Hot Wire

Electronic Journal of Fluids Engineering, Trans actions of the ASME
Re vie w of Hot -Wir e An e mome t r y Te c h n iqu e s a n d t h e Ra n ge of t h e ir

Applic a bilit y for Va r iou s Flows
P. C. St a in ba c k
Dis tingus hied Res earch As s ociate
NASA Langley Res earch Center
Hampton, VA 23681
a n d
K. A. Na ga bu s h a n a
Res earch As s ociate

Old Dominion Univers ity Res earch Foundation
Norfolk , VA 23508
ABSTRACT
A review of hot -wire anemomet ry was made t o present examples of past work done in
t he field and t o describe some of t he recent and import ant development s in t his ext ensive and
ever expanding field. The review considered t he flow regimes and flow fields in which
measurement s were made, including bot h mean flow and fluct uat ing measurement s.
Examples of hot -wire measurement s made in t he various flow regimes and flow fields are
present ed. Comment s are made concerning t he const ant current and const ant t emperat ure
anemomet ers generally in use and t he recent ly developed const ant volt age anemomet er.
Examples of hot -wire dat a obt ained t o subst ant iat e t heoret ical result s are present ed. Some
result s are present ed t o compare hot -wire dat a wit h result s obt ained using ot her t echniques.
Th e r e vie w wa s limit e d t o wir e s mou n t e d n or ma l t o t h e flow in n on -mixin g ga s e s .

Cu r r e n t ly En gi n e e r a t Compu t e r Sc i e n c e Cor por a t i on , La u r e l, MD 2 0 7 0 7

Als o, Con s u lt i n g Re s e a r c h En gi n e e r a t Adva n c e d En gi n e e r i n g, Yor k t own , VA 2 3 6 9 3
NOMENCLATURE
a a
1 4
c on s t a n t s i n e qu a t i on (4 7 )
a s pe e d of s oun d
A B , c on s t a n t s i n e qu a t i on (2 4 )
A A
1 3
b b
1 3
or de r of q in e qu a t ion (4 7 )
B B
1 5
( ) A T
o
Lk
t
A
w
ove r h e a t pa r a me t e r , ( )
1
2
log log R I
w
h
( ) B T
o
2L k c r
t p w
c
p
s pe c ific h e a t a t c on s t a n t pr e s s u r e
c
v
s pe c i fi c h e a t a t c on s t a n t volu me
c
w
s pe c ific h e a t of wir e
d wir e dia me t e r of me s h
( ) d dt r a t e of c h a n ge of qu a n t i t y ( ) wit h r e s pe c t
t o t i me
d
c
dia me t e r of c ylin de r
d
i
dia me t e r of je t
d
w
dia me t e r of wir e
e i n s t a n t a n e ou s volt a ge a c r os s t h e wi r e
E me a n volt a ge a c r os s t h e wir e
E
out
a n e mome t e r ou t pu t volt a ge
E fin it e -c ir c u it pa r a me t e r , ( )
( )
1 1 2 + A
w
f fr e qu e n c y
2
St a in ba c k , P. C. a n d Na ga bu s h a n a , K. A.
F dime n s ion le s s fr e qu e n c y
F
11
t r u e on e -dime n s ion a l s pe c t r a l de n s it y
F
M
me a s u r e d on e -dime n s ion a l s pe c t r a l de n s it y
F
trf
t u r bu le n c e r e du c t i on fa c t or
Gr Gr a s h of Nu mbe r
h c oe ffi c i e n t of h e a t t r a n s fe r
h
w
h e igh t a bove wir e s h oc k ge n e r a t or t o pr obe
h
w s ,
h e igh t a bove s h oc k ge n e r a t or , imme dia t e
pos t s h oc k va lu e
I c u r r e n t
k t h e r ma l c on du c t i vi t y of a i r e va lu a t e d a t
s u bs c r ipt t e mpe r a t u r e
k
1
wa ve n u mbe r in t h e flow dir e c t ion
Kn Kn u ds e n n u mbe r
L c h a r a c t e r i s t i c le n gt h
m me a n ma s s flow
m
t
log log
t o
T
M Ma c h n u mbe r
M
m
me s h s ize
n e xpon e n t for ma s s flow i n e qu a t i on s
(1 6 ) & (1 7 )
n
t
log log k T
t o
Nu Nu s s e lt n u mbe r e va lu a t e d a t s u bs c r ipt
t e mpe r a t u r e
p me a n s t a t ic pr e s s u r e
p
o
me a n t ot a l pr e s s u r e
P e le c t r i c a l powe r t o t h e h ot -wi r e
Pr Pr a n dt l n u mbe r
q s e n s i t i vi t y r a t i o, S S
u T
o
q
dyn a mic pr e s s u r e
Q for c e d c on ve c t i ve h e a t t r a n s fe r
r s e n s i t i vi t y r a t i o, S S
m T
o
r
d
r a dia l dis t a n c e in c ylin de r ic a l pola r
c o-or din a t e
r
p
dis t a n c e of vir t u a l s ou r c e of je t fr om or igin
r
w
r a diu s of wir e
r r r
p d
R r e s is t a n c e
Re Re yn olds n u mbe r ba s e d on vis c os it y
e va lu a t e d a t s u bs c r i pt t e mpe r a t u r e a n d
wir e dia me t e r
R
mT
o
ma s s flow - t ot a l t e mpe r a t u r e c or r e la t i on
c oe ffic ie n t , m T mT
o o
R
uT
o
ve loc i t y - t ot a l t e mpe r a t u r e c or r e la t i on
c oe ffic ie n t , u T uT
o o
R
T
o
de n s i t y - t ot a l t e mpe r a t u r e c or r e la t i on
c oe ffic ie n t , T T
o o
R
u
ve loc it y - de n s it y c or r e la t ion c oe ffic ie n t ,
u u
R
xx
n or ma li ze d a u t o-c or r e la t i on fu n c t i on
s s e n s i t i vi t y r a t i o, S S
T
o
S s e n s it ivit y of h ot -wir e t o t h e s u bs c r ipt

va r ia ble
t t ime
T t e mpe r a t u r e
T
f
( ) T T
w o
+ 2
u v w , , ve loc it y in x, y a n d z dir e c t ion s
r e s pe c t ive ly
u
fr ic t ion a l ve loc it y
x dis t a n c e in t h e flow dir e c t i on
x
o
vi r t u a l or i gi n of t h e wa k e
x
w
di s t a n c e a lon g t h e le n gt h of wi r e
y di s t a n c e n or ma l t o t h e flow di r e c t i on
1
1
2
2
1
+

_
,
1
lin e a r t e mpe r a t u r e - r e s is t a n c e c oe ffic ie n t
of wir e
( ) 1
2
M
1
s e c on d de gr e e t e mpe r a t u r e - r e s is t a n c e
c oe ffic ie n t of wir e
bou n da r y la ye r t h ic k n e s s
*
dis pla c e me n t t h ic k n e s s for Bla s iu s flow
fi n i t e c i r c u i t fa c t or , ( ) log log I R
w w
s
f
fin it e c ir c u it fa c t or wit h flu id c on dit ion s
h e ld c on s t a n t wh ile t h e h ot -wir e c on dit ion s
c h a n ge , log log I R
w w
y
t ransformed co-ordinat e dist ance normal t o
body
r e c ove r y t e mpe r a t u r e r a t i o, T T
adw o
t e mpe r a t u r e pa r a me t e r , T T
w o
1
a n gle be t we e n pla n e s ou n d wa ve a n d a xis
of pr obe
me a n fr e e pa t h
a bs olu t e vis c os it y
s pe c ific h e a t r a t io, c c
p v
de n s it y
t ime la g
w
t e mpe r a t u r e loa din g pa r a me t e r , ( ) T T T
w adw o
wr
t e mpe r a t u r e pa r a me t e r , ( ) T T T
w adw adw
wall
s h e a r s t r e s s a t t h e wa ll
n or ma li ze d flu c t u a t i on volt a ge r a t i o,
( )
e
E
S
T
o
3
Su bs c r i pt
adw a dia ba t ic wa ll c on dit ion
adw c , adiabat ic wall t emperat ure, cont inuum flow
c on dit ion
adw f , a dia ba t ic wa ll t e mpe r a t u r e , fr e e mole c u la r
flow c on dit ion
B du e t o bu oya n c y e ffe c t
C c on s t a n t c u r r e n t a n e mome t e r
e e dge c on dit ion
eff e ffe c t ive ve loc it y
f film c on dit ion
h M a n d Re
t
a r e c on s t a n t a s Q va r ie d
o t ot a l c on di t i on
ref r e fe r e n c e c on dit ion
s e le c t r ica l s ys t e m u n t ou c h e d a s M a n d Re
t
va r ie d
s s ou n d s ou r c e
sc s e t t lin g c h a mbe r
t e va lu a t e d a t t ot a l t e mpe r a t u r e
T c on s t a n t t e mpe r a t e a n e mome t e r
w wir e c on dit ion
fr e e s t r e a m or s t a t i c c on di t i on
Su pe r s c r i pt
' i n s t a n t a n e ou s
~ RMS
me a n
INTRODUCTION
Comt e-Bellot
1
not ed t hat t he precise origin
of hot -wire anemomet ry cannot be accurat ely
det ermined. One of t he earlier st udies of heat
t ransfer from a heat ed wire was made by
Boussinesq
2
in 1905. The result s obt ained by
Boussinesq were ext ended by King
3
and he
at t empt ed t o experiment ally verify his t heoret ical
result s. These earlier invest igat ions of hot -wire
anemomet ry considered only t he mean heat
t r a n s fe r c h a r a c t e r is t ic s fr om h e a t e d wir e s . Th e
first quant it at ive measurement s of fluct uat ions in
subsonic incompressible flows were made in 1929
by Dryden and Kuet he
4
using const ant current
anemomet ry where t he frequency response of t he
wire was ext ended by t he use of a compensat ing
amplifier. In 1934 Ziegler
5
developed a const ant
t emperat ure anemomet er for measuring
fluct uat ions by using a feedback amplifier t o
maint ain a const ant wire t emperat ure up t o a given
fr e qu e n c y.
In t he 1950's, Kovasznay
6,7
ext ended hot -
wire anemomet ry t o compressible flows where it
was found experiment ally t hat in supersonic flow
t he heat ed wire was sensit ive only t o mass flow and
t ot al t emperat ure. Kovasznay developed a
graphical t echnique t o obt ain t hese fluct uat ions,
which is most ly used in supersonic flow. In
subsonic compressible flows t he heat t ransfer from
a wire is a funct ion of velocit y, densit y, t ot al
t emperat ure, and wire t emperat ure. Because of
t his complexit y, t hese flow regimes were largely
bypassed unt il t he 1970's and 1980's when
at t empt s were made t o develop met hods
applicable
8
for t hese flows. In recent years t here
were several new and promising development s in
hot -wire anemomet ry t hat can be at t ribut ed t o
advances in elect ronics, dat a acquisit ion/ reduct ion
met hods and new development s in basic
a n e mome t r y t e c h n iqu e s .
Previous reviews, survey report s, and
conference proceedings on hot -wire anemomet ry
are included in references 1,9-20. Several
books
21-24
have been published on hot -wire
anemomet ry and chapt ers
25-30
have been
included in books where t he general subject mat t er
wa s r e la t e d t o a n e mome t r y.
This review considers t he development of
hot -wire anemomet ry from t he earliest
considerat ion of heat t ransfer from heat ed wires t o
t he present . Alt hough mean flow measurement s
are considered, t he major port ion of t he review
addresses t he measurement of fluct uat ion
quant it ies. Examples of some of t he more
import ant st udies are addressed for wires mount ed
normal t o t he flow in non-mixing gases. The
present review at t empt s t o bring t he development of
hot -wire anemomet ry up t o dat e and not e some of
t he import ant , recent development s in t his
e xt e n s ive a n d e ve r e xpa n din g fie ld.
FLOW REGIMES AND FLOW FIELDS
Based on t he applicable heat t ransfer laws
and suit able approximat ions, hot -wire anemomet ry
4
can be convenient ly divided int o t he following flow
r e gime s :
1 . Su bs on ic in c ompr e s s ible flow
2. Subsonic compressible, t ransonic, and
low s u pe r s on ic flows
3 . High s u pe r s on ic a n d h ype r s on ic flows
Wit hin each of t hese major flow regimes are t he
followin g s u b-r e gime s :
1 . Con t i n u u m flow
2 . Slip flow
3 . Fr e e mole c u la r flow
In subsonic incompressible flow t he heat
t ransfer from a wire is a funct ion of mass flow, t ot al
t emperat ure and wire t emperat ure. Since densit y
variat ions are assumed t o be zero, t he mass flow
variat ions reduce t o velocit y changes only. The
non-dimensional heat t ransfer paramet er, t he
Nusselt number, is usually assumed t o be a
funct ion of Reynolds and Prandt l numbers and
under most flow condit ions t he Prandt l number is
const ant . Evidence exist which indicat e t hat Nu
t
is
also a funct ion of a t emperat ure paramet er
6
. In
subsonic compressible, t ransonic and low
supersonic flows t he effect s of compressibilit y
influence t he heat t ransfer from a wire. For t hese
condit ions t he heat t ransfer from t he wire is a
( ) f u T T
o w
, , , and ( ) Nu f Re M
t t
, , . In high supersonic
and hypersonic flows a st rong shock occurs ahead
of t he wire and t he heat t ransfer from t he wire is
influenced by subsonic flow downst ream of t he
shock. Because of t his, it was found experiment ally
t hat ( ) Nu f Re
t t
, only, and t he heat t ransfer from
t he wire is again a funct ion of mass flow, t ot al
t e mpe r a t u r e , a n d wi r e t e mpe r a t u r e .
In cont inuum flow t he mean free pat h of t he
part icles is very much less t han t he diamet er of t he
wire and convent ional heat t ransfer t heories are
applicable. Where t he diamet er of t he wire
approaches a few mean free pat hs bet ween t he
part icles, t he flow does not behave as a cont inuum,
but exhibit s some effect s of t he finit e spacing
bet ween t he part icles. These effect s have been
st udied
31,32
by assuming a finit e velocit y and a
t emperat ure jump at t he surface of a body. This
gas rarefact ion regime was not ed as slip flow. In
free molecular flow t he fluid is assumed t o be
composed of individual part icles and t he dist ance
bet ween t he part icles is sufficient ly large t hat t heir
impact wit h and reflect ion from a body is assumed
t o occur wit hout int eract ion bet ween t he part icles.
Free molecular flow is t heoret ically st udied
33
using
t h e c on c e pt s of k in e t ic t h e or y
3 4
.
Figure 1 present s a plot of Mach number
vs. Reynolds number for lines of const ant Knudsen
number where d
w
= 0.00015 inch and for flow
condit ions where 1.5 p
o
, psia 150. Baldwin
not ed
35
t hat t he cont inuum flow regime exist ed for
Kn < 0.001 and slip flow condit ions exist ed for
0.001 Kn 2.0. Ot her references suggest t hat
slip flow condit ions were at t ained only for Kn >
0.01. Even using t he larger value of Kn for t he slip
flow boundary, (i.e., Kn > 0.01) a 0.00015 inch wire
operat ed at low Mach numbers and at at mospheric
condit ions is near t he slip flow boundary. If t he
t ot al pressure is decreased or t he wire diamet er
reduced, t he value of Kn would be shift ed fart her
int o t he slip flow regime. Free molecular flow
condit ions are generally assumed t o exist for Kn >
2.0. Figure 1 can be used t o delineat e approximat e
va lu e s for M a n d Re
t
for t h e va r iou s s u b-r e gime s .
Various applicat ions of hot -wire
anemomet ry and t he approximat e level of velocit y
fu n c t u a t i on s a r e :
Type s of Flows Appr oxi ma t e
2 9
u u
1 . Fr e e s t r e a m of win d t u n n e ls
3 6 , 3 7
0 . 0 5 %
2 . Down s t r e a m of s c r e e n s a n d
gr ids
2 5 , 3 8
0 . 2 0 - 2 . 0 0 %
3 . Bou n da r y la ye r s
3 9 -4 2
3 . 0 - 2 0 . 0 %
4 . Wa k e s
4 3 , 4 4
2 . 0 - 5 . 0 %
5 . J e t s
4 5 -4 7
Ove r 2 0 . 0 %
6 . Flow down s t r e a m of s h oc k s
4 8
7 . Fligh t in At mos ph e r e
4 9
8 . Rot a t i n g Ma c h i n e r y
5 0 , 5 1
9 . Mis c e lla n e ou s
5 2 -5 6
TYPES OF ANEMOMETERS
The t wo t ypes of anemomet ers primarily
used are t he const ant current anemomet er (CCA)
and t he const ant t emperat ure anemomet er (CTA).
5
A const ant volt age anemomet er (CVA) is present ly
under development
57
. Even t hough t hese t hree
anemomet ers are described as maint aining a given
variable "cons tant", none of t hese st rict ly
accomplish t his. The degree of non-const ancy for
t he CCA is det ermined by t he finit e impedance of it s
circuit
58
. The const ancy of t he mean wire
t emperat ure for a CTA at high frequencies is limit ed
by t he rat e at which t he feedback amplifier can
det ect and respond t o rapid fluct uat ions in t he flow.
The CVA maint ains t he volt age across t he wire and
leads const ant rat her t han across t he wire
57
. The
non-const ancy effect s in t he CCA and t he CVA can
be account ed for by calibrat ion of t he CCA
58
and
by k n owin g t h e le a d r e s is t a n c e in t h e CVA.
The heat balance for an elect rically heat ed
wir e , n e gle c t in g c on du c t ion a n d r a dia t ion is :
Heat Stored = Electrical Pow er In - Aerody namic
Heat Trans fer Out
dc
dt
T P Q
w
w
(1 )
( )
dc
dt
T I R Ld h T T
w
w w w w adw

2
(2 )
If t he heat st orage t erm is properly compensat ed,
t h e n e qu a t ion (2 ) be c ome s :
( ) I R Ld h T T
w w w adw
2
(3 )
The measurement of fluct uat ions in a flow
requires a sensor, in t his case a wire, wit h a t ime
response up t o a sufficient ly high frequency. The
t ime const ant of even small wires are limit ed and
t he amplit ude response of t hese wires at higher
frequencies decreases wit h frequency. Therefore,
some t ype of compensat ion must be made for t he
wire out put . There are t wo met hods for
accomplishing t his. Earlier approaches ut ilized a
const ant current anemomet er wit h a compensat ing
amplifier t hat had an increase in gain as t he
frequency increased
4
. An example of t he roll off in
t he frequency of t he wire, t he gain of t he amplifier
and t he result ing signal is shown schemat ically in
figure 2. In principle, t he out put from t he wire can
be compensat ed t o infinit e frequencies. However,
as t he frequency increases, t he noise out put from
t he compensat ing amplifier will equal and
ult imat ely exceed t he wire out put , which limit s t he
gain t hat can be obt ained. A schemat ic diagram of
a CCA is pr e s e n t e d in figu r e 3 .
The const ant t emperat ure anemomet er
uses a feedback amplifier t o maint ain t he average
wire t emperat ure and wire resist ance const ant {i.e.,
dT dt
w
0 in equat ion (2)}, wit hin t he capabilit y of
t he amplifier. The pract ical upper frequency limit
for a CTA is t he frequency at which t he feedback
amplifier becomes unst able. A schemat ic diagram
of a CTA is present ed in figure 4. A t hird
anemomet er, present ly under development
57
, is
t he const ant volt age anemomet er. This
anemomet er is based on t he alt erat ions of an
operat ional amplifier circuit and does not have a
bridge circuit . A schemat ic diagram of a CVA is
pr e s e n t e d in figu r e 5 .
The upper frequency response of a CCA is
generally accept ed t o be higher t han t hat of a CTA.
There is some evidence t hat t he frequency response
of t he CVA might equal or exceed t hat of t he CCA.
The fluct uat ion diagram t echnique described by
Kovasznay is usually used wit h a CCA t o obt ain
dat a at supersonic speeds. This t echnique depends
on t he sensit ivit y of t he wire being a funct ion of wire
t emperat ure or overheat and t he frequency
response of t he wire being assessable t o
compensat ion t o almost zero overheat . This
t echnique has limit ed applicat ion for a CTA, since at
low overheat s, t he frequency response of t he
anemomet er approaches t he frequency response of
t h e wi r e
2 5
.
An example of t he difference bet ween t he
fluct uat ion diagrams obt ained
59
using a CTA and a
CCA is present ed in figure 6. The int ersect ion of
t he diagram wit h t he vert ical axis at S S
u T
o
0
represent s t he t ot al t emperat ure fluct uat ion and
t he dat a show t hat t he CTA cannot be used t o
measure t hese fluct uat ions. The reason for t his is
illust rat ed in figure 7a where t he t ot al t emperat ure
spect ra at low overheat s for t he t wo anemomet ers
are present ed. In t hese cases t he spect rum
obt ained wit h t he CTA was at t enuat ed at a
frequency t hat was about t wo orders of magnit ude
less t han for t he CCA. At high overheat s t he t wo
mass flow spect ra were more nearly equivalent
(figure 7b). However, in reference 60 t he out put of
a laser was modulat ed and used t o heat a wire t o
6
check t he frequency response of a CTA. It was
shown t hat t he frequency response was essent ially
u n c h a n ge d down t o a n ove r h e a t of 0 . 0 7 .
The CTA can be used t o make
measurement s in supersonic flows by using t wo
wires. For t hese flows t he CTA is operat ed wit h t wo
wires having different but high overheat s, digit izing
t he volt ages and using t wo equat ions t o obt ain m ,
T
o
and m T
o
as a funct ion of t ime
61
. Then
st at ist ical t echniques can be used t o obt ain
quant it ies of int erest . In general, t he CTA is more
suit able for measuring higher levels of fluct uat ions
t han a CCA
25
. It remains t o be det ermined how
t he CVA will compare wit h t he CCA and CTA. At
present it appears t hat t he CVA has a higher signal
t o noise rat io t han eit her CCA or CTA. Addit ional
advant ages and disadvant ages of t he CCA versus
t he CTA are described in references 1, 29, 57, 62
a n d 6 3 .
At low speeds a linearizer is oft en used t o
convert t he non-linear relat ionship bet ween wire
volt age and velocit y t o a linear relat ionship. There
are t wo t ypes of linearizers in use; t he logarit hmic
and t he polynomial. A linearizer makes it possible
t o direct ly relat e t he measured volt age t o t he
velocit y. However, t he linearizat ion process does
n ot r e s u lt i n be t t e r me a s u r e d qu a n t i t i e s
2 5
.
LIMITATIONS OF HOT-WIRE ANEMOMETRY
Most of t he dat a obt ained using hot -wire
anemomet ry is limit ed t o small pert urbat ions.
There are cases, however, where t his linearizat ion of
t he anemomet ry equat ion is not accurat e and non-
linear effect s can influence bot h t he mean
47
and
fluct uat ing
25
volt ages. Since high level fluct uat ions
can influence t he mean volt age measured across
t he heat ed wire, it is import ant t o calibrat e probes
in flows wit h low le ve ls of flu c t u a t ion s .
Becaus e of t he mass associat ed wit h t he
wire support s, t here can be a significant amount of
heat loss from t he wire due t o conduct ion t o t he
relat ively cold support s. This heat loss result s in a
spanwise t emperat ure dist ribut ion along t he wire
t hat , in t urn, causes a variat ion of heat t ransfer
from t he wire
12,21,64
along it s lengt h. In order t o
compare t he heat t ransfer result s from one wire or
probe wit h anot her, t he heat t ransfer rat es must be
correct ed for t hese losses. However, comput at ion of
fluct uat ion quant it ies requires t hat t he uncorrect ed
values of t he heat t ransfer rat es be used. An
example of t he t emperat ure dist ribut ion along a
wire and it s mean t emperat ure
21
is shown in figure
8. The finit e lengt h of t he wire and it s at t endant
t emperat ure and heat t ransfer dist ribut ion
influences t he level of t he spect ra (especially at
higher frequencies), correlat ions, and phase
r e la t ion s h ips be t we e n s e n s or s
2 5 , 6 5
.
The spacial resolut ion of a wire is limit ed by
t he lengt h of t he wire and t he size of t he smallest
scales of fluct uat ions in t he flow. If t he lengt h of
t he wire is larger t han t he smallest scale, t he
result ant magnit ude of t he spect ra will be
at t enuat ed at t he higher frequencies. The lengt h of
t he wire wit h respect t o t he size of t urbulence can
have an effect on t he measurement s of fluct uat ion
int ensit y, space and t ime correlat ions, and t he
t urbulence scales and micro scales
66-68
.
Addit ional spacial resolut ion problems encount ered
near walls were discussed in references 69 and 70.
Proximit y t o walls of wind t unnels or t o surfaces of
models can int roduce errors in measurement s due
t o increased heat t ransfer from t he wire due t o
conduct ion t o t he relat ively cold walls
21,25
. An
example of t he effect of wire lengt h on normalized
spect ra is present ed in figure 9. The spacial
resolut ion of mult i-wire probes is furt her limit ed by
t he dist ance bet ween t he wires. The hot -wire probe
int rusion int o t he flow can cause severe
dist urbance in cert ain flows. Examples are flows
wit h large gradient such as boundary layers and
vort ices. Because of t he above, hot -wire
anemomet ry has limit ed resolut ion in space, t ime,
a n d a mplit u de
2 9
.
A severe problem is encount ered in
hypersonic flows when t he gas is air. At higher
Mach numbers t he t ot al t emperat ure must be high
enough t o prevent liquefact ion of air in t he t est
sect ion. There is a maximum recommended
operat ing t emperat ure for each wire mat erial.
These t wo fact s places severe limit at ions on t he
maximum overheat at which wires can be operat ed.
For example, t he maximum recommended
operat ing t emperat ure for Plat inum-10% Rhodium
wire is 1842R. For a M = 8 wind t unnel, t he t ot al
t emperat ure required can be as high as 1360R.
7
Using a recovery t emperat ure rat io of 0.96, t he
maximum values for
w
is 0.394 and
max
= 1.354.
If gas rarefact ion effect s are experienced and is
great er t han one, t hen t he problem is even more
severe. For = 1.1 t he maximum value for
w
under t he above condit ions is 0.254. The above
values for
w
are based on t he average t emperat ure
for t he wire. For small L d
w
wires t he limit at ion on
w
would be great er due t o higher t emperat ures at
t he mid-port ion of t he wire. The t ot al t emperat ure
at low pressures where could be larger need not
be as high as t hose at higher pressures, however,
t he const raint of const ant t ot al t emperat ure during
t he calibrat ion process limit s t he amount t hat T
o
c a n be r e du c e d. (Als o s e e r e f. 7 1 -7 6 ).
PROBE PRE-CALIBRATION PROCEDURE
Once a probe is const ruct ed, t he following
procedure should ensure accurat e and reliable
measurement s. First , t he probe should be operat ed
at t he maximum q
and T
w
t hat will be used during
t he proposed t est . This is done t o pre-st ress and
pre-heat t he wire t o ensure t hat no addit ional st rain
will be imposed on t he wire during t he t est t hat
could alt er it s resist ance. For supersonic and high
q
subsonic flows, t he wires should also be checked

for st rain gaging, t hat is, st resses generat ed in t he
wire due t o it s vibrat ion. Not e, for t est ing in flows
having high values of q
, t he wires should have

slack t o reduce t he st ress in t he wires and t o help
eliminat e st rain gagin g. If st rain gaging is
significant t he wire should be replaced. During t his
pre-t est ing many wires will fail due t o fault y wires
or manufact uring t echniques, but it is bet t er t hat
t he wires fail in pre-t est ing rat her t han during an
a c t u a l t e s t .
A t emperat ure-resist ance relat ionship for
wires is usually requires t o comput e t he heat
t ransfer rat e from t he heat ed wires. It is generally
recommended t hat t he following equat ion, which is
a s e c on d de gr e e e qu a t ion in T , be u s e d:
( ) ( )
R
R
T T T T
ref
w ref w ref
+ + 1
2
1 1
(4 )
Aft er t he wires have been pre-st ressed and pre-
heat ed, t hey should be placed in an "oven" and t he
wires calibrat ed t o det ermine t he values for
1
and
1
. Once t his calibrat ion has been complet ed, t he
probes can be placed in a facilit y for mean flow
calibrat ion over t he appropriat e ranges of velocit y,
de n s i t y, t ot a l t e mpe r a t u r e a n d wi r e t e mpe r a t u r e .
STATISTICAL QUANTITIES
Dat a obt ained using hot -wire anemomet ry
are t ypically reduced t o st at ist ical quant it ies. Over
t he past few years t he analysis of random dat a has
been developed t o a very high degree
77-79
. This
plus t he rapid development s in elect ronics (i.e., t he
A/ D convert ers and high speed comput ers), have
made it possible t o obt ain almost any st at ist ical
quant it y of int erest wit hin t he error const raint s of
t he heat ed wire. Much of t his is due t o t he fact t hat
t he digit al processing of dat a can be used t o obt ain
many quant it ies t hat are difficult or impossible t o
obt a i n u s i n g a n a log da t a r e du c t i on t e c h n i qu e s .
Many t ypes of single point and mult i-point
st at ist ical quant it ies can be obt ained using hot -wire
anemomet ry
80-83
. It is rout ine t o measure mean
flow and RMS values, hist ograms and t he higher
order moment s of skewness and kurt osis, aut o
correlat ion, and one dimensional spect ra.
Measurement s of mult i-point st at ist ical quant it ies
include cross correlat ions, t wo-point hist ograms
and higher order t wo-point moment s, cross spect ra,
and coherence funct ions. At t empt s were made t o
me a s u r e h igh e r mome n t s u p t o e igh t h or de r
8 1
.
These measurement s can be used in
various ways t o evaluat e many charact erist ics of
t he flow such as scales, decay rat e, energy cont ent
et c
25
. The coherence funct ion is a useful st at ist ical
quant it y t hat can be used t o evaluat e various
propert ies of a flow
84
. It can oft en be used t o
det ermine t he predominant sound propagat ing
angle and t o det ermine t he dominant mode present
i n a flu c t u a t i n g flow fi e ld
8 5 , 8 6
.
A few examples of st at ist ical quant it ies t hat
were measured using hot -wire anemomet ry are
present ed in figures 10-13. Int egral and micro t ime
and lengt h scales of a flow can be det ermined from
aut ocorrelat ion funct ions such as t he one present ed
in figure 10. The higher moment s of skewness and
kurt osis (figure 11a-b) can be used t o det ermine if
8
t he fluct uat ions are Gaussian. For a Gaussian
dist ribut ion t he value of t he skewness paramet er is
zero and for t he kurt osis t he value is 3. Figure 11
shows t hat bot h of t hese moment s indicat e t hat t he
mass flow and t ot al t emperat ure fluct uat ions are
Gaussian over most of t he t hickness of t he
boundary layer. The value of t hird order aut o-
correlat ion funct ion, such as t he one shown in
figure 12, can be used t o support t urbulent flow
t heories. An example of space-t ime correlat ions
measured in a t urbulent boundary
59,87
is
present ed in figure 13. The peak of t hese
correlat ions at t 0 indicat e t he presence of
convect ion. The calculat ion of t he convect ion
velocit y, obt ained by dividing t he separat ion
dist ance by t he t ime at which t he individual curves
peaks, indicat es t hat t here was no significant
variat ion of t he convect ive velocit y over t he spacings
used. An example of normalized spect ra measured
downst ream of a grid
88
is present ed in figure 14
and show t he increased at t enuat ion of high
frequency dist urbances wit h increased dist ance
down s t r e a m fr om t h e gr id. (Als o s e e r e f. 8 9 -9 2 ).
GENERAL HEAT TRANSFER RELATIONSHIPS
The heat t ransfer from a wire under t he
limit s of t he present report (i.e., t he wires mount ed
n or ma l t o flow in n on -mixin g ga s e s ) is
2 9
:
Q f u c T T
p w adw
( , , , , , ) (5 )
if t he fluid propert ies of , c
p
, and k are based on
T
o
, t h e n t h e a bove e qu a t ion be c ome s :
Q f u T T
w o
( , , , ) (6 )
Since T T
adw o
and ( ) ( ) f Kn M f u T
o
, , , . For
incompressible cont inuum flows equat ion (6)
r e du c e s t o:
Q f m T T
o w
( , , ) (7 )
Unless not ed, t he t ot al t emperat ure will be used
t hroughout t his report t o evaluat e
t
, c
p
, and k
t
wh e r e a s will be ba s e d on T
.
For a wire wit h a given L d
w
t he Nusselt
number can be expressed
25
in t erms of ot her
dime n s ion le s s pa r a me t e r s a s :
( )
Nu f Re Pr Gr
T T
T
u
c T T
t t
w adw
o p w adw
_
,
, , , ,
2
(8 )
and can be writ t en as follows t o show t he effect s of
c ompr e s s ibilit y:
Nu f Re Pr Gr M
T T
T
t t
w adw
o
_
,
, , , , (9 )
For relat ively const ant t emperat ures, Pr = const ant
and if Gr Re <
3
, buoyancy effect s will be small and
Gr c a n be n e gle c t e d. Th e s e a ppr oxima t ion s le a d t o:
( ) Nu f Re M
t t w

, , (1 0 )
MEAN FLOW MEASUREMENTS
SUBSONIC INCOMPRESSIBLE - CONTINUUM
FLOW
Th e or e t i c a l Con s i de r a t i on s
The funct ional relat ionship bet ween t he
power t o t he wire or t he heat t ransfer from t he wire
and t he mean flow variables are required t o
det ermine t he so called "s tatic" calibrat ion of t he
wire from which t he sensit ivit ies t o t he various flow
variables can be obt ained in order t o calculat e t he
fluct uat ions. Because of t his t he mean flow result s
and probe mean flow calibrat ion procedure are
c on s ide r e d t oge t h e r .
The first at t empt t o obt ain a t heoret ical
solut ion for t he heat t ransfer from a heat ed wire
mount ed normal t o t he flow was carried out by
Bou s s in e s q
2
. Th e e qu a t i on t h a t h e obt a i n e d i s :
( )
( ) Q L k c ur T T
t p w w adw
2 (1 1 )
Equat ion (11) can be expressed in t erms of non-
dime n s ion a l qu a n t it ie s a s follows :
9
Nu PrRe
t t
(1 2 )
King re-analyzed t he problem of heat t ransfer from
a heat ed wire and obt ained t he following
r e la t ion s h ip:
( )
( ) Q L k k c ur T T
t t p w w adw
+ 2 (1 3 )
or in t e r ms of n on -dime n s ion a l qu a n t it ie s :
Nu PrRe
t t
+
1 2

(1 4 )
From equat ion (11) and (13) it can be seen
t hat t he only difference bet ween Boussinesq's and
King's result s is t he inclusion of t he addit ional t erm
k
t
in King's result t hat at t empt s t o account for t he
effect s of nat ural convect ion. At " high" values of
Reynolds number t he t wo result s are essent ially
e qu a l.
Using equat ion (3), equat ion (13) can be
e xpr e s s e d a s :
( ) ( )
[ ]
[ ]
P A T B T m T T
o o w adw
+ (1 5 )
where ( ) A T
o
and ( ) B T
o
are based on King's result s.
However, t he quant it ies A and B are usually
det ermined for a given wire by direct mean flow
calibrat ion. Oft en t he exponent for t he mass flow
t erm is det ermined from a curve fit t o t he dat a. The
values for t he exponent can range
25
from 0.45 t o
0 . 5 0 .
For a CTA, equat ion (15) can be generalized
t o:
( )
( ) ( )
E
R R
A T B T m
n
w adw
T o T o
2
+ (1 6 )
wh e r e ( )
( )
A T
R A T
R
T o
w o
ref
1
a n d ( )
( )
B T
R B T
R
T o
w o
ref
1
.
For a CCA:
( )
( ) ( )
I R
R R
A T B T m
n w
w adw
C o C o
2
+ (1 7 )
where ( ) ( ) A T A T R
C o o ref

1
and ( ) ( ) B T B T R
C o o ref

1
.
Therefore, if wires operat ed wit h a CTA or a CCA are
calibrat ed over a range of m and T
o
, equat ions (16)
and (17) indicat e t hat t he calibrat ion curves will be
st raight lines if t he left hand side of t he equat ion is
plot t ed as a funct ion of m
n
. In general, t he slopes,
B, and int ercept s, A , will be funct ions of t he t ot al
t emperat ure. If t he t ot al t emperat ure is const ant ,
A and B will be const ant s and if t he densit y is
const ant , t he mass flow t erm will reduce t o velocit y.
An example of volt age versus velocit y for a wire
operat ed wit h a CTA is present ed in figure 15 for
various values of t ot al t emperat ure. (Also see ref.
9 3 -9 7 ).
Hot -wires have also been calibrat ed in t he
form of ( ) u f E rat her t han t he more convent ional
form of ( ) E f u . The const ant T
o
and version of
King's law for a CTA is E A B u
2
+ and when
e xpr e s s e d a s ( ) u f E give s :
u A A E A E +
1 2 3
2 4
(1 8 )
In t his equat ion George et . al.,
98
not ed t hat A A
1 3
are funct ions of T

o
. They proposed t he following
equat ion for t he calibrat ion of wires t hat is
in de pe n de n t of T
o
for a limit e d r a n ge :
Re B B Nu B Nu B Nu B Nu
t
+ + + +
1 2 3 4 5
1
2
3
2
2
(1 9 )
wh e r e i s e va lu a t e d a t T
o
a n d k e va lu a t e d a t T
f
.
Exa mple s of Da t a
A summary of heat t ransfer dat a from
cylinders in t erms of Nu
t
vs. Re
t
t aken in t he
subsonic cont inuum flow regime was present ed in
reference 21. The result s from t hese experiment s
are compared wit h t he t heoret ical result s of
Boussinesq and King in figure 16. This figure
shows t hat t here is a relat ively good agreement
bet ween t he measured result s and King's t heory
over a wide range of Reynolds numbers. There is a
subst ant ial difference bet ween Boussinesq's t heory
1 0
and King's t heory and t he measured result s for
Re yn olds n u mbe r s le s s t h a n a bou t 1 0 0 .
A large amount of heat t ransfer dat a was
also present ed by McAdam
99
in t erms Nu
f
vs. Re
f
a n d h e r e c omme n de d t h e followin g e qu a t ion :
( )
Nu Re
f f
+ 032 043
052
. .
.
(2 0 )
In c ompa r is ion , Kin g' s e qu a t ion wit h Pr = 0 . 7 0 is :
( ) Nu Re
t t
+ 0 3183 0 6676
050
. .
.
(2 1 )
For Reynolds number equal t o zero t he t wo
equat ions give essent ially t he same value for t he
Nusselt number. At higher values of Reynolds
number King's equat ion is about 40 percent higher
t han t he values of Nusselt number present ed by
McAdam. A film t emperat ure is oft en used as t he
t emperat ure at which k , and are evaluat ed
when correlat ing Nu versus Re. However, is
somet imes evaluat ed at t he free st ream st at ic
t emperat ures. The use of t he film t emperat ure for
evaluat ing fluid propert ies has been quest ioned in
reference 100. However, in t his reference t he
densit y in t he Reynolds number was evaluat ed at
T
f
, where as, in reference 99 t his apparent ly was
n ot t h e c a s e .
Bradshaw
27
not es t hat t here is a difference
of opinion t hroughout t he hot -wire anemomet ry
communit y about t he usefulness of a universal
correlat ion based on variables evaluat ed at a film
t emperat ure. These correlat ions provide a useful
guide for plot t ing result s and comparing mean flow
result s obt ained by different invest igat ors.
However, if good accuracy is t o be obt ained for t he
fluct uat ions, individual calibrat ion of probes is
r e qu ir e d.
Oft en at t empt s are made t o measure mean
velocit ies using hot -wire anemomet ry. It can be
shown using equat ion (13) t hat t he volt age across a
wire is a ( ) f u T T
o w
, , , . Therefore, t o measure t he
mean velocit y, t he ot her variables must be held
const ant or a met hod must be used t o correct t he
dat a for any variat ion in variables ot her t han
velocit y
65,71,101
. Because of t his, t he hot -wire
anemomet er is not a very good mean flow
measuring device, even if one ut ilizes some of t he
correct ions t hat have been developed. However, for
limit ed variat ions in t he independent variables,
correct ed velocit y measurement s were report ed in
r e fe r e n c e 1 0 1 .
Ve r y Low Ve loc i t i e s
At very low velocit ies t he heat ed wire can
cause a relat ively significant vert ical movement of a
fluid due t o buoyancy effect s on t he lower densit y
fluid adjacent t o t he wire. This result s in a change
in t he effect ive velocit y around t he wire. Effort s
were made t o calibrat e and use hot -wire
anemomet ry at very low velocit ies
102-107
where
nat ural convect ion effect s were present . The
influences of nat ural convect ion are paramet erized
by t he Grashof number. Experiment al evidence
108
indicat ed t hat if Gr Re <
3
t hen free convect ion effect s
were negligible. An example of t he effect of low
velocit ies on t he Nusselt number is present ed in
figu r e 1 7 .
King also provided an equat ion suit able for
low s pe e d flows :
( )
( )
P
Lk T T
b r
t w adw
w
2
log
(2 2 )
where b k e c u
t p
1
and = Euler's Const ant =
0.57721. In t erms of non-dimensional quant it ies,
e qu a t ion (2 2 ) be c ome s :
( ) [ ]
Nu
e Pr Re
t
t
2
2
1
log

(2 3 )
Equat ion (22) is valid for ud
w
< 0.0187 where u is
in cm/ sec and d
w
is in cm. Equat ion (13) is valid
for ud
w
> 0 . 0 1 8 7 .
For velocit ies as low as 1.0 cm/ sec, Haw
and Foss
102
at t empt ed t o correlat e t heir dat a using
Ki n g' s e qu a t i on i n t h e for m:
E A Bu
n 2
+ (2 4 )
A deviat ion of t heir dat a from a fit t ed curve was
observed at u 30 cm/ sec. The diamet er of t he wire
used in t heir experiment
102
was not not ed.
However, if one assumes a value of 0.00015 inch or
1 1
0.00020 inch, t he limit s for t he applicat ion of
equat ions (13) and (22) indicat e velocit ies of 49
cm/ sec or 37 cm/ sec, which are not t oo different
from 30 cm/ sec. The use of equat ion (22) would
not improve t he correlat ion present ed in reference
102 since it can be shown t hat as u 0 in equat ion
(22) E
w
0. The dat a of reference 102 indicat es
t hat at u 0 t he int ercept of t he curve is great er
t han t he value indicat ed by t he int ercept in
equat ion (24). Correlat ions obt ained using t he
result s of a t heory based on Oseen
108
flow would
not improve t he correlat ion since t his approach
gives result s t hat are similar t o t hose obt ained
using equat ion (22). For a heat ed wire t est ed in
horizont al wind t unnels, u
eff
cannot reach zero since
t h e e ffe c t ive ve loc it y is :
u u u
eff B
2 2 2
+ (2 5 )
a n d for a h e a t e d wi r e u
B
0.
SUBSONIC SLIP FLOW AND TRANSONIC FLOW
These t wo flow regimes will be t reat ed
t oget her since t he experiment al result s are similar.
Kovasznay
6
ext ended hot -wire anemomet ry result s
t o compressible flows and showed t hat t here was a
significant difference bet ween t he heat t ransfer in
compressible and incompressible flows. Several
experiment ers obt ained heat t ransfer
measurement s at low speeds and found an
apparent compressibilit y or Mach number
effect
35,64,109
at Mach numbers as low as 0.1.
Spangenberg
110
conduct ed ext ensive t est s over a
wide range of variables and det ermined t hat t he
apparent compressible flow effect s at Mach number
as low as 0.05 was really due t o gas rarefact ion
(e . g. , s lip flow).
In t his flow regime t he heat t ransfer from
t h e h e a t e d wir e is ge n e r a lly give n a s :
( ) Q P Lk T T Nu
t w o t
(2 6 )
In t ransonic flow and subsonic slip flows
t he Nusselt number is no longer only a funct ion of
Reynolds number and Kings' law is no longer
applicable. The most common funct ional
relat ionship for t he Nusselt number in t hese flow
r e gime s is
5 8
:
( ) Nu f M Re
t t
, , (2 7 )
since it was found t hat Nu
t
is also a funct ion of a
t emperat ure paramet er. Anot her funct ional
relat ionship t hat was used t o analyze gas
r a r e fa c t ion e ffe c t s is
3 5
:
( ) Nu f M Kn
t w
, , (2 8 )
In subsonic compressible flows t he recovery
t emperat ure of t he wire can change and funct ional
r e la t ion s h ips for a r e :
( ) f M Re
t
, or ( ) f M Kn , (2 9 )
De pe n de n t
Va r i a ble
In de pe n de n t
Va r i a ble
Re fe r e n c e
Nu
t Re
t
, M
, Mor k ovi n
5 8
Nu
t Kn, M
,
w
Ba ldwin
3 5
Nu
t Re
t
, M
,
w
Nu
t Kn, M
,
Re
t
, M
Mor k ovi n
5 8
Kn, M
Vr e ba lovic h
1 1 1
Ta ble I. Fu n c t i on a l Re la t i on s h i ps for Nu
t
a n d .
Morkovin chose ( ) Nu f M Re
t t

, , and
( )

f M Re
t
, for t he development of his equat ions.
In order t o emphasize t he gas rarefact ion effect s,
Baldwin chose ( ) Nu f M Kn
t w

, , and ( )

f M Kn , .
Independent variables t hat might be used t o relat e
Nu
t
and t o t he dependent variables are present ed
in Table 1. Alt hough Morkovin and Baldwin chose
t he variables of and , one could just as well
have chosen t he variables not ed in or . It will
be shown lat er t hat t he variables in might be t he
mos t e ffic ie n t gr ou p t o u s e .
Baldwin
35
and Spangenberg
110
invest igat ed t he heat t ransfer from wires over a
wide range of Re
t
, M, and T
w
in t he slip flow and
t ransonic flow regimes. Their result s, present ed in
figures 18a-b, shows t hat ( ) Nu f Re M
t t
, for Mach
numbers ranging from 0.05 t o 0.90 and Reynolds
1 2
numbers ranging from 1 t o about 100. The effect s
of wire overheat on t he values of Nu
t
were also
det ermined by Baldwin and Spangenberg and
examples of t hese effect s are shown in figure 19.
The values of Nu
t
can increase or decrease wit h
increased overheat depending on t he Mach number
a n d Kn u ds e n n u mbe r .
Result s from t heoret ical calculat ions made
for t he effect s of slip flow on heat t ransfer from
wires were report ed in reference 31. An example of
t hese result s is present ed in figure 20. The levels of
t he calculat ed Nusselt number do not agree wit h
measured result s, however, t he t rends of t he
t heoret ical result s agree wit h t he experiment al
t r e n ds s h own in figu r e 1 8 .
SUPERSONIC CONTINUUM FLOW
General result s for compressible flow shows
t hat ( ) Nu f M Re
t t
, , . However, it was
experiment ally
21,112
det ermined t hat ( ) Nu f M
t

for Mach numbers great er t han about 1.4. Typical
heat t ransfer dat a for supersonic flow is present ed
in figure 21 t o illust rat e t he approximat e invariance
of Nu
t
wit h M. At higher Mach number and
relat ively low t ot al pressures, t here is a high
probabilit y t hat much of t he dat a present ed for
supersonic and hypersonic flows are in t he slip flow
r e gime .
FREE MOLECULAR FLOW
St andler, Goodwin and Creager
33
comput ed t he heat t ransfer from wires for free
molecular flow and an example of t heir result s
along wit h measurement s are present ed in figure
22. A combinat ion of cont inuum flow, slip flow and
free molecular flow result s
10
are shown in figure
23. From t his figure it can be seen t hat for
cont inuum flow at large Reynolds number
Nu Re
t t

. For free molecular flow Nu Re
t t
and
slip flow result s smoot hly connect t he t wo regimes.
Therefore, for slip flows, Nu
t
varies wit h exponent of
Re yn olds n u mbe r wh ic h r a n ge fr om t o 1 .
RECOVERY TEMPERATURE RATIO
The recovery t emperat ure rat io must be
known t o comput e t he heat t ransfer from heat ed
wires. In general, t he recovery t emperat ure rat io is
a funct ion of Mach and Reynolds numbers or Mach
and Knudsen numbers. However, for Mach
number great er t han about 1.4 t he recovery
t emperat ure rat io is not a funct ion of Mach number
for cont inuum flow. A "univers al" curve present ed
by Vrebalovich
111
(figure 24) correlat ed t he
t emperat ure recovery rat io wit h Knudsen number
for all Mach numbers. Using t he result s present ed
in figure 24, t he t emperat ure recovery rat io for
cont inuum flow and free molecular flow, curves of
vs. M and Kn can be calculat ed. An example of
t h e s e c a lc u la t ion s is pr e s e n t e d in figu r e 2 5 .
FLUCTUATION MEASUREMENTS
SUBSONIC INCOMPRESSIBLE FLOW
a . Con s t a n t Te mpe r a t u r e An e mome t e r
For a const ant t emperat ure anemomet er,
Kin g' s
3
e qu a t ion c a n be e xpr e s s e d a s :
E
R
L k k c ud T T
w
t t p w w o
2
2 + (3 0 )
wh e r e R
w
a n d T
w
a r e c on s t a n t s .
If one assumes t hat t he changes in k
t
, c
p
and can be neglect ed, t he change in E will be a
funct ion of u and T
o
as given by t he following
e qu a t i on for s ma ll pe r t u r ba t i on s :

+
e
E
S
m
m
S
T
T
m T
o
o
o
(3 1 )
wh e r e
[ ]
S
Re Pr
Re Pr
m
t
t
+
1
4
2
1 2
a n d S
T
w
o

1
2
(3 2 )
From t he above equat ion it can be seen t hat
S
m
0 as Re
t
0 and S
m
as Re
t
. For t he
1 3
t emperat ure sensit ivit y, S
T
o
as
w
0 and
S
T
o
0 as
w
. Equat ion (31) shows t hat
( ) E f m T
o
, where S E m
m
log log and
S E T
T o
o
log log .
Since equat ion (31) shows t hat ( ) E f m T
o
, ,
t he fluct uat ion of mass flow and t ot al t emperat ure
can be measured using a CTA
113-115
. This can
best be done by using t wo wires operat ed at
different , but high overheat s, digit izing t he dat a,
and solving t wo equat ions for m , T
o
and m T
o
as
fu n c t ion s of t ime .
If t he t ot al t emperat ure and t he Mach
number varies significant ly, t hen k
t
and c
p
must be
different iat ed wit h respect t o T
o
and
different iat ed wit h respect t o Mach number. Under
t hese condit ions it would be more appropriat e t o
use t he equat ion obt ained by Rose and McDaid
8
wi t h t h e a s s u mpt i on t h a t ( ) Nu f M
t
.
Inst ead of using King's equat ion, consider
equat ion (15) for measuring mass flow and t ot al
t emperat ure fluct uat ion. For a CTA equat ion (15)
be c ome s :
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
d E
nB T m
n
A T B T m
n
d m
A T
A T
T
A T B T m
n
m
n
B T
B T
T
A T B T m
n
d T
o
o o
o
o
o
o o
o
o
o
o o
w
o
log log
log
log
log
log
log
1
]
1
+
1
]
1
+
1
]
1
'
2
1
2
33
b. Con s t a n t Cu r r e n t An e mome t e r
For t he CCA anemomet er, Kings' equat ion
be c ome s :
EI L k k c ud T T
t t p w w o
+ 2 (3 4 )
Again assume t hat k
t
, c
p
and are const ant , t he
c h a n ge in E is give n by t h e followin g e qu a t ion :

+
e
E
S
m
m
S
T
T
m T
o
o
o
(3 5 )
wh e r e
( )
( )
[ ]
( )
( )
( )
( ) S
Re Pr
Re Pr
S
m
f
t
t
T
f
o
+

1
4
2
1 2
1
2
36

and
If d I log 0 t h e n
[ ]
S
Re Pr
Re Pr
m
f
t
t
+
1
4
2
1 2
a n d
[ ]
S
T
f
o

1
2

(3 7 )
Equat ion (36) and (37) shows t hat ( ) S f
m w
. If
Re
t
0 t hen S
m
0, but if Re
t
t hen
[ ]
S
k
k
m
t w
t w
2
. On t he ot her hand, if
w
0 t hen
S
m
0 and if
w
t hen
[ ]
S
Re Pr
Re Pr
m
t
t
+
1
2
2
1 2
. If
w
0 t hen S
k
T
t
o
and if
w
t hen S
T
o
0.
Again, it is possible t o measure bot h m, T
o
and R
mT
o
using a CCA
113
and t he fluct uat ion diagram
developed by Kovasznay
6
. An example of
fluct uat ion diagrams for t wo discret e frequencies
measured wit h a CCA is present ed in figure 26.
Again if t he t ot al t emperat ure and t he Mach
number varies significant ly, t hen it would be more
appropriat e t o use Morkovin's equat ion wit h t he
a s s u mpt i on t h a t ( ) Nu f M
t
.
Similarly, t o measure mass flow and t ot al
t emperat ure fluct uat ion,equat ion (15) for CCA
be c ome s :
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
( )
( ) ( )
( )
d E
nB T m
n
A T B T m
n
d m
A T
A T
T
A T B T m
n
m
n
B T
B T
T
A T B T m
n
d T
f
o
o o
f
o
o
o
o o
o
o
o
o o
o
log log
log
log
log
log
log
1
]
1
'
1
]1
+
1
]1
'
1
2
1
2
38
Mass flow fluct uat ions measured in

subsonic flows can be very misleading where t here
is a significant amount of far-field sound. The
me a n s qu a r e va lu e of ma s s flow flu c t u a t i on i s :

_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,
+

_
,
m
m
u
u
R
u
u
u
2 2
2
2
~ ~
(3 9 )
The magnit ude of t he mass flow fluct uat ion
depends on u , , and R
u
where 1 1 R
u
. As an
1 4
example, assume R
u
1, indicat ing downst ream
moving sound, and u u . Under t hese
assumpt ion t he mass flow fluct uat ion equals t wice
t he velocit y or densit y fluct uat ion. However, if
R
u
1, indicat ing upst ream moving sound, and
u u ; t h e ma s s flow flu c t u a t i on a r e ze r o.
Most of t he measurement s made using hot -
wire anemomet ry were and st ill are being made in
t he subsonic, incompressible, cont inuum flow
regime. An ext ensive amount of dat a was
accumulat ed over t he years in various flow fields
25
.
Some of t hese dat a will be present ed in t he
followin g s e c t ion .
a . Fr e e s t r e a m
Some of t he first fluct uat ion measurement s
made using hot -wire anemomet ers were obt ained in
t he freest ream of wind t unnels t o help evaluat e t he
effect s of t urbulence on t he t ransit ion of laminar
boundary layers
116
. The purpose of t his effort was
an at t empt t o ext end wind t unnel t ransit ion dat a t o
flight condit ions in order t hat t he on-set of
t ransit ion might be predict ed on full scale aircraft .
Measurement s in t he freest ream are also required
t o st udy t he effect of freest ream dist urbances on
laminar boundary layer recept ivit y. An example of
measurement s made in t he freest ream is present ed
in figure 27 for t he Low Turbulence Pressure
Tunnel locat ed at t he NASA Langley Research
Cent er
37
. The filled symbols represent dat a t aken
in t he facilit y during 1940
117
and t he curves
represent measurement s made in 1980. The
agreement bet ween t he t wo set s of dat a is very good
when it is not ed t hat t he dat a t aken in 1940 was
obt ained at p
o
4 at mospheres and t he low dat um
poi n t a t Re x
t
5 10
5
is for M 0 02 . .
Fluct uat ion measurement s were also made
in various locat ion wit hin wind t unnel circuit s,
predominant ly in t he set t ling chamber.
Anemomet ry was used t o evaluat e t he efficiency of
cont ract ions in reducing vort icit y levels in t he t est
sect ion
118
. An example of t he result s obt ained
t hrough a cont ract ion is present ed in figure 28.
The absolut e value of t he velocit y fluct uat ion in t he
direct ion of t he flow was reduced t hrough t he
cont ract ion but t he relat ive values were great ly
reduced depending on t he area rat io of t he
cont ract ion. For example in figure 28 t he velocit y
fluct uat ion downst ream of t he cont ract ion are
rat ioed t o t he mean flow in t he large sect ion of t he
cont ract ion where t he local velocit y is low. If t hese
downst ream velocit y fluct uat ions were rat ioed t o
t he local mean velocit y, t hese normalized
fluct uat ions would be subst ant ially smaller, i.e.,
. u u
sc
2 6 vs . . u u 0 16.
b. Gr i d s
It was found t hat screens or grids can
effect ively reduce vort icit y fluct uat ions. Because of
t his at t enuat ion, screens have been ext ensively
invest igat ed
25,38,119
using hot -wire anemomet ry
t o opt imize t heir charact erist ics for use in wind
t unnels t o reduce t he vort icit y levels in t he t est
sect ion. An example of t hese measurement s is
present ed in figure 29 where t he t urbulent
reduct ion fact or is given as a funct ion of t he p q
across t he screens
120
. Therefore, t he use of
screens in t he set t ling chamber along wit h a
cont ract ion of adequat e area rat io, can
subst ant ially reduce velocit y fluct uat ions in t he t est
s e c t i on du e t o vor it ic it y
1 2 1
. (Als o s e e r e f. 1 2 2 -1 3 0 ).
c . Bou n da r y La ye r s
Hot -wire measurement s were made in
t urbulent boundary layers
42
t o measure t he
Reynolds st resses and ot her fluct uat ion quant it ies
t o furnish dat a for t he development of t urbulent
boundary layer t heories. An example of
measurement s made in t he boundary layer on a flat
plat e
131
is present ed in figure 30a-b. Figure 30a
shows t he significant variat ion of t he velocit y
fluct uat ion across t he boundary layer while figure
30b shows an example of t he local st reamwise
velocit y fluct uat ion rat ioed t o t he local velocit y.
Forming t he rat io in t his lat t er manner indicat es
t hat t he velocit y fluct uat ions can exceed 40 percent ,
a value t hat is t oo large for an accurat e assumpt ion
of s ma ll pe r t u r ba t i on .
Ext ensive measurement s were made of
t urbulent flows in pipes
40,41
t o compare
t heoret ical and measured result s. From t hese
measurement s many st at ist ical quant it ies were
obt ained including Reynolds st resses; t riple and
quadruple correlat ions; energy spect ra; rat es of
t urbulent energy product ion, dissipat ion, and
diffusion; and t urbulent energy balance. An
1 5
example of t he st reamwise velocit y fluct uat ions
a c r os s a pipe is pr e s e n t e d in figu r e 3 1 a -b.
Hot -wire anemomet ry has been ext ensively
used t o invest igat e t he charact erist ic of various
boundary layer flow manipulat ors such as Large
Eddy Break-up devices (LEBUS)
132
, Riblet s
133
and roughness element s
134
. Laminar boundary
layer t ransit ion due t o T-S waves
135
, cross flow
136
and Gort ler vort ices
137
was ext ensively st udied
using t he hot -wire t echniques. Also t he effect s of
heat addit ion
138
, sound
139
and vort icit y
140
on
boundary layer charact erist ics have been
in ve s t iga t e d.
The hot -wire anemomet er wit h a single wire
cannot det ermine t he direct ion of flow. However, a
t echnique using a mult i-wire, "lad d er probe" was
developed
141
t o st udy t he separat ed boundary
layer where a significant amount of reverse flow
occurred. This t echnique was used t o det ermine
t he locat ion of t he zero average velocit y in a
subsonic t urbulent boundary layer. (Also see ref.
1 4 2 -1 4 4 ).
d. La mi n a r Bou n da r y La ye r Re c e pt i vi t y
One of t he major impediment s t o a t hrough
underst anding of laminar boundary layer t ransit ion
is t he abilit y t o predict t he process by which
freest ream dist urbances are assimilat ed int o t he
boundary layer. These free st ream dist urbances
can be eit her vort icit y, ent ropy, sound or a
c ombi n a t i on of t h e s e flu c t u a t i on s .
The effect of freest ream fluct uat ions on t he
st abilit y of t he laminar boundary can be
invest igat ed by making measurement s in t he
freest ream and in t he boundary layer t o evaluat e
t he recept ivit y of t he boundary layer t o
fluct uat ions
145
in t he freest ream. An example of
fluct uat ions measured in a subsonic boundary
layer on a flat plat e for various frequency bands is
presen t ed in figure 32. Kendall
145
present ed t hree
t ypes of measurement s made in a laminar
boundary layer due t o velocit y fluct uat ions from t he
free st ream. The first t ype is illust rat ed by t he x's
and consist ed of broadband velocit y fluct uat ion
where t he peak level occurs t owards t he inner part
of t he boundary layer. This t ype of measurement is
not ed as t he Klebanoff's mode and is represent ed
by t he solid line. The result s obt ained when t he
dat a were filt ered at t he Tollmein-Schlicht ing (T-S)
frequency are represent ed by circles. Alt hough t he
frequencies were ident ical t o t hose of T-S waves
t hey were not T-S waves since t he convect ion
velocit y was equal t o t he free st ream value. The
maximum level of t hese fluct uat ions occurred at t he
out er part of t he boundary layer. The t hird t ype of
fluct uat ion is represent ed by t he dot t ed line. These
were t rue T-S waves which occurred in packet s and
had a convect ive velocit y of 0.35 t o 0.4 of t he free
st ream velocit y. These peak fluct uat ion levels
oc c u r r e d n e a r t h e wa ll. (Als o s e e r e f. 1 4 6 -1 5 6 ).
e . J e t s
Hot -wire measurement s were obt ained in
jet s
45-47
t o measure t he Reynolds st resses
associat ed wit h free shear layers and t o help
evaluat e t he RMS levels and frequencies associat ed
wit h jet noise. An example of t he velocit y and
t emperat ure fluct uat ions measured
157
across a
heat ed jet is present ed in figure 33. The t wo t ypes
of fluct uat ions were normalized by t he maximum
and t he local mean values, respect ively. (Also see
r e f. 1 5 8 -1 6 0 ).
f. Wa k e s
Various st at ist ical quant it ies were
measured downst ream of a heat ed cylinder by
Townsend
43
t o obt ain experiment al result s t o help
improve t urbulent t heories applicable t o t his t ype of
flow. Some of t he quant it ies obt ained included
t urbulent int ensit ies, sheer st ress, velocit y-
t emperat ure correlat ion, t riple velocit y correlat ion,
diffusion rat e and energy dissipat ion.
Measurement s were made from 500 t o 950
diamet er downst ream of t he cylinder where
dynamical similarit y was assumed t o exist . An
example of t he mean curve fit t ed t o t he u-
component of t he velocit y fluct uat ion is present ed
in figure 34 and shows good similarit y. Uberoi and
Freymut h
44
made ext ensive spect ral
measurement s downst ream of a cylinder and t heir
dat a indicat ed t hat only t he spect ra of large-scale
t u r bu le n c e we r e dyn a mic a lly s imila r .
1 6
SUBSONIC SLIP FLOW AND TRANSONIC FLOW
In compressible flows t he heat t ransfer
from a wire is usually described by t he following
e qu a t i on :
( ) Q Lk T T Nu
t w o t
(4 0 )
Different iat ing t he above equat ion for t he case
wh e r e Q P give s :
( ) d P d d Nu d d T d k
w
w t
w w
o t
log log log log log log +
41
The t erms on t he right hand side of t he
above equat ion depend only on t he funct ional forms
assumed for Nu
t
and (Table I) and t he chosen
independent variables (Table II). Ult imat ely t hese
t erms depend on t he variat ion of Nu
t
and wit h
t he flow variables along wit h t he aerodynamic and
t hermodynamic propert ies of t he flow. The final
form for t he left hand side of t he equat ion depends
on t h e t ype of a n e mome t e r u s e d.
It was shown in reference 161 t hat , for a
wire mount ed normal t o t he flow, ( ) E f u T T
o w
, , , .
Morkovin
58
and Baldwin
35
relat ed Nu
t
and t o
t he non-dimensional variables not ed in Table I.
However, recent result s present ed by Barre
et .al.,
162
suggest ed advant ages from using t he
following variables: ( ) E f m M T T
o w

, , , and
( ) E f p m T T
o w
, , , . In order t o obt ain t he equat ion for
t he CCA, t hey t ransformed Morkovin's equat ions
int o t heir variables. This t ransformat ion is not
necessary, since once t he variables are chosen, t he
equat ions can be derived direct ly using a met hod
s imila r t o t h e on e de s c r ibe d by An de r s
1 6 1
.
The equat ions obt ained using t he variables
of from t able II gives t he same result s as t hose of
, Morkovin
58
, namely ( ) E f m T
o
, under t he
condit ion where ( ) Nu f M
t

and S S
u

. Using t he
variables in , Barre et .al.,
162
applied t he
result ant equat ions t o measurement s made in a
t urbulent boundary layer under t he assumpt ion
t hat p 0 wit hout assuming t hat S S
u

. They also
ext ended t he equat ion t o t he case of supersonic
flow in t he t est sect ion of wind t unnels by assuming
t hat all t he fluct uat ions were sound, again not
a s s u min g S S
u

.
Once t he independent variables are chosen,
it is not necessary t o derive t he equat ions using Nu
t
and . The "primitive" variables, u , , T
o
et c.,
great ly simplifies t he manipulat ion of t he
calibrat ion dat a and can be used t o correlat e E as
a funct ion of u , , T
o
et c., wit hout evaluat ing Nu
t
and . This t echnique might have advant ages in
t he calibrat ion of wires and t he ease of operat ion of
c a libr a t ion fa c ilit ie s .
The possible set s of variables based on t he
a bove dis c u s s ion is pr e s e n t e d in Ta ble II.
De pe n de n t
Va r i a ble
In de pe n de n t
Va r i a ble
Re fe r e n c e
E , Nu
t
, u , , T
o
Ba ldwin
3 5
,
Mor k ovi n
5 8
E , Nu
t
, m, M
, T
o
Ba r r , Qu i n e a n d
Du s s a u ge
1 6 2
E , Nu
t
, p
, m , T
o
Ba r r , Qu i n e a n d
Du s s a u ge
1 6 2
E
u , , T
o
Ros e a n d Mc Da i d
8
St a i n ba c k a n d
J oh n s on
8 5
E
m, M
, T
o
E
p
, m, T
o
Ta ble II. Va r iou s In de pe n de n t Va r ia ble s t o
De r ive t h e Hot -Wir e An emomet r y
Equ a t i on s
Therefore, t here are many forms for t he hot -wire
equat ions depending on t he variables chosen and
t he anemomet er used. One should choose t he
variables t hat are most convenient for t he flow
s i t u a t i on u n de r i n ve s t i ga t i on .
a . Con s t a n t Cu r r e n t An e mome t e r
Using t he heat t ransfer equat ion (40) and
t he funct ional relat ionship from equat ion (27) and
(29), t he change in volt age across a wire can be
relat ed t o t he changes in u , , and T
o
. An example
of a set of equat ions obt ained for a const ant current
a n e mome t e r wa s give n by Mor k ovi n
5 8
a s :
1 7

+
e
E
S
u
u
S S
T
T
u T
o
o
o
(4 2 )
wh e r e
( ) S
E
u
E A Nu
Re
Nu
M M Re
u
w
wr
wr
t
t
t
t

+
_
,
+
_
,
1
]
1
1
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
1 1
43
S
E E A Nu
Re Re
w
wr
wr
t
t t
1
]
1
log
log
log
log
log
log
(4 4 )
( )
( ) S
E
T
E A
k A A n m
Nu
Re
Nu
M
A
M
m
Re
T
o
w
wr
t wr w w wr t t
t
t
t
w t
t
o

+ + + +
_
,
_
,
1
]
1
1
1
1
1
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
log
1 1
1
2
1
2
45
For a large range of Reynolds numbers and
Mach numbers, S
u
and S
in equat ion (42) are

unequal
35
. Following Kovasznay's t echnique for
supersonic flow, dividing equat ion (42) by S
T
o
,
s qu a r in g a n d for min g t h e me a n give s :
( )

_
,
+

_
,
+

_
,
+

2 2
2
2
2 2
2 2 2 46 q
u
u
s
T
T
qsR
u
u
qR
uT
uT
sR
T
T
o
o
u uT
o
o
T
o
o
o
o
~~ ~
~ ~ ~
This is a general equat ion for a wire mount ed
normal t o t he flow in compressible flows where
S S
u

. This is a single equat ion wit h six
unknowns. In principal, t his equat ion can be
solved by operat ing a single wire at six overheat s
and solving six equat ions t o obt ain t he t hree
fluct uat ing quant it ies and t heir correlat ions. In t he
past , it was generally st at ed t hat t he calibrat ion of
t he wire cannot be made sufficient ly accurat e or t he
velocit y and densit y sensit ivit ies cannot be made
sufficient ly different t o obt ain a suit able solut ion
using t his t echnique. Demet riades
163
not ed t hat
t he coefficient in equat ion (46) must occur t o at
least t he fift h degree. This const raint , however,
appears t o be t oo rest rict ive. For example, assume
t h a t s i s a fu n c t i on of q a s follows :
s a a q a q a q
b b b
+ + +
1 2 3 4
1 2 3
(4 7 )
It can be shown t hat b
1
, b
2
and b
3
can have any
value provided t hat t he subst it ut ion of t he
relat ionship for s int o equat ion (46) result s in an
equat ion having at least six t erms. An analysis of
dat a obt ained at t ransonic Mach number by
Spangenberg indicat es t hat s can be non-linearly
relat ed t o q and suggest t hat a solut ion t o equat ion
(46) is possible. A more det ailed discussion of t his
c a n be fou n d in r e f. 1 6 4 .
If solut ions for equat ion (46) are possible,
what is t he form of t he fluct uat ion diagram? In
equat ion (46), is a funct ion of q and s ,
t herefore, t he fluct uat ion diagram exist s on a t hree-
dimensional surface, a hyperboloid, rat her t han a
plane as for t he case when S S
u

. However, t he
import ant informat ion, fluct uat ion quant it ies, exist s
in t he q and s planes. For example when
s 0, equat ion (46) reduces t o an equat ion for a
hyperbola in t he q plane, where t he asympt ot e
gives t he velocit y fluct uat ions. If q 0, equat ion
(46) reduces t o an equat ion for a hyperbola in t he
s plane and t he asympt ot e represent s t he
densit y fluct uat ions. When q and s bot h are zero,
t he int ercept on t he axis gives t he t ot al
t emperat ure fluct uat ion. In planes parallel t o t he
q s plane, t he locus of point s of t he fluct uat ion
diagram is governed by t he velocit y and densit y
fluct uat ions and t heir correlat ion. The cross
product t erm, qs, requires a rot at ion of t he axis
before t he charact erist ics of t he locus can be
ident ified. The locus of point s on t he surface of t he
hyperboloid will depend on t he relat ive changes in
q a n d s a s t h e ove r h e a t of t h e wi r e i s c h a n ge d.
Alt hough t he fluct uat ion diagram exist s on
t he surface of a hyperboloid, t he fluct uat ions can be
det ermined from t he int ersect ion of t he hyperboloid
wit h t he q and s planes. Because of t his, t he
fluct uat ion and mode diagrams were defined as t he
t races of t hese int ersect ions in t he not ed
planes
165,166
. A general schemat ic represent at ion
of t he fluct uat ion diagram for equat ion (46) is
pr e s e n t e d in figu r e 3 5 .
Even t hough t here is much evidence t hat
S S
u

over a large range of Re
t
and M
in subsonic
compressible flow, some experiment ers have
conduct ed t est s
167-169
under t he condit ion where
S S
u

. When S S
u

for subsonic compressible
flow, t he fluct uat ion and mode diagram t echnique
developed by Kovasznay can be used t o obt ain t he
1 8
mass flow and t ot al t emperat ure fluct uat ions. The
general fluct uat ion diagram is ident ical t o t he one
for supersonic flow, namely, a hyperbola. Also, t he
mode diagrams for ent ropy and vort icit y modes are
ident ical. The sound mode is, however, different .
For supersonic flow t he angle t hat plane sound
waves makes wit h respect t o t he axis of a probe can
have only t wo values. If t he sound source is fixed
t hen cos
1
1 M. If t he sound source has a finit e
velocit y t hen cos
1
1
_
,
u
a
u
a
s
. However, for
subsonic flows t he values of
1
can range from 0 t o
360. An example of fluct uat ion diagrams
measured in subsonic compressible flows under t he
c on dit ion wh e r e S S
u

is pr e s e n t e d in figu r e 3 6 a -b.
b. Con s t a n t Te mpe r a t u r e An e mome t e r
The hot -wire equat ion for a CTA t hat
c or r e s pon ds t o e qu a t ion (4 2 ) for a CCA is :

+

+
e
E
S
u
u
S S
T
T
u T
o
o
o
(4 8 )
and for S S
u

is a single equat ion wit h t hree
unknowns. Hinze indicat ed t hat a CTA cannot be
used t o obt ain fluct uat ions using t he mode diagram
t echnique since t he frequency response of t he
anemomet er approaches t he frequency response of
t he wire at low overheat s. Because of t hese
problems, it was suggest ed t hat a t hree wire probe
be used and t he volt age from t he anemomet er
digit ized at a suit able rat e
85
. Then t hree equat ions
are obt ained t hat can be solved for u , , T
o
as a
funct ion of t ime. St at ist ical t echniques can t hen be
u s e d t o obt a i n s t a t i s t i c a l qu a n t i t i e s of i n t e r e s t .
To insure t hat t he solut ion t o t he t hree
equat ions are sufficient ly accurat e, t he t hree wires
are operat ed at different and high overheat s t o
make S
u
and

S
as different as possible. This will

insure t hat t he condit ion number for t he solut ion
mat rix is reasonably low. A complet e descript ion of
t h is t e c h n iqu e is give n in r e fe r e n c e s 8 5 a n d 8 6 .
Some experiment ers have conduct ed
t est s
8,170
where S S
u

in t ransonic flows. For
t hese t est s a set of equat ions similar t o t hose given
by Mor k ovin for a CCA we r e de r ive d for a CTA.
The funct ional relat ionship for t he volt age
across a wire for subsonic slip flows is ident ical t o
t he funct ional relat ionship for t ransonic flow.
Therefore, t he t hree wire probe t echnique under
development for t ransonic flows should be
applicable for bot h regimes. Since slip flows are
ident ified by t he Knudsen number, t he possibilit y of
obt aining useful measurement s using a t hree wire
probe might be improved by using different
diamet er wires in addit ion t o using different
ove r h e a t s .
Hot -Wi r e Ca li br a t i on
Evaluat ing t he required part ial derivat ives
requires care when carrying out t he mean flow
calibrat ion. For example, consider Morkovin's
equat ions (42-45). The evaluat ion of
( )
log log
,
Nu Re
t t
M
must be obt ained by varying p
o
only and t he Mach number, , and t he t ot al
t emperat ure must be held const ant . On t he ot her
hand, t he evaluat ion of ( )
log log
,
Nu M
t
Re
t
requires
t hat t he t ot al pressure be changed when t he Mach
number is varied in order t o maint ain Re
t
const ant .
Similar const raint s also must be observed when
( ) log log Re
t
M
and ( ) log log M
Re
t
are evaluat ed.
Similar care must also be t aken in evaluat ing t he
part ial derivat ives when using ot her dependent and
independent variables. Some of t hese variat ions
and t heir const raint s makes t he operat ion of wind
t unnels very t ime consuming if an accurat e mean
flow c a libr a t ion is t o be obt a in e d.
If Nu
t
is assumed t o be a ( ) f M Re
t
, , , t he
above described const raint s applied, and t he
operat ional envelope of t he facilit y considered, t here
is a skewing of t he Nu
t
vs. Re
t
curves for const ant
Mach numbers because ( ) Re f u
t
, (figure 18b)
171
.
Because of t his, t he region over which t he part ial
derivat ion can be evaluat ed is reduced due t o t his
skewin g. If Nu
t
is assumed t o be a ( ) f M Kn
w
, , ,
plot s of Nu
t
vs. Kn for const ant Mach number is not
as skewed and a more complet e set of derivat ives
can be evaluat ed from a given number of dat a
point s (figure 37). This efficient use of dat a can also
be obt ained for ( ) E f u T
o
, , wit h t he wire volt age
correlat ed in t erm of t hese primit ive variables. The
use of
w
as an independent variable can cause
1 9
ext ra complicat ions in t he calibrat ion of wires when
varies wit h M or Re
t
. Under t hese condit ions t he
wire t emperat ure must be changed when varies
t o h old
w
c on s t a n t
1 1 0
.
Based on past experience
85,172-175
, t he
following met hod appears t o provide a reasonable
t echnique for correlat ing dat a t o obt ain t he required
sensit ivit ies. Consider t he correlat ion of Nusselt
number for t he sit uat ion where ( ) Nu f M Kn
t w
, , .
First t he measured variat ion of Nu
t
wit h one
independent variable must be obt ained wit h t he
ot her independent variables held const ant . The
variat ion of Nu
t
wit h t he remaining independent
variables must be obt ained under t he same
const raint s. Aft er t hese dat a are obt ained, Nu
t
must be curve fit t o one of t he independent
variables, say Kn, for all const ant values of M and
w
. The curve fit t ing process will, in general, result
in ( ) log log , , Nu Kn f M Kn
t w
. This met hod must be
used t o obt ain ot her part ials ie.,
( ) log log , , Nu M f M Kn
t w
and
( ) log log , , Nu f M Kn
t w w
. A similar t echnique
should be used t o obt ain log log Kn and
log log M. Aft er t he part ial derivat ives are
obt ained, t he sensit ivit ies, i.e., S
u
, S
and
S
T
o
can be
det ermined. Each of t hese sensit ivit ies will, in
general, be funct ions of all t he independent
variables. Spangenberg published t he only dat a
known t o t he aut hors which were obt ained under
t he above const raint s. He present ed t he Nusselt
number as a funct ion of M, , and but for a
given diamet er wire and Kn are reciprocals of
each ot hers. An example of t he sensit ivit ies
obt ained for one set of Spangenberg dat a is
present ed in figures 38a-c. These figures shows
t hat each sensit ivit y, is in general, a funct ion of t he
t h r e e in de pe n de n t va r ia ble s .
Mean flow measurement s were made in t he
t ransonic and slip flow regime in t he 1950's
35,110
.
It was only during t he 1970's and 1980's t hat
at t empt s were made t o measure
8,49,85,86,170
fluct uat ions in t hese regimes because of t he
complexit y of t he response of t he heat ed wire t o
ve loc i t y, de n s i t y a n d t ot a l t e mpe r a t u r e .
In order t o evaluat e t he effect of free st ream
fluct uat ions on boundary layer t ransit ion, hot -wire
measurement s were made in t he Langley Research
Cent er 8' Transonic Pressure Tunnel during t he
Laminar Flow Cont rol experiment s
86
. For t hese
flow condit ions S S
u

wit h S S
u
<

. Because of t his
sit uat ion a t hree wire probe was used t o measure
u u, , T T
o o
and m m and examples of t hese
measurement s are present ed in figure 39a-d. (Also
s e e r e f. 1 7 6 -1 7 8 ).
b. Bou n da r y La ye r
Horst man and Rose
170
made
measurement s at t ransonic speeds where, for t heir
flow condit ion, it was found t hat S S
u

. For t his
condit ion t he t ransonic hot -wire problem
degenerat ed t o t he supersonic flow problem where
only m m, T T
o o
and R
mT
o
could be measured. From
t heir measurement of m m, t he velocit y and densit y
fluct uat ions were comput ed by assuming t hat T T
o o
and p p were zero. An example of t hese result s is
present ed in figure 40. In t his figure Horst man and
Rose's hot -wire result s, represent ed by t he circles,
are compared wit h t he t hin film result s obt ained by
Mik u lla
1 7 0
.
c . Fli gh t i n At mos ph e r e
Any at t empt s t o ext rapolat e t he effect of
wind t unnel dist urbances on laminar boundary
layer t ransit ion t o flight condit ions requires some
knowledge of t he dist urbance levels in t he
at mosphere. Much of t he fluct uat ion dat a obt ained
in t he at mosphere was measured using sonic
anemomet ers on t owers
179
. There was a limit ed
amount of dat a obt ained in t he at mosphere using
hot -wire anemomet ry on flight vehicles
49,180
.
Ot t en et . al.,
49
expanded t he met hods devised by
Rose and McDaid by using a t wo wire probe. One
wire was operat ed by a CCA at a low over heat t o
measure T
o
. The ot her wire was operat ed wit h a
CTA t hat was sensit ive t o m and T
o
. The result s
from t hese t wo wires were used t o measure m and
T
o
in t he at mosphere. An example of spect ral dat a
obt ained in t he at mosphere is present ed in figure
41 and reveals t he expect ed 5 3 slope, for m and
T
o
.
2 0
d. Su bs on ic Slip Flow
For t his regime ( ) Nu f M Re
t t w

, , and
S S
u

. These result s are ident ical t o t hose in t he
t ransonic flow regime and at t empt s have been
made t o apply t he t hree wire t echnique developed
for t ransonic flows t o subsonic slip flows. For t est s
in subsonic slip flows t he t hree wires were of
different diamet ers in addit ion t o being operat ed at
different overheat s. Some very preliminary dat a
obt ained using t his t echnique in t he Langley LTPT
t unnel is present ed in figure 42a-b where
comparison wit h result s obt ained using King's
e qu a t i on a r e ma de .
HIGH SUPERSONIC AND HYPERSONIC FLOW
Th e or e t i c a l Con s i de r a t i on
a . Con s t a n t Cu r r e n t An e mome t e r
In t he 1950's and 1960's hot -wire
anemomet ry was ext ended int o t he high supersonic
and hypersonic flow regime
6,7,181,182
. For high
supersonic flows it was found experiment ally t hat
S S
u

a n d e qu a t ion (4 2 ) be c ome s :

+
e
E
S
m
m
S
T
T
m T
o
o
o
(4 9 )
Dividing equat ion (49) by t he t ot al t emperat ure
sensit ivit y, squaring, and t hen t aking t he mean
r e s u lt s i n t h e followi n g e qu a t i on :

_
,
_
,
_
,
_
,

2 2
2
2
2
r
m
m
rR
m
m
T
T
T
T
mT
o
o
o
o
o
~
~
(5 0 )
This equat ion was derived by Kovasznay
6
and used
t o generat e fluct uat ion diagrams for supersonic
flows. This equat ion was also used in references
167 and 168 for subsonic compressible flows. The
general form of equat ion (50) is a hyperbola where
t he int ercept on t he -axis represent s t he t ot al
t emperat ure fluct uat ion and t he asympt ot es
r e pr e s e n t t h e ma s s flow flu c t u a t i on
7
.
Kovasznay demonst rat ed t hat t he basic
linear pert urbat ion in compressible flows consist s
of vort icit y, ent ropy and sound. He t ermed t hese
basic fluct uat ions as "modes". If t he fluct uat ion
diagram is assumed t o consist of a single mode t he
diagrams were t ermed "mode diagrams". An
example of a general fluct uat ion diagram and t he
various mode diagrams for supersonic flow are
pr e s e n t e d in figu r e s 4 3 a n d 4 4 .
b. Con s t a n t Te mpe r a t u r e An e mome t e r
For t h is c a s e e qu a t ion (4 2 ) be c ome s :

+
e
E
S
m
m
S
T
T
m T
o
o
o
(5 1 )
This is a single equat ion in t wo unknowns and a
t wo wire probe can be used t o obt ain m , T
o
and
m T
o
similar t o t he compressible subsonic flow
c a s e
6 1 , 1 8 3 , 1 8 4
.
In order t o evaluat e t he relat ive "goodnes s"
of supersonic wind t unnels and t o relat e t he levels
of dist urbances in t he t est sect ion t o laminar
boundary layer t ransit ion on models, a large
amount of hot -wire measurement s were made in
t he t est sect ions of supersonic and hypersonic wind
t unnels. In 1961 Laufer
185
present ed
measurement s made in t he t est sect ion of t he J et
Propulsion Laborat ory 18 x 20 inch supersonic
wind t unnel over a Mach number range from 1.6 t o
5.0 using CCA. An example of t he fluct uat ion
diagrams obt ained by Laufer is present ed in figure
45. From t hese diagrams t he mass flow and t ot al
t emperat ure fluct uat ions were obt ained. Examples
of t he mass flow fluct uat ions are present ed in figure
46a. There was a significant increase of m m wit h
Mach number ranging from 0.07% at M 1 6 . t o
about 1.0 t o 1.35% at M 5 0 . , depending on
Reynolds number. All of t he fluct uat ion diagrams
were st raight lines and Laufer demonst rat ed t hat
t hese result s indicat ed t hat t he fluct uat ions were
predominant ly pressure fluct uat ions due t o sound.
Examples of t he calculat ed pressure fluct uat ions
are presen t ed in figure 46b. Laufer concluded t hat
t he pressure fluct uat ions originat ed at t he
t urbulent boundary on t he wall of t he t unnel and
because of t he finit e value of t he t emperat ure
fluct uat ions t he sound source had a finit e velocit y.
An example of t he sound source velocit ies is
A large amount of hot -wire dat a was t aken
in t he freest ream of various facilit ies t o measure
2 1
dist urbance levels in effort s t o develop quiet
supersonic wind t unnels. A review of t his effort was
r e por t e d in r e fe r e n c e 1 8 6 .
Measurement s in t he freest ream of t he
Langley Research Cent er Mach 20 High Reynolds
number Helium Tunnel were performed by Wagner
and Weinst ein
181
. All of t heir fluct uat ion diagrams
were st raight lines similar t o t he result s obt ained in
supersonic flows. Examples of t heir measured
mass flow and t ot al t emperat ure fluct uat ions are
present ed in figure 48. The mass flow fluct uat ions
were subst ant ially higher t han t he values measured
by Laufer at M 5 0 . . Pressure fluct uat ion
measurement s present ed in figure 49 indicat e t hat
at low t ot al pressures t he boundary layer on t he
nozzle wall was probably t ransit ional at t he acoust ic
origin of t he sound source. Relat ive sound source
velocit ies are present ed in figure 50. The source
velocit ies for t he Mach 20 t unnel at t he higher
pressures are significant ly higher t han t hose
measured by Laufer at Mach numbers up t o 5.
(Als o s e e r e f. 1 8 7 ).
b. Bou n da r y La ye r
Measurement s were made in supersonic
and hypersonic t urbulent boundary layers t o
ext end t he range of Reynolds st ress measurement s
needed in t he development of t urbulent boundary
layer t heories. Barre et . al.,
162
conduct ed hot -wire
t est s in a supersonic boundary layer where
t ransonic effect s were account ed for by using a
t ransformat ion of equat ion (42-45) from u , , T
o
t o
p , m, and T
o
. Using t he assumpt ion t hat
( ) E f p m T
o
, , and p p 0, reduced t heir equat ion t o
( ) E f m T
o
, . Under t hese condit ion t he fluct uat ion
diagram developed by Kovasznay was used t o
obt ain m m, T T
o o
and R
mT
o
wit hout t he assumpt ion
t h a t S S
u

.
Examples of t heir result s are present ed in
figures 51 and 52. Figure 51 shows t hat t he
quant it y u
w
2
is great ly underest imat ed if t he
assumpt ion is made t hat S S
u

when t he velocit y
in t he boundary is t ransonic and S S
u

. Figure 52
show t he variat ion of R
uT
o
wit h t he local Mach
number t hrough t he boundary layer. The expect ed
value for R
uT
o
is -0.85 and t he dat a obt ained for
S S
u

agrees well wit h t his value. However, dat a
evaluat ed where S
u
was assumed t o be equal t o S
were subst ant ially higher at t he lower t ransonic

Ma c h n u mbe r s .
Fluct uat ions in a hypersonic boundary
layer were made by Laderman and Demit rades
182
and report ed in reference 188. An example of t he
mass flow and t ot al t emperat ure fluct uat ions
measured across t he boundary layer is present ed in
figure 53. The velocit y, densit y, st at ic t emperat ure,
and pressure fluct uat ions were calculat ed using t he
mass flow and t ot al t emperat ure fluct uat ions and
various assumpt ions. An example of t hese
me a s u r e me n t s is pr e s e n t e d in figu r e s 5 4 a n d 5 5 .
Addit ional measurement s were made in
hypersonic boundary layers by Laderman
189
and
on an ogive cylinder by Owen and Horst man
59
at
M 7 0 . . The measurement s made by Owen and
Horst man included not only dat a for m, T
o
and R
mT
o
but int egral scales and microscales, probabilit y
densit y dist ribut ions, skewness, kurt osis and
int ermit t ancy dist ribut ion across t he boundary
layer. A summary paper by Owen
190
present s
addit ional dat a which included space-t ime
correlat ion, convect ive velocit ies, dist urbance
inclinat ion angle, and t urbulence life t ime
dis t r ibu t ion s . (Als o s e e r e f. 8 7 , 1 9 1 -1 9 6 ).
c . Wa k e
An example of fluct uat ion diagrams
measured in t he wake behind a 15 half angle
wedge at M 15 5 . is present ed in figure 56. From
t hese result s Wagner and Weinst ein concluded t hat
t he predominant fluct uat ion in t his wake was
ent ropy since t he fluct uat ion diagrams were
st raight lines t hat int ersect ed t he r -axis at
a ppr oxima t e ly .
d. Down s t r e a m of Sh oc k
In supersonic and hypersonic flows t he
dist urbances measured in t he freest ream of t he t est
sect ion are not necessarily t he dist urbances t hat
can affect t he t ransit ion of t he laminar boundary
layer on a body. The passage of sound waves
t hrough shocks will result in a combinat ion of
vort icit y, ent ropy, and sound downst ream of t he
shock
197
. Because of t his t he fluct uat ion diagram
will no longer be a st raight line but a general
2 2
hyperbola
48
. An example of t his result is
pr e s e n t e d in figu r e 5 7 . (Als o s e e r e f. 1 9 8 -2 0 1 ).
CONFIRMATION OF THEORETICAL RESULTS
Hot -wire anemomet ry was used ext ensively
t o validat e or confirm t heoret ical result s. Some
e xa mple s of t h e s e e ffor t s a r e pr e s e n t e d be low.
Theoret ical st udies of t he st abilit y of
laminar boundary layers t o small dist urbances
were init ially performed by Tollmein
202,203
and
Schlicht ing
204
. These calculat ions indicat ed t hat
dist urbances of a given frequency could decrease,
remain const ant or be amplified depending on t he
frequency chosen and t he Reynolds number. The
first experiment al verificat ion of t he t heory was
made by Schubauer and Skramst ad
135
. An
example of recent experiment al and t heoret ical
result s for t he det erminat ion of t he neut ral st abilit y
boundary
205
in a laminar boundary layer is
Hot -wire measurement s were made
downst ream of "grids " t o evaluat e t he t heory for t he
decay of t urbulence. Test s conduct ed by Kist ler
and Vrebalovich
206
t o evaluat e t he "linear" decay
law is present ed in figure 59 and confirm t his law
for large values of t he Reynolds number. At lower
Reynolds number
25
t he exponent can be closer t o
1.20 - 1.25. Measurement s of spect ra for velocit y
fluct uat ions downst ream of grids was also made
and compared wit h t heory. Two examples of t hese
spect ra are present ed
206,207
in figure 60a-b. The
spect ra in figure 60a had an insignificant amount of
energy in t he expect ed inert ial sub-range indicat ed
by a slope of 5 3. This result was at t ribut ed t o t he
low Reynolds number of t he flow. The spect ra
present ed in figure 60b was measured in a high
Reynolds number flow and revealed a significant
amount of energy in t he inert ial sub-range.
Theoret ical calculat ions were made for t he
t emperat ure spect ra in a heat ed jet and
downst ream of a heat ed grid. An example of t he
t heory and measurement s
207
is present ed in figure
61. At t empt s have been made t o predict t he
influence of measured freest ream fluct uat ions on
laminar boundary t ransit ion. An example of t his
e ffor t s
2 0 8
is pr e s e n t e d in figu r e s 6 2 .
A considerable amount of dat a was
obt ained by St et son et . al.,
209
in hypersonic flow t o
st udy t he st abilit y of laminar boundary layer. An
example of t hese result s are present ed in figure 63
and indicat es t he exist ence of first and second
mode inst abilit ies in t he laminar boundary layer.
These result s were in agreement wit h t hose
obt ained by Kendall
155
and Demet riades
210
and
was in qualit at ive agreement wit h t he t heoret ical
r e s u lt s obt a in e d by Ma c k
1 5 6
.
OTHER APPLICATIONS
Hot -wire anemomet ry was used in shock
t ubes in an at t empt t o check t he frequency
response of probes and t o t rigger ot her
e ve n t s
5 2 , 2 1 1
.
Theoret ical result s indicat ed t hat t here
would be "temperature fronts or s teps" in cryogenic
wind t unnels due t o t he inject ion of liquid nit rogen
int o t he circuit . Measurement s were made using a
hot -wire anemomet er t o det ermine t he possible
oc c u r r e n c e s of t h e s e t h e r ma l s t e ps
5 3
.
A pulsed hot -wire was used t o measure t he
velocit ies and flow angle in low speed flows
212
. A
wire, which was operat ed by an anemomet er, was
place in t he wake of a second wire which could be
alt ernat ely heat ed. The t ime lag bet ween heat ing
t he forward wire, t his pulse being det ect ed by t he
second wire and t he dist ance bet ween t he wires
was used t o comput e t he velocit y of t he flow. In
reference 213 a somewhat different t echnique was
described t hat used t wo CCA's and a CTA t o
me a s u r e t h e ve loc it y a n d flow a n gle .
Hot -wire anemomet ry was used t o obt ain
t he locat ion of t ransit ion in a laminar boundary in
addit ion t o obt aining some informat ion on t he
fluct uat ions in t he laminar, t ransit ional and
t urbulent boundary layers
214,215
. In some flows
where t he fluct uat ion levels are high, such as a jet ,
a moving hot -wire probe was found t o improve t he
accuracy of t he result s
216
. This t echnique is
usually not ed as flying hot -wire anemomet ry. (Also
s e e r e f. 2 1 7 -2 2 1 ).
Hot -wire anemomet ry was used
222
t o
measure t he focal point s of t he laser beams for
2 3
Laser Transit anemomet ry (LTA) . Using a
t raversing mechanism and a CTA, t he dist ance
bet ween t he t wo beams was det ermined by
measuring t he difference bet ween t he t wo
maximum volt age out put s from t he anemomet er. It
was not ed t hat addit ional informat ion could be
obt ained such as t he mean value of t he beam
int ensit y int ersect ed by t he wire, laser beam power,
beam separat ion, beam diamet er, beam divergence,
cross-sect ional beam-int ensit y dist ribut ion and
r e la t ive be a m in t e n s it y.
CONDITIONAL SAMPLING
Organized mot ion or st ruct ures in a
t urbulent boundary layer has been ext ensively
st udied
20,223-225
using t he concept of condit ional
sampling. The flow of a t urbulent boundary layer
over a concave surface was st udied in reference
226 t o search for organized mot ion in t he boundary
layer. The possible exist ence of organized mot ion is
illust rat ed in figure 64 from measurement s made
wit h t wo hot -wire probes locat ed 0.1 apart . The
condit ional sampling t echnique was used t o
det ermine t he charact erist ic shape of t he mass flow
signal during t he passage of an organized mot ion.
An example of t hese result s are present ed in figure
64. Figure 65 shows t hat t he measured event at an
upst ream and a downst ream st at ion had t he same
ge n e r a l c h a r a c t e r is t ic s h a pe .
COMPARISON OF HOT-WIRE MEASUREMENTS
WITH OTHER TECHNIQUES
In t he past t he hot -wire anemomet er, wit h
all it s limit at ions, was t he only inst rument available
t hat was capable of measuring fluct uat ions wit h
adequat e fidelit y
12
. To some ext ent , t his is no
longer t he case as ot her t echniques such as LV,
LIF, CARS, and Raman scat t ering are now available
for measuring various mean flow and fluct uat ing
quant it ies. In inviscid flow where t he fluct uat ions
can be low, t he anemomet er is present ly t he only
reliable inst rument available. Compared t o ot her
t echniques t he anemomet er is st ill relat ively simple
t o operat e and relat ively inexpensive. Because of it s
long hist ory, t he result s obt ained using
anemomet ry is st ill oft en used as a st andard for
evaluat ing measurement s obt ained using ot her
t echniques. The ext ent t o which t he anemomet er
can maint ain t hese advant ages depends on t he
c on t in u e d de ve lopme n t of t h e ot h e r t e c h n iqu e s .
Test s were conduct ed in t urbulent
boundary layers t o compare hot -wire result s wit h
ot her t echniques t o validat e hot -wire/ laser
velocimet er (LV)
227,228
and hot -wire/ laser-
induced fluorescence (LIF)
229
t echniques. An
example of velocit y fluct uat ions obt ained using hot -
wire anemomet er and a LV syst em is present ed in
figure 66 for st reamwise velocit y fluct uat ions. The
agreement bet ween t he t wo set s of dat a is very
good. Measured densit y and st at ic t emperat ure
fluct uat ions measured wit h a hot -wire and a LIF
syst em in a t urbulent supersonic boundary layer is
present ed in figure 67. Again, except for t wo values
for t he densit y fluct uat ion obt ained wit h t he LIF
syst em, t he agreement bet ween t he t wo set s of dat a
is very good. Various experiment s were made using
LIF and LIF/ RAMAN t echniques t o measure T T
o o
and where result s were compared wit h hot -wire
measurement s
228
. An example
230
of t hese result s
is present ed in figure 68. The only disagreement
bet ween t he hot -wire and t he ot her result s was
at t ribut ed t o a shock t hat apparent ly did not cross
t h e h ot -wir e pr obe .
CONCLUDING REMARKS
A review was made t o illust rat e t he
versat ilit y of hot -wire anemomet ry in addit ion t o
not ing some of it s limit at ions. The review included
examples of result s obt ained in t he various flow
regimes and various t ypes of flow fields. Examples
of dat a were present ed for t he subsonic
incompressible flow regime t hat were used t o
evaluat e t he flow qualit y in t he t est sect ion of wind
t unnels, t o obt ain measurement s in t urbulent
boundary layer, and t o subst ant iat e or validat e
va r iou s t h e or ie s of t u r bu le n c e .
Recent ly at t empt s t o ext end hot -wire
anemomet ry int o t he t ransonic and subsonic slip
flow regimes were present ed for cases where S S
u

and S S
u

. Examples of dat a obt ained at high
supersonic and hypersonic Mach numbers were
present ed. These result s revealed t hat t he
fluct uat ion diagrams measured in t he t est sect ion
2 4
were a st raight line, indicat ing t hat t he
dist urbances in t he t est sect ions were due t o sound
mode .
Examples were also present ed t o illust rat e
measurement s made t o subst ant iat e t urbulent
t heories, t o compare wit h ot her t echniques, and t o
illu s t r a t e t h e c on c e pt of c on dit ion a l s a mplin g.
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
The aut hors acknowledge t he support of
t his research by t he Nat ional Aeronaut ics and
Space Administ rat ion under cont ract s NAS1-19320
a n d NAS1 -1 9 6 7 2 r e s pe c t ive ly.
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190. Owen, F.K., 1988, "Meas urements of
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194. Dupont , P., and Debieve, J .F., 1992, "A Hot-
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TR-7 7 -1 3 1 1 .
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Puls ed Wire Anemometer - A New Ins trument for
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3 5
214. LaGraff, J .E., 1972, "Obs ervation of Hy pers onic
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215. Sandborn, V.A., and Wisniewski, R.J ., 1960,
"Hot-Wire Exploration of Trans ition on Cone in
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1 0 -1 4 .
229. Logan, P., McKenzie, R.L., and Bershader, D.,
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230. McKenzie, R.L., and Flet cher, D.G., 1992,
"Las er-Spectros copic Meas urement Techniques
for Hy pers onic, Turbulent Wind Tunnel Flow s , "
NASA-TM-1 0 3 9 2 8 .
3 6
0.1
1
10
0.1 1 10 100 1000
P , psia
o
1.5 3. 5 9 12 15 30 60 90
120 150
Free-Molecular
Kn 2 1 0.1 0.01 0.001
Flow
Continuum
Slip flow flow
M
Re
t
Figure 1. Mach number vs. Reynolds number for
lines of Const ant Tot al Pressure and
Const ant Knudsen Number;
d inch
w
0 00015 . ; T F
o
560 .
f
E
Amplifier
Resultant Signal
Wire
Figu r e 2 . Fr e qu e n c y Compe n s a t ion for CCA.
Compensaor
Amplifier
E
out
Hot-wire
Square Wave
Calibrator
Constant
Current
Supply
Figure 3. Schemat ic Represent at ion of Const ant
Cu r r e n t Hot -Wir e Sys t e m; (r e f. 6 2 ).
Amplifier
E
out
Hot-wire
"Variable"
Current
Supply
Amplifier
Feedback
Te mpe r a t u r e Hot -Wir e Sys t e m; (r e f. 6 2 ).
-
+
E
out
R R
wire lead
w l
+
+
Volt a ge Hot -Wir e Sys t e m; (r e f. 5 7 ).
e
S
T
o
S S
u T
o

0.1
0.2
0 1 2
CCA
CTA
Figure 6. Modal Analysis t hat Compares t he CTA
a n d CCA Sys t e ms ; y 0 23 . ; (r e f. 5 9 ).
3 7
f Hz ,
T f
T f
o
o o
2
2
b g
b g
%
CCA 0.042
CTA 0.005
Noise
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3

%
T T
o o
f
o
10
2
(a ) Low Ove r h e a t ;
Tot a l Te mpe r a t u r e Flu c t u a t i on s
Figure 7. Normalized Power Spect ra t hat Compare
t he Const ant Temperat ure Anemomet er
(CTA) and Const ant Current
Anemomet er (CCA) Syst ems; y 0 23 . ;
(r e f. 5 9 ).

u f
u f
o

2
2
f Hz ,
CCA 0.135
CTA 0.12
Noise
10
2
10
3
10
4
10
5
10
0
10
1
10
2
10
3

~
f
o
= = 10
2
u u
~
(b) High Ove r h e a t ;
Ma s s -Flow Flu c t u a t i on s
Figu r e 7 . Con c lu de d.
290
295
300
305
310
315
-0.12 -0.08 -0.04 0 0.04 0.08 0.12
Tungsten Wire
d cm
L cm
T K
I Amps
w
o
= =
= =
= =
= =

5 10
0 25
296
2 5 10
4
2 3 2
x
.
. x
T K
w
,
x cm
w
,
T K
w
= = 310 8 .
Figure 8. Typical Temperat ure Dist ribut ion Along a
Con ve c t ion Con t r olle d Hot -Wir e ; (r e f. 2 1 ).
1
.35
.01
0
0
0.5
1
0.01 0.1 1 10
F k
F k
M 1
11 1
k L
1

k
L

k
= Kolmogorov scale
L = Length of wire
Figure 9. Hot -Wire Spect ral Transfer Funct ion; (ref.
1 4 3 ).
3 8
-0.2
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 2 4 6 8 10
25.4 mm 5.3 15.70 m/s 25,000
50.8 mm 5.3 7.70 m/s 25,000
M M d u Re
m m w Mm
R
xx

x M
m
= = 48
u M
m

Figure 10. Aut o-Correlat ion Coefficient ( ( ) ) R
xx
; (r ef.
2 5 ).
y
e
e
3
3
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0.5
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
MassFlow
Total Temperature
(a ) Th ir d Mome n t ; Sk e wn e s s
Figure 11. Dist ribut ion of t he Mass-Flow and Tot al
Temperat ure Fluct uat ions Across t he
Bou n da r y La ye r ; (r e f. 5 9 ).
y
e
e
4
4
2
4
6
8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
MassFlow
Total Temperature
(b) Fou r t h Mome n t ; Fla t n e s s
Figu r e 1 1 . Con c lu de d.
25.4 mm 5.3 15.70 m/s 25,000
50.8 mm 5.3 7.70 m/s 25,000
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0 0.8 1.6 2.4 3.2
R
E
3

u M
m

M M d u Re
m m w Mm
x M
m
= = 48
R
u u t u u t
u
E
3
1
2
2 2
3
+ +
Figure 12. Composit e Third-Order Aut o-Correlat ion
Coe ffic ie n t ( ( ) ) R u
E
3
; (r e f. 2 5 ).
x
y = = 0 25 .
C
o
r
r
e
l
a
t
i
o
n
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
Time Delay, msec
C
o
e
f
f
i
c
i
e
n
t
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
11.5
22
42
y = = 0 50 .
Figure 13. Examples of Filt ered Space-Time Correlat ion
Coe ffic ie n t - 4 k Hz; (r e f. 8 7 ).
3 9
2.0
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.0
1.2
1.6
0.3 m
0.01
0.1
1
1 10 100 1000
x
u m s
M mm
Re
m
Mm
= =
= =
= =
10
25
16 700 ,

= =
u
u
x
2
2
0 3 .
Wave number k ,
1
Figure 14. Decay of Energy of t he Spect ral
Compon e n t s ; (r e f. 8 8 ).
40
50
60
70
0 2 4 6 8 10
291
304
307
313
Over Heat Ratio = 1.8
T K
o
u
E
2
Figure 15. Volt age vs. Velocit y for a Wire Operat ed
wit h CTA; (r e f. 9 3 ).
10
2
10
0
10
2
10
4
10
3
10
1
10
1
Nu
t
Boussinesq
Re
t
King
Figure 16. Summary of Heat Loss from Circular
Cylinders Over a Wide Range of
Reynolds Number in Cont inuum Flow;
(r e f. 2 1 ).
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Evaluation of physical variables
N Evaluated at mean film temperature
R Evaluated at mean film temperature
Evaluated at ambient temperature
Gr Evaluated at ambient temperature

Forced convection
Free convection
Mixed Flow
Nu
f
Re
f
T T Gr
w o
1 1 3 1 10
1 32 9 8 10
1 64 1 88 10
2 0 3 08 10
6
6
5
5
. . x
. . x
. . x
. . x

d cm
w
= = 0 00090 .
Figure 17. Int eract ion of Free and Forced
Con ve c t ion ; (r e f. 1 0 4 ).
Re
t
Nu
t
Figure 18a. Nusselt Number Correlat ion for
Cylinders in Subsonic Slip Flow;
T F
o
80 ; T F
w
584 ; (r e f. 3 5 ).
1
10
1 10 100
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
0.9
0.95
1.05
1.25
1.5
1.75
1.9
M
Nu
t
Re
t
Figure 18b. Spangenberg's Report ed Heat Loss
Measurement s from Elect rically
He a t e d Wir e s in Air ; (r e f. 1 7 1 ).
4 0

w
Nu
Nu
w

= = .221
0.8
0.9
1
M = 0.05
M = 0.20
M = 0.90
M = 0.40
M = 1.25
M = 0.05
M = 0.20
M = 0.90
M = 0.40
M = 1.25
0.8
0.9
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2

= =
= =
0 0012
59
3
. gm cm
d
w

= =
= =
0 0004
20
3
. gm cm
d
w
Figure 19. Normalized Nusselt Number Variat ion
wit h Overheat for 0.00015 inch
Diamet er Plat inum Wire Cont aining
1 0 % Rh odiu m; (r e f. 1 1 0 ).
0.1
1
0.1 1 10
Constant Kn
Kn
Constant M
M
0.04
0.4
2.0
.05
.1
.2
.3
.4 .5 .6 .7 .8
Nu
t
Re
t
Figure 20. Predict ed Nusselt Number Correlat ion
from Approximat e Slip-Flow Theory;
(r e f. 3 5 ).
0.01
0.1
1
10
100
0.01 0.1 1 10 100 1000
Nu
t
Re
t
Boussinesq
King
Figure 21. Summary of Supersonic Heat Transfer
from Transverse Cylinders in Rarefied
Air Flow; (r e f. 2 1 ).
0.1
0.01 0.1 1
4.7
3.5
2.1
1.05
0.54
Constant M
Constant Kn
Kn
M .1 .2 .3
0.5
5
0.01
.6 .9
Nu
t
Re
t
Figure 22. Comparison of Heat -Transfer Dat a wit h
Free-Molecule-Flow Theory Using
0 57 . ; (r e f. 3 3 ).
4 1
0.05 0
M
0.3
0.2
0.1
1
0.8
0.1
10
1000
0.001 0.1 10 1000 100000
Nu
t
Re
t
Figure 23. Correlat ion of Convect ive Heat Transfer
fr om Tr a n s ve r s e Cylin de r s ; (r e f. 1 0 ).
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0.01 0.1 1 10
*
Kn
*
,
, ,
= =

T T
T T
adw adw c
adw f adw c
Figure 24. Normalized Recovery Temperat ure Rat io vs.
Fr e e St r e a m Kn u ds e n Nu mbe r ; (r e f. 2 1 ).

M
0.96
0.98
1
1.02
1.04
1.06
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Free Molecular Flow
1.00
0.80
0.60
0.40
0.20
0.10
0.08
0.06
Continuum Flow
Kn
Figure 25. Recovery Temperat ure Rat io vs. Mach
Number for Const ant Values of
Kn u ds e n Nu mbe r .
0.5
1
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 3.5 4
51.2
2599
f, Hz
r
w

f
Figure 26. Fluct uat ion-Diagram of t he Filt ered
Sign a ls (Sin gle -Wir e ); (r e f. 9 7 ).
4 2
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.3
M
Ref. 120
10
2
10
3
10
4

10
5
10
6
10
7
u
u
Re ft

,
1
Figure 27. Velocit y Fluct uat ions Measured in t he
Test Sect ion of LaRC Low Turbulence
Pr e s s u r e Tu n n e l; (r e f. 3 7 ).
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
10 15 20 25 30 35 40
4
8
12
16
20
24
28
u
u
sc
x M
m
/

u
u
v
u
sc
sc
2
2
u
u
sc
2
v
u
sc
2
u
u
sc
Figure 28. Effect of 16:1 Cont ract ion on
Turbulence Generat ed by 2-inch
Square Mesh Grid; R
M
m
3710 ; (r ef.
1 1 8 ).
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
u'
v'
u'
v'
}
Turbulence reduction for one
manipulator only. Incoming
turbulence from free stream
}
Turbulence reduction for one
manipulator only. Incoming
turbulence from upstream honeycomb
2
2

+ +
K
K
1
1
1
1
+ +
+ +
K
K
1
1
+ +
+ + + +
a aK
a K
where
a K
p
q
K
= = = =
+ +
1 1
1
.
;

p q
F
trf
1 4 20 8 28 36 HC M M M M
m m m m 42M
m
Figure 29. Measured Turbulence Reduct ion Fact or
for Various Screens and Combinat ions
of Screens wit h Honeycomb Compared
Wit h Diffe r e n t Th e or ie s ; (r e f. 1 2 0 ).
0.01
0.02
0.03
0.04
0.05
0.06
0.07
0.08
0.09
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
Re
u
x
u
u
7 5 10
4
0 037
.
.
y
u
u
w
u
v
u
(a ) Ze r o Pr e s s u r e Gr a die n t
Figure 30. Relat ive Turbulence Int ensit ies in a
Boundary Layer Along a Smoot h Wall;
(r e f. 1 3 1 ).
4 3
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0.025
0.2
0.3
0.4
Re x
u
u
7 5 10
4
0 037
.
.
u
u
w
u
u
u
v
u
y
(b) Con s t a n t -St r e s s La ye r
0.4
0.8
1.2
1.6
2
2.4
2.8
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1
500,000
50,000
Re
t
u
u

r r
p
(a ) Ac r os s t h e pipe
Figure 31. Dist ribut ion of velocit y fluct uat ion in a
pipe ; (r e f. 4 0 ).
0.8
1.6
2.4
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
500,000
50,000
Re
t
u
u

r r
p
(b) Ne a r t h e wa ll
2
4
6
8
0 2 4 6 8 10
F x 10 = 0.6
Broadband - Klebanoff's Mode
4
0
1
Magnified 20x
u = 11.6 m/sec

0.63 cm GRID
} TS-frequency
TS packets

Re = 717

y
,%
u
u
u
u
e
u u
e
Figure 32. Types of Fluct uat ion Simult aneously
Pr e s e n t in Bou n da r y La ye r ; (r e f. 1 4 5 ).
4 4

2
= = + + r x r
d p
T C
x r
d
Re between
and
o
p
j
d
= =
+ +
= =
170
20
17 000
30 000
,
,
u
u
local
,
T
T
o
olocal
R
e
l
a
t
i
v
e

I
n
t
e
n
s
i
t
y
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0 0.04 0.08 0.12 0.16
,max
T
T
o
o
max
u
u
Figure 33. Dist ribut ion of Relat ive Int ensit y of Turbulent
Velocit y and Temperat ure Fluct uat ions in a
Hot Rou n d Fr e e J e t ; (r e f. 1 5 7 ).
u
u
x x
d
o
c
2
2
0
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6
500
650
800
950
x/d
c
= = y d x x
c o
Figure 34. Relat ive Turbulence Int ensit y (u-
component ) in t he Wake of a
Circular Cylinder; Re
d
w
1360; (r ef.
4 3 ).
Figure 35. General Fluct uat ion diagram for Subsonic
Compr e s s ible Flow; (r e f. 1 6 8 ).
0.01
0.02
0.03
0 0.25 0.5 0.75
Sound
Flow
Measurement
X
r
, %
(a ) Dis t u r ba n c e s fr om Sin gle Sou n d Sou r c e
Fi gu r e 3 6 . Flu c t u a t i on Di a gr a m; M 0 76 . ; (r e f. 1 6 7 ).
4 5
0.2
0.4
0.6
0 0.2 0.4 0.6
Flow
Measurement
X
Wire
r
, %
(b) Combinat ion of Vort icit y and
Ent ropy Modes Downst ream of a
Cylin de r
1
10
0.0001 0.001
0.8
0.6
0.5
0.2
0.1
0.05
M

Pt Rh Wire
d in
L mm
T K
T T
R R
w
o
o
Ref
10
0 00015
0 68
303
1 653
0 7403
%
. .
.
.
.
Nu

1 Kn
Figu r e 3 7 . Nu s s e lt Nu mbe r a s a Fu n c t ion of ; (r e f. 1 1 0 ).
0
0.1
0.2
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
0.0004
0.0006
0.0008
0.001
0.0012
Density; gm/cm
3
M
S
u
(a ) Ve loc i t y Flu c t u a t i on s ; T K
o
303 ;
w
0 672 . .
Figu r e 3 8 . Spa n ge n be r g Da t a ; (r e f. 1 6 3 ).
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.0004 0.0006 0.0008 0.001 0.0012
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
; / gm cm
3
S

M
(b) Densit y Fluct uat ions; T K
o
303 ;
w
0 672 . .
Figu r e 3 8 . Con t in u e d.
-2.5
-2
-1.5
-1
-0.5
0
0 1 2
0.05
0.1
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
S
T
o
M

W
(c) Tot al Temperat ure Fluct uat ions
T K
o
303 ; 0 0008
3
. gm cm .
4 6
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.826
CHOCKED
CONDITION
}
,%
u
u
10
5
10
6
10
7
Re ft ,
1
M

10
1
10
0
10
1
(a ) Ve loc i t y Flu c t u a t i on s
Figure 39. Dist urbances Measured in t he LaRC 8'
Transonic Pressure Tunnel using a
Th r e e Ele me n t Hot -Wir e Pr obe ; (r e f. 8 6 ).
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.826
CHOCKED
CONDITION
}
10
5
10
6
10
7
,%

Re ft ,
1
M

10
0
10
1
10
2

(b) De n s i t y Flu c t u a t i on s
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.65
0.7
0.75
0.8 CHOCKED CONDITION
10
5
10
6
10
7
, %
T
T
o
o
Re ft ,
1
M

10
1
10
2

(c ) Tot a l Te mpe r a t u r e Flu c t u a t i on s
0.4
0.45
0.5
0.55
0.6
0.7
0.75
0.8
0.826
CHOCKED
CONDITION
}
10
5
10
6
10
7
,%
m
m
Re ft ,
1
10
0
10
1
10
2

M

(d) Ma s s Flow Flu c t u a t i on s
4 7
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
}
}
u u
v u
w u

y
Figure 40. Normalized RMS Velocit y and Densit y
Fluct uat ion Dist ribut ion Across t he
Bou n da r y La ye r ; (r e f. 1 7 0 ).
-50
-40
-30
-20
-10
0
1 10 100 1000 10000
-5/3
FREQUENCY Hz ,
PSD dB
E Hz
,
2
T
u
t
~
Figure 41. Spect ra of Mass Flux and Tot al
Temperat ure Fluct uat ions; 3.6 km;
M 0 57 . ; Fe b. 7 9 ; (r e f. 4 9 ).
Probe 1
Probe 2
King's Law
d , in.
0.00050
0.00020
0.00015
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
w
%
M

u u
T T
m m
o o

(a ) Me a s u r e d Flu c t u a t i on s
Figure 42. Fluct uat ions Measured in t he LaRC Low
Turbulence Pressure Tunnel;
p psia
o
15 ; (r e f. 1 7 2 ).
0.01
0.1
1
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
"Y" Wire Probe (3 wire Results)
Parallel Wire Probe (3 wire Results)
King's Law
M

, %
m
m
m m or u u
(b) Ma s s Flow Flu c t u a t i on s
4 8
r r
0 0

m
m
T
T
o
o
Figure 43. Generalized Fluct uat ion Diagram for
Su pe r s on ic Flow.
r r

p p p p

0 0

-r -r
T
T
o
o
Entropy Entropy
m
m
Sound Sound
(Finite Source Velocity) (Finite Source Velocity)
Sound Sound
(Zero Source Velocity) (Zero Source Velocity)
Vorticity Vorticity
Figure 44. Generalized Mode Diagram for
Su pe r s on ic Flow.
4
8
12
16
20
24
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6 1.8 2 2.2 2.4
r
M
Re
t
= =
= =
5 00
250 000
.
,
x 10
3
Figure 45. Mode Diagram Measured in Test Sect ion
for M 5 0 . ; (r e f. 1 8 5 ).
0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
1 2 3 4 5
,%
m
m
M
Re in
Re in
t
t
/ . ,
/ . ,

90 000
330 000
(a ) Ma s s Flow Flu c t u a t i on s
Figure 46. Variat ion wit h Tunnel Mach Number;
(r e f. 1 8 5 ).
0
2
4
6
8
10
1 2 3 4 5
M
Re in
Re in
t
t
/ . ,
/ . ,

90 000
340 000
x
p
M
2
10
4
(b) Pr e s s u r e Flu c t u a t ion
4 9
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
1 2 3 4 5
M
Re in
Re in
t
t
/ . ,
/ . ,

90 000
340 000
u
u
s
Figure 47. Variat ion of Source Velocit y wit h Tunnel
Ma c h Nu mbe r ; (r e f. 1 8 5 ).
0
1
2
3
-10%
+10%
0.1
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 1400
,%
m
m
,%
T
T
o
o
p N cm
o
/
2
Figure 48. Root -Mean-Square Mass-Flow and Tot al-
Temperat ure Fluct uat ions in t he LaRC
2 2 " Hype r s on ic He liu m Tu n n e l; (r e f. 1 8 1 ).
2
4
6
8
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 x 10
6
,%
p
p

p N cm
o,
/

2
Figure 49. Pressure Fluct uat ion in t he LaRC 22"
Hype r s on ic He liu m Tu n n e ; (r e f. 1 8 1 ).
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 x 10
6
Uncertainty
u
u
s
p N cm
o,
/

2
Figure 50. Relat ive Source Velocit ies in t he LaRC
22" Hypersonic Helium Tunnel; (ref.
1 8 1 ).
5 0
0.5
1
1.5
2
2.5
0 0.5 1 1.5

u
wall
2
S S
S S
Klebanoff s data
Range of data
u
u

= =

'
y
Figure 51. Velocit y Fluct uat ion Measurement s in
Boundary Layer; Influence of t he
Sensit ivit y Coefficient t o Mach
Number; Shaded Zone - Range of t he
Available Velocit y Fluct uat ion Dat a in
Supersonic Boundary Layers,
Including Hot -Wire and Laser-Doppler
Me a s u r e me n t s ; (r e f. 1 6 2 ).
-1
-0.9
-0.8
-0.7
-0.6
-0.5
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6
R
uT
o
S S
S S
u
u
M
Figure 52. Variat ion of R
uT
o
wit h Mach Number
Th r ou gh Bou n da r y La ye r ; (r e f. 1 7 7 ).
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0.14
0.16
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
y in.
. m T Wire no
A
o
13 1
6 3
2 5
Figure 53. Variat ion of Wide-Band RMS Mass-Flux

and Tot al-Temperat ure Fluct uat ions
Across t he Boundary Layer. Kist ler's
Result s at M 4 76 . (Solid Line) are
In c lu de d for Compa r is on ; (r e f. 1 8 8 ).
0.02
0.04
0.06
0.08
0.1
0.12
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 0 0.1 0.2 0.3
y in.
. u T Wire no
A
o
13 1
6 3
Figure 54. Variat ion of Wide-Band RMS Velocit y and

St at ic Temperat ure Fluct uat ions Across
t h e Bou n da r y La ye r ; p 0; (r e f. 1 8 8 ).
5 1
0.05
0.1
0.15
0.2
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Range of wall
p' from Kistler
Expected p'
Laufer's data
level from
0 0.1 0.2 0.3
y in.
. p Wire no
A
13 1
6 3
Figure 55. Variat ion of Wide-Band RMS Pressure

and Densit y Fluct uat ions Across t he
Bou n da r y La ye r ; p 0; (r e f. 1 8 8 ).
0
1
2
3
4
-0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4
Peak
(y = 1.68 cm)
Center line
(y = 0)
for M
7 8.4
Location m m T T
Peak
Center line
o o
. % . %
. % . %
10 9 0 42
6 2 0 26

r
Figure 56. Mode Diagrams in Wake of 15 Half-
An gle We dge ; (r e f. 1 8 1 ).
r
e
V e
1
0.1
0.2
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0
0.1
0.2
0.3
0.4
0.5
0.6
0.7
0
0.1
0.2
Shock Generation h h
Free Stream
Wedge
Wedge
Wedge
cm Wire
cm Wire
w w s ,
.
.
.
. .
. .
10 0 9
10 0 5
2 0 9
0 01 0 9
0 01 0 9
1
2
Figure 57. Fluct uat ion Mode Plot s; M 21;

p x N m
o
12 41 10
6 2
. ; (r e f. 4 8 ).
Strazisar et.al
Schubauer & Skramstad
Ross et.al.
Wortmann
Kachanov et.al.
60
120
180
240
300
360
420
200 400 600 800 1000 1200
x 10
6
Parallel
Saric & Nayfeh
u
*
f
Figure 58. Neut ral Dist urbance in St udies of
Laminar Boundary Layer St abilit y;
(r e f. 2 0 5 ).
5 2
1
2
3
4
5
6
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
x 10
3
x M
m
u
v
2
2
Biplane square mesh grid

M M d u
mm m s
Pressure 4 Bar
Re
m m
,
.
172 5 4 61
500
u
u
2
2
Figure 59. Decay of

u
u
2
2
and
u
v
2
2
Downst ream of a
Gr id; (r e f. 2 0 6 ).
0.001
0.01
0.1
1
10
0.01 0.1 1 10
X (cm)
40
80
160
P
O
W
E
R

S
P
E
C
T
R
A
L

D
E
N
S
I
T
Y
Wave Number, cm
- 1

5
3
slope
(a) Poser Spect ral Densit y of u
2
;
u m s 10 ; (r e f. 8 8 )
Figu r e 6 0 . On e -Dime n s ion a l Spe c t r u m.
0.01
1
0.0001 0.01 1
P
O
W
E
R

A
P
E
C
T
R
A
L

D
E
N
S
I
T
Y
S
P
E
C
T
R
A
L

E
N
E
R
G
Y
Normalized Wave Number
100
10000
100000
E k
E k
1 1
2 1
x
M
x
k
k
m
d
45
18
55
1 7
1
5
3
.
M mm
M d
u m s
Re
Re
m
m
M
170
5 4
61 00
2 4 10
500
6
.
.
. x

(b) Spe c t r a l En e r gy; (r e f. 2 0 6 )
Heated Jet
Heated Grid
Theory according to Pao
0.01
1
0.00001 0.001 0.1 10
P
O
W
E
R

A
P
E
C
T
R
A
L

D
E
N
S
I
T
Y
S
P
E
C
T
R
A
L

E
N
E
R
G
Y
Normalized Wave Number
0.001
100
10000
Figure 61. One-Dimensional Temperat ure
Spe c t r u m; (r e f. 2 0 7 ).
5 3
0
1
2
3
4
5
0.01 0.1 1 10
Schubauer-Skramstad
Hall-Hislop
Dryden
Bailey-Wright
x 10
- 6
, % u u
Re
t
Theory, x u = = 4 10
4
Figure 62. Effect of Free-St ream Turbulence on
Bou n da r y La ye r Tr a n s it ion ; (r e f. 2 0 8 ).
1
2
3
4
5
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4
Stetson et. al. ; R = 1728, M = 6.8
Kendall; R = 1740, M = 7.7
Demetriades; R = 1740, M = 7.0
Theory, Mack; R = 1730 Equiv.
e
e
e
x 10
3
Second Mode; = 0
First Mode; = 55
F x 10
4

Figure 63. Amplificat ion Rat e vs. Frequency,
Compa r is on wit h Ot h e r s ; (r e f. 2 0 9 ).
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
0.0
- 2.0
2.0
4.0
- 4.0
0.0
- 2.0
2.0
4.0
- 4.0
Channel 2
Channel 1

u
u
rms

TIME seconds x 10
3
Figure 64. Typical Fluct uat ing Mass Flow Dat a
from Two Hot -Wires Indicat ing
Similarit y Bet ween t he Signals; (ref.
2 2 6 ).
-4
-3
-2
-1
0
1
-0.03 -0.02 -0.01 0 0.01 0.02 0.03
Upstream
Downstream -1
0
1
2
y

= = 0 9 .
y

= = 0 1 .
TIME seconds x 10
3

u
u
rms

Figure 65. Ensemble Averaged Posit ive Event s in
t h e We a k Pe r t u r ba t ion Ca s e ; (r e f. 2 2 6 ).
5 4
X = 5.375
X = 8.375
X = 9.375
Open Symbols = Laser Velocimeter
Closed Symbols = Hot-Wire Anemometer
0.04
0.08
0.12
0.16
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
M = 2.06
y cm ,
u
u
Figure 66. Comparision of St reamwise Velocit y
Fluct uat ions Measured by Hot -Wires
a n d La s e r Ve loc ime t e r ; (r e f. 2 2 7 ).
y
F
L
U
C
T
U
A
T
I
O
N

A
M
P
L
I
T
U
D
E
0.025
0.05
0.075
0 0.5 1 1.5
Single High Overheat
Multiple Overheats
LASER-INDUCED FLUORESCENCE
M = 2.06
T T

Hot Wire T T
o o

Figure 67. A Comparison of t he Dist ribut ion of
RMS Fluct uat ion Amplit udes in St at ic
Temperat ure and Densit y wit hin t he
Boundary-Layer obt ained using a Hot -
Wire at Single and Mult iple Overheat
Rat ios wit h Direct Measurement s
Obt ained using Laser-Induced
Fluorescence (LIF). The LIF dat a have
been Correct ed for Inst rument Noise;
(r e f. 2 2 9 ).
RMS Fluctuation Amplitude
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
1.2
1.4
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08
NO-LIF
NO-LIF
O2-LIF/Raman
O2+N2 Raman
Hot-Wire
y

T T
T T
T T

Figure 68. Comparisons of Temperat ure and
Densit y RMS Fluct uat ion
Amplit udes Obt ained wit h LIF
Techniques or Implied by Hot -Wire
Anemomet er Dat a. Flow Condit ions
are t he Same as in Figure 66. For
Each Variable, t he Fluct uat ion
Amplit ude is Normalized by t he
Local Time-Averaged Value; (ref.
2 3 0 ).

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Electronic Journal of Fluids Engineering, Trans actions of the ASME

Re vie w of Hot -Wir e An e mome t r y Te c h n iqu e s a n d t h e Ra n ge of t h e ir

Res earch As s ociate

Cu r r e n t ly En gi n e e r a t Compu t e r Sc i e n c e Cor por a t i on , La u r e l, MD 2 0 7 0 7

S s e n s it ivit y of h ot -wir e t o t h e s u bs c r ipt

subsonic flows, t he wires should also be checked

, t he wires should have

are funct ions of T

Mass flow fluct uat ions measured in

in equat ion (42) are

as different as possible. This will

were subst ant ially higher at t he lower t ransonic

20 in Helium," AIAA J ournal,

Figure 53. Variat ion of Wide-Band RMS Mass-Flux

Figure 54. Variat ion of Wide-Band RMS Velocit y and

Figure 55. Variat ion of Wide-Band RMS Pressure

Figure 57. Fluct uat ion Mode Plot s; M 21;

Biplane square mesh grid

Figure 59. Decay of

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