerous research findings (Adams & Dial, 1994; Billingsley, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997: Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999) have also established a significant relationship between intent to stay and the intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction of employees, school administrators at building level, district level, and state level need to remain cognizant of these fourteen factors when making decisions that effect the teachers under their leadership. Analysis of the data revealed that the following factors did not have a significant relationship with a teachers intent to stay in teaching: (a) school safety, (b) autonomy in the classroom, (c) evaluation procedures, (d) availability of resources, (e) professionalism of colleagues, (f) class size, (g) the social esteem of the teaching profession, and (h) teaching load. While previous research findings (Adams & Dial, 1994; Billingsley, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999) have shown that these factors influence job satisfaction, this study found that administrators of West Virginia public schools need to pay less attention to stated factors than to those listed in the last paragraph (e.g. professional advancement, professional development, etc.). Other research findings have indicated that teachers with preschool age children show less intent to stay in teaching and greater intent to stay as their children enter school. The ages of the youngest child of each respondent were collected as part of the data. While analysis of the data did not show a positive significant relationship between the age of a teachers youngest child and their intent to stay (p > .05), results of the

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Pearsons r revealed a correlation of r = .053. Pearsons r correlations in this range indicate a moderate correlation and substantial relationship (Sprinthall, 1987, p. 198). This data does not confirm the findings of other researchers regarding the influence the age of a teachers youngest child has on their intent to stay in teaching, but it does indicate that there is a relationship between the two. Implications Numerous researchers have noted that job satisfaction has a direct impact on teacher turnover. Findings from previous studies show that as teacher job satisfaction increases, so does their intent to stay in the teaching profession (Billingsley & Cross, 1991, 1992 : Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Breen-Reese & Johnson, 1991; Quaglia & Marion, 1991; Schonfeld, 2000; Scott & Dinham, 1999; Shen, 1998; Thompson & McNamara, 1997; Xin Ma & MacMillan, 1999). This study supported these findings among both general and special educators in West Virginia. Respondents in this study expressed positive significant relationships between intent to stay and the following factors of intrinsic job satisfaction: (a) salary, (b) administrative support, (c) professional prestige, (d) benefits, (e) work conditions, (f) parent support, and (g) job security. Factors related to extrinsic job satisfaction found to have significant relationships with intent to stay in this study were: (a) professional advancement, (b) professional development, (c) influence over school policy, (d) intellectual challenge, (e) student discipline, and (f) school learning environment. As discussed in Chapters One and Two, Herzbergs Two-Factor Theory notes that it is the combination of these intrinsic and extrinsic factors that creates the elements of a job that provides teacher satisfaction and reduces teacher frustration, absenteeism, and attrition. The findings of this study showed that the

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elements of intrinsic job satisfaction and extrinsic job satisfaction each have significant influence over the intent of West Virginia teachers to stay in teaching. Combined together as overall job satisfaction, the elements of intrinsic and extrinsic job satisfaction continued to exhibit a significant impact on the intent of West Virginia teachers to remain in the teaching profession. There are several implications for administrators within the findings of this research study. Legislators and school boards need to be cognizant of the market value of their personnel and provide competitive salary and benefit packages in order to build and retain a high quality school system. When members of the legislature and school boards are deciding school policy, inclusion of teachers in the process can help maintain job satisfaction and retention of teachers. As the direct supervisors of teachers, principals have direct impact on teacher job satisfaction. Principals ultimately decide how school policies are implemented at the building level; the inclusion of the teaching staff in the implementation process can help maintain job satisfaction. Administrative supports can be in the form of supplies, providing student discipline, assistance in dealing with parents, development of a positive learning environment, and maintaining good working conditions. How well principals provide all of these administrative supports for their teaching staffs can directly influence the level of job dissatisfaction of individual teachers and the staffs at large, affecting the retention of qualified teachers. Through creation of the school schedule, principals can make sure that all teachers have the opportunity to teach courses that are more intellectually challenging, rather than being locked into a regime of required, basic level courses. By treating teachers as professionals, legislators,

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school boards, and principals can further promote higher levels of job satisfaction and lower levels of job dissatisfaction among public educators. Previous researchers have found that females are more likely to remain in teaching than males (Ball & Stenlund, 1990; Billingsley, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Borg & Riding, 1991; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 1999; Murnane & Olsen, 1990; Murnane & Schwinden, 1989; Murnane, Singer & Willet, 1989; Xin Ma & MacMillian, 1999). In a previous study of West Virginia special educators, Singh and Billingsley (1996) found that white females expressed a higher intend to stay in teaching. This study supported these findings, with female teachers expressing significantly higher intent to stay responses than male teachers. Work by previous researchers showed age to be a major predictor of teacher intent to stay. These researchers found that younger teachers, those just entering the teaching profession, and teachers near retirement age expressed the least intent to stay (Baker & Smith, 1997; Billingsley, 1993; Billingsley & Cross, 1993; Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Brock & Brady, 1998; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Darling-Hammond & Sclan, 1996; Dolton & van der Klaauw, 199; Grissmer & Kirby, 1987; Heck & Wolcott, 1997; Murnane, Singer, & Willet, 1988; Singer, 1993). Rollefson and Smiths study (as cited in Baker & Smith, 1997) found that teachers younger than 25 years of age and older than age 60 had the highest attrition rates. Analysis of the data collected in this study found no significant relationship between the age of West Virginia educators and intent to stay. The majority of West Virginia educators expressed an intent to stay in teaching regardless of their age.

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Other researchers have noted that both the number of dependent children living at home and household income both had negative effects on teacher intent to stay (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Checkley & Kelly, 1999; Klein, 1997; Murnone & Vegas; Young, 1997). Neither of these independent variables were shown to have a significant relationship with the intent of West Virginia educators to continue in the teaching field. Studies of teacher retention among general and special educators have produced mixed results. Several studies found slightly higher job satisfaction among special educators than general educators (Billingsley & Cross, 1992; Sutton & Huberty, 1984). Boe, Bobbitt, Cook, Whitener, and Weber (1994) found few significant differences acting as reliable predictors of teacher turnover between general and special educators. Correlation analysis of the data in this study revealed no significant difference between the intent to stay of general and special educators in West Virginia. This study found that a significant relationship exists between elementary and secondary West Virginia educators and intent to stay in teaching. Elementary teachers expressed higher intent to stay in teaching than secondary teachers. Previous research supports this finding (Boe & Bobbitt, 1997; Brownell & Smith, 1992; Murnane, Singer, Willett, & Olsen, 1991; Singer, 1992). Administrators should be aware that secondary teachers are more prone to become dissatisfied with the field of education, seek employment in another school or outside of the teaching profession. Analysis of the data in this study failed to find significant relationships between the primary subjects West Virginia teachers teach and their intent to stay in teaching. Other findings indicate that teachers in science, math, and foreign language had higher turnover rates than teachers in other subject areas. Teacher turnover in these subject areas

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was most pronounced in locations where more lucrative positions were available in the private sector (Darling-Hammond, 1984, 2000; Murnane, 1987; Murnane, Singer, & Willett, 1989; Rhodda, 2000; Schlechty & Vance, 1983). For the 2000-2001 school year, West Virginia public school teachers earned an average salary of $35,888 (Educational Personnel, 2001), well above the average household income for the state, $27, 432 in 1997 (ERS/USDA Data, 2001). Legislators, school boards, and school administrators should be aware that the availability and competitiveness of the local job market can effect their ability to retain qualified teachers. Previous researchers have cited significant relationships between the education levels of teachers with their intent to stay in the teaching profession (Adams & Dial, 1994; Heyns, 1998). Teachers who had earned advanced degrees were found to be more likely to continue teaching (Adams & Dial, 1994; Bloland & Shelby, 1980; Dworkin, 1987; Heyns, 1998). A study by Billingsley and Cross (1992) of Virginia educators found no significant relationship between education level and the commitment of teachers to stay in teaching. Analysis of the data from this research supports the findings of Billingsley and Cross (1992). The relationship between education level and the intent of West Virginia educators to remain in teaching was not significant. Studies completed previously have revealed that teachers with fewer than five years of experience and teachers with the most experience, those nearing retirement, expressed the least intent to stay in the teaching profession (Bobbitt, 1991; Colarelli & Bishop, 1990; Shen, 1998; Singh & Billingsley, 1998). Analysis of the data collected during this study discovered no significant relationship between the experience level of West Virginia educators and their intent to stay in teaching. While West Virginia

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administrators should not expect all new teachers to make a career of teaching or for all teachers of retirement age to continue teaching indefinitely, this study shows that West Virginia educators are likely to stay in teaching upon entering the profession and may choose to postpone retirement. Recommendations for Further Research Analysis of the studys data has provided a basis for the following recommendations: 1. It is recommended that a study of West Virginia special educators be conducted, examining the intent to stay of the various specializations within that field, such as behavior disorder and learning disability along with the ages and experience levels of the teachers.. 2. It is recommended that a study of West Virginia general educators be conducted, examining the intent to stay of the educators in different subject areas. 3. It is recommended that a study of the intent to stay among West Virginia educators be conducted comparing RESA districts to reflect differences that could occur within the state. 4. It is recommended that a study of the intent to stay among West Virginia educators be conducted comparing border counties and counties on the interior of the state to examine differences that might occur due to employment opportunities in states bordering West Virginia. 5. Further research is needed to examine the influence specific intrinsic and extrinsic factors have on the intent of West Virginia educators to remain in the teaching profession.

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6. Further research is needed to examine factors that influence the intent of teachers to stay in the profession, yet cause them to move to another school or school district. 7. Further research is needed to examine the influence of teacher commitment among West Virginia educators and their intent to stay. 8. Further research is needed to examine why West Virginia teachers seem more likely to remain in teaching upon entering the profession than teachers in other states.

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(1997). Characteristics of stayers, mover, and leavers: results from the teacher followup survey: 1994-95. Washington, D.C.: U. S. Department of Education. National Center for Education Statistics. Wirt, J., Choy, S. P., Yupin, B., Sable, J., Gruner, A., Stennett, J., & Perie, M. (1999). The condition of education 1999, NCES 1999-022. Washington, D. C.: U. S. Department of Education, National Center for Educational Statistics. Xia Ma & MacMillan, R. B. (1999). Influences of workplace conditions on teaachers job satisfaction. Journal of Educational Research, 93, 39-48. Retrieved from January 31, 2001 EBSCOhost database (EBSCOhost 2489629) on the World Wide Web: http//:www.ebscohost.com/. Young, I. P. (1997). Dimensions of employee compensation: practical and theoretical implications for superintendents [Electronic version]. Educational Administration Quarterly, 33, 506-525. Zeichner, K. M. & Hoeft, K. (1996). Teacher socialization for cultural diversity. In J. Sikula (Ed.), Handbook of research on teacher education, (2nd ed., pp. 525547). New York: Simon & Schuster Macmillan.

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Appendices

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Appendix A Smith Teacher Intent to Stay Inventory

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SMITH TEACHER INTENT TO STAY INVENTORY

Please answer each of the following questions by filling in the blank or by checking the appropriate box. 1. Gender Female Male

2. What is your current age in years? _____ 3. How many children do you have who are dependent on you (and your spouse) for more than half of their financial support? _____ 4. What was the age of your youngest child on his/her last birthday? (Enter a 0 if the child is less than one year old). ______ 5. What is your MAIN teaching assignment (the field in which you teach most of your classes) at your current school? ______________ 6. How many years have you been in the teaching profession? _____________ 7. How many years have you been at your current teaching assignment?___________ 8. In how many years do you plan to retire? _______ 9. Which category represents the total combined income (include your own income) of ALL FAMILY MEMBERS age 14 and older in your household during 2000? Include money from jobs, net business or farm income, pensions, dividends, interest, rent, Social Security payments, and any other income received by family members in your household. (Check one only). Less than $10,000 $25,000-$29,999 $50,000-$59,999 $10,000-$14,999 $30,000-$34,999 $60,000-$74,999 $15,000-$19,999 $35,000-$39,999 $75,000-$99,999 $20,000-$24,999 $40,000-$49,999 $100,000 or more 10. Which one of the following best describes your position? General Educator Special Educator

11. If you are a Special Educator, which of the following best describes your future plans? I plan to continue teaching in special education until I retire. I plan to continue teaching in special education until I can find a job in general education. 12. In what grade levels do you teach at this school? (Check one) Elementary Secondary

13. What is the highest degree that you currently hold? (Check one) Associate Degree Bachelors
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Masters

Doctorate (e.g. Ph.D., Ed.D.)

14. Which of the following comes closest to describing how long you plan to teach? I definitely plan to leave teaching as soon as I can. I will probably continue in teaching unless something better comes along. I will continue teaching until eligible for early retirement. I intend to remain in teaching until normal retirement. I intend to remain in teaching until I am forced to retire due to age. 15. How satisfied are you with each of the following aspects of teaching? Very Dissatisfied a. Salary b. Opportunities for professional advancement c. Opportunities for professional development d. Recognition and support from administrators e. Safety of school environment f. Your influence over school policies and practices g. Autonomy or control over your own classroom h. Professional prestige i. Benefits j. Procedures for performance evaluation k. Teaching load l. Availability of resources and materials/equipment for your classroom. m. General work conditions n. Job security o. Professional caliber of colleagues p. Intellectual challenge 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 3 Very Satisfied 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4 4

q. Student discipline and behavior

r. School learning environment s. Student discipline and behavior t. Class size u. Support from parents v. The esteem of society for the teaching profession w. Overall job satisfaction
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1
1 1 1 1 1 1

2
2 2 2 2 2 2

3
3 3 3 3 3 3

4
4 4 4 4 4 4

Appendix B Smith Teacher Job Satisfaction Scale

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SMITH TEACHER JOB SATISFACTION SCALE

Indicate your level of satisfaction with various facets of teaching by circling a number on the four-point scale after each of the statements. Intrinsic Satisfaction 1. The feeling of self-esteem or self-respect you get from being a teacher. 2. The feeling of self-esteem or self-respect you get from being in your current teaching position. 3. The opportunity for personal growth and development to support your job as a teacher. 4. The feeling of worthwhile accomplishment you get from teaching. 5. Your present teaching job when you consider the expectations you had when you entered the teaching profession. Extrinsic Satisfaction 6. The amount of respect and fair treatment you receive from your principal. 7.The amount of respect and fair treatment you receive from your central office. 8. The feeling of being informed about decisions that impact your ability to do your job as a teacher. 9. The amount of supervision you receive. Low Satisfaction 1 1 1 1 2 2 2 2 3 3 3 3 High Satisfaction 4 4 4 4

4 High Satisfaction

Low Satisfaction 1 1 2 2 3 3

4 4

1 1

2 2

3 3

4 4

10. The opportunity for participation in the determination of methods, procedures, and goals implemented by county and state boards 1 of education. THANK YOU

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Appendix C Cover Letter

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Appendix D Reminder Post Card

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Appendix E Panel of Experts

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Panel of Experts Blackwood, Andrew C. Carpenter, J. D. DAntoni, Kathy Fugitt, Carol Gregg, Soleil Huck, Dan Lauber, Chrisy Law, Patrick Leary, Paul A., EdD Hopkins, Jill McDermott, Bobbie Norman, Julie Norris, Denise Santer, Debra Zeitz, Tona

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Curriculum Vita

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KEVIN JOE SMITH 113 Valley View Drive Huntington, WV 25704 (304) 429-1671 kvsmith@access.k12.wv.us EDUCATION
West Virginia University, Morgantown, WV December, 2001 Degree Doctor of Education in Educational Leadership Studies with a minor in Curriculum and Instruction: Public Education. Dissertation: A Study of the Relationship Between Job Satisfaction and Selected Demographics of West Virginia Teachers and Their Intent to Stay in the Teaching Profession. Marshall University, Huntington, WV May, 1999 Degree Master of Arts in Educational Leadership Studies with a concentration in Principalship Marshall University, Huntington, WV August, 1981 Degree Master of Science in Biological Sciences. Thesis: A Survey of the Mussels (Pelecypoda: Unioniodia: Unionacea) of Twelvepole Creek, West Virginia with a Study of Commensal Alage found on Selected Mussels. Marshall University, Huntington, WV December, 1976 Degree Bachelor of Science in Zoology with minors in Bible and Religion and Political Science.

EMPLOYMENT
Wayne County Board of Education August, 1981- Present Assistant Principal at Wayne High School January, 2001 - Present Half - Time Assistant Principal and Biology Teacher at Wayne High School January, 2000 January, 2001 Teaching Assignments: Advanced Biology and Marshall University Biology 104 Science Teacher at Wayne High School August, 1984 - January, 2000 Teaching Assignments: Biology, Physical Science, Coordinated and Thematic Sciences 9 and 10, Human Genetics, Human Anatomy and Physiology, Advanced Placement Biology, Marshall University Biology 104, and Botany and Zoology. Responsibilities: Science Department Chairman, Co-Chairman of Curriculum Focus Team, Co-Chairman of Unified School Improvement Plan Focus Team, Co-Chairman of the School Improvement Team, Faculty Senate Chairman, Faculty Senate Vice Chairman, cafeteria monitor, and detention hall monitor. Science Teacher at Crum High School August, 1981 May, 1984 Teaching Assignments: Biology, Physical Science, Human Anatomy and Physiology, Chemistry, and 7th Grade Life Science. Responsibilities: Science Department Chairman, North Central Committee Member, and detention hall monitor. Marshall University Community and Technical College, Huntington, WV August 1992 - May, 1997 Adjunct Professor in Department of Office Technology. Assignments: Medical Terminology I and Human Anatomy and Physiology. Marshall University, Huntington, WV January, 1980 August, 1981 Graduate Assistant in the Biology Department for the Embryology and Human Anatomy and Physiology labs. Food Machinery and Chemical Company(FMC), South Charleston, WV November, 1977 January, 1980 Laboratory Analyst in the Chlorine Bleach and Carbon Tetrachloride Laboratories.

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TRAINING AND EXPERIENCE

Seamless Curriculum Seminar, Marshall Community and Technical College, 2001 Committee for Distance Learning, Wayne County Board of Education, 2001 Southern Regional Education Board Regional Conference, Atlanta, GA, 2001 Member of a High Schools to Work on site evaluation team, 2001 West Virginia Principals Academy, 2000 Committee for Revision of Programs of Study, Wayne County Board of Education, 1999 CATS Science Teacher Workshops, 1993, 1994, and 2000 CATS Module Development RESA level, 1994 1995 Presenter at Best Practices Seminar, West Virginia Department of Education, 1996 Presenter at Wayne County Teachers Academy, 1992, 1993, and 1997. Molecular Endocrinology Workshop at WVU, 1997 Forensic Science Workshop at Veterans Administration Hospital, Huntington, WV, 1997 Rural Net, MU, 1997 Huntington Chamber of Commerce Summer Teacher Institute, 1996 Molecular Biology Workshop at WVU, 1996 Environmental Science Summer Institute, MU, 1996 Member of a multi-county Schools to Work team that visited several schools in Oregon, 1996 Geology Teacher Seminars, MU, 1993 and 1994 Starlab Training, Native American Myths, 1996 Starlab Training, 1995 National Radio Astronomy Observatory, Teacher Training Workshop, Greenbank, WV, 1990 NASA Teacher Training Workshop, Wheeling Jesuit College, Wheeling, WV, 1989 West Virginia Teachers Academy, WVU, 1988 Project Wild Facilitator Workshop, West Virginia Department of Natural Resources, 1986 Advanced Placement instructor training for biology, Concord College, 1986 Presenter at West Virginia Academy of Science, WVU, 1981

HONORS AND ACTIVITIES

Outstanding Science Teacher of the Year, 1993 Sigma Xi, Marshall Club Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development, 1997 Present American Federation of Teachers, 1986 1999 West Virginia Science Teachers Association Wayne County Science Teachers Association, 1994 Present, Vice President, 1998 Present Boy Scouts of America Committee Chairman, 1996 1998 Assistant Scoutmaster, 1998 Present Woodbadge, 1986 Adult Leader for local contingent to Philmont Scout Ranch, 1987 Presenter at various council events Church Activities Variety of training in the area of Sunday School training at local, state, and national level. Numerous positions at Westmorland Baptist Church

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