THE

ECONOMIC HISTORY OF ANCIENT INDIA.

FROM THE EA.RLIEST TIMES DOWN TO
OF INDIA BY ALEXANDER THE G
BY
J _4..SIOli
SANTOSH KUMA.R DAS, -M. A. (Hist & Econ.)
PROFESSOR, NARASINHA DUTT COLLEGE, HOWRAH,
AUrHOR OF "THE EDUCATIONAL SYSTEIol
OF THE ANCIENT Remus" ll.ND
'rHE LEAGUB OF NATIONS".
SEcoim -:r..DITION
NUNSHI RAM MANOHAR LAl
a. Hi.'WI BJ():{-!f:LLEtts
HAl SARAK. t' E L H HI.
OALCUTTA
. 194.4.
'DPir.iOll& on Prof. S. K. DAS'S
THE ECONOMLC HISTORY OF ANCIENT INDIA
FIRST EDITION
1. Professor J. W. PH. D., D.L., of the University of IlIiueJis, U.S .A.:-
".A. work of unusual scholarship and of great historical vllolue."
2. Dr. JULIUS JOLLY of the Paiversity of Wurzburg, Germa.ny :-
"Valuable work . The numerous Sanskrit quotilotions show perfect acqua.intance
with Sanskri' literature ... Tlis' book contains 80 very thorough and a very lively
.M -onomic devAlopinent of Ancient India."
3. Professor E. WASHBURN HOPKINS, Yale University, U. S. A. ;-
" An excellent resume of whilo\ can be gleaned from the Ancient tede ."
4. Dr. V. LESNEY of the Czech University of Prauge,
"The book is written in 1\ nice methodicllol WIloY and the Western Inb\ogi.qts should
weloome Buch Indian competitioll in the field. From s'a.rt to finiah it is evident thllot
the has thoroughly lll80stenld hill subject."
5. Dr. HUR. of tha Univarility of Laiden, Holland :-
"A. va.lUllobla contribution to the elucidllotion of ilo historicli problem."
6 Dr. R.UDOLF or-ro of lhe of Mllorburg, GertUlIony:-
,. Extra-ordinarily interes$ing work."
7. !Jr. ADOLPHE of the of Geneva., lSwltZtlrlllonCj
.. Bea.utiful work."
8. Dr. A. B KEI'ffI of the Edinburg Univtlrsity, Scotland :-
"It contains much valulloble material, cJorefully collected and presente!
interesting and manner,"
9. Dr. H. JACOBI of Universiiy of B.mn, Germany:-
"A grea.t mlliS of information in 110 re>\dlloble form."
10. The ,BHUTA. BAZAR. PATRIKA :-Prol. DI.IB has exhibited an uncommon
of critical and ana.lytical skill and the result has been the prod uction of 110
book of ra.ra worth, sure to prove interesting as ,vell to the Univerdity students 80S to
the general public."
Published by PROF. SAN'TOBH KUMAR DAB, I5:.!, Panchilonantaillo Itold, Howrl.lh; and
printed by A. K. a.t MIrlH 5'$, Hm Gh)se Street, C"lcuHI.I.
DEDICATED
TO
THE SACRED MEMORY OF
THE LATE SIR ASHUTOSH MUKHERJI
IN HUMBLE APPRECIATION OF
ALL THAT HE HAS DONE
FOR THE CAUSE OF
ANCIENT INDIAN HISTORY AND CULTURE.
CONTENTS
Introduction ... .. ,
IX
Chapter I.
The Palreolithic Ago .. ,
, .. - ... 1
Chapter II.
The Neolithic Age
... ... ... 3
Chapter III.
The Copper Age
... 7
Chapter IV.
The Age 22
Chapter V.
The Period

81
Chapter VI.
The Age of Gautama Buddha
... 179
Index I. Sources with the Subjects
...
... 281
Index II. Subjects ... ... ... 324
Index III. Proper Names ... ... 335
tiM LACE
At the beginning of the session 1922-23 I delivered a series of
lectures on "The Economic History of Ancient India" to the students of
the KalikiJ.t;r Viuyapitha and as a token of my humble conncction with
that noble institution I published those lectures in January 1925.
In bringing out this second edition I have necessarily to make
substa.ntial additions and alterations so much so that the work has to be
published in two volumes. I have avoided on principle all theoretical
disquisitions throughout this work. It has heen my aim rather simply
to present the facts in a connectcd manner with a view to illustrate, as
far as possible, the gradual dcvelopment of economic progress from the
earliest times. I have always indicated the sources of my information in
order that my conclusions may be tested with reforence to the authorities
on which they are based. In this connection I beg to acknowledge the
invaluable help and guidance I have received from the researches of
Professors Zimmer, Macdonell and Keith, Drs. Fick and Rhys Davids and
Professor Hopkins w ~ o have dealt with the economic data on the basis
respectively of the Vedas, the Jatakas and the Epics.
I take this opportunity of expressing publicly my thanks to those
savants and scholars who have favoured me with critical appreciation of the
first edition of this work and to the authorities of the Benares Hindu
University and thc University of Oalcutta who immediately after its
publication kindly recommended it for introduction into their Post-graduate
cla.sses in Ancient Indian History and Culture.
Prafulla Chandra College
Bagerhat
'fho 31'd July 1937.
}
SANTOSH KUMAR DAS.
INTRODUCTION
The starting point of all human activity is the existence of wants.
'ro satisfy hunger and thirst, to obtain shelter and to provide clothing
were the chief aims of primitive man and constitutc even to-day the
motor-forces of all society. , As man develops, his wants grow in number
and refinement. However eivilisml- he becomes, his material welfare is
the foundation on which the entire structure of his larger life is built up.
Ever since his creation man has waged an unceasing struggle not only to
free himself from the vagaries of Nature but also to modify and utilise the
forces of Nature to his own account. \ Anyone, therefore, who wishes to
engage in the study of human society can har<lly neglect man's relations to
his material environment, so essential to his life and progress. A study of
this material basis will also enable him to disclose the influence of forces

otherwise unnoticed and thus to throw new light on the explanation of tho
past or the moul<ling of the future.
Yet strangely enough this material or economic basis of human exis-
tence hardly drew the attention of historians except ineirleutally. With
congenital human weakness for the uncommon and the oxtraordinary, they
generally emphasised the cataclysmic factors in society like war and exag-
gerated the importance of the Supermen, the Heroes of History. 4-s Dr.
Price says " Political changes and constitutional developments, the rise and
fall of dynasties and statesmen, the vicissitudes of military and naval
conflict filled the canvas and presented tempting opportunities for able
draftmanship and rich contrasted colouring." Thus the normal and actual
development of human society, through the arts of peace and co-operation
has been overshadowed by the lurid clouds of war and political strife. If,
therefore, we want to re-establish History on her only true pedestal of
truth and humanity, every indiviuual writer and teacher of history must
immediately start the work of expiation and search into the intimate
relation that subsisted between Man aml the surrounding Nature which
exerted the most powerful influence on the evolution of human life and
thought.
As regards this material environment we must take into account the
physical features of a country, its position and climate, the
nature of its soil, its productive capacity, the conditions of its food supply
etc., and before we proceed to a study of the economic history of Ancient
Inelia a of these with special reference to India must engage
our attention so that we may see to what extent man in Ancient India was
permanently affected by the material basis of his existence.
According to Geologists India was represented in Palroozoic times by
the central plateau and the northern fringe of the AravaHi mountains.
To its north lay a shallow sea covering the area of modern Afganisthan,
Uajputna and the Himalayan regions. In. Tertiary times the Gondwana
beds were formcd extending over Assam and the Eastern Himalayas and
this nucleus of India was connected with the continent of Africa by a
stretch of dry land. At this time as a result of volcanic cataclysms the
Gondwana continent was broken up and an area of 200,000 square miles
was covered with lava, thus resulting in the formation of the Deccan. In
the Pliocene period due to volcanic activity there commcnced the great
upheaval to the north, resulting in the formation of the Himalayas.
The deterioration of rock on both sides due to the action of rain and
glaciers, the collected alluvium of ages brought down by the hill-torrents
fllle,l up in course of time the shallow gap and thus gradually the river
systems of the Indus and the Ganges were formed and India attained
roughly 11er present shape.
'rIms formed India became remarkable for her natural boundaries, being
surrounded on all sides lJY mountains and seas. In ancient times the sea was a
formillable barrier against foreign invasions. Crafts from Egypt or Mesopota-
mia, from China or Java could come with favourable wind to trade with
India but the idea of conquest could not be conceived. For the Arabian
Sea or the Bay of Bengal was not very easy to cross and there was no
country ill the East or the ,Vest which had a sufficiently strong fleet to
1llldul'taku the cvuquest of IlHlia. 'l'he mountains no doubt contained
p",sses hut they eouI(l be crossed with difficulty, as most of them were very
narrow, high and therefore covered with snow during greater part of the
year. The narrowness of these passes made it impossible for barbaric hordes
to come in sufficient numbers to overwhelm, far loss to obliterate, the
settled civilisation of previous ages .. Thus her natural boundaries which
xi
made India vittually immune from foreign invasions not only rendered the
Indian civilisation at once original and unicrue in character but also allowed
time to her socio-eeonomic institutions to become deep-rooted and in a great
measure able to withstand the modifying influcnces of later invaders.
The socio- economic life of man is equally influenced by the
climate and configuration of his habitat. His food supply, which depends
on the climate and soil influences him directly and regulates his efforts.
Moreover, climate influences his capacity for labour. People o( warmcr
rcgions are less active and vigorous th'tn men of cooler regions. 'rhe
Indo-Aryans of the Vedic Age when they lived in the cooler climate of the
Punjab and U. P. were famous for thcir martial prowess and spirit of
adventure which were for a long time kept alive by the necessity of hold-
ing their own against the non-Aryans. But when after the resistance of the
non-Aryans was broken they had settled in the Gangetic plain for a certain
amount of time the enervating influence of the warm climate told upon
them and made them languid and fond of rcpose and thus unable to follow
habitually any standard of good workmanship or to soar always the height
of workmanship of which they were capable. In warmer latitudes early
marriages are always universal and hence the rate of birth is very
high and consequently we find 'a low respect for human life'. For this
reason Indo-Aryan society of the Vedic Age is not marked by early
marriage which grew up along with the pernicious custom of infanticide
in the warmer parts of the country. Men of warmer regions require
simple food, clothing and housing while people of cooler regions
require strong drink and nourishing food to sustain them and such clothing
and dwelling house as may protect them against weather. Hence in the
comparatively drier regions the entrance and enclosure aspects of the dwell-
ing house were more prominent and the references to these features and
their figurative use accordingly occur in texts like the E-gveda which were
mainly of Midlandic origin. With the march of Aryan arlllS into the rain-
flooded lower Gangetic valley the roof naturally had to be built up care-
fully and we therefore find much care bestowed on the construction of the
thatched roof in the house-construction outlined in tho Atharvaveda, which
is pre-eminently a book of the Angirasas, who are definitely located in and
xii
associAted with the very same lower Gangetic provinces in Pauranic tradi-
tion. For similar reasons the Vedic Aryans who lived in the cooler climate
of the Punjab and U. P. wore dress mostly made of wool and ate food in
which wheat, wine and meat formed a principal part. 'With the progress
of Aryan arms into the warmer eastern parts of the country we find a.
growing dislike for wino and meat, specially heef and the substitution
of rice for wheat as food and of linen, cotton and silk for woolen
dress.
Owing to the rigours of climate, however, the realms of snow in the
Himalayan regions long remainea devoi<l of culture and economic progress
while in the rainless and very hot climate of the sandy desert of Rajputna
man long remained a semi-nomad moving from place to place in search of
good pasturage for his flock. In the Indo-Gangetic plains, on the other
hand, the genial climate (which is 'milder than tho climate of most other
countries in the same latitmlc'), the rich soil and the large navigable rivers
have pro(luced their natural effects. Progress of agriculture became rapid
and settled life began very early with all its concommitants-land system,
village system, etc. Prosperous cities sprang up on the
banks of rivers which afiordml every facility for trade and communication
while the abunciance of agricultural and mineral wealth led to an early
growth of industry, and the navigahility of the rivers coupled with a long
coast-line gave birth to maritime amI tt'acling activity .. Under the glaring
tropical Sun the moist soil bec[tme fertile beyona imagination, proclucing
for man in lavish abundance all that he neecis for life. TIut it also subdued
the mind with the overwhelming force of its fecundity. It could not have
becn otherwise than that the exuberance of tropical Nature should have
captivated the mind of man, stirring up his imagination, filling it with
brilliant designs or patterns for hi:. han(liwork and fostering in him a
love of contemplation ancl luxurious ease. Indectl the g e n i ~ d climate ancl
the rich soil bringing the means of subsistence within easy reach left men
sufficiently at leisure to develop the higher arts of civilisation.
Climate determines not only the productive activity and standard of
living of man but also the productivity of his fields and the nature and
&mouut of his harvests. Wheat, for instance, which requires a cool clima,te
xiii
is the principal crop of the Pnnjilb while rice which flourishes in warm but
damp regions is the chief crop of the lower valley of the Ganges. Cotton,
hemp etc., have likewise their localised are:t ill keeping with climatio
causes. Olilll:1te thus exercises a direct influence on agriculture and an
indirect one on industry.
India has been blessed with different varieties of soil which combined
with the great variety of physical fen,tures, climate and rainfall enable her
to produce almost every kind of vegetable life, so that agriculture naturally
became the mainstay of her people from time immemorial. Amon.g the
four important varieties of soil in India the alluvial soil is usually rich in
phosphoric acid, potash, lime and magnesia and is suitable for the growth of
kharif and rabi crops. The trap soils which occupy the next place of
honour produce, when porous and light as on uplands and hill-slopes, millets
and pulses and when thick and more fertile as in the low lands, cotton and
wheat besides millets and pulses. Regal' or black cotton soil, supposed to
be of volcanic origin is highly compact, tenacious and retentive of moisture
and is thcrefore particularly favouraule to the growth of cotton and rabi
crops though kharif crops also are conveniently grown in many cases.
Orystalline soils which widely differ in different provinces agree in being
generally deficient in nitrates and phosphoric acids. "The clayey and
brownish loams of the low lands are however fertile" and favourable to the
growth of a grcat variety of crops, principal among them being rice.
India is equally famous for hcr vast forest areas. The Vedas speak
of forests repeatcdly. Thc H,am:tyaI).a describcs at length the forest region
to the east and south of Mithilrr and speaks of the Pafichavati forest and
the celebrated In the Buduhist literature we read of
the Andhavana of Kos:tla, the SWivana of Magadha, PacinavaTpsa-daya of
the Saldya territory and of the Mah:tkalinga forest. Besides helping the
progress of agriculture by storing up rain-water in the soil anu by keeping
the atmosphere sufficiently cool so as to cause the fall of rain when rain-
bearing clouds pass over them, these forests supplieu an essential part of
the economic needs of the people. They provided them with wild rice
(niv:tra), esculent vegetal)les, fuel and with the materials for the construc-
tion of houses, chariots, boats, domestli: "furniture, sacrificial implements and
xiv
animals. They were a constant source of supply of medicinal herus and
plants as well as of sacrificial grass. They also snppliml the people with
aloe, bdellium, spikenard, resin, comphor, sandalwood, lac, hillcs, fruits allll
honey.
India is also blessed with the soil awl climate capable of hearing
animals useful to man. }'rom the economic point of vi..:w the domestic
animals are more useful than wild ones. Of the former horses and ele-
phants were used for riding and transport purposes, both in peacJ aUlI war;
asses, mules, bullocks and buffaloes were useJ. as beasts of burden or in
drawing waggons while the horse aUll. the bullock helped in the cultivation
of the soil. 'rhe cow, sheep and goat supplied the people with milk or with
flesh and hides. The cow-dung Was used as manure or as fuel in the
form of cow-dung cakes while the wool of the sheep and the goat was made
into blankets. The people obtained a supply of musk from the musk-deer,
chamaras from the tail of the yak and skins from the wild boar.
the wild deer and the black antelope. 'rhe tusks of wild elephants.
skins of the tiger and the lion and the hom and boncs of some of the
animals were also used for various purposes.
'rhe Greeks when they came to India were struck with the mineral
wealth of India whose importance in the economic development of the
country could never be exaggerated. Gold was obtained by Indians even in
prehistoric times not only from river-washings but also from gold-bearing
quartz and by the end of the Vedic period they became familiar with zinc,
lead and iron in addition to gold, silver, copper and tin. In the words of
Megasthenes "The soil too has underground numerous veins of all sorts of
metals, for it contains much gold. silver. copper and iron in no small
quantity and even tin and other metals which are employed ill ll1:l.king
articles of Ol'llament and of use as well as the implcl11,mts and accoutre-
ments of war" (Bk. 1. :Fragmellt l. Cf. Diodorus II. 36). and salt
mines existed and of preciolls stones and oyster pearls from pearl-
beds on tl,e sea-coast fetched a high price in the western markets.
To crown all, India occupied a position of great advantage, almost at
the centre of the Eastern Hemisphere and at the head of the Indian Ocean,
so that her trade-routes radiated in all directions-westwards for
xv
Arab:a and Egypt, s mth for Ceylon, south-west for south Africa, and
south-cast for the Archipelago and the Far East. No doubt the
Indian coast-liue is very poor ill identations and land-locked bays but in
ancient times when the size of tra(ling vessels Was not so large as in onr
days a large number of fair weather anchoragcs were available as is proved
hy the latcr evidence of P{)riplus of the Erythrean Sea. The ancient
mariners took advantage not only of the monsoons but also of the t:urface
cnrrents or drifts which even new aITect the coasts of India. Thus both the
East and the 'West came to bc the theatre of Indian commercial activity
and gave scope to her artisans and merchants. As Sir 'William Hunter well
remarks" From the earliest days India has been a trading country. The
industrial genius of her inhabitants even more than her llatural wealth and
her extellsive sea-beard, distinguished her from other Asiatic lands. In
contrast with the Arabian peninsula on the west., with the Malaya peninsula
on the cast or with tbe equally fertile empire of China, India has always
maintained an active intercourse with Europe" (Indian Empire, third
edition, p. 0(8). As a consequence she had the balance of trade clearly in
her favour, a balance which could only be settled by the export of precious
metals from the countries, commercially indebted to her. For a genial
climate and a fertile soil, coupled with the industrial genius of her people
and a judicious distribution of land among all classes made India virtually
independent of foreign nations in respect of necessaries of life while the
ideal of simple living and high thinking must have rendered the secondary
wants of the mass of the people very limited in llumbf'r. Thus has she
been for many centuries the final depository of a large portion of the metal-
lic wealth of the world. It was this flow or " drain" of gold into India
which so far back as the first century A. D. was the cause of alarm and
regret to Pliny. It was probably also the same flow of gold into the country
that even earlier still in the fifth century n. C. cnabled the small Indian
satrapy of Darius to pay him 360 Eubolic talents of gold, worth fully
1,290,000 and constituting about one-third of the total bullion revenue
of the Asiatic provinces (Herodotus III).
THE ECONOMIC HISTORY OF ANCIENT INOlA.
CHAPTER I.
The Palmolithic Age.
" The pleasant belief of poets that primitive man enjoyed in an earthly
paradise a golden age free from sin, sorrow, want and death finds no support
from the researches of sober, matter-of-fact science. On the contrary,
abundant and conclusive evidence proves that the earliest man whether in
India, Europe or elsewhere were rude savag'es, cowering for shelter under
rocks or trees or roughly housed in Caves and huts." 1 He does not know
how to pasture cattle or to cultivate the land. He does not know private
property in land and division of labour. He was ignorant of any metal and
even of pottery. He was dependent for tools or weapons of all kinds on'
sticks, stones and bones. The sticks of course have perished and the bones
have mostly shared the same fate on account of the white ants. The
stone implements laboriously shaped by chipping into forms suitable for
hammering, cutting, boring and scrapping are fOUlld in large numbers in
many parts of India. Apart from the Burma find containing stone implements
.. showing distinct traces of having been worked by man , , ~ the Godavari
flake furnishes" evidence in India of the existence of man at a much
earlier period than Europe."
s
According to Obermaier the Godavari
flake was probably used in scraping the bark from branches and smoothing
them down into poles; while the rough Coup-de-poing type as we get in
Nerbada is well adapted to dividing flesh and dressing hides. The
Godavari and N erbada finds are generally accepted as Pre-Chellean" to
indicate their Chronological Correlation with Europe.
1 Oxford History of India - Vincent A. Smith. p. 1.
Dr. Keith in the Recor(ls of the Geological Survey, Vol. XXXVII. p. 102.
Mr. H. F. Blanford in the Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, 1867, p. 144.
A Osborn in his Men of the Old Stone Age, 1918, pp. 129-30 dates the Pre-Chellean
industry at 125,000 years.
2
At the outset the occurrence of rocks suitable for fashioning tools and
weapons no doubt played a great part in the selection of habitation sites ...
by early Palceolithic Indians. Quartzine stone is specially suitable for the
making of tools and weapons and therefore they mustered strong in the
Cuddapah, Guntur ancl N ellore districts and the neighbouring tracts of
Madras where quartzite ahounds. As large migrations ceaserl and compara-
tively settled life began, they developcd cesthetic instincts in the choice of
colours and progressed in craftmanship. A distinct progress is discernible
from the Burma find to the Godavari flake which is "formed from a
compact light-coloured agate" li and the more southern the find the
better the finish. The proximity of rivers to rocks highly suitable for
implements also helped them in the selection of hahitation sites. The
palceoliths obtained from Dhenkenal, Angul, Talchir, Sambalpur, Chakra-
dharpur, Nuaga1'llh, Ghatsila, Morhana Pahar, Partal)gunj and Jubbalpur
unmistakably prove that the banks of the SuvarJ;larekha, the Sangai, the
Bijnai and their affluents flowing eastwards as well as other rivers draining
into the Ganges or its affiuents north-eastwards from high plateaux were as
much centres of palceolithic culture as the South Indian rivers. Probably
also in some cases Palceolithic settlements sprang up neal' by lakes. At
Heera and Chik Mulungi, about twenty miles above Kaira a large variety
of weapons has been found which belong to this age.
In the Billa Surgam Caves of Karnaul at least two hundred hone
weapons and implements have heen found. Awls, many kinds of arrow-
heads, small daggers, scrapers, chisels, gough, wedges, axe-heads etc., form
part of the various kinds of things which bear definite traces of being worked
up by man. Definite proof exists of the use of stones as well by these
Cave-dwellers. Thus in the Cathedral Cave of Billa Surgam ' two or three
bones were found showing distinct traces of having been scraped with a
hard and sharp implement the marks being such as would be made by a
sharp stone flake'. The flesh of the animals killed by these mighty hunters
might have been smoked before being taken as the presence of the cinder
plainly brings out the existence of fire.
Dr. Oldham in the reoord of the Geological Survey of Indh, Vol. I. p. 65.
CHAPTER II.
The Neolithic Age.
In the next stage of human advance, men were for a long time still
ignorant of metals except gold and were consequently obliged to continue
using stone tools and weapons. The stone implements and weapons were
ground, grooved and polished and thus converted into highly finished
objects adapted to diverse purposes. Their main types are: (1) grooved
axe with pecked groove; (2) celt with (a) blade thick near edge, (b) with long
slender form, (c) with nearly round section, with nearly diamond section,
with nearly rectangular section; (3) wedge-form; (4) chisel-form;
(5) chipped shade; (6) pestle; and (7) hammer-stone. These can be
studied to special ad vantage in the Bellary district where Fraser discovered
in 1872 the north BeIlary and Kapgallu Neolithic remains. The north-east
slope of the hill here was apparently a Neolithic factory-site and the
largest manufacturing industry of polished stones with tools in every stage
of manufacture flourished there.
The Neolithic Indians were no longer mere hunters but cultivators as
well, as the abundant varieties of mealing stones, corn-crushers and
pounding stones prove. In fact, the people were rather vegetarian than
carnivorous like the preceding men of the Old Stone Age, as the peaceful
implements far out-number the weapons for war.
By this time many of them learnt to live in thatched primitive huts
as the presence of straw in the cinder-mounds clearly prove. In their
articles for domestic use they showed great fascination for colour. Their
knives, saws, drills and lancets were made of beautiful chert, agate
chalcedony, blood-stone and rock-crystal and went to make up the comforts
of their economic household.
The Neolithic Indians used pottery which was "dull-ooloured and
rough-surfaced with but little decoration ."6 The finds are distributed
Bruce-Foote in .Notes on the: Ages and Distribution of the Foote Colleotion of
Indi&n Pre-historic and Proto-historic Antiquitiss, Madraa, 1216, p. 34..
4
through the district of Anantapur, Cuddapah, Kurnool, Tinnevelly, Baroda,
Kathiwar, Beluchisthan and other regions. Some of the Bellary potteries
were" impressed with finger-tips five or four or two in number. A note
worthy form is vessels pierced with a certain number of holes in two
pieces of grey pottery from the same place four or ten in number. Closely
associated with these are forms analogous to the fabric-marked pottery of
which one has been reported in Travancore stape am1 to which class may
be assigned a large number of those described as imprcssed with fillets of
the simplest type which appear to have been so common in Neolithic India.
An equally common form is the grooved pattern, two, three or sometimes
even fourteen lines incised which is often varied by impressed or raised
ring designs .'"
Gold is obtained directly from qU:lrtz veins and it is well knewn that
Palccolithic Indians were very fond of milk-white quartz. "Many old
workings have bcen met with along with outcrops of the veins in Chota
with large number of grooved stones which had been used for
crushing and grinding the quartz ."8 The remains of ancient workings
are also found in the Wynaad district of Malabar, Nilgiri and in Mysore.
9
A N eolethic settlement of gold miners existed at Maski in the modern
state of Hyderabad where the gold-miners' shafts wcre the deepest in the
world. Its yellow colour was the cause of its early usc and a like case is
of several finely coloured gem-stones used in the making of beads which
were used for ornamental as well as ritual purposes.
lO
These primitive peoples were not altogether devoid of the artistic
sense as the rock paintings near Singanpur in the Raigarh district
of the Central Provinces seem to prove. "The pigment was probably
applied by means of bamboo or reed brushes, the implement most likely
T Professor Panchauall :\Iitra in Prehistoric India, Second edition, 1927, pp. 399-4100.
8 h. 'renclls, Bibliography of Indian Geology, Article on " Gold ."
Gow lan:l on 1I1etals in Antiquity in the Jonrnal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute, Vol. XVIlI. p. 260.
10 Bruce-Foote has pointed out that the Neolithic settlement in the Bellary district
gradually acquired the knowledge of iron-making industry as some small
pottery (tuyere) suitable for protection direct flame aotion of the
nozzle of a small bellows was found in the Neolithio stra.tum.
used being a stiff blunt point, rather than a brush and the treatment of
some of the painted surfaces seems to prove this ... The drawings are
mostly executed in flat washes of one colour, aJ.though there are certain
traces of shading and modelling, but these are very indistinct and barely
discernible. The soft effect of the outline of the paintings may be due to
age, or to the porous nature of the rock having absorbed the pigment.
......... The subjects are (a) hunting scenes, (b) groups of figures, (c)
picture- writing or hieroglyphics and (d) drawings of animals, reptiles,
etc.. .. ... The chief artistic feature of these Raigarh paintings lies in their
spirited expression and spontaneity of treatment. A strong family likeness
may be noticed between these cave paintings and the patterns on what is
called the "cross-lined" pottery of pre-historic Egypt. In these the men
are reprensented in the" triangular style", a method of drawing adopted by
many primitive races of ancient and modern times."ll Equally interesting
are the no less than twenty groups of figures of birds and beasts executed
on rocks in the Neolithic site of Kapgallu in the BeIlary district found by
H. Knox
lll
and the cave-paintings in the Kymorc ranges discovered by
John Cockburn. 13
No less striking are the series of sculptures occurring in the Edakal
Cave, Wynaad. "The most interesting features of the sculpture are the
frequent human figures with peculiar headdress. There are several rather
indistinct figures of animals. The usual Indian symbols are of frequent
occurrence, e.g., the swastika and specimens of the familiar circular 'SUll-
symbols '. There is evidence also of magic squares."14 That they
belonged to the Neolithic times may be judged from the find of a fragment
of a well-shaped and polished celt from the place. To the same cultural
horizon, at least so far as the style was concerned, belonged a group of
rock-carvings discovered by Professor Panchanan Jlvlitra and party in the
J 1 Mr. Percy Brown's Notes on the prehistoric cave paintings a.t Raigarh in Prof.
Panchanan Mitra's Prehistoric India, pp. 464-65, 467-68 .
.. BruceFoote in Notes on the Ages, etc. pp. 87-89.
18 Journal of the Royal Asiatic Soeiety, 1889, New Series, Vol. XXXI, pp. 89-97
140 F. Fawcett in IndiaJ1 AJ1tiquary, Vol. XXX (1901) p. 4013.
Mallbhandar village of Singhbhum.
15
That they belonged to Neolithic
times may be judged from the find of a Neolithic axe from the place.
The Neolithic Indians learnt the use of graves which have been dis-
covered by John Cockburn in the Mirzapur district, U. P.16 The tombs
were surrounded by stonc circles. Many pre-historic cemetries exist in
the Tinnevelly district along the coast of the TamraparQ.i river, the most
ancient seat of the pearl and conch-shell industry. This connection between
the early settlements on the river and the pearl-fishery is not
an isolated fact. Professor Elliot Smith 17 rightly observes: "Ancient
miners in search of metals or precious stones or in other cases pearlfishers
had in every case established camps to exploit these varied sources of
wealth and the megalithic monuments represent their tombs and temples."
15 Professor Panchanan Mitra's Prehistoric India. pp. 201-202.
10 Imperial Gazeteer, Vol. II. pp.
,1 Manchester Memoirs, Vol. LX. Part 1. 1915, p. 29 of reprint.
CHAPTER III.
The Copper Age.
As the Neolithic Age gradually passed away in Northern India, it
appears to have given place not to an Age of nronze as it did in most parts
of Europe but to one of Copper. In Southern India on the other hand,
stone tools were superseded directly by iron without any intermediate
step.l8 Six bronze weapons of which three are harpoons, one a celt, one a
spearhead and the last a sword have been noticed by Vincent Smith
and no less than 123 bronze objects are recorded by Mr. Rca and we find
not quite a small number in the Patna Museum. nut all these were used
as adornments or mere exotics. Among the Copper Age antiquities are
bare and shouldered celts, harpoons, spear heads both plain anel barhed,
axe-heads, swords and an object suggestive of the human shape. The last
mentioned as well as some of the swords which are remarkable for their
excessive weight and the form of their handles may have been used for
cult purposes. One hoard of these implements which came from Gungeria
in the Oentral Provinces containeu as many as 42t specimens of almost
pure metal, weighing in all 829 pounds besides 102 ornamental laminal of
silver. Such a collection comprising as it did, a variety of implements
intended for domestic and other purposes aITords evidence enough, as Dr.
Smith has remarked, that their manufacture was conducted in India on
an extensive scale; while the distinctive types that have been evolved
and are represented both in this and other finds connote a development that
must already have extended over a long period, though at the same time,
the barbed spear-heads and harpoons anel flat celts manifestly copied from
neolithic prototypes bespeak a relatively high antiquity. The presence of
silver ornaments in the Gungeria hoard has suggested doubts as to its
remote date but there seems little reason for assuming that a race familiar
with the difficult metallurgical processes by which copper is extracted from
its ores were incapable of smelting silver from the rich argintiferous
galenas which occur in various localities.
18 The Oopper Age and the Pre-historic Bronze Implements of India by V. A. Smith
in the Indian Antiqua.ry, Vol. XXXIV, p. 229 and Vol. XXXVI, p. 53.
8
Information of equally fascinating interest to the student of economic
history is furnished by the sepulchral remains found in the Tinnevelly,
Kurnool, Coimbatore and Anantapur districts as well as in the Nizam's
dominions. The smaller earthen vessels found in the burial sites at
Adichanallur in Tinnevelly19 closely resemble objects of pre-historic
pottery found in Egypt and many exhibit a characteristic red and black
polished surface, which was the result of friction and not of a true fused
glaze. It is interesting to find rice husks in many of these earthen utensils.
The iron articles include swords, daggers, spear-heads, agricultural imple-
ments resembling the modern" mammutti ", tridents, peculiar" hangers"
probably used fer the suspension of iron saucer lamps of which several
have been found. Though much fewer in number the bronze articles are
executed with higher skill than those in iron and comprise objects like
scent-bottles, rings, bangles and bracelets. There arc sieves in brome in
the form of perforated cups fitted into small basins. The only objects
discovered in any of the precious metals are oval front lets of gold leaf.
In Kurnool burial sites
20
no stone or metal implements or weapons or beads
or jewelleries have been found. The only objects obtained are domestic
vessels made of a buff-coloured pottery, neatly turned on a wheel and
well-baked. There are also large food and water jars of a deep red colour,
glazed and ornamented with incised lines and a few simple raised mouldings.
The sepulchral remains in 1 contain pottery, domestic vessels, a
few beads ,corroded iron implements such as knives and spear blades. Most
of the tombs of the Anantapur district are provided with circular ring of
stones all round and are of the usual rectangular shape, with four stone-sides
and a heavy capstone above. A circular hole laboriously cut through one of
the solid side-slabs was possibly intended as a passage for the soul on its
return to earth. Though the Egyptian process of embalming appears to
have been unknown, similar care was taken to preserve the remains of the
10 Mr. A. Rea.'s Report of the Archteological Survey of India, Southern Circle,
1902-1903 pp. 111-140.
10 Longhurst's Report of the Archtelogical Survey of India, Madras, 1914-1915
pp. 39-41.
H N. J. Walhouse's Notes on the Megalithic monuments of Coimhatore f'listrict,
Madras in J. R A. S., New serios, Vol. VII.
9
dead by placing them in earthen jars or urns, carefully sealed with clay;
while the almost cyclopean nature of the construction of some of the
tombs rival those of Egypt in point of durability. It is equally worthy
of notc that tombs of this kind are only found in Southern and Western
India which seems to point to western influence. ~ ! l The sepulchral rcmains
discovered by Dr. Hunt in the Nizam's dominions23 include potteries, some
of which bear marks closely resembling early forms of the "ka" mark of
Egypt, dishes, bells and ornaments made of copper as well as weapons,
arrow-heads, knives, spears, axes, sickles and tridents made of iron.
Having regard to this development of industry it seems desirable to
say a few words with regard to the condition of currency that may have
prevailed in this country before the advent of. the Aryans. "I can quite
imagine some doubt crossing the minds of most of my readers" says
Professor D. R. Bhii.J;ldarkar "as to how I could even surmise the state of
currency in pre-vedic India. But what Professor Ridgeway has done in
regard to the pre-historic or proto-historic currency of Greece can also be
attempted on a modest scale in regard to India, provided we follow his
method which is typically the anthropological method." It is possible to
study the various kinds of currency in use among the savage tribes of
various stages of civilisation and compare them to the similar ones that were
prevalent in India. N ow the earliest stage of civilisation is taken to be
the Hunting stage. No form of currency belonging to this stage, such as
skins of hunting animals is known to us from any composition of the
Vedic period or from any other source. As the Hunting age passes to the
Pastoral and animals are domesticated, the animal itself, not its skin,
becomes the unit of value. The most common of such animals in India is
the cow which is found mentioned in the Rigveda. Thus there is a
hymn in this Veda
u
where Indra i.e., his image is offered as a fetish
to Longhurst's Report of tj,e Archwological Survey of India, Madras, 191'2-1913,
pp. 57f.
sa E. H, Hunt's Hyderabad Cairn burials and their significance in the Jonrnal of the
Royal Anthropological Institute, Vol. LIV. 1925, pp. 140-156; F. J.
Richards' Note on some Ir.:m Age graves in North Aroot district, Ibid,
pp. ]1>7-161>.
u IV. 24. 10.
10
for ten cows and another
2
5 where Indra is considered to be so invalu-
able that not a hundred, a thousand or a myriad of cows is thought
to be a proper price. As the Pastoral develops into the Agri-
cultural stage, a number of agricultural proclucts come to be used as
currency. It is in this agricultural stage that commerce is found to
develop itself and a greater number of objects are found c[l,pable of being
used as measures of value, such as garments, coverlets and goat-skins
which were so employed in the time of the Athava-veda. 9 6 Thus we see
that traces of the various circulating media of these various stages of
civilisation are clearly found in the Sarphita portion of the Vedas and they
must have survived down to the Vedic epoch from previous stages of
civilisation.
We may also note here that there are not one or two but many pre-historic
symbols to be found on the punch-marked coins.
2
7 Mr. Theobald has
observed not less than fourteen syml)ols engraved on the sculptured stones
of Scotland. 'rhere was a time when :Fergusson and arehmologists of his
kind relegated the rude stone implements of Great Britain to the post-
Roman period but to-day no arehmologist of any repute disputes its
pre-historic charcter. When therefore we find so many pre-historic
symbols occurring on the punch-marked coins, it is clifficult to avoid the
conclusion that Kar$apaQ.a coins must have been handed down to us from
pre-historic times. If any further evidence is required, it is furnished by
the fact, first brought to our notice hy Elliot that these punch-marked
coins" have been cliscovered along the ashes of the men who constructed
the primitive tombs known as PaJ;ldukulis of the south and unearthed from
the ruins of buried cities in excavating the head-waters of the Ganges
Canal."a "A large horde of these coins" says he elsewhere "was
discovered in September 1807 at the opening of one of the ancient tombs
known by the name of Pal)dukulis near the village of Chavadipaleiyam
in Coimbatore, thus identifying the employment of this kind of money
with the aboriginal race whose places of sepulchure are scattered over
every part of Southern India." 2 9
o. VIII. 1. :>. 00 IV. 7. 6.
07 of. J. B. O. R. S. 1920, p. 400. INO. cs i. 45.
"" '!arlrnq JOllrnal of Literature and Sc;oIlce, 18::'8. p. 227.
11
The Chalcolithic Civilisation of the Indus Valley.
'rhe surprising discoveries by Rai Bahadur Dayaram Sahni at Harappa
m the Mont-gomery district of the Punjab and by Babu Rakhaldas
Bannerji at Mohenzo Daro in the Larkar;ta district of Sindh have proved
the existence of a new kind of coins and have established beyond doubt
the fact that five thousand years agn tllC people of the Punjab ancl Sind
were living in well-built cities and were in possession of a relatively
mature civilisation with a high standard of art and craftmanship amI a
developed system of writing-a civilisation as highly developed and
seemingly as widespread as the Sumerian culture of Mesopotamia with
conclusive evidence of a close contact between the two. 3 0 The recent
discoveries by Mr. N. G. Mazumdar 31 of a remarkable series of pre-historic
sites in western Sind between the Inclus and the Khirthar range reveal a
wider diffusion of this Indus culture and link up the zone of Chalcolithic
civilisation of Sind with the area surveyed by Sir Anrid Stein in Southern
Beluchisthan; and there is evidence to show that it extended over Cuteh
and Kathiawar towards the Deccan.
Like the Egyptians of the Nile valley or the Sumerians and Babylonians
of the Tigris-Euphrates valley the Imlus people were provided by Nature
with ample opportunities for agriculture on a flat plain subjected to floods.
'fhere are strong reasons for inferring that Sind was then watered by
two large rivers instead of one and was, as a consequence, at once more
fertile and less subject to floods. The two rivers are the Indus and the
old great Mihran, otherwise known as the Hakra or Wahindah which
once receivecl the waters of the Sutlej and flowed well to the east of thc
Indus, following a Course which roughly coincided with that of the
Eastern N ara Canal. Moreover, the country was blessed with a greater
rainfall and consequently had better prospects of agriculture. For this,
evidence is furnished by the large number of street-drains and the rain-
water pipes discovered at Mohenzo-Daro, the universal use of burnt instead
30 Sir J"hn Civilisa.tion of the Indus Valley in the Illnstratel
London News, January 7 and 14, 1928; February 27 and March 7, lD26 j aIso
in 'rimes of India Illnstrated Weekly, 7th March 1926.
31 Explorations in Sind, published by the Govt. of India, Delhi, 1934.
12
of sun-dried bricks in its buildings and the representation on the seals
of the tiger, the rhinoceros and the elephant who favour a moist climate. SI
Some significance should also be attached in this connection to the pre-
ponderance of vegetation motifs on the painted pottery of Mohenzo-Daro
and other contemporary sites in the Indus valley. Though little has yet
been discovered of the processes of cultivation and irrigation then in
voguc it is worthy of note that the specimens of whcat found in Mohcnzo-
Daro resemble the common variety grown in the Punjab to-day.
Hunting and fishing continued to be the occupation of a large section
of the people. In their houses bones of the Gharial, boar, sheep and the
bovine species as well as the shells of tortoises and turtles have been
found, sometimes in a half-burnt condition, so that the conclusion is
irresistible that besides hread and milk, fish from the rivers and the flesh
of these animals formed their food.
The principal domestic animals, bcsides the cow and the sheep, were
the humped long-horned bull, the buffalo, the short-horned bull, pigs,
horse, elephant and dogs. The breed of Brahmini bulls as depicted on the
seals seems to be every whit as good five thousand years ago as it is
to-day.
The Babylonian and Greek names for cotton-Sindh and Sindon
respectively-have always pointed to Sind as the home of cotton-growing
and it is interesting to note that numerous spindle whorls in the debris
of houses have been found, thus proving the practice of spinning and
weaving. That the weaving material was cotton from the cotton plants
of the genus Gossypium and not cotton from the silk-cotton tree has been
proved by the discovery at Mohenzo-Daro of cotton of the former kind,
with thc typical convolutcd structure which is the peculiar characteristic
of that fibre. Even scraps of a fine woven cotton material have been
found.
The dress among the upper classes consisted of two garments: a skirt
fastencd round the waist like the primitive Sumerian skirt and a plain
and patterned shawl which was drawn over the left and under the right
shoulder, so as to leave the right arm free. Earrings, bangles, girdles and
.. The lion whicb prefers arid and sparsely coverod country does not oocur.
anklets were worn by women while necklaces and finger-rings wore worn
by men and women of all classes, rich or 1)001'. Tho ornamcts of the
latter were mainly of shell and terraootta while those of the rich wore of
silver and gold or copper plated with gold, of blue faience, ivory, cornelian,
jadeite and muti-coloured stones of various kinds. Beads and bangles
made of bronze, bangles and other ornaments made of shell (sank) were
also in common use. The seals were sometimes worn by a cord round the
neck or waist or as amulets. The girdles of cornelian and gilded copper
as some of the earrings and "netting" neetHes of pure gold have so fine
polish on their surface that it would do credit to a modern jeweller.
The Indus people were familiar not only with gold and silver as the
:trarious ornaments made from them show but also with copper, tin and
lead. Copper which was obtained from Beluchisthan on the west and from
AiganilSthan on the north was mostly used for weapons and implements
like daggers, hatchets and celts as well as for domestic utensils like vessels,
chisels, sickles, knives etc. Personal ornaments, amulets and statuettes
were also made of copper. :Most of these objects were wrought by
hammering though examples of cast copper are by no means uncommon.
A unique object made of copper, found in a low stratum at Harappa is a
model of a two-wheeled cart with a gabled roof and driver seated in front.
This is the oldest known example of a wheeled vehicle older than the steel
fragment with the picture of a chariot recently found by W oolney at
Ur in Sumer.
The finds of bronze objects as compared with copper are small, doubt-
less owing to the difficulty and cost of obtaining tin. Tin was probably
imported from Khorasan or through Sumer from further west, to be alloyed
with copper to form bronze as the remains of bronze vessels, statuettes,
bangles, beads and buttons show. Specially striking is the use of bronze
in making tools like razors, chisels and celts which require a hard cutting
edge.
Pottery was well-known and common domestic vessels were of earthen-
ware. They have a great variety of shapes, though it is curious how few
of the vases are provided with handles. Most of the pottery is of plain
14
undecorated red colour, but painted pottery is not uncommon. As a rule
the designs are painted in black, on a darkish red slip. This dark and
red Indus ware has been found in abundance by Sir Anrid Stein in
N. Bcluchisthan and along thc Waziristhan borderland and more sparsely in
Sistan. A few specimens of polychrome decoration in red, white and
black have also been met with at Mohenzo-Daro. Blue encaustic faience
of a kind similar to that found in Mesopotamia and Egypt also played an
important part in the making of miniature vases, ornaments, amulets and
the like while a finer and harder variety of this paste was used for finishing
off the surface of seals.
The remains laid bare at Mohenzo-Daro belong to thc three latest cities
on the sitc, each erected successively on the ruins of their predecessors.
The date of these remains can be determined within tolerably narrow
limits by the discovery at Susa and several sites in Mesopotamia of typical
Indian seals inscribed with Indian pictographic legends, in positions which
leave no doubt that they belonged to the period before Sarpon I, that
is, before about 2,700 B. O. On another seal of the same pattern recently
unearthed at U r in Sumer, the legend is in cuniform characters of about
2,700 B. O. It may bc inferred, therefore, that this class of Indian
seals is to be assigned to the first half of the third millenium B. O. or
earlier; and in as much as seals of this class are associated with thc three
uppermost cities at )lahenzo-Daro we may confidently fix the date of
these cities between 3,500 and 2,500 B. O.
A bird's eye of the uppermost city at Mohenzo-Daro would reveal that
the strects and lanes were laid out regularly according to a plan. The roads
were broad and alignment of houses very good. The roads were broad
enough to admit of all kinds of traffic and their surface was sometimes
hardcned with solid materials. 'rhe buildings abutting on the streets and
lanes were so built, thc walls being broad at the base and narrowing
towards the top, that as the level of the streets and lanes rose, their
witlth increased. There were central drainage channels in every street fed
by subsidiary drains in the lanes.
The dwelling-houses of 11ohenzo-Daro, though bare of all ornament
arc malle of well-burnt brick, usually laid in mU(l but occasionally in
15
gypsum (plaster of Paris) mortar with foundations and infillings of sun-
dried brick. The laying of the bricks suggestec1 the use of instruments
of level. One interesting feature of the houses was that all of them
opened in by-lanes. :Further, there was no direct access from the doorway
into the house, but one had to pass through a room into a courtyard and
then to the rooms of the house. _Storied houses were very common as
the existence of stairways revealed. Roofs were supported by beams and
cross bea.ms amI roofing was done by spreading reed matting daubed with
mud. Another interesting point about the houses was that no two of
them had a common wall though they were all built close together in
blocks. A narrow space was allowed between the walks of neighbouring
houses, the same being walled up at either entl. Some of the houses were
very sIlaeious and consiste(1 of several rooms besides large courtyards and
halls, suited to the accommodation of large families--an indication probably
of the existence of joint family system among the Indus people. The
houses are equally remarkable for the relatively high clecree of comfort
evidenced by the presence of brick-flooring bath rooms and wells. Near
the wells were paved washing places and the used water was drained
away by well-constructed drains which sometimes ran forty or fifty feet
before connecting with the street-drain. There were cess pits and small
jars used for collecting drainage water at houses.
Outstanding among the buildings at }Iohenzo-Daro is a temple with a
beautiful public bath. On the four sirles of the bathing tank is a boldly
fenestered eorriclor, with a platform in front ancl small chambers behind.
The outer wall which is more than six feet in thickness with a pronounced
batter on the outside was pierced by two largc entrances on the south
and smaller ones on the east and north. At either end of the bath is a
descending flight of steps. Like the bath-room floors of the private
houses, the floor is laid in finely joined brick-on-edge and remarkable
care and ingenuity have been exercised in the construction of the surround-
ing walls. These walls which are nearly ten feet in thickness are made
up of three sections; the inner anc1 outer of burnt brick, the infilling
between them of sun-dried brick; but in order to render them completely
water-tight, the brick-work has been laid in gypsum mortar and the back
16
of the inner wall coated with an inch thick layer of bitumcn. Bitumen
was also used for bedding the woodcn planks with which the steps were
lined. A number of rooms on the story above, the wells close hy to feed
the bath with a regular supply of water, the covered drain over six feet
in height, furnished with a corbelled vaulted roof by which water was
conducted outside the city, and the care taken to secure privacy for each
individual resorting to the bath all made the bath one of the finest
discoveries in the city.
Though town-planning was not much in evidcnce in Harappa it was
more extensive than )f.ohenzo-Daro. Its buildings were similar in character
to those of Mohenzo-Daro but there is one tolerably well preserved
building the like of which has not been found at Mohenzo-Daro. It
comprises a number of narrow halls ancl corridors disposed in two parallel
series with a broad aisle down the middle. The plan and the shape of the
chambers recall to mind the store-rooms of the Cretan palaces. Small
brick-structures somewhat like Hindu sam"Jdhis containing cinerary
remains as well as a platform partially covered with ashes and half-charred
bones which is thought to be a cremation platform havc also becn found at
Harappa.
A new outpost of this Indus civilisation has been discovered in
Kathiawar in the state of Limbi which is not far from the Gulf of Cambay;
and it was at the ports of Cambay and Broach that the cornelian industry
of India was concentrated. When therefore we find an extensive use of
this material in the Indus sites, the conclusion may be safely drawn that
it was imported from these parts. The Tinnevelley district along the
coast of TamraparJ;l.i river was the most ancient seat of conch-shell industry
and when we find this conch-shell as a typical and very extensively used
material in the Indus sites, we may safely assume that it was imported
as much from the sea-coast down the Indus as from the south-eastern coast
of the Madras Presiclency.
Trade was carried on not only with other parts of India but also with
countries further west. The affinity between the purely goometric patterns
of Amri pottery of W. Siml, of the Kulli and Mehi fabrics of S. Beluchis-
than and the painted ceramic wares of Sahr-i-Sokhta aml other sites in
17
Sistan, of Tepeh Musyan and Susa in W. Persia, of AI-Ubaid and Samarra
in Mesopotamia together with the occurrance of a figure closely resembling
the Sumerian hero-god Eabani depicted on some Mohenzo-Daro seals is
clear evidence of a close contact between these contiguous areas. But
notwithstanding these and other points of similarity
3
3 the art of the
. Indus valley is distinct from that of any neighbouring country. Some
of the figures on the engraved seals-notably the humped Indian bulls
and short-horned cattle-are distinguished by a breadth of treatment anc1
a feeling for line and form unequalled in the contemporary glyptic art
of Elam or Mesopotamia or Egypt. The modelling too in faience of
the miniature rams, monkeys, dogs and squirrels is of a very high
order, far in advance of what we can expect in the fourth or third
millenium B. C. Similarly, the houses recently unearthed by Mr.
Woolney in U l' no doubt suggest an interesting parallel to those of
Mohenzo-Daro but they are by no means equal in point of construction
to those of the latter nor are they provided with drains of finely chiselled
brick, covered with limestone slabs and connected with the main drain
in the street. The conclusion is, therefore, irresistible-and it is being
daily strengthened by the progress of exploration in the Indus valley-
that whatever similarity we find between this Indus culture and the
Sumerian civilisation of Mesopotamia, it is due not necessarily to actual
identity of culture but to intimate commercial anc1 other intercourse
between these countries. Tin, as we have seen, was probably imported
from Khorasan or through Sumer from further west, and bitumen from
Beluchisthan. Dr. Sayee in his Hibbert Lectures for 1887 on the Origin
and Growth of Religion among thc Babylonians has proved the existence
of commerce between India and Babylon as early as 3000 B. C. The
discovery by Rassam of Indian cedar in the palace of N ebuchadnezzer
and of Indian teak in the temple of the moon-god at Ur refounded by
Nebonidus, the use of the word" Sindh " for muslin in an old Babylonian
list of clothes certainly point to commercial intercourse between India
and Babylon. The bas-reliefs of thc temple of Deir-el-Bahari at Thebes
au Sumerian connections with Anoient India-by E. Maokay in J. R. H. S. 1925,
pp. 697-701.
18
which represents the conquest of the land of Punt under Hatasu contain
a picture in which is described the booty which the Pharoah is carrying
to Egypt. And in this booty, according to Leormant "appear a great
many Indian animals and products not indigenous to the soil of yemen--
elephant's teeth, gold, precious stones, sandal-wood and monkeys."34
We have already seen that the smaller earthen vessels found in the
burial sites at Adichanallur in Tinnevelly closely resemble objects of
pre-historic pottery found in Egypt. Some of the potteries discovered
from the sepulchral remains in the Nizam's dominions bear marks which,
according to Dr. Hunt, closely resemble early forms of the" Ka" mark
of Egypt. We have also seen how from the nature of construction and
the contents found in the tombs of Anantapnr district the religious belief
of the primitive lleoples who constructed them seems to have been much
the same as that held by the ancient Egyptians regarding man's life after
death. On one of the faience sealings discovered in Mohenzo-Daro is a
row of four standards borne aloft by men, each of which supports a totem
figure remarkably like the well-known totem standards of the Egyptian
names. The resemblance is so striking that it might almost be supported
that this particular sealing was an import from pre-dynastic Egypt, were
it not that it is inscribed on the reverse with an Indian pictographic
legend. Long ago there was a school of orientalists who believed in the
colonisation of Ethiopia and Egypt from N. W. India and the Himalayan
provinces. Indeed if the people to whom the Indus civilisation was
attributed had occupied cities for at least 500 to 1000 years, it is
quite possiblc that the natural growth of population must have made
them scek fresh fields and pastures for their expansion. In Philostratus
an Egyptian is made to remark that he had heard from his forefathers
that the Indians were the wisest of men and that the Ethiopians,
a Colony of the Indians, preserved the wisdom and usage of their
forefathers and acknowledged their ancient origin. We find the
same assertion made at a later period in the third century B. C. by
Julius Africanus, from whom it has been preserved by Eusebius and
U History of Ancient Del Orient Eng. ed. Vol. II. p. 299 Quoted in India.n Antiqna.ry,
Vol. XUI. p. 2\18.
19
Syncellus.
35
Philostratus introduces the Brahmin larchus by sta.ting to
his auditor that the Ethiopians were originally an Indian race compelled
to leave India for the impurity contracted by slaying a certain monarch
to whom they owcd allegience.
36
Cuvier, quoting Syncellus even assigns
the reign of Amenophis as the epoch of the colonisation of Ethiopia
from India.
3
7 Eusibius states that Ethiopians emigrating from the
river Indus settled in the vicinity of Egypt.ss Again, we find great
similarity in the names of rivers, towns and provinces of both India and
Egypt. "For about ten miles below Attock" says a critic, " the Indus
has a clean deep and rapid current; but for about a hundred miles further
down to Kalabagh it becomes an enormous torrent. The water here has
a dark lead colour and hence the name Nilab or Blue river given as well
to the Indus as to a town on its bank about twelve miles below Attock."
According to another writer "Aboasin (a classical name for the Indus)
gave its name to Abyssinia in Africa" 3 9 Indian" Suryarika (Sun-burnt
land) is perhaps the Sahara desert of Africa. The names of towns at
the estuaries of the Gambia and Senegal rivers, the Tamba Cunda and
anothcr Cundas are according to Col. Todd4.0 Hindu names. A writer in
in the Asiatic J ournll.l4. 1 gives a curious list of the names of places in
the interior of Africa, mcntioned in Park's Second Journey, which are
shown to be all Sanskrit, and most of them actually current in India at
the present day. We also find striking similarity in the names of rulers
and. gods of both India and Egypt. King Rama of India is king Ramses
of Egypt. The first Egyptian Solar king Manes sounds like Hindu Manu,
the first solar king of India. The bull-bannered Egyptian Isis is Indian
Isa. Further the religious systems of India and Egypt "both proceed
from monotheistic principles and degenerate into a polytheistic heathenism
though rather of a symbolic than of a positive character. The principle
15 India in Greece by Pococke, p. 205.
as Indio. in Greece by Pooocke, p. 200.
n p. 18 of his" Disoourse."
at Lemp. Barker's edition, " Meroe."
8. Heeren's Historica.l Researches, Vol. II. p. 310.
60 Todd's Rajasthan, Vol. II. p. 309 footnote.
U Vol. IV. p. 325.
20
of Trinity with that of the Unity, the pre-existence of the soul, its
transmigration, the division of castes into priests, warriors, traders and
ngrieultnrists are the cardinal points of both systems. Even the symbols
are the same on the shores of the Ganges and the Nile. Thus we find
the Lingam of the Siva temples of India in the Phallus of the Ammon
temple of Egypt-a symbol also met with on the headdress of the Egyptian
gods. We find the lotus flower as the symbol of the Sun both in India
and in Egypt and we find symbols of the immortality of the soul in both
countries. The power of rendering barren women fruitful ascribed to
the temples of Siva in India, was also ascribed to the temples of Ammon
in Nor is this all. Mr. Pococke has found points of similarity
not only in the objects of sculpture but also in the architectural skill
and in the grand and gigantic character of the architecture of India and
Professor Heeren therefore concludes "whatever weight may
b3 attached to Indian tradition and the express testimony of Eusubius
confirming the report of the migrations from the banks of the Indus into
Egypt, there is certainly nothing improbable in the event itself, as a
desire of gain would have formed a sufficient inducement." But to sober
minds it is reasonable only to assume that whatever similarity there
might exist between the place-names, the names of gods and kings and
the social and religious institutions of ancient India and Egypt, it was the
result of early commercial intercourse between the two countries.
In the Book of Genesis4.3 we read that Joseph was sold by his brethern
to the" Ishmaelites come from Gilead, with their camels, bearing spicery,
lmlm and myrrh going to carry it down to Egypt." Here, Dr. Vincent
observes, we find" a caravan of camels loaded with the spices of India."
Some suppose that myrrh used to be imported into Egypt by the
Abyssinians, in whose country it largely grows. But the proof of its
importation from India may be found in the name which it took in
Egypt. Dr. Royle
44
observes that myrrh is called" bal " by the Egyptians,
while its sanskrit name is "bota", bearing a resemblance which leaves
Count Bjornsljirna's Theogony of the Hindus pp. -60-41.
.3 Chapter XXVlI. v. 25.
U Allciellt Hilldu Medicine, " :Myrrh" p. 119.
21
no doubt as to its Indian origin. According to Wilkinson
u
the presence
of indigo, tamarind-wood and other Indian products found in the tombs of
Egypt shows Indian trade relations with the land of the Pharoahs. The
evidences of Comparative Philology corroborates this view. Ivory we
know was largely used in India, Babylon, Egypt, Greece and Rome.
Elephants are indigenous in India and Africa and the trade in ivory must
be either of Indian origin or African. But the elephants were scarcely
known to the ancient Egyptians
46
and Professor Lassen decides that they
were neither used nor tamed in ancient Egypt. In ancient India, however,
the elephant was an emblem of royalty and a sign of rank and power and
no description of a king's procession or of a battle is to be met with where
elephants are not mentioned. Even the god Indra has his" Airawat."
Then the Sanskrit name for a domestic elephant is ibha and in ancient
Egypt ivory was known by the name of ebu. Professor Lassen thinks
" that the Sanskrit name ibha might easily have reached Egypt through
Tyre and become Egyptian ebu."47 Similarly, Sanskrit kapi became Egyptian
kafu and the Hebrew koph. This Indo-Egyptian trade is further supported
by another erudite scholar the Rev. T. Foulkes
48
who comes to the same
conclusion and says "With a very high degree of probability some of
the most esteemed of the spices which were carried by the Mediantish
merchants of Genesis XXXVII. 25-28 and by the sons of the Pharoah
Jacob ( Genesis XLIII. 11 ) had been cultivated in the spice-gardens of the
Deccan."
U Ancient Egyptians II. p, 237.
AI Mrs. Manning-Ancient and Mediooval India, Vol. II. p. 251.
H C. LasBen-Indische Alterthumskunde Vol. I. p. 354.
U Indian Antiquary, Vol. VIII.
CHAP'rER IV.
The Rigvedic Age.
The Rigvedic periotl was an age of migration and settlement. By this
time the Aryan invaders had spread over the whole of the region, extending
from the Kabul valley upto the Ganges and the Jumna. In the list of
rivers in the N adi-stuti hymn
4
9, and elsewhere we find the names of the
Ganga,50, the the Sarayu
52
, and the Saraswati
53
and this goes
to show the eastern limit of Aryan advance in Rigvedic India. Of the
western tributaries of the Indus we find the names of Kubh[56 (modern
Kabul river) the SuvITstu
5
5 (modern Swat river) the Krumu 56 (modern
Kurrum river) :and the Gomati 5 7 (modern Gomal) rivers. Though
most familiar with the valleys of the Indus and its tributaries the Aryans
gradually spread over the greater .part of the Ganges valley as well. Thus
the Rigveda mentions Kika1a58 which has been identifictl by some scholars
with the country of Magadh.
Growth of agricltllurallife and landownership-The evidence of the
science of Comparative Philology in relation to the Indo-European group
of languages discloses the fact that the original Aryan stock, though pre-
eminently a pastoral people were not unacquainted with agriculture.
5
II
It appears from the same evidence that during the Indo-Iranian period
the Aryans were acquainted with agriculture
60
and we have even direct
'" Rigveda. X. 75 ;
&0 Rigveda. VI. 45. 31 ; X. 75.5.
Bl Rigvada V. 52.17 j VB. 18. 19 j VII. 33. 3 ; X. 75. 5.
U Rigvada IV. 30. 18 j
V.53. 9 j X. 64. 9.
n Rigveda. I. 3. 12 ; II. 41. 16 j III. 4. 8 ; ill. 23. 4 ; VI. 52. 6 ; VII. 2. 8 j
VII. 36. 6 ; VII. 96 ; X. 64. 9 ; X. 75. 5.
U Rigveda. V. 53. 9 ; X. 75. 6. aT Rigveda. VIII. 24. 30; X. 75. 6.
II Rigveda. VIII. 19. 37. Rigveda III. 53. 14.
"e Rigveda. V. 53.9 ; X. 75. 6.
68 Otto Schrader, Raallexikon dar Indogerma.nischen Altertumskunda. B. v. Ackerbao,
Familie, Sta.mm, Viehzucht j Harma.nn Hirt, Die Indogarma.nen, I. 251ft.
80 Keith a.nd Ma.cdonell- Vedic Index, I. p. 181 )
reference to agriculture in the Vendidad.
6
1 When one branch of the Aryans
ultimately migrated into the land of the five rivers, they fonnd the country
already in occupation of alien peoples, SOme of whom, as we have seen,
judged by the wonderful remains of their civilisation in the Indus
valley, attained a high level of material greatness; and even the confused
and imperfect picture of the aborigines in the Rigveda furnishes some hints
of their organisation in puras under the rule of Chiefs. 6 By the time
even of the earliest hymns of the Rigveda the Indo-Aryans had settled
down to a peaceful agricultural life and evolved the idea of landownership.
The land was divilled into Va-stu, ArableIand, Pasture and The
Vastu was in individual ownership as was also the case with the Vastu
of the German Mark. But while the arable land in ancient India was in
private ownership throughout, that in the Mark was at first in communal
ownership but ultimately in private ownership.
In one hymn of the Rigveda
63
we read of an impoverished gambler
who is made to take shelter in another's house anlL the sight of another's
prosperity torments him:
" The gambler's wife is left forlorn and wretched:
the mother mourns the son who wanders homeless
In constant fear, in debt and seeking riches,
he goes by night unto the home of others.
Sad is the gambler when he sees a matron,
another' wife, and his well-ordered dwelling."
This proves conclusively that houses were owned in severalty and that
the owners had the right of transfer. In fact, wc constantly read of prayers
for the bestowal of houses on individuals :-
" Bestow a dwelling-house on the rich landlords
and me and keep thy dart ( 0 Indra) afar from these."
s
'
81 III. 23 and 24; also XIV. 10.
Keith and Macdonell-Vedic Index, s. v. D1!sa :for references. Compare RaplOn-
Cambridge History of India, Vol. I. p. 86
.. X. 34.. 10-11.
U Rigveda VI. 46. 9.
II Give us, 0 Mitra-VarUl;J.a a dwelling safe from
attack, which ye shall guard, Boon-givers. "65
II Give ample room and freedom for our dwelling,
a home, ye Hemispheres, which none may rival. "eII
As regards the arable land we have a hymn of the Rigvcda
87
which
seems to make an indirect reference to thc fact that the Aryans after
conquering the land of the used to share them apparently on a
footing of equality. This sharing of the land lJY all the conquering persons
during the Rigvedic age seems to be referrec1 to in the Manu Salphita.
6
8
Even the priests who officiated at sacrifices for the victory of Aryan arms
claimed a share in the war-booty. 69 "In one hymn10 Apata, the daughter
of Atri prays to Indra that something may grow on her father's (apparently
bald) heac1 and on his plough-land. Even measurement of fields with a rod
is referred to :
"The Ribhus with a rod measured, as it were a field."71 According to
Professor Scharder without private ownership we cannot expect fields to be
measured in this way. Wc also meet with epithets like
urbarapati and urbarasa, meaning lords or owners of fields,
pointing to the existence of private ownership.
1
2
No royal ownership of land-The unit of Indo-Aryan society was the
patriarchal family. The authority of the head of the family was very
great and an instance of this may be found in the story of who was
robbed of his eyesight by his father Vrishagir for having slaughtered a
hundred sheep for the she-wolf who was one of the asses of the Aswins
in disguise.
7
3 Above the family stood the viS in the sense of clan and a
number of Vis groups formed the whole Jana or people.
7
As regards the
." Rigveda VI. 50. 3.
d. Rigveda VI. 67. 2.
7 I. 100. 18-19.
s VII. 97.
Rigveda. I. 180. 9.
Compare Rigveda. r. 114. 5
70 Rigveda. VIII. 91. 5-6 .
71 Rigveda. I. 11 O. 5.
U Macdonell and Keith - Vedic Index, Vol. I. pp. 99,210.
71 Rigveda 1. 117. 16.
fA MaodonelJ and Keith - Vedic Index, 8. v. Vi and Jana.
political organisation of this period monarchy as might be expected from
their situation as settlers in the midst of a conquered population, was a
well-estahlished institution amI the Rigveda gives as glympflcs of the king's
functions in peace anrl war. 1 Originally, it seems, the authority of the
king was largely limitcd by that of the heads of the family and the chiefs
of the elans, though as guardian of his people he used to receive such
voluntary contributions which are called by the generic name "bali"
just to maintain his authority and dignity.7 6 There is nothing in the
Rigveda to prove that he was ever regarded as the owner of the statc-
territory.
Corporate village-life-The grama or village consisted of a group of
families united by ties of kindred but what place it held in the scheme of
tribal divisions and in particular what relation it bore ttl the Vis with
which it was immediately connected, it is impossible to state with any
(legree of certainty.
7
7 Most of the villages were founded by settlers under
some leader and apart from the question of consanguinity the people of a
village regarded themselves as a united body. In times of war they fought
uBder their leallers for the safety of their hearths and homes; and this is
proved by the word saI!lgrama which primarily meant an assembly of the
village-folk but later on came to mean a war-gathering. In times of peace
!hey gathered in the village council (sava) which as Zimmer suggests
"served like the Greek Leshke as a meeting place for social intercourse
and general conversation about COWS
78
and so forth, possibly also for
deba.tes 79 and verbal contests.
8
0 The administrative machinery of the
village also supports its corporate character. At the head of the village
Was the Gramal)i
81
who according to ZimmerS presided over the village
Ibid, s. v. Rajan; History of India, Vol. I. pp. 98.
,. Rigved9. X. 173; M9.cdonell and Keith - Vedic Index, s. v. b9.li.
77 Macdonell and Keith - Vedic Index, s. v.-Grama; Rapson-Cambridge History of
Indi9., Vol. I. p. 91, where re9.sons are shown for rejecting the older view of
Zimmer (Altindisches Lehen, pp. 159-6CJ), namely that the Grama was a clan
standing betweeD the family 9.Del the tribe .
Rigveda VL 28. 6. Rigveda I. 91. 120.
10 Zimmer - Altindisches Leben, p. 172
h Rigveda X. 62. 11 ; X. 107. 5.
82 AltindischeB Leben, p. 17..l.
26
assembly though Macdonell
8
3 does not accept this view. Lud wig 84, infers
judicial functions of the village assembly from the word kilvishaspfit in
the Rigveda
B
5 which can only mean" that which removes the stain attach-
ing to a person by means of accusation."
The villages which thus became the basis of social life were connected
by roads which were not free from dangers from wild beasts and robbers
as is evident from the frequent prayers for protection on a journey offered
to Pushan who was the deity presiding over roads and paths.
8
S
Growth of lr,wll.I-The existence of city-life in this period has been
denied by Professors Keith, Kaegi and others. Pischel, Geldner and Wilson,
however, think otherwise. According to the latter pums (cities) as distinct
from gramas (villages) were well-known. "Indra broke through Ilibisa's
strong puras."8 7 "Thou (0 Indra) hero-hearted hast broken through Pipm's
puras."88 "Thou, 0 Indra, hast destroyed the hundred puras of Vangrida."89
"Thou (OIllclra) slayest the Vritras, breaker-down of piiras."90 "Thou
break est down, Indra, autumnal puras." 91 "Him (Agni), indestructible,
dwelling at a distance in puras unwrought lies and ill-spirit reaches not."9g
"Maghavan with the thunderbolt demolished his (Sambara's) ninety-nine
puras."93 "Agni, thou brokest down the puras."94 "Thou, (0 Indra) hast
wrccked seven autumnal p[11'as." 9 5 "Indra, thou humblest tribes that spake
with insult by breaking down seven autumnal puras." 9 6 "Thou hast smitten
Sambara's puras, 0 Inclra." 91 "(0 Indra) clostroy the firm paras built by
man."98 "Imlra overthrew the solid puras built by Pipru."9
9
"He (Agni)
with the steed wins spoil even in the fenced piira." 100 Indra is said to have
83 Vedic Index, Vol. I. p. 427.
8< Dar Rigveda, III. 254.
8. X. 71. 10.
8. Rigveda I. 42. 1 ; VI
87 Rigveda I. 33. 12.
89 Ibid, 1. 53. 8.
49. 8 ; VI. 51. 13; VI. 53. 1.
91 Ibid, I. 131. 4.
93 Ibid, V. 29. 6.
9' Ibid, VI. 20. 10.
97 Ibid, I. 103. 8.
99 Ibid, X. 138. 3.
8. Ibid, I. 51. 5.
90 Ibid, 1. 102. 7.
9. Ibid, II. 35. 6.
U Ibid, VI. 16. 39.
Ibid,!. 174. 2.
88 Ibid, VI. 45. 9.
100 Ihin, VIII, !l2. 5,
27
"quickly demolished the strongholds and seven-walled puras of Srukta
and other asuras." 1 0 1 He is again said to have demolished one hundred
piiras of stone for the pious Divodasa.
1
0 ~ Again he possessed all the puras
of the asuras as a husband his wife 103 Saraswati is described "as firm as a
piira made of ayas." 1 0 4 Pilras made of the metal ayas are also mentioned
in several other places,
1
0 5 figuratively, no doubt., to express great strength.
Professor Wilson remarks "cities are repeatedly mentioned, and although,
as the object of Indra's hostility, they may be considered as cities in the
clouds, the residences of the Asuras, yet the notion of such exaggerations
of any class of beings could alone have been snggested by actual observa-
tions, and the idea of cities in heavenfeould have been derived only from
familiarity with similar assemblages upon earth; hut it is probable that
by Asuras we are to understand, at least occasionally, the ante-vaidik
people of India, and theirs were the cities destroyed. It is also to be
observed, that the cities are destroyed on behalf of or in defence of mortal
princes, who could scarcely have beleaguered celestial towns, even with
Indra's assistancc. Indeed, in one instance, it is said that, having destroyed
ninety-nine out of hundred cities of the Asura Sambara, Indra left the
hundredth habitable for his protege Divodasa, a terrestrial monarch, to
whom a metropolis in the firmanent would have been of questionable
advantage. That the cities of those days consisted, to a large extent, of
mud and mat hovels is very possible: they do still; Eenares, Agra, Delhi,
even Calcutta present numerous constructions of the very humblest class;
but that they consisted of those exclusively, is contradicted in several
places. In one passage the cities of Sambara that have been overturned
are said to have consisted of stone; in another the same cities are indicated
by the appellative dehyah, the plastered, intimating the use of lime, mortar
or stucco; in another we have specified a structure with a thousand
eolumns, which whether a palace or a temple, must have been something
~ e r y different from a cottage; and again, supplication is put up for a large
101 Wilson's Rigvedl\ IV. 59.
loa Ibid, IV. 75.
104 Ibid, IV. 12.
10' Ibid, IV. 30. 20.
10' Rigveda 1. 58. 8; II.2\). 8 ;
IV. 27. 1 ; VII. 3. 7 ; VII. 15. 14;
VB. 9). I ; VIII. Sg. 8 ; X. 101. 8.
28
llabitation which coultl not be illtended for a hut: cities with buildings of
some pretence must obviously have been no rarities to the authors of the
hymns of the Rigvecla." 108 According to Professor Keith, however, "the
pura which is often referred to and which in later days denotes a town was
probably no more than a mere earthwork fortification. In certain passages,
these pUras are called autumnal, and by far the most probable explanation of
epithet is, that it refers to the flooding of the plains by the rising of
the rivers in the autumn when the cultivators and the herdsmen had to
take refuge within the earthworks which at other times served as defences
against human foes." 107 But the actllal remains of well-planned cities like
those of Mohenzo Daro and Harappa of the Calcholithic Age seem, however,
to confirm the imperfect picture of the pre-Aryan inhabitants of the Indus
valley in the Rigveda, living in paras, some of which might, therefore, will
have been cities and not mere earthwork fortifications.
Development of Agrioultll1'e-Agricllltnrc was already a part of Vedic
economy. The very name Arya by which thc Aryan conqnerors havc dis-
tinguislwd themselves from the aborigines is said to have come from a root
which means to cultivate.
loB
Similarly the words and
110 are applied to the people in general. In other places we find
Paneha I and II applied to the great tribes.
Fertile plots of land (urbal'a) were selected and divided into separate
fields which were measured with a rod.
l
1 S Forests were cleared
up by fire as well for purposes of culti,ation.
1I4
The Aswius taught the
Great }lanu the art of sowing seeds Illl and the Indo-Aryans the use of the
plough.
1l6
The plough was known as Sira
1l7
and Langala.
1I8
The
10. Wilson's Rigveda. III. p. XIV.
101 Ra.pson- Cambridge History of India, Vol. I.
108 R. C. DQtt _ Civilisation in Ancient In lia, p. 35.
10. Rigveda T. 11; 1. 100. 10; 1. 5 ; 1. 189. 3 ; III. 49. 1 ; IV. 21. 2.
110 Ibid,1. 86. 5 ; TIL 43.2; IV. 7. 4; V. 23.1.
111 Ibid, II. 2. 10 ; III. 53. 16 ; IV. 38. 10 ; X. 10. 4.
11' Ibid, I. 110. 5.
11< Ibid, I. 58. 4-5 ; 1. 140.4-8; It 4. 4,7 ; IV. 4.
11' Rigveda I. 11:3. 16 ; Saya.na.'s COlllmentary.
111 Ibid, IV. 57. S; X. 101 .. 3, .
1U Ibid, V. 86. 2 ;
VII. 15. 2; IX. 101. 9.
111 Ibid, I. 117. 21.
ul Ibid,IV. 57.4.
29
ploughshare was called phalli. II\) and the yoke was called Yuga.
1
20 The
plough was driven by oxen 121 which were yoked and harnessed with traces
(varatra) I U and urged with the goad B Ii with horny pointl24 by the
ploughman (klnasa).12 5
}'or the improvement of agriculture cowdung was probably used as
manure. Sakrt in the Rigveda
B6
means according to Professors Macdonell
and Keith dung and "it is cleal' that the value of manure was early appre-
ciated." 12 7 For irrigating the fields water-courses seem to have been dug
out. The epithet khanitriml (produeerl by digging) of apab. (water) in the
Rigveda 128 "clearly refers to artificial water-channels used for irrigation,
as practised in the times of the Rigveda." 12 9 Muit
13o
took the word kulya
to mean artificial waterways which carried water to reservoirs. Wells for

purposes of irrigation were also well-known. The word avata frequently
occurs in the Rigveda
1
S 1 and denotes an artificial hollow in the earth
containing water. Kupa having the same meaning also occurs in the
Rigveda.
132
Such wells are "described as unfailing and full of
water. I 8.'1 The water was raised by a wheel of stone 134 to which was
fastened a strap (varatril:) with a pail (kosa.) attached to it. When raised,
it was poured into buckets (ah;rva) I S 5 of wood. Sometimes these wells
appear to have been used for irrigation purposes, the wa.ter being led off
into broad channels (smmi 6 In some cases they (the wells)
110 Ibid, IV. 57. 8; X. 117.7.
1'<10 Ibid, I. 115.2; I. 184.3; II. 39.";
III. 53.17.
101 Ibid, X. 106.
1 .. Ibid, IV. 57. 4.
103 Ibid, IV. 57. 4; X. 1'2.8.
1 .. Ibid, VI. 53. 9.
... Ibid, IV. 57. co.
lO. Ibid, I. 161. 10.
t 8 1 I. 55. 8; I. 85. 10, 11 ; I. 116.
X. 25. 4 .
... I. 105.17.
". Rigvedo. X. 101. 6.
101 Vedic Index, II. p. 34'3.
I .. Rigvedo. VII. 49.2.
10. Vedio Index, I. p. 214 .
tao Sanskrit Texts, Vol. V. pp. 465-66.
9, 92 ; IV. 17. 16; VIII. 49. 6 ; VIII. 62. 6 ;
1B Rigvedo. X. 93.13; X. 101.7.
1 U Rigvedo. X. 25. 4.
1 eo Ibid, VIII. 69. 12.
30
must have been deep, as Trita in the myth is said to have fallen into one,
from which he could not escape unaided." 1 37
For successful agriculture timely rai.n was a necessity. Hence the
innumerable prayers for rain preserved in the hymns of the Rigveda. 13 8
Sacrifices were also offered for helping 1ndra to fight Vrtra or the Demon
of Drought and bring down rain by rendering open his cloud-body with
1ndra's thunderbolt. 1ndra was assisted in his work by some other deities,
notably Viltw.u the Sun-god who heated the sea-water, converted it into
vapour aml lifted them into the sky above, 13 9 the Maruts or Winds
(Monsoons) who carried the watery vapour inland from the surrounding
seas, Trita the third month of the rainy season when rainfall was incessant,
Parjanya the ancient god of. rain and Brhalt'pati of "loud speech" 140 who
helped the worshippers in properly chanting the mantras at the sacrifice,
held for the propitiation of the goels. The Saraswati was called V!iraghni
the killer of V rtra, like 1ndra.l
4
1 That obtaining rains was the main object
of holding the annual and special sessions of sacrifice in those days is
evident from the following verse: "I offer to you (gods) for the sake of
water, an all-bestowing sacrifice whereby the Navagvas have completed the
ten month's rite."14
2
Before agricultural work was begun, certain verses were uttered to
propitiate the Lord of the Field and other deities, supposed
to preside over agriculture, as will appear from the following verse of the
Rigveda
14S
:-
"We through the Master of the Field, even as through
a friend obtain
J8V Macdonell and Keith-Vedic Index, I. 40,177 j:"aleo Macdonell-Vedic Mythology,
p. 67.
188 V. 63.2 ; V. 63.6 ; V. 83. 6-7 j VI. 70.5 ; VII. 64. 2 j VII. 65. 4; VII. 73. 3 j
VII. 102. 1; VIlI. 7. 16 j VIII. 25. 6 j IX. 8. 8 ; IX. 39. 2; IX. 49. 1;
IX. 65. 3, 24; IX. 96. 4; IX. 97. 17 ; IX. 106. 9 ; IX. 108. 10; X. 98. 5, 10.
180 Rigveda VIII. 77. 10.
160 Ibid, IV. 50. 5.
101 Ibid, VI. 6l. 3, 7.
u, Ibid, V. 45. 1.
UI IV. 57.
What nourisheth our kine and steeds. In such way
may he be good to us.
As the cow yieldeth milk, pour for us freely, Lord of
the Field, the wave that beareth sweetness,
Distilling meath, well-purified like butter, amllet
the Lords of holy Law be gracious.
Sweet be the plants for us, the heavens, the waters,
aml full of sweets for us be air's mid-region.
Mav the Field's Lord for us be full of sweetness, and

may we follow after him uninjured.
Happily work our steers and men, may the plough
furrow happily,
Happily be the traces bound; happily may he ply
the goad.
Suna and S1ra, welcome ye this land, and with the
milk which ve have made in heaven .

Bedew ye hoth this earth of ours .

Auspicions Sim, come thou near: we venerate
and worship thee
That thou mayest bless and prosper us amI
hring us fruits ahundantly.
Indra press the furrow down, may
guide its course aright
May she, as rich in milk, he drained for us
throu gh each succeeding year.
Happily let the shares turn up the ploughland,
happily go the the oxen.
With meath and milk Parjanya make us happy;
grant us prosperity, SUlla and Sira."
:u
In ahother hymn 144 sacrifice is figuratively spoken of as ploughing,
sowing and reaping.165 We also read of other agricultural operations like
166 Rigveda. X. 101. 3-12.
U6 Compare Satapatha Brlhm!ll}lI. VII. 2. 2,4.
32
cutting of corn by the sickle, 14,& the laying of it in hundles, 14 7 on the
threshing floor 148 and final shifting by winnowing. 1", 9
Coming to the nature of the grain grown we find that Yava
150
and
dha:nah 151 or dh:inya 115!J were cultivated. I ~ 3 According to Macdonell and
Keith 154 Yava perhaphs meant any kiml of grain and not merely barley.
But we should hear in mind that Indian commentators ha.ve always taken
Yava to mean barley only. Moreover, we should note in this connection
that barley is one of the earliest grains to be cultivated by man. Again
European scholars interpret dha:na and dhanya as grain in general and not
as rice, though in later literature it always means rice. The absence of the
name of vrihi (the boro rice of Lower Bengal which later hecame the
general name of rice) in the Rigveda lend colour to the view that rice was
unknown in this age.
15l5
Pood of the people-'rhe food of this age consisted of harely flour and
its various preparations, fruhs, flesh of animals like goats, sheep, oxen,
buffaloes, deer and sometimes horses as well as honey, clarified butter, curds
and other preparations of milk. The drink consisted of milk, the Soma
juice and wine.
Apiipa
156
was a kind of cake made of barley mixed with clarified
butter. Paktp57 was another kind of cake. Grain cooked with milk was
called khlra-audana.
15
8 Karamba
159
was a kind of porridge made of fried
barley-flour, mixed with curd or clarified hutter.
H6 Sp)i, l1igveda I. 58.4; IV. 20.5; X. 101. 3 ; datra, Rigveda VIII. 67. 10.
1U p a r ~ a , Rigveda X. 48.7. U. Khala, Rigveda. X. 48.7.
149 Rigveda X. 27.15; X. 68.3; X. 71. 2.
160 Rigveda I. 53. 2; IV. 2'1. 7; V. 85. 3; VII. 3. 4; VIII. 2. 3; VIlI. 81. 4;
X. 27.8 ; X. 131. 2.
151 Rigveda I. 16. 2 ; III. 35. 3 ; III. 52. 7 ; VI. 29. 4.
H. Rigveda V. 53. 13; VI. 13.4; X. 94. 13.
us Cucumber is also referred to, Rigveds. VII. 59. 12. . . ~ Vedic Index, II. p. 187.
u a For tbe view tbs.t rice was oultivated in this age, res.d A. C. Das-Rigverlia
Culture, pp. 266-69, 281-83.
lO. Rigveds. III. 52. 7 ; X. 45. 9. i'V Ibid, IV. 24. 5 ; IV. 25. 6 ; VI. 29. 4 .
08 Ibid, VIII. 69.14; VIII. 77.10.
139 Ibid, I. 187. 16; Ill. 52. 7 ; VI. 56. 1 ; VI. 57. 2 ; VIII. 102. 2.
Meat was a principal item of food. The sage :Bharadwaja prayed to
Indra to grant him and his worshippers food with cow as the principal
item.
16o
Agni is called "eater of ox and COW."161 Bulls were sacrificed to
Indra as well. 161 There was even an appointed place for the slaughter of
bulls and COWS.
l6
3 On rare occasions horse was sacrificed and its flesh was
cooked and offered to the gods,l64 both roasted 16 5 and boiled 186; while
the worshippers "craving meat, await the distribution." 16 7 We also hear
of buffaloes dressed for and eaten by Indra. 16 8 The cow, however, was
gradually "acquiring a special sanctity, as is shown by the name aghnya
(not to be slain) applied to it in several passages."169 The word occurs
sixteen times in the Rigveda as opposed to three instances of aghnya
(masculine). It would thus appear that there was a school of thinkers
among the who set their face against the custom of killing such useful
animals as the cow and the bull. Relying on Sayana's interpretation we
also find a reference to thc fowler's wife cutting a bird, evidently for
food.
l10
Fish is mentioned in the Rigveda
17
1 but we are not sure whether or
how far it was used as food by the people of this age.
Fruits were eaten 17!l though we do not come across the names of any
of them. Honey was also taken with food and drink.
17
3 It is curious that
,there is no mention of salt in the Rigveda. "It is, however, quite conceiv-
,Able that a. necessary commodity might happen to be over without
'.0 Ibid, VI. 39. 1.
101 Ibid, VIII. 43. 11.
16 a Ibid, X. 89. 14.
10' Ibid, 1. 162. 11.
10f Ibid, I. 162. 12,
U8 Ibid, V. 29.8; VI. 17.11.
,., Ibid, X. 27. 2 ; X. 86. 13-14.
1 U Ibid, I. 162. 3, 10, 11.
... Ibid,!. 162. 13.
," MecdoneJland Keith-Vedic Index, II. p. 146.
" 0 Rigvedo. I. 92. 10. n 1 Ibid, VII. 18. 6 ; X. 68. 8.
19. Ibid, III. 45. 4 ; X. 14,6. 5 .
H Ibid,1. 19.9 ; I. 154. 4 ;
II. 19. 2 ; II. 37. 5 ; III. 8. 1 ;
III. 39. 6 ; III. 43. 3 j IV. 38. 10 ;
VII. 24.2.
34
literary mention in a region where it is very common, but to he referred
to in a locality where it is not found and consequently becomes highly
prized." 17 4 In the Chandogya U 175 it seems to be placed above
gold in value, prolJably hecausc it had to be imported at a heavy cost into
the region where the was composed. From the absence of any
mention of salt in the Rigveda some European scholars have come to the
conclusion that the Indo-Aryans of this age did not usc salt in the prepara-
tion of their food. But this, as Macdonell has observed "is a good illustration
of the dangers of argnmentum e.?: silencio."176 The existence of seas near
the Punjab and of the Salt Range in the heart of the country precludes 8.
supposition like that from being at all probable.
Milk furnished a nourishing drink and was callcd payas.
1
7 7 Curd was
called dadhi.178 Butter was prepared by churning (mantha) 119 and ghrta
was made from it by melting it on fire.
ls
0 Another drink Soma Was
made
lSI
with the pressed juice of a creeper or plant, diluted with water
and mixed with milk (gavasir), curd (dadhyasir) and 'grain (Yavasir)lu and
sometimes with honey ISS The Soma plant grew on the mOlmtains, that of
Mujavant being specially renownecl.l S 4 At first unmixed juice (sukra, suchi)
Was offered to Indra and Vayn 185 hut this usage was afterwards dropped
by the kaJ;lvas 186 The whole of the Nineth of the Rigvecla and
lU Maodonell and Keith-Vedic Index, II. p. 230.
]76 IV. 17.7.
1 TO Macdonell-History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 105.
H' Rigveda I. 164. 28 ; II. 14. 10 ; IV. 3.9; V. 85. 2 ; X. 30. 13.
H. Ibid, VIII. 2. 9 ; IX. 87. l.
17. Ibid, I. 28. 4.
180 Ibid, I. 134. 6 ; II. 10. 4 ; IV. 10. 6 ; IV. 58. 5, 7, 9; V. 12. 1.
181 Read Stevenson-Sarna Veda, p. 5; Haug-Aitareya BrahmalJa, 1. p. 6;
Manning-Ancient India, I. p. 86. For the mantras used in the course of
preparing the Soma beverage see Taittiriya SaTllhita, KalJiJ.a 1. Prapat'l.kas II.,
III., IV., and kalJiJ.a IV. Prapatakas 1., II., III., and IV. Ilnd
Somuproyogas supply the details.
18. Hillebrandt-Vedische Mytho\ogie, 1. 219-22.
18 3 Rigveda. IX. 103. 3.
184 Ibid,!. 93.6; III. 48.2; V. 36, 2; V. 43.4; V. 85.2; IX.!. 18 etc.
18' Ibid, I. 137. 1 ; III. 32. 2 ; VIII. 2. 9. 10.
t R. Ibid, VIII. 2. 5, 9, 10, 28.
35
six hymns in other mat;tdalas are most lavish in its praise. It enabled men
to concentrate their mind, made them active, cured their diseases and
preserved their characters.
1
8 1 It was also believed to prolong their lives. 188
But it also had an inebriating effect on its consumers, ultimately inducing
sleep 1811 and was compared with mada.
190
When singing the praise of
Soma some made apparently incoherent prayers for winning beautiful
damsels doubtless the result of an overdose of the drink.
llli
On the eve
, .
of a battle the warriors used to divide the Soma among themselves and
drink it, probably for excitement and cxhilaration.
lIIg
Sura was the name
of an intoxicating spirituous liquor. 19 3 It has been generally condemned
in the Rigveda as under its influence, mell committed sins and crimes 194.
and became devoid of sense.
1
9 It has been classed with dicing as an
evil,l1l6 It was the drink of men in the Sava. and gave rise to broils"197
Pllnta waS the name of another drink in the Rigveda.
l
9 8 As it was offered
to the gods, it has been identified by commentators with Soma. But it may
have been a drink of a different kind.
Sheep and Cattle-rearing: the domesticated principal
a.nimals domesticated in this age are the cow, the buffalo, the horse,
ass, sheep and goat. Oxen and horses were indispensible for agricultural work
and milk was required not only for daily consumption but also for offering
libations to the Sacred Fire twice a day and for preparing butter and ghee
to enable the people to perform the annual and periodic sessions of sacrifice
so that they might be blessed with sufficient rainfall for the successful
cultivation of their crops. was the god of the shepherds to whom
18 7 Ibid, VIII. 48. 5.
188 Ibid, VIII. 48. 11.
18' Ibid, IX. 69. 6.
'.0 Ibid, IX 68. 3 ; X. 69. 3.
10 1 Ibid, IX. 67. 10, 11, 12.
II. Ibid, IX. 106. 2 .
According to Taittirlya Brihmal,la "it was, as opposed to Soma., essentially a. drink
of ordinary life" (Macdonell and Keith-Vedic Index, I I. p. 458.)
lu Rigveda. VlI. 86.6. 196 Ibid, VIII. 2.12; VIII. 21. 14 .
... Ibid, VII. 86. 6.
107 Maodonell and Keith-Vedic Index, II. p. 458.
1," I. 122. 1 ; I. 1:>5. 1 ; VII. 92.1 ; X. 88. 1.
prayers were offered.
11l9
"Give us "ide pastures" was the cry.1I00 We read
of cattlc going to the pasture at daybreak for grazing, 01 of herdsmen
driving thell, 0 of herdt;mcn guarding them, \I 03 of herdsmen calling out
to the cattle \I 0.. and of herdsmen driving them home from the pasture. \I 05
The oo.ger solicitude for the welfare of their kine will be evident from the
following verses :-
"May follow near our kine; may
keep our horses safe :
May PUl?han gather gear for us.
Follow the kine of him who pours libations out
and worship thee;
And ours who sing songs of praise.
Let none be lost, none injured, none sink in a pit
and break a limb
Return with these safe and sound."\l06
"Yea, let the herdsman, too, return, who marketh
well their driving forth;
Marketh their wanuering' away, their turning
back and coming home
Home-leader, lead them home to us; Inelra, restore
to us our kine
We will rejoice in them alive. "1I 0 1
"May the wind blow upon om cows with healing;
may they eat herbage full of vigorous juices.
May they drink waters rich in life and fatness:
to food that moves on feet be g-l'acious, Rudra."lol
From the ahove quotations it is evi(lent that the cattle were objects of
g-rcat care with the Rigvcdic Aryans. They were kept in the eowstall, 10,
H. Rigved& I. 42 ; VI. :>'; VI. 55 ; VI. 56 ; VI. i>7 .
00 Ibid, I. 42.8. 101 Ibid, III. 4:>.3 j IV. :>1. B j V. 7.7 .
0. Ibid, V. 81.1. 00. Ibid, VI. 19. 3 .
00 Ibid, III. 39.9. "0' Ihid, VI. 49. 12 ; VI. 24. 4; VI. 41. 1.
SOl Ibid, VI. fI-7. 00' Ibid, X. 19: "-6 .
01 Ihid, X. 169. 1.
10. Rigved& .V. 23. 10; V. :>; V. 405. 6; V. 62. 2; VI. 10. 3; VI. 17. 2,
VI. 28. 1 ; VI. 4r>. 24 ; VI. 62. 11 ; VI. 6:>. 6 j X. 169. 3, 4.
37
fed on barley and oorn,2 10 and supplied with pure drinking water raised
from.. the wells and pomed into wooden cattle-troul!:hs which were bound
with straps for being conveniently carried from the side of the wells to
the cowpens. gIl Prayers were offered to Agni not to burn up the places
where the cattle find refuge and food. g 12 The milching of the cow was
usually done by the daughter of the householder as the word duhitr
proves. 9 13 We have already seen that besides milk and the preparations from
milk, cow was also used for food and as a standard of value in purcha.sing
goods. Oxen were used for ploughing'14 and for drawing cars and
waggons.' 1 5 The skin served the purpose of a mattress, specially for the
newly married wife who had to sit on a cowhide along with her husband.
The hide was also used in covering chariot. g 16 We also read of wine-bottles
made of leather, g 1 7 of skins for carrying water,
2
18 of a skin filled with
meath kept in the chariot
g
19 ancl of a skin containing curds. g 9 0 No wonder,
therefore, that Rigvedic princes vied with one another in making gifts of
cows to the most deserving. 9 9 1 The name of the sacrificial fee i8
explained as referring originally to a cow placed on the right hand of the
singer of hymns for reward. The composer of the hymns of the Rigveda
compares himself to the cow and his hymn to the milk. J II J The composers
also delight to comparc their songs to the lowing of cows to their calves. III
Buffalo was well konwn. 9 g 4 We have already seen that besides its
milk, its flesh was a.lso eaten.
u
5 That buffaloes were used in drawing cars
is evident from a hymn of the Rigveda
ll
g 8 where mention is made of a. car
uo Ibid, X. 27.8. 0 Ibid,X. 101. 11-7.
HI Ibid, I. 47. 3. 8 ta Ibid, IX. 97.47 .
" Ibid, IV. 57. 4 ; X. 106. 2. 811 Ibid, II. 2. 1.
U. Ibid, VI. 47. 27. '17 Ibid, I. 191. 10.
ot8 Ibid,1. 85. 5. 019 Ibid, IV. 41i. 1.
800 Ibid, VI. 18. Compa.re Krivi, Rigved a. II. 17. 6 ; II. 22. 2 .
01 Rigved& I. 126. 1-' ; V. 30.12-15; VIII. 1.33; VIII. 4.20-21 ; VIII. 1).37 ;
VIII. 5. 47 ; I. 122. 7 ; VII. 8. 22.
Ibid, I. 186. 4 .
Ibid, VI. 45. 25 ; VI. 45. 28 ; VIII. 77. 1 .
.. Ibid, IV. 21. 8 ; V. 29. 7,8 ; VI. 5. 37 ; VIII. 6.48; VIII. 35. 8 ; IX. 38. 1 .
... Ibid, V. 29. 8; VI. 17. 11 .
... Ibid, X. 102.
38
which was drawn by a team, one of which was a bull and the other a
buffalo. Buffa.loes were also objects of gifts.
2
2 7
The horse has various names in the Rigvcda. It was called atya
(runner), arvant (the swift), vajen (the strong), sapti (runner) and ha.ys.
(the speeding). Horses of various colours were known, dun Charita, hari),
ruddy (al'UI.la, a r u ~ a , pisanga, rohita) dark-brown (syava), white (svcta) etc.
The regions bordering upon the Sindhu
2
28 and the Saraswati 229 were
famous as breeding places of horses. Horses were used to draw not only
carts laid en with harvested corn 230 but also carriages or chariots containing
passengers. It scems to have been considered undignified for a wealthy
man to come to the sacrificial assembly in a one-horse car.2 SlIt is
surprising to be told by some European scholars that though the horse
was employed to draw carts and carriages or chariots, it was not used for
riding.
232
Macdonell remarks "No mention is made of riding in battle."
Ut
Professor Keith observes "Though horse-riding was probably not unknown
for other purposes, no mention is made of this use of the horse in war."U4.
But as a matter of fact, we find innumerable references to horse-riding'l5
and evcn of the use of horse in war.
2
36 Thus we read :-
"Where are your horses, where the reins? How came ye ?
how had ye the power ?
Rein was on nose and seat on back
The whip is laid upon the flank. The heroes stretch
their thighs apart,
Like women when the babe is born."U 1
U1 Ibid, VIII. 5. 37 ; VIII. 6. 48.
u8 Ibid, X. 75. 8.
Ibid, I. 3. 10 ; II. 41. 48 ; VI. 61. 3, 4; VII. 90. 3.
080 Rigveda. X. 101. 7.
81 Macdonell-History of Sanskrit Literature, p. 150.
8& Rapson-Cambridge History of India, Vol. 1. p. 98 .
all Ibid, X. 131. 3.
0.' Vedic Index, I. p. 42 .
86 Rigveda I. 15:J. 1; I. 158. 3; I. 162. 17; II. 1. 6; II. 27. 22; V. 61. 2,3;
V. til. 11 ; V. 5B. 3 ; V. 34. 3; V. 64. 7 ; VIII. 5. 7, 8 ; VIII. 6. 36 .
Rigveda II. 34. 3; IV. 42. 5; V. 61 ; VI. 33. 1; VI. 46. 13, l4o; VI. 47. 31;
IX. 37.5 ; IX. 86. 3; IX. 108. 2; X. 6.6 ; X. 96. 10.
31 Ibid, V. 61. 2-3.
39
No better description can be given of riding a horse. In another hymn
addressed to the horse we read :
"If one, when seated, with excessive urging hath
with his heel or with his whip distressed thee,
All these thy woes, as with oblation's ladle at sacrifices,
with my praycr I banish." g S 8
As regards the use of the horse in war by the cavalry we read :
"Our heroes, winged with horses, come together.
Let our car-warriors, Indra be triumphant." 2 S 9
Here the poet evidently mentions two separate classes of warriors-"heroes
winged with horses" (asvaparQAh, meaning 'riding on fleet horses') and "car-
warriors." In another hymn we read :
"Heroes with noble horses (svasvah) fain for hattIe,
selected warriors call on me in combat.
I Indra Maghavan excite the conflict.
I stir the dust, Lord of surpassing vigour."uo
Dadhikras is the name of the divine war-horse whose feats are described
in the Rigveda.
2
40 1 The Rigvcdic Aryans were also fond of horse-racing
which supplied the people with fun and excitement and the horses and
their riders with exercisc necessary to keep them fit.. Thus we read:
"Indra hath helped Somapresser, contending
in the race of steeds with Silrya."2U
"To him these ladles go, to him these racing mares."H3
"They have come nigh to you as treasure-lover,
like mares, fleet-footed, eager for glory."u4
The race-course was called g 45 or ii. ji 14 6 and the person who insti-
tuted a horse-race was called aji-krt. g 41 The Rigvedic Aryans were also
fond of the race of chariots drawn hy horses, for, it was "the peaceful
preparation for the decisive struggle on the hattle-field."h8 Thus we read :
... Ibid, I. \62. 17.
u. Rigveda VI. 47. 31.
"1 Ibid, IV. 38 ; IV. 39 ; IV. 40.
u a Ibid, I. 145. 3.
... Ibid, VIII. SO. 8.
Uf Ibid, VIII. 53.6.
",0 Ibid, IV. 42. 5.
Ui Ibid, 1. 61. 15.
.. Ibid, IV. 41. 9 ; compare also IX. 97.25.
Ibid, IV. 24. 8; X. 156. 1.
.,. Kaogi's The Rigved .. , p. 19.
"Ho there! why sittest thou (0 Indra) at ease? Make
thou my chariot to be first:
And bring the fame of victory near." h Il
"As for a chariot-race, the skilful Speaker (Soma),
Chief, Sage, Inventor, hath with song been startoo."JI50
"Thou conquerest thus with might when car meets
car and when the prize is staked."B 1
The horse was occasionally used for sacrifice and its flesh was partaken of
by the worshippers. 02 Horses like cows were also objects of gift. 9 5 S
Camels are frequently mentioned. 2 They were used for carrying
loads
255
and as objects of gift.256
Asses are also mentioned as dmwing the car of the Awins.
157
They
were also objects of gift.
2
5 8 Wild ass is also referred to in the Rigveda
H
II
according to Von Roth.
Sheep260 was a very useful animal in this age, for, besides its milk and
flesh, its wool was a material for clothing. is described in one
verse
261
as "weaving the raiment of the sheep." The Indus region was
wooly (suvasa Ul'l!avati)
2
62 j also was woolyU 8 j and the softest
wool was of the ewes of Ganclharans.
2u
Goats are repeatedly mentioned in the Rigveda.
2
6 6 Pu!}han's chariot
like Thorr's in the Edda is said to be drawn by a team of goats. U6 Besides
Rigveda, VIII. 69.5. ,. Ibid, IX. 91. 1.
061 Ibid, IX. 53.2. Ibid, I. 163. 10, 12,13,19.
US Ibid, I. 123. 2 ; VII. 18.23; VIII. 1. 32 ; VIII. 3.21,22; VIII. 4. 19; VIII. 6. 47 ;
VIII. 46.23 .
" Ibid, I. 138. 2 ; VII. 5. S7 ; VIII. 6. 48 ; VIII. 46. 22, 31.
U' Ibid, I. 138. 2. .. Ibid, VIII. 5 ; VIII. 46.
oo. Ibid, 1. 34. 9 ; 1. 116. 2 ; 1. 117. 16 ; 1. 162. n ; IV. 36. 1 ; VIII. 74. 7 .
... Ibid, VIII. Ba.lkhilya Hymn No.8. line 3 .
Ibid, X. 86. 18. Ibid, 1. 10. 2 ; 1. 51. 1 ; 1. 52. 2 ; eic .
1 Ibid, X. 26. 6. Ibid, X. 75. 8.
US Ibid, IV. 22.2; V. 52.9. .. Ibid,1. 126.7.
08. I. 162.2; 1. 163. 12 ; 11.39.2; VII. 18. 17 .
Rigveda 1. 138. 4; IX. 67. 10 ; X. 26. 8.
the milk of
for clothing.
a goat.
41
the she-goat, and the flesh of the goat, its wool was a material
In early times goat-skins were worn, ajin coming from aja,
Elephants, 6 i deer,26 8 spotted deer, e 9 pigeons, 7 0 swans, 71 pea-
parrots,273 quail,g74 chakwa (chakravaka),B5 ante-
lopes
g77
and wild are also mentioned.
BCOlwmic imporlance of Forests-The forests were of great economic
value to the Indo-Aryans of this age. In thc first place, they served as
natural pastures. 79 Secondly, they were utilised as burial places and
probably also as cremation grounds. 8 0 Thirdly, a hymn of the Rigveda
u
t
makes it apparent that certain classes of people used to live in the forest
tracts. Lastly, they provided the house-holder with the materials for the
construction of houses, chariots, sacrificial implements and the like. Above
all, they were a constant source of fuel to the community.
2
U It is no
wonder, therefore, that the people regularly prayed that the trees and the
plants would be endowed with sweetness so that they might conduce to the
benefit of the people-
"To us Herbs and Forest trees be gracious."288
Again "May herbs that grow on ground and Heaven
And Earth accordant with Forest-Sovrans, and both the
World-halves round about protect US."U4
!U 7 Ibid, I. 640. 7 ; VI. 40. 5 ; VIlI. 33. 8 ; VIII. 45. 5 ; IX. 57. 3; X. 106. 6.
II Ibid, 1. 38. 5 ; I. 105. 7 ; I. 163. 1 ; VIIl. 2. 6 ; IX. 32. 4.
ue Ibid, I. 37.2; VIII. 7.28. no Ibid, I. 30.4; X. 165.1,2.
U 1 Ibid,!. 65. 5 ; I. 163. 10; VIII. 35. 8 ; VII. 7 ; IX. 32. 3.
IU Ibid, I. 191. 14 ; III. 45. I. ., I Ibid, I. 50. 12.
aU Ibid, I. Ill. 8; I. 117.14; 1. 117.16. n. Ibid, 11.39.3.
In Ibid, VII. 104.22. an Ibid, 1. 64.8; VIII. 4. 10.
n. Ibid, I. 61. 7 ; I. 88. 5 ; I. 114. 5 ; VIII. 66. 10 ; VII. 55. 4 ; IX. 97. 7; X. 28. 4 ;
X. 67. 7 ; X. 99. 6 .
... Ibid, X. 146. 3 ; oompare Ibid, IV. 1. 15 .
... Ibid, X. 18. 4, 10, 12. 1 Ibid, X. 14,1). 4..
UI Compare Ibid, X. 146. 4, 5. ..8 RigvedB VII. 311. 5.
II. Ibid, VII. 34.23.
n. Ibid, I. 135. 8; X. 31. 10 ; X. 51. 2 ; X. 97. 5.
The various useful trees mentioned in the Rigveda are :-(1) A i:
from the wood of this tree and of Sami tree are made the aralli, the two
pieces of wood which are rubbed together to produce the sacred fire-the
upper and the harder piece is the Sami and the lower and the softer ;s the
Asvattha wood. The vessel for holding the Soma juice is made of the
wood of this tree. 8 6 Other sacrificial vessels were also made of the wood
of this tree and hence it is called "the home of plants used in religious
(2) Same (Acacia Suma)Us: its wood formed the upper
log of aralli which when rubbed against the lower log of Asvattha wood
produced the sacred fire. Its juice says Dhanwantari when applied on the
body would deprive the skin of hair. (3) Parl}.a or Palasa (Butea Frondosa)U 9:
sacrificial vessels were made of the wood of this tree and hence it is called
the "mansion" of the plants used in religious ceremonies. 1190 (4) Khadira
(Acacia Catechu) : the pin of the axle of chariots was made of thig hard
wood.
291
(5) Harit:tla (hJridr:tva)292 : according to Sayana it was a kind
of tree. (6) Semala (Salmalia ]\:[a1barica)993 : it is also known as the
Simbala or S:tlmali tree. Its blossoms give silk-cotton,2 H while its wood,
being hard was used in the construction of the wheels of chariots.
2
9 5
(7) Sinsip:J, sisu tree
296
: cars were made of this timber
ll97
which is
called the "sovran of the wood"298 (8) Kinsuka (Buteo. Frondosa)l!9\1 :
wheels of chariots were made of this wood. 3(. 0 (9) Vibhidaka or Vihhitaka
(Terminalia Bellerica)30 1: 'rhcse trees were tall, of windygheights and
their nuts were used as dice in early times. 302 (10) Kakambara' 0 it is
apparently the name of some umbrageous tree.
3
0 4.

Ibid, 1. 135. 8.
.e 8 Ibid, X. 97. 5 ; X. 51. 2 .
.. 0 Ibid, X. 97.5.
... Rigved& III. 53. 19.
ova Ibid, Ill. 53. 22; VII. 50. 3; X. 85.20.
,. a Ibid, X. 85. 20.
07 Ibid, Ill. 53. 19 .
Ibid, X. 85. 20.
aOl Ibid, X. 34.1.
008 Ibid, VI. 48.7.
00< Griiffitb-Rigveda, Vol. 1. p. 614 fn.
7 Ibid, X. 97. 1>.
.B, Ibid, IV. 27.4; X. 97. 5 .
0 Ibid, I. 50. 12 .
... Ibid, III. 53. 22.
Ibid, III. 53. 19.
Ibid, III. 53. 20.
800 Ibid, X. 81>. 20.
300 Ibid, X, 34. 1
Various species of grass are also mentioned in the Rigveda:-
(1) Dfirvi\305 (Panicum Dactylon): it is a species of bent grass whose
filaments stretch hori7.0ntally away from the stem. (2) Kusa
306
(POll.
Cynosuroides) : this grass, after its roots are cut off, is spread on the
sacrificial altar; and upon it the libation of Soma juice or oblation of
clarified butter is poured out. It is also spread over the sacrificial ground
or floor to serve as a seat for the gods and the sacrificers. The flame
produced by the attrition of the two logs of wood which constituted the
was caught by the tuft of Ku-:a grass carefully kept between the
two. SOl (3) Munja
3
08 : the strainer through which Soma juice was
filtered was made also of this grass.
3
0 9 (1) Balbaja
3
to (Eleusine Indica):
it was a of coarse grass used in religious ceremonies and for other
puroposes when plaited. Sll Besides these, different varieties of grass like
Sara, Darbha, Sairya and are mentioned in which snakes
and other venomous reptiles lurk. S 1
Among the plants Soma was undoubtedly the most important, for, as
we have seen, its juice was used in sacrificial drink. It grew on the
mountains, that of Mujavant being specially renowned.
313
Medicinal herbs
flnd plants are frequently mentioned in the Rigveda.
S14
In the tenth
lilalJdala of the Rigveda we find a hymn of twenty-three stanzas in praise
of medicinal herbs and plants.
3
1 5 Of these P:rt:-r
316
is mentioned, probably
indentical with Patha. (Clypea Hernandifolia), a climbing plant, possessing
various medicinal properties.
3
17
HUlltillg and Fi_liill('J-Besides agriculture and cattle-rearing, hunting
and fishing remained the occupation of a large section of the people,
ao. Rigved ... X. 1 :U. 5 ; X. 142. S. 30' Ibid, I. 4. 3 ; III. 29. 1.
807 Rigved .. III. 29. 1. In the Brahm1l)a. V. 2. 1, 8 the wife of the gaorifioer
we .. rB a garment of Kus" .. ss for some rites-a. relic of primitive dress.
a08 Rigvoda. 1. 161. 8 ; I. In. 3. a09 ItJid, I. 161. 8.
UO Ibid. VIII. Balkbilya 7. 3. 31:1 Griffith's Rigveda Vol. II. p. 265 fn.
'u Rigveda I. 191. 5.
01' Ibid, I. 93. 6; Ill. 48. 2; V. 36.2; V. 43.40; V. 85.2; IX. 1.18. etc
... Ibid, I. 43. 2 ; VII. 340. 23; VII. 35. 5.
'16 Ibid, X. 97. .u Ibid, X. 140{). 1.
,., Griflith' _ Rignda, Vol. II. p. 589 f
.44
specially the aborigines. The word sva.-ghnin occurs in the Rigveda
31

in the sense of hunter as well as gambler. The arrow was employed in
hunting down beasts
3
19 and the normal instruments of capture were nets
and pitfalls. Nets were called pasa
HO
or nidha,321 the hunter being called
pasm. Pits were used for capturing antelopes aml so were called
antelope-catching. Hunters chasing a deer
s
22 and wild elephantsllll 8
are referred to. Lions were captured in pits covered with snares
3
24. or were
surrounded by the hunters and slain. U II In another passage\! 2 6 we read
that "the Soma flows on in order to be taken up and used in libations as
a lion goes to the place where men lie in wait to capture him or where a
pitfall has been prepared to entrap him." 3 1 The capture of the wild steer
is referred to thus :
"Even the wild steer in his thirst is captured : the
leather strap still holds his foot entangled" H 8
Wild bulls were sometimes hunted down with the arrow 'from the archer's
bow-string' . 329 The boar was captured in the chase with the help of hounds
"who seize him and bite him in the e&.r."330 Birds were caught in nets,
the bird-catcher being called nidhipati. Sometimes birds were shot down
with the arrow.SSl
Fish is mentioned in the Rigveda
332
as well as pearls.
3SS
The growth of a/'ts and crafts-As regards the arts and crafts of this
period scholars differ. According to Professor Kaegi "In arts the race
still stood on the lowest stage" 334 ; while Professor Ragozin and Macdonell
hold the opposite view. According to Macdonell "already in this period
318 I. 92. 10; II. 12.4,5; IV. 20.3; VIII. 45.38.
310 Rigveda, IV. 58.6; X. 51. 6. Ibid, III. 45.1; vr 43.17.
3U Ibid, IX. 83. 4 ; X. 73. 11. 30. Ibid, VllI. 2. 6.
0.8 Ibid, X. 40. 4. 3 H Ibid, X. 28. 10.
308 Ibid, V. 15. 3. ..a Ibid, V. 74. 4.
a., Griffith's Rigveda, Vol. 1. p. 542 fn. us Rigveda X. 25. 10.
s Ibid, X. 51. 6. ."0 Ibid, X. 86.4.
331 Ibid, II. 42.2. au Ibid, VII. 18.6 j X. 68.8.
08 Ibid,!. 35. 4 ; I. 126. 4; VII. 18. 23 ; X. 68. 11 .
... Introduction to tbe Rigveda, p. 40.
specialisation in industry had begun." The chief impulse for this speciali-
sation had come from the ever-increasing agricultural and military needs
of the community, settled in the midst of a hostile population. There was
a well-marked tendency towards division of labour and the growth of various
suh-crafts, leading ultimately to the organisation of craftsmen even into
guilds. A further impetus towards the development of industry came
from the fact that in this age some of the craftsmen like the Ratha-kara
and the T a k ~ a n enjoyed. a considerable social status. They stood in close
relation to the king of whom they were regarded as sti or clients.
3
3 5
From the researches of Professors Max Muller
336
and Schrader3ST
regarding the Indo-European group of languages we find great similarity
existing between the Sanskrit words Tan and Tanti (string) and Zend Tan
and Greek Teino and Latin Tendo, all meaning stretching. For weaving
we have the Sanskrit root Ve, akin to Latin Vieo and Teutonic Weban.
Similarly, Sanskrit T a k ~ a n is akin to Zend Tashan and Greek Tektan, all
meaning a carpenter. For plaiting' we have the Sanskrit root Pre, akin
to Greek Pleko and Latin Plico, all similar in sound and meaning. The
conclusion may, therefore, be safely drawn that a common knowledge of
some of these crafts (e.g" those of the weaver, the carpenter and the plaiter
of grass and reeds) existed among the people speaking the Indo-European
group of languages.
(1) Wea"'llg industry-The Rigveda contains many passages which
show that even then the people were perfectly familiar with the art of
weaving. The passages, it must be confessed, are brief and casual, occuring
mostly by way of similes and metaphors in hymns designed for the
glorification of particular divinities; but they are none the less interesting
and suggestive on that account. Thus the verse "Night and Morning like
female weavers ......... interweave in concert the long-extended thread,
the web of worship" 338 gives only a simile, yet that refers to a familiar
fact whose existence cannot be questioned. Again we have a versesst
330 Rigvede. X. 97.23; Macdonell and Keith-Vedic Index, Vol. I. p. 96.
U8 Biographies of Word .
an Realle:rikon dar Indogermanisohen Alliertumskunda.
AI Rignda U. 3. 6. a. Ibid, U. 88. 6.
which Wilson following Sayana paraphrases thus: "She (Night) enwraps
the extended (world) like (a woman) weaving (a garment)."34
0
Elsewhere
we read "Mothers weave garments for him their 01fspring."341 The words
tantum, otum and vayanti occur in the following verse
3U
: "I know not
either warp or woof, I know not web they weave when moving to the
contest." Here the threads of the warp (t<tntum) are the metres of the
Vedas, those of the woof (otum), the liturgic prayers and ceremonial, the
combination of which two is the cloth or sacrifice. According to the
Vedantists the tbreads of tbe warp are the subtle elements, those of the
woof the gross and their combination the universe. Tantum and Otum
are also referred to figuratively in the following verse: "For both the warp
and the woof he understandeth and in due time shall speak what shouhi
be spoken." 3 4 S Tantra meaning warp or 100m
3
4 4 and tasara meaning
weaver's shuttle
3
45 are also mentioned. Vaya meaning a weaver occurs
in the Rigveda
3
46 as also various uses of the root va.
3
4 7 The expressi on
vaso-vaya shows that other "Vaya"s had already arisen who produced sundry
piece-goods other than the standard vJsas or wearing cloth; besides there
were the female weavers called "Siri"s.3 48 Female weavers are often
referred to in the Rigveda
349
and there is a fling at spinsters who spin out
thread in ignorance.
3
50 Indeed we have a large number of words showing
the extensive use of woven garments. Thus we have at least three words
to denote the ordinary wearing cloth viz., Vasas, vastra and vasana. We
read-
"To you as to a v1sas in winter, we cleave close." 3 51
"When he (Sun) hath lossed his Horses from their station,
straight over all Night spreadeth out her vasas." S 5!l
3<0 Wilson's Rigveda II. p. 207.
3U Ibid, V. 47.6.
3U Rigveda V. 9. 3.
3" Ibid, X. 130. 2.
=n Macdonell and Keith-Vedio Index:
a .. Rigveda. X. 71. 9 .
... Ibid, II. 3.6 ; II. 38. 4. of. V. 47. 6.
a O. Ibid, X. 71. 9.
a .. I. Uti ..
a2 Ibid, VI. 9. 2.
&U Ibid, X. 71. 9.
au Ibid, X. 26. 6.
'Vaya' and 'otu.'
s.. Rigveda. 1. 34. 1.
"Vasas is body, food in life and healing ointment
gi veth strength." 35 S
"Loose in the wind the woman's vasas was streaming."u4
"0 worthy of oblation, Lord of prospering powers,
assume they vastra."3 5 5
"For thee the radiant Dawns in the far distant sky
broaden their lovely vastra forth in wondrous beams .....
6
"Anspicious, clad in white and shining vastra."
3
5 7
"Loudly the folk cry after him in battles, as it were
a thief who steals away a vastra."S58
"Like fair and well-made vastras, I seeking riches,
as a deft craftsman makes a car, have wronght them." so
9
"Yea from his Mother draws he forth a new vasana."360
4/1
The vasas seem to have horders and fringes denoted by the word sic.
Thus in one hymn of the Rigveda
38
1 the child is covered by its mother's
sic and in another36 ~ the horizons at Sunrise and Sunset are said to be the
two sican of the sky-cloth. In yet another hymn
363
we read "I grasp,
mighty Indra, thy garment's hem as a child his father's." The upper
part of the body was covered by another separate garment called
adhivasa. S 6.. The forests are the adhivasa of mother earth licked by the
fire-child.
3
6 ~ The drapi
3
66 is not a coat of mail as the authors of the Vedic
Index say, for, it was worn by women as well. In Atharvaveda
387
Arati
is called hiraI;lya-drapi and is likened to a courtesan for wearing it.
Moreover, the use of vasana1;t S 6 8 would rather show that it was made of
vasas. Further in the Atharvaveda
36
9 the Sun wearing the three worlds
a .. Ibid, VIII. 3. 24.
a .. Ibid, I. 134. 4.
a eo Ibid, IV. 3B. 5.
au Ibid, X. 102.2.
30. Ibid, [II. 39. 2.
"09 Ibid, V. 29. 15.
8 Ibid, I. 26. 1.
uo Ibid, I. '15. 7. For other referenoes to woven garments read Rigveda I. 140. 1;
1. 152. 1; IT. 14. 3 jIll. 1. 6; III. 8. 4; V. 42. 8 j V. b7. 4-5 j VI. 4. S;
VI. 11. 6 ; VI. 35.1 ; VI. 47.2:3; IX. 8.6; IX. 96.1 j X. 71.4.
au X. 18. 11. U ~ Rigveda,1. 95. 7.
eo, Ibid, III. 53. 2.
au Rigveda I. 1'0. 9 ; X. 5. 4. ae. Ibid, 1. 140. 9.
II. Ibid,!. 116. 10 ; IV. 53. 2 ; IX. 100. 9. 8 n V. 7. 10 .
... Compare drllpim vasanv.\.I, Rigveda IX. 86. 14. a .. XIII. 3.1.
is said to have made a dr:Ipi of them, so that drapi like a vest or waist-coat
had three pieces-two side ones and one back. It was close-fitting87 0
and gold-embroidered. S 71 The atka
37
2 was worn by men only and was a.
long
37
S and fully coveringS 7 ... close-fittingS 75 cloak, brightS 76 and beauti-
ful, 3 77 the stuff being bleached 378 cotton 37 \I interwoven S 8 0 or embroi-
dered
ss1
with gold threads. Pesas
382
is gold embroidered cloth,Ssll the
designs being artistic and intricate
38
4 and the inlay of gold heavy and
b rillian t. 3 a 5
The material for clothing was probably wood (lirna). PUliian is described
as vaso-vaya, weaving woolen cloth.sa6 Indra is "wearing wool
for adornment"387 while the Maruts are said to "tarry on the
putting on robes of wool." 3 a a In another hymn we learn of "weaving the
raiment of the sheep." S 8 9 In this age the wool of Gandhara,3 9 0 of the
countryS 91 and of Sind 3 9 was highly prized.
370 Rigveda I. 166. 10 (Cyavana's old age like a drapi); probably drapi = a tigM vest
suitable for running about (dra).
371 Ibid, I. 25. 13 (hiraJ;lyayaI\1) ; IV. 53. 2
378 Ibid, I. 95.7; I. 122.2; IV. 18. 5 ; VI. 29.3; VIII. 41. 7 etc .
... Ibid, II. 35. 14 (food carried in one's own atka: 1.e., in the long skrit made into
an apron.
74 Ibid, V. 74. 5 (vavriql atkaql, likened to Cyavana's old age.:
3,. Sarabhil'\1atkaIJ.l: Rigveda VI. 29.3 ; X. 123.7 .
.,6 Like Sun: Rigveda VI. 29. 3; X. 123.7.
37 7 Rigveda I. 122.2.
Us : Rigveda I. 95.7.
n .As vyiitam (Rigveda 1. 122. 2) and frequent use of vRsanah shows.
380 HiraJ;lyair vylltam : Rigveda I. 122, 2.
181 HiraJ;lyayan: Rigveda V. 56.6.
3., Rigveda I. 92.4; IV. 36.7; II. 3.6; VII. 34. ll; X. 114.3 etc .
... Rigveda IV. 36. 7. VIII. 31. 11 ; VII. 42. 1.
IU Ibid, II. 3.6 .
Ibid, VII. 34. 11 (the glittering surface of rivers= peias). Compare X. 11'.
where pe'a! is oalled bright a8 gbee (i.e., golden.)
... Rigveda. X. 26. 6. $I 7 Ibid, IV. 22. 2 .
... Ibi.I, V. !ill. 9. so 9 Ibid, X. 26. 6.
U. Ibid, I. 126.6-7. 891 Ibid, IV. 22.2 ; V. 52.9.
Ibid, X. 75. 8.
49
In the Rigved.a there is no mention of cotton (karpls) though silk-
cotton tree was known. When, however, we bear in mind that already in
the Calcholithic age the people of the Punjab and Sind knew the use of
cotton and cotton-weaving the following remarks of Professor Muir gain
added strength: "It is difficult to conceive that cotton (which as we learn
from Professor S. H. Balfour, is supposed to have been indigenous in India),
though not mentioned in the hymns, should have been unknown when they
were composed or not employed for weaving the light cloth which is
necessary in so warm a climate." 3 9 3 Long ago Professor Ragozin also wrote
in the samc strain "The Aryan settlers of Northern India had already
begun at an amazingly early period to excel in the manufactures of the
delicate tissue which has ever been and is today doubtless incomparably
great in perfection, one of thcir industrial glories-a fact which implies
cultivation of cotton-plant or tree."8 u
Metal industry-The metal industry was also in a highly developed
condition "but it is, however, still uncertain" says Mr. Macdonell "what
that metal which was called ayrr., was." The evidence of some of the old
texts is often misleading. Thus in the Satapatha Brahma1;La395 ayas is
any metal which is neither gold nor lead. In the ViTjasemya Sa!phita
3911
ayas is separated from Loha and Syamam. :From the Atharvaveda
s97
and
even the Rigved.a
s98
the sense of iron for ayas is certain. Professor
Schrader in his Prehistoric Antiquities well points out that Sanskrit ayas
.., Latin aes = Goth aiz = Zend ayarih, meaning pure dark copper and
it is, therefore, quite probable that ayas of the Rigveda was neither iron nor
bronze but the pure dark copper, a. knowledge of which was common to all
the Indo-European peoples. He further points out that "a ser;es of names
of copper gradually assumes the name of iron." Thus Sanskrit Loha
originally meant copper but later it was used. to denote iron. S 9 9
a ua Muir's Saoskrit Texts, V. p. 462.
au Rago!in-Vedic Iodi&, p. 306.
all V. 1. 2. 140.
In X. 3.17.
8.. XVIII. 13.
So. V. 25.
, .. Scbrader-Prebistorio p. 212; Max Moller-Biographies, of Words,
Appendix V. ; Macdonell a.nd Iodu. 1. p. 32.
50
In the Rigveda we have distinct references to the smelting of metals
UO
and the business of the smith. 4 1 Vessels called mahavira or gharma made
of ayas
402
and receptacles hammered or formed with a tool of ayas
403
are
mentioncd. We also read of chariots whose pillars or rather poles were
made of ayas.
404
Knives made of ayas,
4

5
axes wrought of good metal"oe
arrows tipped with ayas
407
and the bits of the horse made of ayas
U8
are
also mentioned. Swords,4 9 breast-plates, 4.1 lances, 411 spears, 412 daggers,41 8
rinO's or quoits 414. hatchets 4.15 axes 416 knives 4
1
7 awls 418 sickle 419
b ~ , , , , , ,
hooks,42 nails,4. 21 needles4. 2 2 and razors 42 3 are mentioned.
According to Professor Schrader gold was known to the Indo-Iranians
as is proved by the similarity between Sanskrit hira'Q.ya and zend zarallya ;
and as a matter of fact woe find innumerable references to gold and its
use in the manufacture of weapons and ornaments as well as in exchange.
Golden helmcts for thc hcad, 4 ~ 4 golden swords,
4
2 5 golden fellies, 4 ~ 6 cars
<00 Rigveda IV. 2. 17 ; V. 9. 5 ; VI. 3.4 ; VI. 12. 3; IX. 72. 2 j X. 81. 3.
i01 Ibid., IX 72.2; IX. 112.2. 0. Ibid., V. 30.15.
< 0 3 Ibid., IX. 1. 2 ; IX. 80. 2. <04 Ibid., V. 62. 7 ; V. 62. 8.
<06 Ibid., VIII. 29.3., 406 Ibid., X. 53.9.
&0' Ibid., VI. 75.15. <08 Ibid., IV. 37.4.
'09 Ibid., I. 37.2; I. 87.6 j I. 88.3; V. 53.4; X. 20.6.
'10 Ibid., V. 53. 4.
411 Ibid., I. 64.4; I. 88. 1 ; V. 54.11 ; V. 55.1 ; V. 60.3; VIII. 20. 11.
u. Ibid., 1. 31. 1; I. 37. 2; I. 8:). 4; I. 87. 3; I. 167. 3 j I. 169. 3; V. 57. 2;
X. 78.7.
415 Ibid., V. 57.2.
& U Ibid., I. 64. 10 ; 1. 87. 6 ; I. 166. 9; 1. 168. 3 j VIII. 85. 9 ; X. 38. 1 ; X. 73. 9.
il' Ibid., Ill. 8. 11 ; VI. 3. 4.
< .. Ibid., I. 162. 9; I. 162. 18; III. 2. 1; III. 2. 10; III. 52. 22; V. 48. 4;
VII. 3.9; VII. 83. 1 ; VII. 104.21; VIII. 62.17; IX. 96.6; X. 53.10.
u, Ibid., I. 130. 4 ; cf. I. J 66. 10. U8 Ibid., VI. 53. 6.
u. Ihid., I. 58.4; IV. 20. 5 ; VIII. 67.10; X. 101. 3.
400 Ibid.,!. 162. 3; III. 45. 4.
401 Ibid., I. 162.9. u. Ibid., II. 33.4 .
.. 3 Ibid., VIII. 4. 16 ; X. 28.9 j of. X. 142.4
.. , Ibid., n. 34. 3 ; VIII. 7. 25.
'H Ibid., 1. 42. 6 j VII. 97. 7 j VIII. 7. 32 .
... Ibid., I. 64. 11.
51
with golden seats,
4
7 chariots decked with gOM,4o 2 8 goMen mail,
4
2 9 golden
coloured mail, 4. 3 0 golden mantles,4. 3 1 spears and weapons bright with
gleaming gold 43 2 and arrows decked with gold 433 are mentioned.
Gold ornaments are frequently mentioned. '" 3 4. Gold chains worn on the
breast,48& gold on the priest's tinger,4S6 visors of gold for the head,"'37
gold trappings for horses,4 3 8 golden ornaments for kine'" 3 9 and golden goad
for hor8es
44o
arc mentioned. Besides golden ornaments we find many
references to glittering ornaments. '" 4 1 In the four Vedas, however, the
word alarpkara does not occur.' 4 2 The words ararpk!""ta and ararpk!""ti, having
the sense of ornament do OCcur. From the Rigveda we get the names of
the following ornaments of this period :-(1) Alluka. Geldner takes it
&8 an ornament, though Roth, Ludwig anel Oldenburg take it as an adverb
only. But as the Vedic commentators have taken it to be an ornament,
we may accept it as such. (2) Opasa.
44
s It was used for adorning the
head. Roth thinks that it was a corruption of aba + pasa and hence
meant hair-tape or hair net.
444
(3) Karf).Q,sf)vana.4<l5 It means an
ornament for the ears, hence earring. (4) Kllkira.
446
According to
... Ibid" IV. 46. 4 .
... Ibid., V. 57. 1 ; VII. 69. 1 ; VIII. 5. 35 ; VIII. 46. 24.
618 Ibid., I. 25.13. uo Ibid. IV. 53.2.
4,8. Ibid., V. 55. 6. Ibid., V. 52.6.
u. Ibid" VIII. 66. 11
u Ibid., I. 85.3; V. 56.1 ; VII. 57.3; VIII. 20.11; X, 46.33.
n I Ibid., I. 64. 4; I. 166. 10 ; V. 54. 11; X, 78. 2 ; cf. VIII. 20. 22.
UI Ibid., VIII. 29.1 ; IX. 27.4; IX. 55. 1 ; IX. 86.43; IX. 97.1.
,n Ibid., V. 54. 11.
&38 Ibid., IV. 2.8 ; IV. 37.4 .
... Ibid., VIII. 54.10. "0 Ibid., VIII, 55.3.
u. Ibid., I. 37. 2 ; I. 64. 4; I. 166. 10 ; V. 53. 4. ; VIII. 20. 7 ; VIII. 67. 2.
'" The word aia.qlkara occnrs for the first time in the BrahmlLJ}a:
AfijlLnavyo.fijane alaI!lkara.J.!, XIII. 84. 7; ILl so
III. 5. 1. 36.
UI RigvedlL, X. 85. 8.
'u Bloomfield in his Hymns of the AthlLrvlLveda., pp. 538-39 tlLkes it mea.nt coverlet
for women (OrJ}a). Prof. SubimlLl Sarka.r in his Some Aspects o tbe Earliest
SocilLI History of India., pp. 71-72 ta.ke it to mean a. style of hair-dressing.
". Rigved1l., 1. 112. 14 ; VIII. 67. 3. .. a Ibid., X. 85. 8.
52
Zimmer it mea.ns poocock and therefore may well have been a.n arch-like
ornament.U7 (5) Krsan (6) Kraal/ill (7) Khadi. According to Roth it
was of three kinds: (a) an ornament for the legs like ankiets
U8
(b) an
ornament for the arms like modern armlets or for the wrists like modern
bangles
449
and (c) ring for the fingers. (5
0
(8) It was a necklace
consisting of a kind of coins, as the word 1 would show.
(9) Nyochani. (10) PtH)darika (11) PU'i'Jkal'a (12) (13) Varhana
(14) (15) It was a jewel worn on the neck, as the word
maJ).igrva us would prove, by moons of a thread .... 54 According to the
commentator Durg7tcarya
4
mal)i = Suryakanta-mal)i. (16)
Ratna (17) R'lkmfl.
456
It was an ornament worn on the breast,457 as the
epithet would prove. It appears to have been worn by
the males as well, for, the Maruts or Wind-gods are described as decorated
with it.4 5 9 (18) Rltkmi (19) La/ami. It was a tiara worn on the forehead
like a frontlet. (20) rarimat (21) ryafijalla. (22) (23) Satapatra
(24) Sivana. (25) (26) Stuk! (27) HiraT)!Jayi (28) HiraT)!Jasipra
(29) Hirimat.
Carpentry-The worker in wood constructed carts,'" 6 0 chariots" 61 for
war aml race, and ships.63 Chariots were usually made of
the wood of the Sinsipa tree ;464 the wheels of the chariots were made of
u, Mr. Subima1 Sluhr in his Some Aspects of the Earliest Social History of India.,
p. 72 takes it to be a kind of horn-shaped Coiffure.
ue Rigveda, V. 53.4; V. 53. 11. U. Ibid., I. 64-. 10.
uo Ibid., 1. 168. 3. "1 Ibid., V. 19. 3.
u. Ibid., I. 33. 8. U 8 Ibid., 1. 122. 14.
0" Pll.llcb&viI[l1l. Brahmll.l)B XX. 16. 6.
u. VII. 23. ..8 RigvedB, I. 166. 10
.. , Cf. in the SatBpathB BrahmBI)9. VI. 7. 1. 7.
HI Rigveda II. 34.2; II. 34. 8 ; V. 55. 1 ; V. 57.5 etc.
It Ibid, V. 54-. 11. 0.0 Ri gveda, II. 2. 1.
U 1 Ibid., 1. 61. 4. ; I. 94. 1 ; I. 130. 6; V. 2. 11 etc.
on RigvedB I. 190. 7
'. Rigveda, I. 116.4; 1. 116.5; I. 25.7; 1. 48.3; I. 97. 7; I. un. 2; T. 2'>. 9 j
V. 45. 10 j V. 54. 4.; V. 59. 2; VI. 58. 3; VIII. 18. 17 i VIII. 64. 9;
VIII. 72. 3 ; IX. 73. 1.
... Ibid., III. 58. 19.
58
the wood of the Semal tree'U and of the 8insipl tree ;'66 and the pin of
the axle of chariots was made of the wood of the Khadira tree. U 7 The
fashioning of chariots was a frequent source of metaphor, the poet compar-
ing his own skill of composing hymns to that of the wheel-wright.' 6 8 The
carpenter's work (taklllaQa) is also referred to in many passages. U 9 One
passage' 7 0 even describes "the carpenter who usually bends over his work
till his back aches." Sacrificial vessels were made usually of Palasa
wood.
411
Wooden buckets 479 wooden vessels,4 7 S large wooden sacrificial
Illdle,
4
7 4 small WOOllen ladle, specially for Soma libation," 7 5 wooden
ladle,478 wooden posts with carved images of girls on them
4
77 and wooden
bedsteads are mentioned. Of the last there were three varieties: (1) the
lalpa
U8
(2) the and (3) 1Jahya.
480
Talpa was apparently the
nuptial bedstead as the special use of the word talpa48
1
in the sense of
legitimate son, being born on the nuptial bed
4
8 and its being made of
sacred udambara wood would indicate. as the epithet
would show was a furniture to recline on; while vahya was a couch as
proved by the simile in the Atharvaveda
u
3 like a tired hride asceneling the
vahya.
Pottery-The pottet's art was also known. We read of Inelra smashing
the enemies like earthen vwsels." s.. We also read of girls hearing water in
their jars-4.& 5 eviclently made of pottery .
.
Ibid., X. 85.:W ... Ibid., III. :>3. 19. "T Ibid, III. 53.19
... Ibid., I. 61. 4 ; 1. 94. 1 ; 1. 130. 6 ; III. 38. 1 ; V. 2. 11 ; V. 29. 15.
, Ibid., IV. 35. 6 ; IV. 36. 5 ; VI. 32. l.
"0 Ibid., I. 105.18. <71 Ibid., X. 97. 5. Ibid., X. 101. 7 .
., 3 Cf. Hvarli, Rigved .. , I. 180. 3. According to Ludwig it means neither .. snake
nor a thief but a tub or wooden vessel. The common name fol' .. wooden vessel
was droQa, Rigveda, VI. Z. 8 ; VI. 37. 2; VI. 42. 10; IX. 65. 6; IX. 92. 6;
IX. 93. 1.)
." Sruc, Rigveda, I. 84. 18 ; I. 110. 6 ; I. 144. 1 .
... SrUIIIJ, Rigveda., I. 116. 24 ; I. 121. 6 .
... Dralli, Rigveda., V. 6. 9 j X. 105. 10.
n T Rigveda, IV. 32. 23. ... Ibid., VII. 55. 8 .
... Ibid., VII. 55. 8. .. 0 Ibid., VII, :>5. 8
... S .. tapatha BrlibmaQa. XIII. 1. 6. 2.
U Taittirlya BrahmaJ;l8.. .. 3 IV. llO. 3.
'" Rigveda, "VII. 104.21 ; X. 89. 7. 'I' Ibid., I. 11P. 14.
52
Zimmer it means peacock and therefore may well have been a.n arch-like
ornament.U7 (5) Krsall (6) Kfsallill (7) Khiidi. According to Roth it
lVas of three kinds: (a) an ornament for the legs like anklets
US
(b) an
ornament for the arms like modern armlets or for the wrists like modern
bangles
U9
and (c) ring for the fingers.
uo
(8) It was a. necklace
consisting of a kind of coins, as the word S 1 would show.
(9) Nyochani. (10) PrH)darika (11) Pu,?km'a (12) (13) Varhana
(14) (15) MOJ)i.'5'J It was a jewel worn on the neck, as the word
maJ)igfiva 4118 would prove, by means of a thread.' 5 , According to the
commentator Durg:lcii.rya H mal}i = aditya-mal}i, (16)
Rat /la (17) R'lkmrl, 456 It was an ornament worn on the breast,45 7 a.s the
epithet would proye. It appears to have been worn by
the males as well, for, the Maruts or Wind-gods are described as decorated
with it. 45 9 (18) Rllkmi (19) Lal'dmi. It was a. tiara worn on the forehead
like a frontlet. (20) 17arimat (21) ry'dfijalla. (22) (23) Sataplitra
(24) SivlIna. (25) (26) Smka (27) H,,.aT}vayi (28)
(29) Hirimat.
Carpentry-The worker in wood constructed carts,' 1\ 0 chariots' 61 for
war and race, ferry-boats
46g
and ships.406s Chariots were usually made of
the wood of the Sinsipa tree; 46 40 the wheels of the chariots were made of
.of Mr. Subimal Sarkar in his Some Aspects of the Earliest Svcial History of India,
p. 72 takes it to be a kind of born-shaped Coiffure.
"8 Rigveda, V. 53. 4 ; V. 53. 11. .40 Ibid., I. 64-. 10.
"0 Ibid., I. 168.3. ,"1 Ibid., V. 19.3.
U. Ibid., I. 33.8. &08 Ibid.,!' 122. U.
'" Pancbaviqla Brahmal)l!. XX. 16. 6.
'". VII. 23. u. Rigveda, I. 166. 10.
'" Cf. Rllkmo.pMa in tbe Satapatba Brabmal)a VI. 7. 1.7 .
... Rigveda II. 34. 2 ; II. 34. 8 i V. 55. 1 ; V. 57. 5 etc .
... Ibid, V. 54-. 11. uo Rigveda, II. 2. 1.
U1 Ibid., I. 61.4 i I. 94.1 ; I. 130.6 i V. 2. 11 etc.
II Tara!;, Rigveda I. 190. 7 .
'. Rigveda, I. 116.4 i I. 116.5; 1. 25.7; I. 48.3; I. 97. 7; 1- lSI. 2; T. 2;,. 9;
V. 45. 10; V. 54. 4; V. b9. 2; VI. 58. 8; VIII. 18. 17 i Vlll. 64. 9;
VIII. 72. 3 ; IX. 73. 1 .
... Ibid., Ill. 58. 19.
58
the wood of the Semal tree
481
and of the tree ;466 and the pin of
the axle of chariots was made of the wood of the Khadira tree. 4. 67 The
fashioning of chariots was a freqnent source of metaphor, the poet compar-
lng his own skill of composing hymns to that of the wheel-wright.468 The
carpenter's work is also refer1'ec1 to in many passages.
U9
One
passage
4
70 even describes "thc carpenter who usually bends over his work
till his back aches." Sacrificial vessels were made usually of Pala.sa.
wood.4.11 Wooden buckets 4.H woodenvessels,47s large wooden sacrificial
lmlle, .. 7.. small wooden ladle, specially for Soma libation,4. 75 wooden
ladle, "e wooden posts with carved i mages of girls on them 4. 1 1 and wooden
bedsteads are mentioned. Of the last there were three varieties: (1) tho
la/paf.78 (2) the and (3) "ahya.4.8O Talpa was apparently the
nuptial bedstead as the special use of the word tiIlpa4,81 in the sense of
legitimate son, being born on the nuptial bed" 8 and its being made of
88CJ'ed udamhara. wood would indicate. as the epithet
would show was a furniture to recline on; while vahya was a couch as
proved by the simile in the Atharvaveda' 8 S like a tired hride ascending the
vahya.
Pottery-The potter's art was also known. We read of Indra smashing
the enemies like earthen 4. 86 We also reacl of girls hearing water in
tlaeir jars-4.& S evidently made of pottery .
... Ibid, X. 85. :!O .f. Ibid., III. fl3. 19. .. Ibid, III. 5S. 19
.. I Ibid., I. 61. 4 ; I. 9+. 1 ; I. ISO. 6 ; III. 38. 1 ; V. 2. 11 ; V. 29. 15.
u, Ibid., IV. 3il.6 ; IV. 36.5 ; VI. 32. 1.
.. 0 Ibid., I. 105. 18. ., 1 Ibid., X. 97. 5. 4,. Ibid., X. 101. 7.
,,3 Cf. Rigved .. , 1. 180. S. Acoording to Ludwig it mea.DS neither a snake
Dor a. thief but a tab ar wooden vessel. The common DOoms Iol' a. wooden vessel
was droJ;la., RigvedOo, VI. '1. 8 ; VI. 37. 2; VI. 42. 10; IX. 65. 6; IX. 92. 6;
IX. 93. l.)
4o" Sf'U/). RigvedOo, I. 84. 18; I. 110. 6 ; I. 144. 1.
40" Sf'UtltJ, Rigveda, I. 116. 2<6 ; I. 121. 6.
U' Df'avi, RigvedOo, V. 6.9; X. 105. 10.
4o" Rigveda, J'V. 32. 23.
U Ibid., VII. 55. 8.
081 Se.tapa.tha Brllbma.l)a. XIII. 1. 6. 2.
us Taittirlya. Brabmal)Oo.
08. Rigveda, 'VII. 104.21 ; X. 89.7.
U' Ibid., VII. 55.8.
u 0 Ibid., VII. 55. 8.
"a IV. :&0. S.
tI J Ibid .. I. 119. 14.
54
Leather work-The tanner (cal'mamna)'8& and the leather-worker are
also mentioned. 487 We read of leather-receptacles for storing wine, U II
meat,4S9 curds 49
0
and water,4
9
1 leather-straps for etc.
Manufacture of liquor--The principal liquors manufactured were the
Soma and the Sura. The juice was extracted from the Soma plant by being
pounded with stones,4 9 S helel in the hands." 9.. Then the juice was squeezed
out with the fingers,4 9 5 anll strained through a sieve made of woo1
49
& or
of munja grass.
4
91 Thus strained, the juice was blended with milk or
curds.
4
9 8 Another intoxicating lifluor manufactured was the
According to the Taittiriya Br:ihmarya "it was, as opposed to Soma, essenti-
ally a (lrink of ordinary life." 4 9 9 P:inta was the name of another drink in
this age. 5 0 0 As it was offered to the gods, commentators identified it with
Soma. But it may well have been a drink of a different kind.
House-building-Though we have no extant remains of any building
of this period, the great variety of words denoting a house to be found in
the Rigveda shows that the people were long settled with a tradition of
house-building. Agni raising his smoke to heaven has been compared to
the builder of a house, rearing up a structure. 5 01 Measurement in Connec-
tion with the building of a house or chamber is also referred to. tlO I
Gaga
503
is a common worel for the house, inclusive of the inmates and
their belongings; so are dama,504 meaning house or home, implying an
.. 8 Rigveda, VIII. 5. 38.
U7 Muir-Original Sanskrit Texts, pp.
AS 8 Rigveda, I. 191. 10.
.. 0 Ibid., VI. 48. 18,
.. Ibid., VI. 47.27.
462 ff.
Ibid., IV. 45. 1 .
"1 Ibid., I. 85.6; V. 83.7
U8 Gravan, Rigveda, I. 83.6 ; 1. 135. 7 ; adri, Rigveda, I. 130. 2 ; 1. 135. 5.
940 Rigveda, V. 45. 7 j IX. 11. 5 .
.. a Ibid., IX. 67. 8. .. e Ibid.,!. 135. 6 ; IX. 103. 2, 3.
407 Ibid.,!. 161. 8. <98 Ibid., IX. 103.2 .
... Ma.cdonell a.nd Keith-Vedic Index, II. p. 458.
aDo Rigveda, 1. 122. 1 ; I, 155. 1 j VII. 92. 1 ; X. 88. 1.
801 Ibid, IV. 6.2. a02 Ibid, II. 75. 3.
aDa Ibid, I. 74.2; V. 10.3; V. 44. 7 j VI. 2.8.
10. Ibid, I. 1. 8 ; 1. 61. 9., I. 75. 5 j II. 1. 2.
i(iea. of controPo5 and implying dwelling and signifying on
the one hand the inmates of the house
507
and on the other lawl>08-
showing the connection in the Vedic mind between the house and all
conceptions of law and order. Similarly, sarma
509
is a house and
pasty'J,(f)510 and pastya(II)511 occuring singly or in the compounds
pastyavant
5
U pastyavantl> 13 and pasty a-sad 5 1 are other terms denoting a
house. Dur,515 the earlier and commoner word for doors 16 has an implied
sense of the whole house,517 and dllr-ya (door-posts),518 duryof!a,519 all
signify the house itself. SthaI!u
5
0 and sthul)'J. 5 1 are early names for
pillars while smaller timber-posts were Yupa
U3
and drupad.5!l40
This great variety of names for posts and pillars shows that they were a
marked feature of a particular type of house-building. We have also
references to the use of metals in the construction of houses such as
e.ya1;tsthuI!a (pillar made of ayas).5 H In the Rigveda a sage named Saptagu
prayed to Indra for "a spacious home unmatched among the people." 5 g 6
eOO Roth-St. Petersburg Dictionary, s. v. dama.
000 Rigveda, I. 1440. 1 ; II. 3. 2 ; III. 55. 10; VIII. 61. .; VIII. 87.2 ; X. 31. 1.
00. Ibid., VIII. 101.6; IX. 36. 14; X. 82. 3.
eoe Ibid., IV. 55.2; VI. 21. 3 ; VII. 63. 3; Vllr. 41. 10 ; X. 48. 11.
e., Rigveda VII. 82. 1 ; I. 51. 15.
uo Ibid., 1. 25. 10; I. 40. 7; 1. 164. 30; IV. 1. 11; VI. 49. 9; VIT. 97. 11 j
IX. 65. 23 ; X. 46. 6.
st 1 Ibid., X. 96. 10, 11.
'u Ibid., I. 151. 2 ; II. 11. 6 ; IV. 54. 5 ; IX. 97.18.
'13 Ibid., IV. 55. 3 j VIII. 27. 5.
ou Ibid, VI. 51. 9. Roth-St. Petersburg Diotionary, 6. v. j Pischel-Ved. Stud.
V 01. II. p. 211.
111 Rigveda, I. 68. 10 ; I. 113. 4. ; I. 121. 4; I. 188. 5.
116 Drir in Rigveda, 1. 13. 16.
117 Thus Dur-ya (in masculine plural) = belonging to the door or to the house:
Rigveda, I. !H. 19 ; X. 40. 12.
111 Ibid., IV. 1. 9, 18 ; IV. 2. 12 ; VII. 1. 11.
'" Ibid.,!. 174. 7; V. 29. 10; V. 32.8.
Uo Ibid., X. 40. 13.
'u Ibid., I. 59. 1 ; V. 45.2 ; V. 62.7 ; VIlI. 17. 14.
I U Ibid., I. 92. Ii ; I. 162. 9 ; In. 8. 6. .. a Ibid., I. 51. 140.
IU Ibid., I. 24 13; IV. 32. 23. UI Ibid., V. 62.7,8
... X. 47.8.
The word orha OCCurs in many passages of the Rigveda.
5
27 According
to some it denotes the house of the Vedic Aryan; but as it is used of
special type of :ma3:ina, it may well have been a mansolemll erected over
Or beside the grave as described in the 9atapatha Brahma,?a. 5 8
The denoted the Vedie house including stables etc
5SO
and
was adorned with pillars which supported the roof. 5 31 Mitra and
VaruQa had a palace with one thousand pillars.
5
82 The sage Bharad vaja.
prayed to Indra for a house which should be tri-dhatu and tri-varfitha.
5
3 a
According to some scholars the house prayed for was to be made of wood,
brick and stone and hence called tr:-dhatu. Sayana explains tridhatu by
the word tri-bhfimika, that is, three-storied or possessing three court-yards
or separate apartments. The first that was in the front >vas probably
constructed with stone to make it strong enough to stand the attacks of
enemies or robbers and the second and third were made of mud and timber.
The word tri-varfitha occurs again in another verse
534
where it probably
means a house possessing three appartments. We also find references to
ladies' apal'tments
5
3 5 halls of sacrifice with doors,5 36 cow-pens
s
3 7 and
stables for horses.
5
3 8
01' II. 42. 3 ; III. 53. 6 ; IV. 49. 6 ; V. 76. 4 ; VIII. 10. 1 ; X. 18. 12 ; X. 85. 26.
018 The unorthodox memorial structure was round and domeshaped (pa.rimat;ldall,
Satapatba. Brahmat;la, XIII. 8. 1), 'enclosed by an indefinite number of Stone,'
(Ibid., XIII. 8.2. 2). The Orthodox style is squa.re or qnadrila.teral (Ibid.,
XIII. 8. 1. 1 1l'), not sepa.rate from the earth, tha.t is, not towering (Ibid.,
XIII. 8. 2. 1) and made of bric ks one foot square (Ibid., XIII. 8. 4. 11). The
unorthodox style was tbe prototype of Buddhistic Stupa arcbitecture and the
Orthodox style is represented in the temple architeoture of Mildura, Tanjore and
other cities of Southern India.
au Rigveda I. 166. 4 ; IX. 71. 4 ; IX. 78. 3 ; X. 43. 3 ; X. 73. 10.
aao Ibid., VII. 56. 16 ; cf. X. 106. 5. 331 Ibid., IV. 5. 1.
131 Sab8sra-sthilna., Ibid., II. 41. 5 ; V. 62. 6 ; VII. 88. 5.
aaa Ibid., VI. 46. 9.
aU Rigveda X. 66.5. 83. Ibid., I. 167.3.
". Ibid.,!. 13.6; I. 188. 5; II. 3. 5; III. 4. 5; III. 34. 7; III. 51. 3; V. 5. 5 j
V. 11. 4; V. 13. 3 ; VI. 27. 2.
au Ibid., I. 92. 40; I. 191. 40; V. 33. 10; V. 34. I> ; V. 45. 6; V. 6'2. 2; VI. 10. 3 i
VI. 17.2 ; VI. 28.1 ; VI. 45.24; VI. 62. 11 ; VI. 65. 5.
"' Ibid., VII. 56. 16 ; (If. X. 106. 5.
1'>7
Building activities must also ha.ve developed in these times through the
needs of social and corporate life as in the case of the (clubs), the
I'ldathrl (royal audience-hall), the 8o/JhIT and the like.
5
g \I
We have no direct allusion to the art.; u/ painti7tfJ (lild in the
hymns of the Rigveda. According to Max "Muller "the religion of the
Veda knows of no idols"HO though Dr. Dallensen I finds in the hymns
clear references to the images of gods. Thus we read : "who for ten milch
kine purchaseth from me this Indra who is mine? When hc hath slain
the Vrtras let the buyer give him back to Now what is signified
by the purchase of Indra for ten milch kine? Was there any painted
figure of Indra or carved out image of Indra on wood or stone that used
to be temporarily parted with for a consideration and returned after
worship? Or, is it merely a metaphorical way, as Griffith points out, of
saying that the poet-priest who had obta.ined the favour of Indra for his
patron by sacrilice demanded a fee of ten m]ch kine ? We further read :
"0 Caster of Stone, I would not sell thee for a mighty price, not for a
thousand, Thunderer I nor ten thousand, nor a hundred, Lord of countless
wealth." 48 The word used here for price is ;ulka. 'lhe reference must,
therefore, ha.ve been to an image of Indra. The authors of the Vedic Index
observe "'ren cows are regarded as a possible price for an (image of) Indra
to be used as a fetish (Rigveda IV. 21.10); elsewhere (VIII. 1. 5) not
hundred, nor a thousand nor a myriad are considered as an adequate price
(sulka) for the purchase of Indra" In this connection it is worthy of note
that the description of gods in the Rigveda is mainly anthropomorphical
and it is just possible that artists sometimes painted their figures in colour
or carved out images on wood or stone to represent their functions. As a
matter of fact, carved images on wooden posts are mentioned in a verse
which reads: "Like two slight images of girls, unrobed upon It new-
flo Mr. Subimal Sarkar-Some Aspects of the Earliest Social History of India,
pp. 5-15.
"0 Chips from a German Workshop I. p. 38.
a .. J"urnal of the German Orientllol Society, XXII. p. 587 ff.
au Rigvedllo, IV. 24. 10. Griffith's of the Rigveda, I. p. 4Z7 .
... Rigveda, VIII. 1. 5. Griffith's Translation 01 the Rigveda, n. p. 103.
wrought post, so shine thy Bay Steeds in their course" & U Oaste system in
relation to mobility of labour-The question now presents itself as to the
extent to which in the period of the ltigveda the caste system had been
developed and stood as a barrier against the mobility of labour. The
orthodox Hindu holds that the caste system is of divine appointment and
that it had existed for all time. But the sacred books themselves when
they are studied historically, supply evidence both of its origin and of its
growth. We are told in the Santi Pal'va of the Mahabh:trata that "at first
there was no caste." The distincti.on between the colour (varJ;l.a) of the
Aryan conquerors and that of the coloured aboriginal tribes first formed
the basis of caste. ~ 4 5 The question is thus narrowed down to the consi.dera-
tion of the arguments for and against the view that among the Aryans
themselves caste divisions were appearing. Messrs. Muir,548 Zimmer,H1
and W eber
s
4 8 have denied the existence of caste in any form in this period.
Professor Max 'Muller says "If then with all the documents before us,
we ask the question, does caste as we find in Manu and at the present day
form part of the most ancient religious teaching of the Vedas? we can
answer with a d e c ~ d e d 'no'."049 Weber in his History of Sanskrit Literature
also hold the same view and says "there are no castes as yet, the people
are still oue united whole, and bear but one name that of Visas." 5.5 0 But
Messrs. Geldner55
1
and Oldenburg 55 ~ hold the opposite view. It has been
argued that the warriors of the community were the agricultural and
industrial classes and the priesthood was not yet hereditary. Any person
who distinguished himself for his genius Or virtue or who for some reason
Was deemed specially receptive of divine inspiration could be a priest.
Every Vedic householder was a priest unto himself so far at least as the
'U Rigveda, IV. 32. 33. Griffith's Translation of the Rigveda, I. p. 437.
"'. Rigveda, I. 100. 18.
" .. Original Sanskrit Texte, Vol. 1. pp. 239 f.
u, Altindiechen Leben, pp. 185-203.
He Indische Studien, Vol. X. pp. 1 if.
"9 Chips from a. Germa.n Workshop, Vol. II. p. 307.
"0 Englieh Translation, p. 38.
""1 Vedische Studien, Vol. II. p. 146 .
.. ~ Z. D. M. G., Vol. LI. pp. 267 if.
ao
performance of ordinary daily religious duties was concerned viz., the
lighting up of the sacred Household Fire and the pouring of libations of
habis into it thrice a day. It was only on special occasions when any
Sattra or big religious sacrifice had to be performed that the services of
experts were requisitioned and paid for. These experts, did not, however,
form a separate caste by themselves in the sense in which we understand
it today, with its exclusiveness and strict elaborate rules as regards eating,
drinking and association by marriage etc. For, "the word BrahmaQa., the
regular name for a 'man of the first caste'" says Professor Macdonell "is
still rare in the Rigveda, occurring only eight times, while Brahman,
which simply means sage or officiating priest is found forty-six times"UI
Indeed the growth of the caste system was the result of the complication
of life due to the further penetration of the Aryans from the Punjab into
the East. To resist the sudden incursion or to crush the attempts at
rebellion of the aborigines, the petty tribal princes formed the nucleus of a
standing armed force while the industrial and agricultural popUlation
relying on the protection of the warrior class abandoned the use of arms.
Together with the growth in the size of kingdoms and the increasing
complexity of civilisation, the simple ritual of an earlier period when the
king himself can sacrifice for his people, grew to an extent which rendered
this impracticable, while at the same time, the idea grew up that upon the
faithful and exact performance of the rites depended the result of battle.
The result was the growth of a priesthood, a warrior class and of a third
the artisan and the cultivator sharply distinguished from one another and
strictly hereditary. But the later origin of this development is proved by
the fact that it took place not in the Punjab, the home of the Rigveda but
in the Middle country whose geographical isolation favoured the evolution
of this peculiar social system. A student of the Rigveda without knowledge
of historical facts might reasonably presume that the Indus basin where
the Aryans first settled in India would be the Holy land of Hinduism.
The poets never tire of singing praises of the mighty Indus and its
tributaries.
llu
The combined testimony of the jatakas and the Greek
II History of Sanskrit Literature, pp. 161-62 .
.... Of. Nadl.tuti in Rigveda, X. 7:'.
authors proves that in the fourth century B. C. Taxila in the N. W. Punjab
was still a centre of Vedic learning. But the stra.nge fact is that orthodox
Hindus regard the whole Punjab between the Indus and the Satlej &8
impure land unfit for the residence of strict votaries of Dharma. The
reason apparently is that the N. W. territories continued to be overrun by
successive swarms of foreigners from central Asia who disregarded the
Brahmins with the result that the original inhabitants of the Punjab
intermixed with these barbarian conquerors, imbibed their outlandish
practices and did not follow the strict caste system.
While there is much truth in this view, it must be admitted that it
exaggerated the freedom of the Rigveda from caste. For the term
Bl' hma:!a 'son of a Brahmii' which occllrs no less than eight times in the
Rigveda seems to show that the priesthood was normally hereditary. We
told that there is a case of a king exercising the functions of a domestic
priest and sacI': ficing himself for his people but the alleged case, that of
Devapi rests only on the assertion of a commentator of a hymn 5 5 in
which Devapi appears th'tt he was originally a king. Even, however, if
this was t:Je case, it must be remembered that even after the complete
establi:,hment of the caste system it was still the privilege of kings to
exercise some priestly functions sllch as that of the study of the nature of
the AbsolLlte, a practice ascribed to tllem in the The arguments
regarding the warrior class rest on a misunderstanding. E,en in the latest
Vedic epoch, we have no ground to suppose that there was a special class
which reserved its energies for war alone and that the industrial popUlation
and the agriculturists allowed the fate of their tribe to be dec:ded by
contests between warrior-bands but the R;gveda certainly knows of a
rding class, and the Vedic KingsLip was normally hereditary, so that we
may well bel'eve that even then there existed, though perhaps in embryo,
a class of nobles who are aptly named in the term' of the
hymn,
5
5 6 Rajanyas, as being 'men of kingly family'.
But this hymn though commonly supposed to be "the only
passage in the Rigveda which enumerates the four castes" has nothing to
Rigveda., X. 98 .
Rigveda., X. 90.
do with caste. The hymn has for its subject a cosmogony, a theory of
creation. It tells of the creation of all things from the sacrifice of a
fabuluous monster-man or his severed limbs giving birth to the
world. As pointed out by Mr. Andrew 1 the same primitive mode
of accounting for creation is found in the Norse legend, where the earth,
the seas, water, clouds and firmament are formed by dividing up
the body of Giant Ymir. So also in the Chaldcen story, a monster-woman
is divided in twain by Bel to form the heavens and earth. The same story
runs through the myths of the Iroquo:s in North America as well as
through those of Egypt and Greece. The Vedic story which runs close to
those of other folk differs from them according to some scholars in this
that it goes on to add that from also sprang the four classes of
people. But Mr. V. A. Smith rightly observes "Both the Brahmin and
fire come from mouth, just as the servile man or Siidra and earth
both proceed from his feet. No suggestion of the existence of caste-groups is
made. Mankind is simply and roughly classified under four hcads according
to occupation, the more honourable profession being naturally assigned to
the more honourable symbolical origin. It is absurd to treat the symbolical
language of the poem as a narrative of supposed facts." 5 5 8 "This IS an
attempt" says. Mr. R. W. Frazer, "to force an antiquity for a socia.l
system by connecting it with an undeniably ancient legend." 5 II
.
Thus though there were kings and sacrificial priests though there were
wa.rriors and the great body of the people, cultivators, artisans and dealers
in merchandise, the people were not tied down to the rigidity of a caste
system whence hereditary occupation was alloted to the members.
Viliwamitra who belonged to the rajanya class acted as a priest. 6 0 Poet-
priests, on the other hand, prayed to the gods for the birth of sons who
would be able to defeat their enemies in battles.
561
Indeed the poet-priest
Mudgala did not hesitate to take up arms against robbers who had stolen
a .. Myth, Rito81 and Religion, Vol. I. p. 243 .
Oxford History of Indill., p. 36 .
... Literary History of India, p. 25.
"0 Rired Ill. 53.9.
IH Ibid., V. 28. ; n 81. 1.
.1
his cows and his valiant wife drove the car for him and came to his resoue
when the situation had become somewhat embarassing for him.
561
The Rigveda also refers to Sudra. kings. One poet-priest ells UII
tthat his father was a physician while his mother ground grain
between mill-stones. 5 6 3 The descendants of the poet-priest Bhrgu were
experts in fashioning chariots. 5 6<t. Gamblers are ad vised without any
reference to their class to take to agriculture and pastoral pursuits, 511 ,
proving thereby that in the economy of this period there was much
mobility of labour. 'l'he existence of this freedom of movement from one
occupation to another led to the dignity of labour. As Tvastf was the god
who forged to the thunderbolt for Indra, no odium was attached to the
work of the smith who manufactured weapons for men. 'rhe workor in
wood had clearly the place of honour and we find the priets themselves
preparing sacrificial posts and altars.
Labour and Occupations-We have just seen that the Rigveda shows
germs of a social division arising out of the adoption of different occupa-
tions by different sections of the community. The following verse describes
some of the professions very beautifully :-
"Men's tastes and trades are multifarious,
And so their ends and aims are various.
The smith seeks something cracked to mend,
The leech would fain have sick to tend.
The priest desires a devotee,
From whom he may extract his fee.
Each craftsman makes and vends his ware,
And hopes the rich man's gold to share."566
Besides the priestly and ruli.ng classes we find the following funotional
groups :-(1) Kinasa,567 the ploughman (2) Dhanyakrt,&68 the husker and
Ibi. I., X. 102.
au Ibid., X. 31. 14.
sa Ibid., X. 34.. 13.
... Rigveda IX. 112. 1-2
n Ibid., IV. 57. 8.
... Ibid., X. 9'. 18.
a 08 Ibid., IX. 112. 3.
winnower of corn (8) GOpl,5 e9 herdsman (4) Vlya,57 0 the weaver of
sundry piece goods corresponding to the modern J ola. in Bengal producing
na.pkins, covers etc. (5) Va.so-vaya,571 the weaver of the standard
msas or wearing cloth corresponding to the modern t:tiiti in Bengal
(6) Dhmii.tr,5 7 g one who smelts (dhm:t) the (metal) ore (with bellows of
bird's feathers
57S
) (7) Karmara,S740 the smith (8) or tVastr
S76
the carpenter (9) Rathakara who made carts 577 and chariots (10)
Carmamna
5
78 the tanner and leather-worker (11) potter who made
earthen vessels of all sortsS 7 9 (12) vapta
58
0 the barber who is clearly
mentioned as shaving beards (13) 581 the physician who treated
patients for a fee. A poet-priest says eel will give to thee, 0 physician, a
horse, a cow, a garment, yea, even myself."II8I The healing properties of
herbs and plants were known to them from which they prepared medicines
&8 is apparent from a hymn 5 8 S devoted wholly to the praise of medicinal
plants ami the physicians who deal with them. The physicians restored the
aged. and decrepit Cyavana to youth and rendered him desirable to his wife
and made him the husband of maidens.
5
840 Rijrasva had his eyesight
restored, II 85 while Parlvrj was cured of blindness and hameness. e 8 6
Was cured of her skin-disease
58
7 while Vispala whose-leg was cutt off in a
... Ibid., I. 1,,4 21 ; II. 23.6 ; HI. 10. 2 ; V. 12. 4. etc.
",0 Ma.cdonel1 a.nd Keith-Vedic InJu, s. v. Vila .
., 1 Rigveda., X. 26. 6.
17. Ibid., V. 9.;' i VII. 2 ..
... Ibid., IX. 112. 2 .
,. Ibid., IX. 112.2; X. 72. 2.
It. Ibid., IX. 112. 1.
n I Ibid., X. 119. 5.
"" Ibid., X. 146. S .
78 Ibid., VIII. 5. 3S .
ft Ibid., VII. 10 . 21 i X. 89. 7.
110 Ibid., X. H2 ..
II. Ibid., IX. 112. I, 3
... Ibid., X. 97 ..
II. Ibid., X. 97 .
... Ibid., I. 116. 10.
II' Ibid .. I. 116. 16.
... Ibid., L 116. 8.
battle was given an iron one instead. (14) Vanij,588 a merchant (15)
N!-tu, a dancing girl. It has been contended that the word nrtu docs not
imply dancing girls as a professional class in the community; it m:ght be
that the unmarried girls or the ladies of the harem danced on specie.l
as the Roman matrolls dancerl and sang publicly on Floralie. or
Feast of davs and the females of the aristocratic families in Java and

Vali still do. But the passage in question reads;
"Nrturiv:lpornute usreva vajraham"589
"Like a dancing girl she bones her bosom as a cow ields her udder (at the
time of milching)"-such shameless dancing with bare breasts for attraction
cannot be ascribed to decent and respectable women who always appeared
before the public well-covered.
690
Mr. Baden Powell in his Ind;an Village Community assumes that the
Aryans had their lamls cultivated by the conquered aborigenes ; but the
Rigveda unquestionably describes a society which is not dependent on such
servile labour and in wh'ch cultivators, artisans and handicraftsmen are in
no way regarded as inferior members of the community. We hear, no doubt,
of slaves
s
91 and of gifts of slaves
s
9 but we have no evidence to show that
they were largely employed or that slavery became the bas;s of husbandry.
The ordinary tasks of life appears to have been carried out by the freemen
of the tribe.
Domestic Labour-"Jrryedastam" S 9 s (the wife is the home) exclaimed
Viswii.mitra in his ecstatic vision of the true source of domestic felicity.
Hence many of the household duties were entrusted to the ladies of the house.
Phll010gical evidence shows that it was the mMa (mother) who distributed
the food, while the duhit:r (daughter) used to milch the cow. We find
women weaving,094 drawing water from wells in Kumbhas
5
95 and preparing
II 8 Rigveda., I. 112. 11 ; V. 45, 6. 88 Rigveda., I. 92. 4.
"0 Ibid., VIII. 17. 7 ; VIII. 26. 13.
801 Ibid., VII. 86. 7.
880 Ibid., VIII. 19.13 ; VIII. Vi!.lkhilya. Hymn No.8. 3 .
.. a Rigveda. III. 53.4.
116 Ibid., X. 71. 9; of. II. 3.6; II. 38.4; V. 47.6 .
... Ibid., I. 191. 14.
the Some. drink. & 9 II We find them churning milk and curds and preparing
butter out of them. S 91 Husking, winnowing and many other similar duties
were entrusted to women 598 though in the age of the Atharvaveda
599
dave-girls were employed for the purpose in the comparatively well-to-do
families. ThlJ tending of cattle while at home was part of the house-wife's
duties as would appear from the marriage-hymn of the Rigveda
600
where
me is asked to be gentle to the ca.ttle and to bring blessing to her husband's
bipeds and quadrupeds.
Dom.estic and Foreign Trad9-We have seen that Rigvedic society
I&S sufficiently settled to admit of a prosperous agriculture and of a
remarkable development in arts and crafts. "The Sindhu was rich in
horses, rich in chariots, rich in clothes, rich in gold ornaments, well-made,
ich. in food, rich in wool, ever fresh, abounding in Silami plauts (said to be
ued in cordage) and the auspicious river wears honey-growing flowers"60 1
The trade in the products of agriculture and industry was carried on by
lhe Va,!ij or denoting a merchant. In the Rigveda we find the use
of the verb kri, to and of sulka, price.
60s
We have also a
p.ssage
l104
which suggests if not a contract for sale, at least haggling over
yrices: "A man has realised a small price for an article of great value,
. and again coming (to the buyer he says) this has not been sold; I require
lhe full price; but he does not recover a. small price by a large (equivalent) :
.. thether helpless or clever, they adhere to their bargain" According to
\his translation made by Wilson contracts seemed to have been made at the
time of sale and purchase and the terms agreed upon could not be altered
Griffith translates the passage thus:
"He bid a small price for a thing of value; I
was content, returning still purchased .
Ibid., I. 28. 3 ; IX. 67. 8
" Ibid., I. 28. 4 .
... in the Rigveda
... XU. 3. 13.
100 X. 85. '".
10J RigvedB, X. 75. B.
eOI Ibid., IV. lB. 10.
10. Ibid., VIII. 1. 5. 10. Ibid., IV. 24. 9.
II
Be heightened not his insufficient offer, Simple
and clever both milk out the udder"
and rema.rks "both the simple or needy buyer and the shrewd seller make
&s much as they can out of the bargain."
6 0
5 Thus prices seemed to have
been settled finally only after much higgling and haggling.
For the conduct of this trade there were the roads and travellers' rest-
houses even in this age. The recent excavations in Sind and the Punjab
prove the existence of S. W. ports in the pre-Aryan India of the third
millenium B. C. and the cross-country roads feeding them may have been
much older than the Aryan settlement. We have already referred to the
prayers in the Rigveda for protection on a journey offered to who
Was the deity presiding over roads and paths.
8
06 Agni and the sages like
the Roman pontifices are called pathi-krt, the path-makers.
eo1
Travelling
seems to have been quite common even in those early times for we read
"Two with one Dame ride on with winged steeds and journey forth like
travellers on their way."60B We also read of prapathas, rest-houses for
travcllers
80
and the epithet prapathin
6lo
given to a Yadava prince shows
that princes of those times constructed rest-houses for the benefit of the
tmvellers. The word setu occurs in the Rigveda 61 I but its precise sense
does not come out clearly. It has been held that a causeway of an ordinary
type, merely a raised bank for crossing inundated land is meant, and that its
use is probably metaphorical; but a metaphorical use of a term can hardly
come into existence unless there has been previous simple use of it.
The articles of trade were carried from one part of the country to the
other in waggons drawn by bullocks
6111
and horses,
6
13 and probably also by
00& Griffith'. Rigveda, Vol. 1. p fo.
0.0 Higveda I. 42.1 ; VI. 49 8; VI. al. 1 < ; VI. ;)3.1.
00' Macdonell and Keitb-Vedio I. pp.
eo a Rigveda, VIII. 29. 8.
10' Ibid., X. 17.4,6 ; X. 63. 16.
110 Ibid., VIII. 1. 13.
111 X. 41. 2.
III Rigveda II. 2. 1
11 Ibid., X. 101.7.
buffaloes' L 6 and asses.
6
18 Camels" 18 and dogs81' were also used as heute
of burden. A poet-priest prays for the gift of one hundred asses" 18 which
were required not certainly to draw his chariots, for, he could not have
possessed many, but simply to carry his burden. It may seem strange
that the dog was used as a beast of burden, but the reference in the
Rigveda is quite clear.
619
The caravans consisting of the merchants, their
retainers and waggons and the above-mentioned beasts of burden moved on
from place to place, selling the commodities they carried and purchasing
mch articles as would be wanted elsewhere. They were thus the fore-
runners of the svartha.-vaha.s of the ea.rly Buddhist literature and the
J:ltakas.
Scholars are, however, divided in their opinion as to whether this trade
I'&S carried on across the seas to foreign lands. Macdonell, Ragozin and
Hopkins hold that the Aryans of this age were unacquainted with the sea..
Mr. Keith observes "The Vedic Indian seems to have been very little of
navigator."uo Mr. Frazer remarks "It is doubtful if the early Arya.n.
ever knew the ocean. The seas of water they mention may have referred
to the wide-stretching Indus."s 11 Mr. Macdonell 80180 identifies the
western Samudra with the Indus. But then what about the Purv80 or
Bastern Samudra which also is mentioned. Further, the Rigveda speaks
ofthe four Samudras.'u We shall now adduce evidences from the Rigveda.
I'hich in Buhler's opinion
6u
"prove the early existence of the complete
D&vigation of the Indian Ocean and of trading voyages by Indians." One
hymn' U represents Varul).a having a full knowledge of the ocean-routes
along which vessels sail. Another hymnu II speaks of merchants who
'" Ibid., X. 102 7 .
... Ibid., I 3i.9 i I. 116. 2 i I. 162.2; VIII. 74.7 i of. IV. 36. 1 ; I. 117. 16.
to Ibid., I. 138. 2.
flY Ibid .. VIII. 46. 28 .
11 Ibid, VIn. M. 3
... in Ri\\,veda VIII. 46. 28.
"0 R"pson-Cambridgll Hietory of India, Vol. I., p. 101.
tI. Litel'l\ry Hi.tory of India, p. 29
... Rigveda, IX. 33.6; X. 47.2 .
... Origin of tbe Brahmi Alphabe., p. 8"
n& lli .. .u. I. i6. 7. ... llhd., I. M. i.
frequent every part of the sea in pursuit of gain. Another hymn
u
,
mentions merchants sending out ships to foreign countries tmder the
influence of greed. Another hymn 621 refers to a prayer to the sea by
people desirous of wealth, before undertaking a voyage.
Mr. Keith observes "The use of boats or probably dug-outs for crossing
rivers was known but the simplicity of their construction is adequately
shown by the fact that the paddle alone was used for their propulsion.
There is no mention of rudder or anchor, mast or sails, a fact which
incidentally negatives the theory that the Vedic Aryans took part in
ocean-shipping."
6
8 But we can point out that the Rigveda has no prohi-
bition against sea-voyages; on the contrary it has distinct allusions to
them. All the Vedic ships were not simple in their construction as there
is a reference to a ship with one hundred oars. 6 9 Some of them were
furnished with "wings" i.f'., sails.
6
3 0 Moreover, the people sailed on the
seas, not only for trade but also for pleasure trips and warlike purposes.
They must have resorted to coastal voyages only, though there is mention
of a naval expedition63
1
sent by Tugra under his son Bhujyu "in the ocean
which giveth no support or hold or There is also mention of
islands situated in the midst of the sea
6sa
thus describes his
pleasure trip in Rigveda VII. 88. 3 :-
"When Varul?a and I embark together and urge
our boat into the midst of ocean,
We, when we ride o'er ridges of the
63
4,
waters, will swing within that swing and there be happy."
Referring to these passages even :Messrs. Macdonell and Keith
6S5
observe
"It is not easy to refuse to recognise here the existence of longer vessels
Ibid., 1. 48. 3.
f, 07 Ibid., IV. 55. 6 .
8 Rapson-Cambridge History of India, Vol. I. p. 101.
., Rigved", I. 116. 5.
000 Ibid., X. 14:3. 5.
f,,1 Ibid., 1. 116. 3-5.
"30 Griffith's Rigveda 1. p. 154 .
.a" Rigveda. 1. 169. 3 ; X. 1.0. 1.
",. Griffith's Rigvede. II. p. 8'. U Vedlc Indes, 1. p.
..
with many Oars and for sea-voyages." We further read "As merchants
desirous of wealth sUl'rounl the so do the priests surL'ound Indra."G56
Here the use of the theme by way of a simile seems to show that sea-
voyages by merchants were not a rare -occurrence but fairly well-known to
the public at large.
From the accounts of the earliest historiographers we learn that
Savigation made its first efforts on the Mediterranean Sea and on the
Perisan Gulf. These seas lay open the continents of Asia Europe and
Africa and washing the shores of the most fertile and the most early
civilised countries, seemed to have been destined by Nature to facilitate
their communication with one another. We find accordingly that the first
voyages of the Egyptians a.nd tho Phamicians wcre made in the Mediterra-
nean and Red Seas. Their trade was however, not long confined to the
countries bordering on these seas. By acquiring early possession of the ports
of the Arabian Sea, they extended the sphere of their commerce and a.re
represented to have opened up communications by sea with India. Dr.
Day remarks in his History Commerce "The beginnings of these sea-
voya.ges a.re lost in the obscurity of the past. We know that they were
highly developed by 1500 B. C., when Sidon was the leading city and that
they did not cease to extend when the primacy of Phrenician cities passed
to Tyre."
It is a well-known fact that the Phrenician trade had three branches
viz., Arabian-Indian, Egyptian and the Assyrio-Babylonian. We are here
chiefly concerned with the first. According to some scholars the Pani of
the Rigveda is Latin Preni = Phrenicians, a trading people. They were
& clan of Asuras whose chiefs Vitra and Vala were liefeated in a fight with
the Devas and were ousted from the north. They, therefore, finally settled
in the Levant. Their new colony Pani-desa, Latin Finidis = Phrenicia.
The Phrenicians are described by the Classical writers of Europe &8
faithless, treacherous and description quite in unision with the
Vedic account. Thus they are described in the Rigveda as "riteless and
godless" 6 S 7 "traffickers," 6 3 8 "extremely greedy like wolf, G 59 foolish,
&I Rigveda, I. 56. 2.
... Ibid., I. 83. S.
n Rigveda, I. 33. 5.
... Ibid.. VL 11. 1"
faithless, rude spea.king niggards without belief, sacrifice or worship. 14
0
These Phcenician traders would come to India by the Red Sea route and
also by the caravan route from the shores of the Persian Gulf to the
Mediterranean coast of Syria. Several harbours of the Arabian Sea were
seized by the Phcenic:ans from the Idumeans. But the distance of Tyre
from those ports being very great they afterwards occupied. the nearest
Mediterranean p3rt cJ.llei Rhinoc3lura. Tither were taken overland all
the articles to be reshipped. to Tyre.
6
4.l Dr. Royle
6U
says "Long before
the Persians had made themselves masters of Babylon (531 B. C.) the
Phcenicians had established themselves for pearl-fishery and the Indian
trade on the isles of Tylos and Aradus, the modern Bahrein islands in the
Persian Gulf." The 27th chapter of the Elekiel gives a list of the articles
of Phcenician commerce brought from various countries. Among these
"ivoryand ebody could only have been procured in Dedan from India, for
there were no elephants in Arabia."ou According to Classical writel'll
India was throughout famous for ivory and ebony.ou
The fortunes of the Phcenicians soon roused in the neighbouring Jews &
spirit of emulation. Under David and Solomon they were great friends of the
Phcenicians under Hiram (980-917 B. C.) ani this close friendship produced
their combined commercial enterprise. This Jewish trade with India is proved
by several allusions in the Bible itself. Thus we are told that Solomon
fouuded a sea-port at Ezion-Geber in 992 B. C.
6U
}'rom Ezion-Geber the
ships of Solomon sailed under the guidance of the mariners of Hiram for
distant lands.
0
4,O According to Professor Ball
u1
some of the stones in the
"0 Ibid., VII. 6. 3. Cf. niggards in Rigveda, X. 60. 6.
Ul Robertson-Disquisition on Anicant India, 1792. pp. 7-8
... Esse.y on the Anquity of Hindu Medicine, p. 122.
US Historians' History of the World, Vol. n. pp. 316-37
u Strabo XV. 37; Theopbre.stn8 qlloted by McCrincle in his India A. De.cribed
By Classical Alltllors, p. 40'30. Virgil, Georgic8 I. 57 ; "India Send9 ivory"
II. 116-17. Horace. Odes, "Indi .. alone prodllce8 black ebony, I. 31. The aathor
of the Periplns of the Erythr<Jlf\n Sell. also mentions log. of ebony being el:ported
from Berygaza ( Schoff's translatiOll, p. 36.)
I," Book of Kings, lX. 26. u, Ibid., IX. 27.
IU "A GeologiJt'. Contribution to the Hiltory of Ancient India" in *h. Indian Anti
q1i&ry far Augu , Iss..
breast-plate of the high-priest in the Mosaic period (1491 B. C.-1450 B. C.)
may have come from the fa.r East and India was famous for precious stones.
In t'le days of Solomon (1015 B. C.) there could be supplied from India
alone ivory, garments, armour, spices and peacocks. The evidence of
Dravidian words
u
8 in the Hebrew text of the Book of the Kings and
Chronicles of t'le Old Tesla nent shows that Indians, specially those of the
South carried on their commercial relations with the Hebrew people and
the words concerned formed the chief articles of trade between them.
Thus the Hebrew word for peacock in the Book of kings in Tuki and in
Chronicles also is Tuki, while the old poetic Tamil Malayalam word for
peacock is Tokei.
6
' 9 Again Hebrew ahalim or apaloth which means fragrant
wood and is otherwise known as aloes in the Proverbs
650
is derived from
the Tamil Malayalam form of the word aghil. Similarly, almug= Tamil
Valgu.
851
From these evidences we find that Rev. T. Foulkes is right when
he says "The fact is now scarcely to be doubted that the rich oriental
merchandise of the days of king Hiram and king Solomon had its starting
place in the sea ports of the Deccan."R 511 Dr. (aldwell has come to the
same conclusion and says "It seems probable that Aryan merchants from
the mouth of the Indus must have accompanied the Phcenicians and
Solomon's servants in their voyages down the Malabar coast towards Ophir
(wherever Ophir may have been) or at least have taken part in the
trade."6IIs The Jewish trade with India lasted a little over a century, for,
When the fleet of .T ehoshaphat, fifth in descent from Solomon which had
started on a voyage to Tarshis, was destroyed, the Jewish commercial spirit
eooled down.
We have seen how commerce between Egypt and India began from a
very remote antiquity. "The labours of Von Bohl :n,8 840 confirming those
of Heeren and in their turn confirmed by those of r aasen 855 have estab-
.. I L'aldwell-A Comparative Grammar of the Dravidian Languages .
... The Baven Jiltak .. also refers tt) peacocks all Indian export. to Babylon.
110 VII. 17.
8. Cf. Hebrew kopb, m e a n i n ~ ape _ S"Mkrit kapi .
... Indian Antiquary Vol. VnI.
II Caldwell-A Comparative Grammar of the Drnidian Languages, p. 122.
... Olio. Alto Indian Vol. I. p. 4.2. 8' Ind. AU., Vol. II. p. $80.
7.
lished the existence of a maritime commerce between India and Arabia
from the very earliest period of humanity."
6
5 8 Professor Max Duncker
6
5 7
says "Trade existed between the Indians and the Sabams on the coast of
South Arabia before the tenth century B. C." The bas-reliefs of the
temple of Deir-el-Bahari at Thebes in Egypt which represents the conquest
of the land of Pun under Hatasu contain a picture in wnich is described
the booty which the Pharoah is carrying to Egypt. And in this booty,
according to Leormant, "appear a great many Indian animals and products
not indigenous to Yemen - elephant's teeth, gold, precious stones, sandal-
wood and monkeys." 6 5 8
But the question of the navigation of the Persian Gulf is still shrouded
in mystery as well as that of the Alpha and Omega of all early communi-
cations between India and the land of Surner and Akkad. It is inconceiv-
a.ble that the earliest civilisation of Chaldce had not engaged in navigation
on the "sea of the East." Though no direct evidences regarding this is
forthcoming, still we may point out that the great prosper:ty of Elam
and its sturdy resistance first to Chaldce and then to Assyria may be partly
explained by the wealth she acquired in trade with the countries on its
ea.stern frontier; for, we know that she had a fleet manned with Phcenician
crew at the mouth of the Tigris and the Euphrates.
Dr. Sayce in his Hibbert Lectures for 1887 on the origin and growth of
religion among the Babylonians have proved the existence of commerce
between India and Babylon as early as 3000 B. C. Rassam has discovered
India.n cedar in the palace of N ebuchadnezzer and Indian teak in the
temple of the moon-god at Ur refounded by Nebonidus and he is supported
by Hewitt who says that this wood must have been sent by sea from some
port on the Malabar cr:ast, for, it is only there that teak grew near enough
to the sea, to be exported with profit in those early days
6
5 9 Dr. Sayee
points to the use of the word Sindhu for muslin in an old Babylonian list
Rist. Anc. del Orient, Eng. edition, II. pp. 299-301, Quoted in Indian Anti-
quary, Vol. XIII. p. 228.
If Ri8tory of Antiquity, Vol. IV. p. 156 .
... Rist. Ano. del Orient, Eng. edition, II. p. 299.
I. R. A.. S., 1888, p. 337.
78
of clothes &8 the clearest proof "that there was trade between the Baby-
lonians and the people who spoke an Aryan dialect and lived in the country
watered by the Indus." And if in the Persian time in the fuller light of
history the Aramic script wandered to India, such an event may equally
bve happened in an earlier millenia. The earliest Indian weights and
'measures
660
may be traced to Babylonian origin. :Further, the division of
'the sky into twenty-four and the naming of seven days in the
week after the Sun, :Moon and five other planets may be traced to Baby-
lonian origin. But as these are mentioned in later astronomical works,
they are thought to be borrowed directly from Alexandria.
661
Mr. S.
8Wlmi Iyenger, however, supports the Babylonian origin.
6u
The discovery
of the records of the settlement of some branches of the Aryan race in
8yria and Sumer worshipping some of the oldest gods of the Vedic
pantheon,
6
6 s the recurrence of the Baby Ionian legend of the Flood among
the Indians - all point to the existence of an intercourse between India and
the land of Sumer and Akkad.
6
8 6
This foreign trade could be carried along the three rOlltes suggested by
M. Do' Anville. The first climbs up the precipitous and zigzag passes of
the Zagros range which the Greeks called the Ladders into the treeless
regions of Persia. The second traverses the mountains of Armenia to the
Caspian Sea and Oxus and descends into Indus by the passes of the
Hindukush. Lastly, there is the sea. Of these, the overland routes were
not impracticable; in fact, the desert steppes of Asia formed the merchan-
tile ocean of the ancients - the companies of camels their fleet. But the
commerce was from hand to hand, from tribe to tribe, fitful and uncertain
md never possessed any importance. Similarly, the normal trade-route from
the Persian Gulf to India could never have been along the inhospitable
"0 Mini of Rillveda VIII. 72. B.
'II Rawlinson-India and the Western World, p. 1/).
, .. Beginnig8 of South Illdian Hi8tory, pp. 327, 329.
"' Vide the account! of the Mitanni and of the Kas.ite. in Hall'. Anoient History of
the Near East, pp. 201-30,
, "' Recall in this connection the affinity between the Indue civilisation and the
civili.ation of the Valley. of the Tigrie and the Euphratee brollgbt to ligbt by
the recent exoavation8 at Moh.DIO Dare and Harappa.
deserts of Gedrosia. Doubtless then more than one adventurous vessel
reached India by hugging the shores. But the exploring expeditions
despatched in later times by Darius (512 B. C.) from the mouth of the
Indus under Sky lax of Karayandra and two centuries later by Alexander
the Great under N earchos show the difficulties and dangers of this route,
the time it occupied and the ignorance of the pilots. The author of the
Periplus, it is true, says that small ships made formerly voyages to India,
coasting along the shores until Hippalus first ventured to cross the Ocean
by observing the monsoon.
665
But we know from other sources that the
monsoon Was known from the earliest times to all who sailed along the
Arabian and African coasts; and direct sea-voyages were attempted only at
the commencement of the monsoon.
6
6 6 The route for the direct sea-trade
ran down the Persian and Arabian coasts to Aden, up the Red Sea to Suez,
and from Suez to Egypt on the one hand and 'l'yre and Sidon on the other.
Balkh, Aden and Palmyra were the chief halting stations and emporia of
this trade.
Now was there any combination uetwl'f'n in this period?
The Vedic expression pary.i 667 has been differently interpreted by different
scholars.668 The St. Petersburg D;ctionary derive& it from paIl, to barter
and explains it as merchant. Zimmer
669
and Ludwig
670
also takes it in
the sense of a merchant. Now the gods are asked to attack the pal)is who aro
referred to as being defeated with slaughter.
6
71 Ludwig thinks that these
reference., to fights with Pary.is are to be explained by their having been
non-Aryan traders who went in caravans as in Arabia and North Africa,
prepared to fight, if need be, to protect their goods against attacks which
the Aryans would naturally deem quite justified. If we accept thil
... The PeripluB of the Erythrea.n Sea ( Schoff's Eng. Trans. ) p. 45 .
Monsoon - Arabic Manzim.
"'1 Rigveda. I. 32.11; I. 83,4; I, 93.4; I. 151. 9 ; II. 24.6 ; IV. 58.4; VI. 13.3j
VI. 4t; VI. 33. 2; VI. 39. 2 j VI. 44. 22 j VI. 45. 31; VI. 51. 14 i
VII. 9. 2 j IX. 111. 2; X. 108. 2; X. 108. 4; X. 108. 6 j X. 108. 10 i
X. 108. l1.
"" Ma.cdonell and Keith-Vedic Index, I. p. 471.
... Alt Leben, p. 257. avo Der Rig Veda., III. 213-1:1 .
., 1 Macdonell a.nd Keith-Vedic Index, I. 4'71.
'7'
mea.ning, we presume a corporation of merchants strong enough to defy
their opponents and carryon fight against them.
Again in the Rigveda
S7a
the army of the Maruts is said to be divided
into Ga!las and Vr:itas, the two wcrds always meaning guilds or corporate
ullions in later Sanskrit. :Further, in connect;on with dice-play we hear of
leaders of Ga:las aml V d.tas. 673 But our information about these corporate
unions is so scanty that we know nothing about their nature, organisation
and methods of work.
Methods and media of Excha.nge-The great volume of trade would
necessarily presuppose the existence of an excellent system of exchange.
But the general view held was that "in the Vedic Age alJ exchange was by
barter."
6
H But we have seen that by the time of the Rigveda the cow
formed a standard or unit of value. Thus there is a hymn
6
7 Ii where Indra,
that is, his image is offered as a fetish for ten cows and another
616
where
Indra is considered to be so valuable that not a hundred, a thousand or even
myriad of cows is thought to be a proper price. Besides cattle as a
standard of exchange we find references to 8 word which in later
Sanskrit means a gold coin. In one hymn6
7
7 a poet-priest praises the
munificence of his patron-king for giving him as reward for his priestly
lervices a hundred steeds and a. hundred N ow what does the word
mean here? No doubt we have passages in the Rigveda which
certainly point to the use of as an ornament. Thus in one passage
67
8
we are told of sacrificers wearing on their necks In
mother67 II the god Rudra is described as wearing In anotherS 8 0
goddess is invoked to take away the evils of bad dreams from those
who wear But in Rigveda I. 126. 2 where the poet-priest mentions
&ift of 100 the meaning necklace would hardly be appropriate;
for, a man cannot require a hundred necklaces to adorn himself. In regard
-
uS V. I.
10 Mrs. Rbys Dnida in J. R. E. S., 1910.
". Rigveda IV. 24. 10.
1 n Ibid., I. 126. 2.
If 1 Ibid., n. 33. 10.
"a Rigveda, X. 34..
Ibid., VIII. 1. &.
nl Ibid., V. 19. S.
110 IbId., VIn. 4.7. 1&.
78
to this passage the authors of the Vedic Indexes 1 rightly observes "Aa
early as the Rigveda traces are to be seen of as a sort of currency.
For a singer celebrates the receipt of a hundred and a hundred
steeds. He could hardly require the merely for personal
adornment."
But was the a coin? This may be solved., as has been pointed
out by Professor D. R. Bhandarkar by reference to hymn No. 33 of the
second Ma'?<;lala of the Rigveda. Here the god Rudra is described as
wearing viiwarupam." Now what can viswarupa mean? Does
it signify omniform? If so, what is meant by saying that Rudra's necklace
was omniform. Before we try to arrive at a natural and plausible meaning
of the term we must consider how the word could come to signify
both a currency and a necklace. A little reflection tells us that this is
possible only if we suppose that means not simply a currency but &
coin, that denoted necklace because it consisted of the coins.
In many parts of India people even to-day wear necklaces of gold mohan.
In Mah'k'[stra people even to-day get a goldsmith to cast gold coins in
imitation of certain Byzantine originals which they call Putalya. which are
afterwards strung into a necklace called Putalya. This custom of making
necklaces out of coins is not of modern origin but was also prevalent in
Ancient India. Thus the Kalpasiitra wh:le describing the godess Sri whom
Tris1.la, the mother of Mahavira saw in her dream, speaks of the former
as bearing uratthadinara-m11ya i.
p
., a string of dinJras (the Roman
denarius) on her breast. must, therefore, been taken in the sense
of a coin and not merely a metallic currency. If this explanation is
accepted, then a good sense of the term viswarupa is possible to fix upon.
The rupa in vi;warupa can at once be recognised to be a word technical to
the old Indian Science of Numismatics and denoting the symbol or figure
on a coin which for that reason is called rupa. Thus the necklace worn
by Rudra was composed of coins; and just because these coins
bore various rfipas or figures on them, the necklace was naturally
viswarupa. The earliest of coins found in India are the punch-marked
t .. I. p. MIl.
.."
coins and we know that no less than three hundred different devioes or
rupas have been marked on them.
Man:t was the name of another metallic money. It oocurs in the
following verse
6
8 ~ "0 Indra, bring us jewels, cattle, horses and man:ts of
gold." The word mana is derived from the root man, to measure or man, to
prize or value and therefore may well have been a metallic money of some
fixed and recognised weight or value. This probably reached the valley of
the Euphrates through the Phoenician traders where it became the
Akkadia.n mina.
Unsta.mped metallic money of another kind was also known in this
period. In one hymn
6
83 we find mention of a gift of dasa hiranya-piI)Qa.
As these hiraT,lya-piQ-Qas have been specifically mentioned as ten, it appears
that each hiraQ-ya-piI.lQa conformed to a definite recognised weight or value.
We need not be surprised at the existence of both stamped and unstamped
money circulating in one and the same period. Even to this day the
Dhabuas which are unstamped copper money circulate freely in the
Nepalese Terai along with stamped coins of various denominations.
The existence of a metallic medium of exchange in general acceptance
may be proved by other evidences. Thus in one hymn
6
86 we read. of a
gift of 10,000 pieces; another hymn
6
8 5 mentions the gift of 100 pieces;
a.nother hymn
686
refers to the gift of a hundred and a thousand pieces.
These gifts of so many pieces do undoubtedly refer to some definite
standard in general acceptance, since without such a standard in general
a.cceptance, we can hardly expect the mention of mere numbers without
a.ny further specification. Professor Wilson, therefore, in his ncte on
Rigveda V. 27.2 rightly observes "It is not improbable, however, that
pieces of money are intended; for, if we may truflt Arrian, the Hindus had
coined money before Alexander."
The general economic condition of the classes'and the masses-In a
system of private ownership of land and capital economic inequalities are
~ Rigveda, VIII. 78. 2.
... Rigveda, VI. 47. 2S .
lbii., V. 17.2.
'U Ibid., V. 97. 1.
DtW.. VDL .. 41-7.
78
bound to ex:st and Rigvedic soc:ety was no exception to this general rule.
The tendency towards the accumulation of cal ital in a few hands wa.a
helped partly by the development of domesfc and fore'gn trade and partly
by the existence of freeuom of disposal of property specially for satisfying
debts to creditors as the evidencc of R;gveda X. 3J. shows. The Rgveda
mentions the 7 and the 8 8 who were dist'ngulshed
for their 'wealth and liberality. The princes and kings who stood on a
higher level than the :M:ahlkulas and the :Maghavans are represented B8
more wealthy and liberal. Thus Svaua.ya, son of Bh:iva gave Kil.ksiv:l:n a
hundred one thousand cows, ten chariots, with mares to draw them
and sixty thousand cattle. 6 8 9 The Rusamas gave away four thousand
cattle.
690
Prastoka (otherwise known as Divod"'[sa or Atithigva) gave a.way
ten coffers, ten mettled horses, ten treasure-chests, ten garments, ten
hiranyapiQ.<;las, ten chariots with extra steed to each and one hundred
COWS.
691
Sudas, descendant of Pijavana gave away two hundred cows, two
chariots with mares to draw them and four trained horses with pearl to
deck them.
6
9 Asanga. gave ten thousand pieces together with ten bright-
hued oxen.
693
Asanga'lS sou Svanadratha gave away two brown steeds
together with their cloths of gold.
6
940 Vibhindu gave Medhyatithi forty-
eight thousand Pakasthii.man Kauray:in gave away a ruddy
horse.
6
96 Prince Kurunga gave away one hundred steeds and sixty-
thousand cows.
6
9 7 Kasu, son of Chedi gave away one hundred buffaloes
and ten thousand cattle. 69 8 Tirindira, son of Parsu, gave away one lac
COWS.
699
The Yii.davas gave to Pajra ten thousand cattle and steeds three
times a hundred.
70o
Trasadasya made a gift of fifty female slaves.1o 1
------------------ ---------------------------------------------
7 Rigveda, I. 31. 12 ; II. 6.4; V. 39.4 .
Ibid .. I. 55. 4; V. 79. 4; VIII. 7. 21; VIII. VaI",khilye. hymn No.9. 3;
X. 107.4 .
... Ibid, I. 2-3 .
.. 0 Rigvede., V. 30.15.
ou Ibid., VII. 18.22-3.
0& Ibid., VIII. 1. 32.
eo 0 Ibid., VIII. 3. 22-3.
... Ibid, VIII. 5.37.
TOO Ibid., VIII. 6. 4,11.
.. Ibid., VI. 47.22.
.. Ibil., VIII 1. 33.
0 Ibid., VIII. 2. 41.
0" Ibid., VIII. 4.19-20 .
Ibid., VIII. 6. 46.
YOl IDid., VIlI. 19. 86.
7.
King Chitra "like Parjanya. with his rain hath spread himself with thousand,
yea, myriad gfts.
70S
Pr'thusravas, son of Kanita, gave away sixty thousand
steeds, ten thousand cattle and two thousand camels 70 3 besides a chatiot
wrought of goold.
'04
Even Brbu, the Pal?i c
1
11ef is described as the giver
of a thousand liberal gifts.
7
0 5 The munificence of the rich patrons may be
appreciated from the famous hymn on which praises in glowing
terms the givers of horses, cattle, clothes and gold.
7
0 6
Side by side with these richer classes we find peoples in debt which was
contracted for various purposes, gambling being one of them.
7
0 1 The Pauis
are described as 'Insurers who counted the days for calculating interest."7oB
Debtors like other male factors were sometimes bound by their creditors to
posts 7 0 9 presumably as a means of putting pressure on them to pay up the
debt. Everything was exacted, even the dwelling houses were sold and
the debtors became homeless and destitute.
7
10 Sometimes they were
reduced to slavery and their relations renounced them.
111
The amonnt of
interest payable is impossible to make out. In one passage
71
S an eighth
(Sapha) and a sixteenth (Kala) are mentioned as paid, but it is quite
uncertain whether interest or an instalment of the principal is meant.
Some were born in debt amI were under a moral and legal obligation to
payoff the debt of their ancestors as the following passage 7 13 will prove:
"Discharge, 0 Varuna, the debts (contracted) by my progenitors aml those
now (contracted) by me; and may I not, royal Val'uQ.a be dependent (on
the debts contracted) by another. Many are the mornings that have, as
it there, not dawned; make us, Varuna, alive in them." Mr. Wilson
observes "According to Sayana, this means that persons, involved in debt
are so overcome with anxiety that they are not conscious of the dawn of
the day; to them the morning has not dawned; they are dead to the light
of day. The passage is deserving of notice, indicating an advanced as well
701 Ibid., VIlt 21. 18.
fol Ibid, VIII 46.22.
to I Ibid., VI 45.
fO' Ibid., X. 84. 10.
fo. Ibid., X 34. 4.
f 11 Ibid., X. 34. 4.
7 U Ibid., II. 9.
fa. Ibid., VIII. 46. 24.
o. Ibid., X, 107.
f o. Ibi 1, VIII. 66. 10.
'10 Ibid., X. 340. 10.
U I Ibid., VIIL 47. 17.
10
as a corrupt state of society, the occurrence of debt, and severity of ita
pressure."
Economic pressure, howover, became severest, when crops failed; And
it is worthy of note that despite the care for irrigation, famines were not
unknown. Sasarpari is said to have dispelled famine.' 1. Fervent pray en
were offered to drive away famine from the country :-
"Drive far from us poverty and famine,
(0 sacrificial post)'" I 5
"Receive from us the arrow, keep famine,
o Adityas, far away'" III
"0 Much-invoked Indra, may we subdue all famine
and evil want with store of grain and cattle." 1 I'
Indeed we read of "the needy who come in begging for bread to'eat"111
"of the begger who comes in want of food"719 and "of the friend and
comrade who comes imploring food.'" gO Hence great emphasis wa.s la.id
on the virtues of hospitality' ~ 1 and liberality,' ~ 9 and the niggardly misers
were cried down.' g S Society expected the rich man to alleviate the distress
of the needy as he himself may need the same assistance one day :
"Let the rich satisfy the poor implorer, and
bend his eye upon a longer journey.
Riches come now to one, now to another,
and like the wheels of cars are ever rolling."7
'16 Ibid., III. 1i3. 15.
UI Ibid., VIII. 18. 11.
,.. Ibid., X. 117. 3.
,.. Ibid., X. 117. Ii.
, .. Ibid., X. 107.
ft. Ibid., X. 117. Ii.
7 15 Ibid., Ill. 8. 2.
'u Ibid., X. 42. 10.
910 Ibic1., X. 117. 4.
U1 Ibid., X. 117.
,.1 Ibid., IX. 63. 5.
CHAPTER V.
Brahmana Period.
(- 600 B. C.)
Daunite1y later than that depictel in the is the civilisati.on
cpraserrtJd by tha hter S.1.'phlt1s, th" Bl'1hma las, the \.ralyakas anrl t'le
[J ds. Tha story of tha R may have its origin in t
1
1e late!'
BnhmaQ.a periorl
1
and the epic was composed according to Professor
Macdonell
7
6 before 500 B. C. In the period of the Rigveda, the centre of
civilis'ltion Was tending to be localisel in the laud between the Saraswatj and
the rivers; but in the Br1hmal).a period, as the period under review
m1y cJ:winiJntly ba c.111e 1, tha of civilisation in the more
eastern pal-t of the country is In the Aitareya Br:1hmaT).a a
gaographic.ll passaga ascribas the "Midlle to the later
tha KUl'clS allli PJ.nc:Bls wita the Vd.sas and Usin'1ras, to the south the
S Ltvats a:11 to tha nort'l bayonel the Hi nalaya" the Uttara-Kurus and the
Uttara-"}ladras. On the other han;I, while the west recedes in importance,
the re;;ions, east of t'le Kuru-P.inchal country come into prominence,
spacially Kos.1la, CJl'l'JSpOn ling rO'l,;hly to modJl'll Oudh, and Videha,
molel'll Tit'helt or N. Bih.1r anI M tg:dlu, the model'll South Bihar. In
the south wa he:l.r of non-Arya.n tribes like the Anrlhras, Pulindas, Pundras,
Mutibas, Sabaras and the N
T,J1ol,-In keeping with this wirler geographical outlook, the
Bra.hmal).a. period is marked by a graater knowledge of towns. The White
Yajur rJfers to Kimpila which the cOJl:nentator takes to be
K impilya., the PJnchlla c:l.pital. In the SJ.ta.patha Brlhmaqa we come
across t.le of two citie.>, na.nely, Asandhivat,72 8 probably tlle capital
History of IrIdia., Vol. I., p. 317.
,.e History of Sa.nskrit Litera.tllre, p, 309.
u. XXIiI. 18. fl8 S. B. E. Vol. XLIV. p. 396.
81
of King J anmejaya and Parivakra," 9 the capital of the F;tnchiila Kinglo
The word nagara. meaning a town frequently occurs in literature
as also the ep'thet nagariu. The Td.ittiriya Br1h:ua.l:t describes .Tan:tsrutey
as a nag3.rin. We also find epithets like Kausamveya, Kausalya all,
Vaidarva, derived from place-na.mes which gradually grew into towns.
la.nd was div;ded as in the previous period, into
vastu, arable land, pastures and forests. The V;istu as before was in private
In the Chandogya hOllses are citecl as instances of
private wealth. The arable land was also in private ownership. In the Black
Yajur Veda
7
31 we read "He should make an offering to Indra and Agni
on eleven postherds who has a dispute about a fieltl or with his neighbours."
"It is" says from Prof. Keith "a clear evidence of separate ownership of'
land." 7 H In the Chlndogya U 3 we find fields along with houses
cited as instances of private wealth. The pastures and the forests were
enjoyed in common. Though this Right of Common or Estover was later
on much circu:n:icribed by the establishment of a highly centralised
government, sue'! as, under Chandragupta }.Iaurya, the Brahmins or the
learned nevertheless exercised the right of collecting fuel amI other
materials for religious purposes thronghoLlt ages. The Varana J:ltaka,7 h
for example, us that five hllUdrud pupils of a teacher of set
out for the fOl'Gst to gather firewood for their teacher and busied themselves
in gathering sticks. Agni 7 3 lays down that a Brahmin
exercises everywhere the right of collecting grass, fuel and flowers.
Yajfhbalkya 736 is also of the view. It is well-known that the Arat;lyaka
part of the Vedic literature was required to be read in the forests.
With the evidences at our disposal, it is difficult to decide whether the
land belongei to the head of the family or to the members of joint families
in common. The story told in the Aitareya Br:1hmaQa of Viswlmitra
U Ibid" p. 397.
Ho VII. 240.2. .31 II, 2. 1.
30 Keith-Yeda of Blaok Yajus School, p. 117. fn. 1. Comp"re Yedio Index
I. ZlO,211.
703 VII. 2 t.:.! aya.tanaui).
7S& Ch..pter CCLVii, 17.
,.. 71..
,.. II. 169.
83
who oatcasted and expelled his fifty sons as also of the sale of Suna\lsepha
by his father Ajig\rk\ in lieu of one hlluclred cows prove the autocratic
of the he:d of t\e fam'ly. It is, however, doubtful as to whether
these are insb.nces which gild lIS the real state of affairs or were arbitrary
exercises of authority. ludeel we have evidences to prove the joint
oWllership of property. Not only do we find repeated mention of Sajata.
ani SJ.:nlna, m3J.ninj' n:m or men of the same family but in one
hymn 137 we find prayers to the gols for unity of the family :-

"Freedom from hate I bring to you, concord
and unanimity.
Love one another as the cow loveth the
calf that she hath borne.
One-minded with his mother let the son
be loyal to his sire.
Let the wife, calm and gentle, speak
words sweet as honey to her lord.
No brother hate his brother, no sister to
sister be unkind.
Unanimous, with out intent, speak ye
your speech in friendliness .

Let what you drink, your share of food

be common: together with one common bond I bid you.
Serve Agni, gatherecl round him like spokes
about the chariot nave.
In the Black Yajur Veda 738 we read "The fore-sacrifices are the father, the
after-sacrifices the son in that having offered the fore-sacrifices he
sprinkles the oblations, the father makes common property with the son."
Mr. Keith
7
39 observes "The commentator takes this as referring to the fact
that the son's earnings are his own, the father shares them with the family,
... Ill. :m, ... II. 6, 1,
,.. V.d. of the Black y .. jn! Sohool, p. 206, fn. 2.
84
and this seems cOl'rect. S;ryaJ;1a also notes that the son keeps his secretly
i.e., perhaps his ownership was }IN'Cflrtfl, not of right; the parij,llel to
Roman law is striking and just;fi<:s us in accnpting the view of the
commentator." Elsewhere in the Black Yajur Vedf>740 we rcad "}Ianu,
divided his property among his sons. He deprived who
was a student, of any portion. He went to him, and said, 'How hast thou
deprived me of a portion P' He replied, 'I have dept'ived you of '"
portion; the Afigirases here are performing a Sattra ; they cannot discern
the 'Hlrld of heaven; declare this Br.,hmana to them; when t'ey go to
the world of heaven they will give thee their cattle.' He told them it,
and thcy when go'ng to the world of heaven gave him their cattle. Rudra
approached him as he went about with h's cattle in the place of sacrifice,
aud said 'These are my c.1ttle.' He 1'ep1ie:1 'They have given them to
me.' 'They have not the power to do that' replied he, 'whatever is left
on the place of sacrifice is mine.' Then one should not resort to a place
of sacrifice. He said 'Give me a share in the sacrilice, and I will not have
designs against your cattle.' He poured out for him the remllants of the
mixed (Soma). Then indeed had Rudra no designs agabst his cattle."74
1
This story which also occurs in the Aitareya Hr ,hmal!a
7
H shows
undoubtedly that even during the life-time of the father, sons were regarded
as having a vested interest in prop0rty, from which they could not be
excluded at will. In the mythology of the Brithmal!a period we find that
the children of the Father God VII., gocls and devils fight for the'r respective
shares and "enter into t'leir by dividing it. III
mythology we find a man who has no son, dividing his property between
his two wives. We find the gift of a field; of whole villages; of all the
I .
king's lands to a priest; and when thus given, the land cannot \Je alienated.
If the king should at another time, give all his land to another, that piece
which he has formerly given to the first pr:est, is not included in the later
donation.
74.
...
III. 1. 9.
Compare MS. I. 5.8, anJ f"r the substance see Vedic I"dex, 1. 352. For Manu
of. Levi, Ladoctrin8 du Bacrifice, pp. 115 ,eq.; )1acdonell, V.dio Mythology,
p. 131:1.
V. 1.4
85
But though the gift of lands specially to who officiated III
sacritices 743 was quite common thl!re was a decideu. feeling against land-
transfer in the Satapatha :From allother passage of the same
htlnk h 5 we learn that K :hatriya 'clansmen apportioned land given to them
by a .atriya) king with the mutual consent of all. Later on when we
COlle to the Ch,ndogya Upalli
o
ud
746
we find that houses and fields were
regarded as objects of private ownersh'p and tram,ferable ..
It is difficult to decille as to whether the king was regarded as the
owner of the land in ths p21'iod. We are told in t'le Aitareya BrJhmaJ;la
747
that a priest's function is to take gifts, while the Vai ;ya's peculiar function
is to be devoured by the priest and nobleman. From this it is apparent
tuat the V diiya cannot have any seCU1'e} hold over his landed property. In
one of the Upani,ads it is saLl tbt the v'tal breath commands the other
just as a Samr.ij commissions his officers saying, 'Be thou over
these villages or thos) villages.' 'fhe statement of the Satapatha
:Brjhmal)8,7
48
namely, t'lat everyone here is fit to be eaten up by the king
except Brahmin, is not of much sigllilicance, since it only embodies in a
nut .. hell the view that the rOyctl contributions from the subjects which were
at first probably fitful in thei.r character, had by this time become a general
burden devolving upon neftrly all classes of PJople. Of greater importance
is the passage of the AitarJY3 Br.hmala, referred to above, declaring the
Yai ,ya from the point of vi<lw of the} 'to be tributary to another,
to be lived on by another, to be oppressed at will.' These striking phrases
together with the epithet frelluently applied in the to the king,
namely that he is the devourer of his people doubtless signify that the
king's claim of taxing his subjects was limited only by his sweet free will,
but there is nothing in them to indicate the king's ownership of the soil
as distinct from his political superiority.
7
49 Indeed it is clearly stated in
"J Sl\t"patha ilrilhmal):J. XlIr. 6, :t. 8 ; XIII. 7. 1. 13 and 15.
.... XLII. .<5 Ibid., VII 1. 1. 4 . H. VII. 24.2 .
n VII. 29, with Keith's tran,!..tion in the Cambridge History of India, Vol. I.
p. 128.
". V. 3,3, U j Ibid., 4,2,3.
fU Compare Vedic Indblt, S.V. R<ijan, rejocting the view of Hopkins, Op. cU.,
p. 222.
the BrahmalJ.a 750 that to whomsoever the with the
approval of the people or clan (vis) grants a settlement, that is properly
given. This evilently rdfers to the public laml of the folk and it
seems to maftll that while the king's gift of such land with the consent
of the people was in accordance with the tribal or customary
law, it was sometimes arbitrarily disposed of by the sole authority
of the ruler. It is possible that originally in the Rigvedic period the king
could deal with the public laml only with the sanction of the
assembly, but afterwards during the times of the later Sarphiti1s and the
Brahma'las the advance of thc king's power had resulted in such land being
looked upon as lying to some extent at the disposal of the Crown. The
natural consequence of such development would be eventually to reduce
the public lands to the cOllllition of the king's private estates. But this
step wh;ch seems to have been completed by the time of the Arthasastra
was not reached in the period of t
1
1e BrLhmanas.' 5 1 Indeed the prayer in
the Atharvavella' 5 for the grant of a share in villages to the king shows
that the people granted him some land for the maintenance of his authority
and dignity : there could have been hardly any room for this prayer if he
Was already the master of the soil. Professor Keith rightly observes
"There can be no doubt that he (the king) controlled the land of the!
tribe. It is not, however, necessary to ascribe to this period the conception
of the royal ownership of all the land, though it appears in the Greek
source from the time of Megasthenes downwards and is evidenced later by
law-books of the time. He 11ad, it is true, the right to expel a Brahmin
and a V ai at will, though we do not know expressly that he could do
this in the case of a But these considerations point to political
superiority rather than to ownership proper and we may assume that when
00 VIII. 1. 7 I, 4.
151 to the Vedic Tn lex, 8. v. Grama the king's right to apportion the land
with the con"ent of the clan (as mentioned e g., in the text of the Satapatha.
Brahmal}a. qUl)ted above) ccmt"in3 the germ of the lILter St"te ownership of the
soil. It is difficult to support this view, .ince the killg'S rIght of appoionment
just mentioned is apparently concerned with the disposal of the public land
distinguished [rom the land held in private ownership by the freemen .
... IV. 2i. 2.
87
he gave grants of land to his retainers, he granted not ownership but
privileges such as the right to receive dues and maintenance from the
cultivators. There is a clear distinction between this action and the
conferring of ownership, and it mar be doubted if the actual gift of land
Tas approved in this epoch. The only case of which we hear is one
reported in the Satapatha and Aitareya Brahmalfas in which the King
Viiwakarman Bhallvana gave land to the priests who sacrificed for him but
the earth itself rebuked his action. It is more probable that at this time,
the allotment of land was determined by the king or by the noble to whom
he had granted the rights of supcriority according to customary law and
tha.t gifts not in accordance with this customary law were disapproved.
It is hardly necessary to point out the close similar:ty between such a state
of affairs and that existing at the present day in parts of West Afr;ca,
where kings have introduced for purposes of personal gain the practice of
dealing as absolllte owners with lands which according to the strict custom
of tribal law they have no power to allocate save in accordance with the
custom of the tribe. Nor is it inconsistent with the view that the king
had an arbitrary power of removing a from his land. That power
Rowed from his sovere:gnty and though disapproved, was acquiesced in,
we may presume, just as in W ust Africa; while the dealing of kings with
lands by way of ownership was regard eel as a complete breach of
the tribal law, the actual removal from his land, of any individual was
recogllised as a royal prerogative, even if the power was misused." 75 S 1/
As to the king's revenue we have the follmying passage in the
A.tharvaveda :
"Emarp bhaja gr:lme
bhaja yo amitro asya." 7 5 4
"Give him a share in village, kine and horses anclleave
his enemy without a portion, (0 Inrlra).
The king's share is called 'bali' in the Veclic Sarphitas and the Br;[hmaQas
which is also used to denote the tribute paid by the conquered enemies and
708 Rapson-C"mbridge History of India, VQI. 1. pp. 1:12-33.
1" Athl\rvavede. IV. 22. 2.
88
offerings made to the gods.
7
5 5 Along with this is mentioned hirat}.ya. which
as Professor U. N. Ghosal has suggested, means cash charge upon certain
special classes of crops.'!)6 As to any Iixe:l share of the produce being paid
to the king, the evidence of the following passage of the Atharvaveda. iI
significant:
"Yad raja-no bibhajanta
Yamasy:Tmi sabhasadaI:l'" 5 7
"When yondcr kings who sit beside Yama didde
alUong themselves t:le sixteenth part of hopes fulfilled."
This passage occms in a hymn whose suhj:ct is im:nllnity b,xation ill
the next worlll to be purchase:cl by the of a c,wtain sacri.ica
on earth and tuerdorc, well point to the 1'0),,11 shlrc be:ing assessei to
a sixteenth part of the produce in those days.
The r:se of a lan:led aristocl".1cy, of men who stOll as intclrmelbtories
between the king and the C:>:n:nOIl C"llt'vatOI" L; 1 at ill
of the Black Yajur Veh, toU i,l with the
pel'iol'mance of certain sacl"i.icJs by a p )1"';01 of "'inn'ng a village
(gr:tmaklma) how the go Is '..t.s i; 1 hi n Ie 1 by the
noses'75
8
how they 'present his relative:.> to hi:n anI m:l.ke the folk
dependent on him" 59 and how they eaable hin to gt"clSP the min;l of h's
equals.
160
These significant expre:ssions Clll only rJf,w to t'le lor.!sh'ps of
single villages either obtained. through roy..t.l favour Ot" aC3crtance by
villagers Ot" aC1uired in the first by inli vi lual eXclrt'oll, but
afterwards rec3i.v'ng the seJ.l of royal contit"lllJ.tion. Acc:)["iiu; to
authors of the Vedic Index what the k ;ng geankl was his right of levying
contributions and pl'obably nothing morJ. In the other case the man
attained nothing m:.>re tlntl 80ci'11 Pl'J-J11i,13:1CJ in as much as it
requirei the sJ,nct'oll of a 11 SL 11 t 1 H, 11:11 this show'" that no
"155 Macd"nell aId K'ith-Vedic I"dex, <, V heli,
756 U. N. GllOsal - Contr,ha' iOlls to tbe HistJr,r of the Hia,)n Revenue System,
pp. 59-oj.
H7 Ath"rvav',da, TIl. 'lV. 1.
Bla.ck Yajur Veda, II. 1.1. 2.
flO Ibid., 11. 3. 9. 2.
76' Ibid" II. 1. 3. 2.
89
l'II8.1 rights were parted with by the sajatas but were vested in him.
When we come to later literature we find instances of gifts of
villages by kings. The Chandogya U 6 1 mentions the gift of a
village by king Janasruti to Raikka. In subsequent periods such gifts of
villages were common and this contrifmted to the growth of the Mahasalas
whom we find in the U and in early Buddhist literature. The
evidence of Buddhist literature shows, as we shall)ee later on, that the
Mah:Is:Ilas enjoyed the revenue of villages and may be regarded as occupying
the position of land-lords.
As regards the lato of illheritallce we have a passage even in the
Rigveda 7 6 which according to Sayal)a's interpretation appear to attribute,
in a very obscure manner, to the customs or laws of succession to property
among men. The passage reads thus:
"Wise, teaching, following thought of Order,
the sonless gained a grandson from his daughter.
Fain, as a sire, to see his child prolific, he sped
to meet her with an eager spirit.
The son left not his portion to the brother ...... "
The word vahnih, which usually means an oblation-bearer, a sacrificer, a
priest or one who is borne along as a god in a celestial car, is taken by
Sa:yal)a to mean sonless, the father of a daughter only. The sonless father,
according to SiiyaI).a, "stipulates that his daughter's son, his grandson, shall
be his son, a mode of affiliation recognised by law; and relying on an heir
thus obtained, and one who can perform his funeral rites, he is satisfied."
SiiyaJ;la interprets "The son left not his portion to the brother" thus:
"a son born of the body does not transfer (paternal) wealth to a sister."765
We have two mythological accounts of father Manu (not as Law-giver but
as Adam of the race) and of the division of his inheritance. One of them
7 61 IV. 2. 4t. 76. HI. 31. 1-2.
'" a Professor Wilson remarks "These two verses, if rightly interpreted, are wholly
unconnected with the subject of the Siikt.., and come in without any apparent
object: they are very obscure, nnd are only made somewhat intelligible by
interpretations which seem to be a.rbitrary, and a.re very unusual, although not
peculiar to his expla.nttiRD being based on those of Yaska.
90
says "Manu divided his property among his sons; one of them
by name living elsewhere as a student he excluded from a share.'" 640 The
other account says "The brothers excluded from a share one of Manu's
sons.'" 6 5 In both the accounts the property is divided in the father's
life-time and the division was equal. In due course demanded
his share and his claim was accepted in principle, though many obstacles
intervened in his regaining his lawful share. The story shows undoubtedly
that even during the life-time of the father, son were regarded as having
a vested interest in property, from which they could not be excluded at
will. The Black Yajur Veda
766
speaks of a father making common
property with a son. The commentator takes this as referring to the fact
that the son's earnings are his own, the father shares them with the family
and this seems correct. Sayat;ta also notes that the son keeps his secretly,
i.e., perhaps his ownership was precario, not of right; the parallel to
Roman law is striking and justifies us in accepting the view of the
commentator. In the mythology of the BrrrhmaI!a period we find that the
child ern of the Father God viz., gods and devils fight for their respective
shares and "enter into their inheritance" by dividing it. The division of
property among the sons was not always equal, the eldest often getting a
little more than the others, probably even a double share of the wealth as is
evident from the following passage of the Atharvaveda.
7
6 7
"Agni, the banqueter on flesh, not banished,
for the eldest son
Taketh a double share of wealth and
spoileth it with poverty."
The meaning of the passage seems to be, that if the rites are not duly
performed the eldest son of the departed, though he receives a double share
of the property, will be eventually ruined.
Agriculture-Progress was doubtless made in agriculture. The plough
was large and heavy; we hear of as many as six' 6 8 or eight' 6 9 or
,u Black Yajnr Veda, III. 1.9.
980 II. 6. 1.
10 a Aitareya V. 140.
u, XII. 2. 3:>
... Atha.rva.veda. VI. 91.1; Bla.ck Ya.jur Veda. V. Z.5.
YO. Atha.rvaveda., VI. 91. 1.
91
twelve' 70 oxen being harnessed to the plough. The plough was "of keen
share, with well-polished handle.'" 71 The seasons bearing on agriculture
are mentioned in the Black Yajul' Veda. Thus barley ripen in the hot
season, rice in autumn, beans and sesamum in winter and the cool season.7 7
Further we learn that "twice in the year does the corn l'ipen."71.
According to the 774 the winter crop was ripe by the
month of Chaitra. The mention of a double crop shows a distinct advance
in agriclture, which may be attributed partly to the larger use of manure
and irrigation and partly to the knowledge of the cultivation of a larger
variety of grains and plants which grew in different parts of the year.
Indeed the advantages of a rotation of crops were fully realised. Thus a.
season of barley (yava) would be succeeded by one of rice (vrihi)77 0 bean
(mudga or masha) and sesamum (tila). Besides these, other varieties of
crops mentioned in the White Yajur Veda
778
were probably sown on the
principle of rotation.
7
'7
'rhe adoption of a system of rotation of crops, combined ':Vith the
undeveloped state of intensive cultivation, apparently gave rise to what is
known as the Field-grass system or Pasture Or Two-field and Three-field
systems. We may call this system of 'Khila' system of agriculture, for the
no Blaok Yajur Veda, V. 2. 5.
171 Atbarvaveda, III. 17.3 co Black Yajur Veda., IV. 2.5.
Bla.ck Ysjnr Veda, VII. 2.10.
,.3 Ibid., V. 1. 7. '710 XIX. 3.
n. Compare Gobbila, I. 4. 29 and Khadira., I. 5. 37: "From tbe rice hllorv8st till the
barley ( harvest) or from the barley ( harvest) till the rice (barvest) he .bould
offer tbe sacrifices,"
,,. XVIII. 12.
rn As the seasons of the Vedic Age did not enotly coinoide with those of later times
a short notice seems necessary here. In the Rigveda .live seasons are mentioned
viz., Vasanta {\Spring ), ( Summer), !Sarat (Autumn), (Rainy
season) and the Remanta or Rima (Winter). The Brahmal;las also mention
these seasons. The SaqIkbayana Grihya Siitra (IV. 18. 1) also mentions only
five sessons of the year. .A sixth seaBon was reoognised later on as the evidence
of Kautilya's (Book II. Chapter 20) shows. See Tilak Artie
Home in tbe Vedas, p. 183 j Maedonelland Keith-Vedic Index, I. pp. 110-11;
ZiJDlIllr-AUiDdiech" LebeD, pp. 373-741.
92
reason that land in those days appears to have been alternately cultivated
and laid fallow (khila) to recover its fertility.7
1
8 Under the Two-field
system there were two plots of land, one remaining under cultivation in any
particular year or season, and the other lying fallow after the last harvest.
In alternate years or so thc fallow lands, serving temporarily as pastures
would be brought under cultivation. At a time when intensive cultivation
was still in incipiency, this method would enable land to recover fertility
easily. In very early times when the number of crops raised did not exceed
one or two, the system was a simple one; one plot of land would in a parti-
cular season remain under cultivation, say, of barley (yava) only while the
other ,,'ould remain fallow say, after the rice-harvest. But when the number
of crops raised increased and the cultivator sowed and reaped more than
two varieties in rotation,
7
79 tlle system followed must have been a Three-
fold system, three or four varieties being raised in two of the fields every
year aml the third lying fallow once in every three years. The ideal system
that would work, may be thus indicated: let A, Band C be the three fields;
then, in the first year, A would produce in rotation, say, Yava and Vrihi,
B would similarly produce in rotation tila, godhuma or masura
7
80
C would remain fallow; in the second year, A would be cultivated
intensively for one or two crops, B would remain fallow and C would
produce two crops in rotation; in the third year, A would lie fallow, B
would produce one or two crops like A in the second year, and C would
produce one or two crops like A in thc first or the second year ...... if B
produces one crop, C produces, two and vice-versa.
7
8 1
Some more details about agricultural operations arc forthcoming'. The
Satapatha BrahmaI)a
7
8 2 mentions the operations of ploughing, sowing,
reaping and threshing. The Atharvaveda
7
83 mentions the use of manure
H8
See Professor Kishori Mohan Gupta's article on .. The Land system and Agricul-
ture of the Vedic Age" in Sir Silver Jubilee Volume on Orientalia,
Vol. III. Part II.
"9 White Yajl1r Veda, XVIII. 12 seems to refer:tothis.
"0 White Ylljur Veda, XVIII. 12; Black Yajur Veda, VII. 9.10.2.
'81 Prof. K. M. Gupta - Land South India between 800 A. D. nt,
1200 A. D., pp. 197-99.
7 .. I. 6.1.3. ua III. 14.3.
(karIsa, cow-dung). One of its hymns
784
was composed on the occasion of
cutting a channel for irrigation or to avert a flood. Here the newly cut
canal is described as a calf to the river which is the COW.
18
5 Well irrigation
is thus described in the Black Yajur Veda.
786
"Make firm the straps,
Fasten the buckets;
We shall drain the well full of water,
That never is exhausted, never faileth.7 87
The well with buckets fastened,
With strong straps, that yieldeth abundantly,
Full of water, unexhausted, I drain." 7 8 8
The Kausika SaIphit;r7 8 9 also refers to canal irrigation and gives us the
practical part of the ceremony of letting:in the water. At first some gold
plate is deposited on the bed, a frog with a blue and red thread round it,
is made to sit on the gold plate and after this the frog is covered with an
aquatic plant called SeV'ala and water is then let in.
As to the crops, the Atharvaveda mentions besides yava, sesamum,79 0
vrihF 91 (as also tandula
792
). We also find the word sa:riSa:k.193 which
Griffith has translated as cultivated rice.
794
The cultivation of sugarcane
is also referred to in the Atharvaveda.
7
9 5 The White Yajur-veda mentions a
large number of crops. Thus we read :
'Vh 'h 'h 'h
' ri ayasc a me yavasc a me a me
tila:scha me mudgascha me khalvascha me
priyafigavascha me navascha me
syamakascha me nivarascha me godhumascha
me masurascha me yajiiena kalpyantam."79
6
78< III. 13.
784 III. 13.7.
18' Cf. Rigveda X. 101. 5 ; SaI!1hita XXXVIII. 14.
788 Cf. Rigveda, X. 101.6. 78. XL. 3-6.
TeO II. 8. 3 ; XVIII. 3. 69.
788 IV. 2.5.
U1 VI. 140.2; VIII. 7.20; IX. 6.14 ; XII. 4.18,30,32; cf. IV. 35.
7 IS X. 9. 26. 703 Ill. 14. 5.
UA Griffith's Atharvaveda, Vol. T. p. 101,101 fn.
7 .. I. 34. I, 5. , XVDI. 12.
"May my rice-plants and my barley and my beans and my sesamum and mr
kidney-beans and my vetches and my millet and my Panicum MilliaceuD.:l
and my Panicum Frumentaccum and my wild rice and my wheat and m..,
lentils prosper by sacrifice."'91 Upavakas or Indra-yavas (seeds of the'
Wrightia Antidysenterica) are also mentioned in the White Yajurveda.
191

The Black Yajurveda mentions Yava,'99 rice,soo beans

8
()1 and sesamum.
SOI
The Black Ya jurveda so 3 also distinguishes between the black swift-growing
asu and the mahavrihi. In another places 0 4 we find reference to black
rice and white rice. The Taittirlya BrahmaI;las 0 5 speaks of two kinds
of rice a8U and mahavrihi. The BrhadaraI?yaka mentions a large
number of crops. Thus we are told "There are ten kinds of village
(cultivated) seeds viz., rice and barley (vrihiyavas), sesamum and kidney-
beans (tilamasas), millet and panic seed (anupriyangavas), wheat (godhuma),
lentils (masura), pulse (khalva) and vetches (khalakula)."so6 The RamayaQa
mentions sesamum,S01 mudga,SOS mustard,So9 masa,Sl0 sMi rice
S11
(as
also tandula
SB
). r.I'he RamayaI;la refers to sugarcane,Sl3 sugarcand
y
8u
as well as molasses.
8
15 Royal grain-stores are also mentioned.
816
... Griffith's White Yajurveda, p. 194.
098 XIX. 22 .
I. 3. 1, 2, 6 ; VII. 2. 10.
800 VII. 2.10.
80. Ibid.
II. 3. 1. 3.
e01 Ibid.
103 I. 8. 10.
eoo I. 7.3.4.
101 6th sdhyaya, 3rd BrahmsJ)a, verse 13. Max Muller's Translation in S. B. E.
Vol. XV., p. 214.
80' AjodhyakiiJ)da, 20th Barga; UttarakiiJ)da, l04th Barga.
808 AjodbyakiiJ)da, 20th Barga; Uttarakiit;lda, 104th Barga.
00. AjodhyakiiJ)da, 25th Barga .
10 UttarakaJ,lda, l04th
811 Biilakiit;lda, 5th Barga; Ajodhyakiiltda, 32nd sarga.
Compare dhanya in B:UakiiJ,lda, 6th Barga.
U BalakiiJ)da, 5th sarga; UttarakaJ)da, l04th sarga.
818 Ajodhyakat;lda, 9Ist sarga; UttarakiiJ)da. 104th sargr..
1<1 AjodhyakiiJ)da, 91st Barga.
n UttarakiiJ)da. 105th sarga.
U Ajodhyiklttda. 36th Barg ..
Prom the RlImayaJ}.8. 817 we learn that agriculture Was an important
for, it was included in Vartta which along with Tray! and DaQ.daniti
comprised the famous three branches of learning. In the Ramayarya
S
1 S we
find that when Bharata came to the forest to take Rama back to Ajodhya,
Rlma enquired of Bharata whether agriculturists found favour with him,
in fact whether all persons living by Vartta are prospering'in his kingdom,
for, it was the duty of the king to look after their interests and welfare.
As a matter of fact, we find that.in RIma's time the world was green with
corn S 19 ; every city, village and kingdom had plenty of corn. 8 0 Kosala
mahajanapada abounded in corn.
8
21 Ajodhya is described as abounding in
corn.
8
U Every house in the city of Ajodhya was filled with sali rice.
8
U
The Vatsakingdom had plenty of corn (AjodhyakaQ.da, 52nd sarga). The
banks of the Magadhi river are described as very fertile and as producing
corn.
8
2 4 The banks of the river Pampa flowing through the kingdom of
abound in corn.
8
2 5 Corn is also grown in Dravic;la, Sind,
Soubira, SourJ!}tra, Anga, Banga, lfagadha, Matya and
K
- '- 826
as).
The farmer had as now constant trouble to contend with: the fields
were covered with weeds like salanjala and nilagalas1la 827 ; moles destroyed
the seeds; birds and other creatures destroyed the young shoots; both
drought and excessive rain destroyed the crops; and lightning often injured
crops and plants. The Atharvaveda provides us with a considerable number
of spells to a.void these disasters and secure a good harvest. Thus we read:
8" Ajodbyakal}do., so.rgo. 100, verse 68.
118 Ibid., so.rga 100, verse 47
... Uttaro.kal}da, sarga 70.
It 0 Balakiil}da, Barga 2.
8'1 Balakal}da, Barga 5 ; sarga 50.
8 .. Ajodbyakal}da, sargo. 75 ; Ibid., Barga 82 ; Ibid., 3
803 Balakal}da, Barga 5.
8 U B iilakal}da, sarga 32.
8 u Barga 1.
8U Ajodhyakal}da, Barga 10.
In Atharvaveda, VI. 16.4.
"Destroy the rat, the mole, boring beetle, cut off
their heads and crush their ribs, 0 Aswins
Bind fast their mouths; let them not eat our barley" 8 8
"Spring high, 0 Barley, and become much through
thine own magnificence :
Burst all the vessels: let the bolt from heaven forbear
to strike the down." 8 2 9
"Strike not, 0 God, our growing corn with lightning,
nor kill it with the burning rays of Surya."830
We have also charms for hastening the coming of periodical rains,
8
3 1 for
fair weather
8
3 2 and to avert inundation.
8
3 3 All these precautions generally
resulted in agricultural prosperity which we find described in many hymns
of the Atharvaveda and the other SaJphitTs. It is not necessary to quote
at length the prayers for a bumper harvest,
8
34 increase of cattle
8
3 5 and
accumulation of wealth
8
36 ; though these harvest songs throw much light
on the requirements of the peasantry and their simple ideas of happiness.
Despite these precautions famines were not unknown. In the
Chandogya U
8
37 we are told of a famine caused by the destruction
of crops by locusts (mataci) whose intensity was so great that a muni
Cakrayana by name had to migrate to a neighbouring country along with
his young wife and had to live on In the Ramayaf.la we find that
in Rama's time the people were free from famine.
8
3 8 Nevertheless we find
that after the destruction of V rtrasura owing to drought many people died
8.8 Ibid., VI. 50.1.
830 Ibid., VII. 11. 1.
83. Ibid., VI. 128.
80 9 Ibid, VI. 142. 1.
8"1 Ibid., IV. 15.
833 Ibid., VII. 18. See ClII. 3. and Weber's Omens and Portent.,
p. 366.
884 Ibid., IV. 39.2; VI. 142; XIX. 7.4; XIX. 9. 1.
SBa Ibid., I. 31. 4; I. 15.2; VI. 16; VI, 59.; VII. 1114.
836 Ibid.,!. 15; I. 26. 2; IV. 39; VI. 55. 2; VII. 16; VII. 17; VII. 20. 3;
VII. 40; VII. 41 ; XIX. 3; XIX. 7. 5 ; XIX. 10.2.
837 1. 10.1-3.
a.s Ball'.kav.da, Barga 1 ; sarga 112.
97
of famine.
8
S 9 Again owing to the sin of king Lomapada, famine over took
his kingdom of Anga.
8
40
Foresls alld their economic importance-Besides serving as natural
pastures the forests supplied an essential part of the economic nceds of the
people of this age. They provided them with wild rice (nlvara),841 fuel
8H
and with the materials for the construction of houses,
8
43 chariots,
8
44
sacrificial implements 845 and animals. 8 4 6 They were a perennial source of
supply of medicinal herbs and plants
847
as well as of sacrificial grass.
848
They also supplied the people with aloe (aguru),849 bdellium (guggulu),850
spikenard (naladi),8 51 resin (salanirjy:tsa),8 5 musk,8 53 sandalwood,
8
54-
lac,855 hides,856 fruits
857
and honcy.858 Sandalwood was used not only
for the cremation of kingsB 5 9 but also for preparing a paste for personal
8.. U sarga 99.
8<0 sarga, 9.
841 White Yajurve:ia, XVIII. 12 .
11th Barga .
<8 56th:sarga; Ihid., Arat;tyakat;lda, 15th sarga..
8U Griffith's Atharvaveda, Vol. II. p. 440 fn
... 14th sarga..
8U White Yajurveda, XXIV. 1-40.
8<7 See below . 8" Ibid.
u 7fith, 86th and 9Ist sargas.
8liO Atha.rvaveJa, II. 30. 7; IV. 37 .. 3 j XIX. 38. 1,2 j Compare White Yajurved&, V. 13.
Atharvaveda, IV. 37.3.
62 Ramayat;la, 76th sarga
H Ibid., 75th sarga.
8 Ibid., 15th, 35th and 60th sargas; Ibid., 1st, 27th, <
and 41st sargas ;
Ibid., Ajudhyaka1)da, 75th sarga ; Ibid., 23rd sarga. 0-
s Ibid., Ara1)yaka1)da, 43rd sarga ( deer-skin) Ibid., Lo.akakallda, 75th Barga (tiger-
skin and the yak'B tail ) .
See below.
8 Atharvaveda, I. 34. 1-4 ; III. 30. 2 ; IV. 36. 6 ; VIl 56. 2 i IX. 1. 16-19, 22;
Compare Ibid, XVI[[. 2. 14; XVIII. 4. 3; Wbite Yajnrveda, I. 16 ;
XVII. 3. 13; XVIII. 65; Black Yaj.Hveda, V. 2. 6; V. 4, 2; RamayaJ;la,
Ajodhyakallda, 75th sarga, etc .
e 0 RamaYIIJ;lo., 25th Barga.
98
adornment.s6o The milky juice of the Ficus Indica (Bata) leaves was us __
in preparing matted locks of hair. B 61 No wonder, therefore that the poetJ
priests sang in the following !:itrain :-
"May the plants be sweet for
"May the tall trees be full of sweets for US."863
The various useful trees known to the people of this period are:-
(1) Vibhldaka or Vibhitaka (Terminalia Bellerica)864 whose nuts were
used as diee in very early times.
s65
(2) Pal:isa or Parna (Butea Frondosa)866
from whose wood covers of some sacrilicial vessels were made.
8
6 7 The great
ladle called Juhu with which claritiecl butter was poured into the sacrificial
fireS 6 S and other sacrificial vessels were made of this wood, to which in
the shape of amulets, also great efficacy was ascribed.
8
6 9 (3) Udumbara.
(Ficus Glomerata)
8
7 0 from whose wood besides amulets, sacl'ific:al posts
and ladles were made.
8
71 In the Brhadwanyaka TJ 872 we are told:
Four things are made of the wood of U dumbara tree, the sacrificial ladle
(sruva), the cup (kamsa), the fuel and the two churning sticks." (4) Vaikankata
.00 Ibid., 76th, 78th, 88th and 9ist sarg"s
, Ibid., 52nd sarg".
8 White Yajurveda, XIII. 27.
8.8 Ibid., XIII. 29.
8 ... Atharvaveda, VII. 109. 1.
866 Rigveda, X 34. 1.
8'6 Atharv"veda, HI. 5; V. 5. 6; XIV. 1. 61; XVIII. 4. 53; White Yajl1rveda,
XL 57.50; XII. 86.79; XXXV. 4; Black Y"jurveda, IV. 2. 6; VII. 4. 12;
Ramaya!;h, 14th sarga; 63r:l sarga.
88'1 Atharvaveda, XVIII. 4.53.
868 Black Yajurveda, III. 5.7.
889 Atharvaveda, III. 5. Prof. Weber observes th"t or Parl)a. is etymologica.l1y
identical with the German Farn, English Fern; Fern-seed was supposed to havi
the power of rendering One who carried it invisible, and the plant was said to
be of celestial origin an I able to secure the fulfilment of every wish (Simrock,
870
Handbuch der Deutschen p. 498).
Atharvaveda, XIX. 31; White Yajurveda, V. 26. 26, 28; Black Yajarveda,
III. 4. 8 ; VII. 4. 12.
871 Griffith's Atharvaved", Vol. II. p. 287 fn.
170 6th Adhyaya, 3rd BrahmaJ;la, 13.
99
(Flacourtia Sapida)S 73 whose wood was used as sacrificial fuel as well as
for manufacturing vessels for Spil'ituous 1illuors.8 7 4 (5) Madhuka or
Mandhuka (Bassia L:J.tifolia) 87 5 whose \\'00l1 was used as sacrificial fuel. 8 76
(6) Aratu (calosan this Indica),8 7 7 a hard wooded tree from whose timber
the axles of chariots and carts were made.
878
(7) Bilva
s79
wh'ch grows
wild and produces an edible fruit, the wood-apple It was used to curdle
milk.s80 (8) Cbandana, sandal-wooc1.88
1
The RamJyana
882
refers to
three kinds of sandal wood viz., GO;ira, Padmaka and Harisy:tma.
(9) Syandana
883
(10) Raktachandana
8
84. (11) Nagakesara
885
(12) Sirpha-
kesara
886
(13) N:rga
887
(14) Punn:rga
888
(15) Sisunaga
889
73
.7<
Wllite Y"jllrverlo., X. 34. ; XI. 7).71 ; XVII. 74 .
White Yo.jllrveda X. 3 k Compara V,kankat", hee in Black Yajurveda,
III. !>. 7 ; V. 1. 9 ; V. 4. 7 ; VI. 4. 10.
870 Black Yajurveda, Ill. 4.'; RamayaJ;lilo, Ajodhyakii.J;lda, 94th sarga i Arat;tyakanda..
11 tli sarga; LankiikaJ;lda, 4t h sarga; UttarakaJ;lda. ()2nd sarga.
876 Black Yajurvedo., III.
... Atharvaveda, XX. 131. 17, 18.
8'18 Griffith's Atbarvaveda.. Vol. II. p. 440 fn.
818 Atharvaveda, XX. 1313. 3; Whi;e Yajurveda, XIX. XIX. 89; XIX. III j
XXI. ; Black Y xjurveda, II. 5. 3; RamayaJ;la, AraJ;lyakaJ;lda, 13th sarga.
880 Black Yajn'v,da II. 5.3. Sacrificial po . ts were made of Bilva wood (Ramayat;ta,
Bil.lakaJ;lda, 14th sarga).
Ie.
Ramayal}/), AraJ;lyakaJ;lda, 15th. 25th and 60th sa.rga.3; 1st,
27th and 4let sargas; Utta.rakaJ;lda, 52nd sarga. The Malavachala hill
( Ki'kindhya-kiigda, 41st sarga.). the islands or chllrs in the river Kavdri (Ibid)
and the .on thern sea-coast of the Deccan (AraJ;lyakii.J;lde., 35th sarga) were
adorned with sandal wood forests.
8U 41st sarga.
888 AraJ;lyakaJ;ld", 15th sarga; Ki,kindhyakiit,lda. 1st sarga.
880 Ki,kindhyakii.J;lda, 1st Barga j UttarakiiJ;lda., 52nd sarga .
Ki,kindbyakii.J;I la, 73rd sarga; UttarakaJ;lda, 52nd sarga .
Ki,kindhyakiiJ;lda, 1st sarga..
. .,
.88
...
Lall'<akaJ;lda, 4th S3rga j Ki,kindhyiikat;lda, 1st sarga j Snndarakiit,lda, 14th sarg ....
Arsl]yaka!]da, 15th, 60th, 75th B"rg". j 50Lh 8:trga. j Sundara-
kaJ;ld", l:,th sarga; Lankaka\lda, 4th 5arga.; Uttaraka\lda. ;jIst and ll2nd
sargas.
1st sarga .
100
(16) A';vattha
890
(17) Nyagrodha
891
(18) the waved leaf Fig tree
(Ficus Infectoria)8
99
(19) Sami (Acacia Suma or Prosopis Spccigera)S9S
(20) (21) Talasa, an unidentified tree, described as the queen of
trees in the Atharvaveda.
895
(22) Trishtagha which supplied fue1
898
(23) Vishiitjka, an unidentified plant or tree
8
97 (21,) Putudru (Pinus Deodar),
Devadaru tree
8
98 from whose timber sacrificial posts wcre made
8
9 9 (25) Fig
tree
900
(26) Karshamarya trce (Gmelina Arbora)
9
0
1
from whose wood
sacrificial ladles were made
llOg
(27) a tree unknown to
European Botanists which furnishcd kindling sticks for sacrificial
purposes.
9
0
4
(28) Sii.lmali, silk-cotton tree
905
(29) Dhava (Grislea
Tomentosa)
9 0 6
(30) Haridrava
907
which according to SJyana, is Haritrrla
tree (31) tree
908
from whose wood sacrificial posts were made
909
.90 Atharvaverla, III. 6; IV. 37. 4; V.4. 3; V. ;,. 5; VI. 11. 1; VI 95 1;
" II 1. 7.20; VIlI. 8.3 ; XII. 3. 1; }'X. I,ll. 17, 18 ; XX. lZ4. 3; RamayaJ}.a.,
ArallyakaJ}.da 13th and nrd sargas.
801 Atharvaveda, IV. 37. 4; V. 5. 5; Wbite Yajurveda, XXIII. 16. 13; Black
Yajurveda, III. 4. 8; Ramay8I;l!\, sarga.
8 \ Atbarvaveda V. 5. 5; Rarnayaga, ArHgyakaI;lda, 73rd sarge. ; its wood was used a.
sacrificial fuel (Black Yajurveda, Ill. 4.8).
80s Athllrvaveda, VI. 11. 1; VI. :30.3; Black Yajurveda, V. 1.9; V. 40.7.
'.' Atbarvaveda, VI. 129. 1 ; XX. 129. 7,8 .
Atharvaveda, VI. 15.3.
09 S Atharvaveda, V. 29. 15; XXV. 27.
19 7 A tbarVIl veda, VI. 44. 3 .
0. Atharvaveda, VIII. 2.28; White Y"jnrveda, V. 18. 13; Ramaya;tCl,
k aI;lda, 43rd sarga.
9. RamaY"I;la, BalakaI;lda, 14tb sarga ;: Uttarak3;tda, 52nd sarga.
000 White Yajnrveda, XII. 86.79.
PO 1 White Tajnrveda, XIII. 13.
90S Griffith's White Yajnrveda, p. 138 fn.
903 White Yajarveda, XI. 70; Cotnllare Krumuka wood in Black Yajnrveda, V. 1. 9.
9H Griffith's White Yajnrvedo., p. 117 fn .
0. White Yajnrveda, XXIII. 16. 13; KilkindhyakaI;lda, 1st sarga.
00. Atharvaveda, XX. un. 17,18; RamayaI;la, BilakaI;lda, :l4th s .. rga.; Ajodbyakagda,
94th Barga; Aragyakiigda, 15th and 73rd sa.rgas ; Kilkindhyaka;tda, 1st and 50th
sargas.
007 Atharvaveda, I. 22. 40= Rigveda I. 50. Ill.
'01 Ramayava, BilakaI;lda, l40th earga.
loa Ibid.
101
(32) Kukuva
9IO
(33) Tinduka
911
(34) Patala
9U
(35) Badari
913
(36) Sal-
laki
914
(37) Betasa
915
(38) Jambu
916
Kilfsuka
917
(4.0) Vallataka
918
(41) Bata (Ficus Indica)919 (42) SiiJa
920
(t3) Marichagulma
921
(41,) In-
,gudi
922
(45) Kapittha
923
(46) Panasa,924 (47) BijapilrakCL
925
(48) Asana
926
(49) TamJla
927
(50) Varunda
928
(51) Sirpsapa
929
(52) Nibara
9So
910
911
Balakat;lda, 2'Hh sarg"; A,at;l."akalld", 6tlth sarga ; 27th sarga.
Balakiit;lda, 24th sarga; Aj ,dhyakat;l<ia, 94th sarga; Arat;lyak:i.t;lua, 73rd sarga;
IJanka
l
ar;lda, 4th sarga.
oio BalakaI)IlfL, :!4th sarga; AraI)1'"kaI)dft, 15th sllrga; Compare Patali tree in
1st sarga !lnd UttarakaI),la, 31st sarga.
013 Balllkar;lda, 24th sarg'" ; Ajodhyak:lr;Jla, 55,h and 94th sargas.
91' Ajodhyakat;lda, 55th sarga .
10 Ajodbyak3I)da. :,5th Barga, AraI)yakaI)da., 51st sarga ; kiir;lda, 27th sarga
... Ajc,dhyakat;lda, 55th, fllst and 04th sargas ; AraI)yakaI)Ja, 6;th and 73rd sargas ;
,17
918
1
ndby Ii: idit;lda, 28th sarga.; LmkakaI)da, 4th sllrga; U ttarakiir;lda, 52nd
earg-a.
Ajodbyakal)da, 55th, 56th anIl 63rd sargaq ; Arar;lyak:iI)la, 15th sarga ;
kar;l la, 1st sarg' ; LanHkir;lda, 104th sarga.
Ajodbyakar;lda, 56th sarga.
Aj odhyakal),lia, 15th, 53rd, 55th sargas; Ar,'l1yakiiI)da, 35th sarga; LanHH:tlda.,
4th sarga.
Ajodhyak:it;lda, 71st, 72nd, 96th and 99th sargas; Arar;lyakallda, lIth, 15th, 35th
and 60th sargas ; 27tb, 40tb and 50th sargas ; Snndarakal1da,
14th sarga; Uttarakal)d", 52nd si\rga. There were beautifnl avenues of 5ala
trees in tbe city of Ajodbya ( AjJdhyakar;lda, sarga ).
A rar;lyakar;lda, 35th sarga .
ArallyakaI)da, and 88th sargas.
Ara:t;lyaka1)da, 91st sarga.
AraI)yakal),da, lith, 15th, 60th, 73rd, gIst and 94th Sargas ; Uttarakii:r;Jda, 31st and
52nd sargas .
... AjodbyakaI)da, gIst 8arga .
AjcdhyiikiiI)d><, 94th sarga .
07 Ajodhyakal),da, gIst sarga; Aral)yakal)da, 15th and 35th sargas;
k:lr;Jd., 27th, 40th and 50th sal'gas ; Uttarakiil),da, 114th sarga
n Ajodhy iikaI)da, 71st sarga.
eo. AjC!dhyak:iI)da, 91st .arga.; 1st sarga; SundarakaJ;lda, 14th and
18th sargas ; Lal1kakaJ;lda, 4th sarga.
11th and llith 8argas.
10!
(53) Binduka
931
(51,) Piy1tla
DS
!l (55) Arpkola
93s
(56) Tinisa
9h
(5i) (58) Chil'ibilwa
936
(59) 'l'ilaka
937
(GO) Nipa
938
(IiI) Bijaka
939
(62) ASlrakarr)a
940
(63) Lakucha94
1
(64) Arjuna
9U
(GS) Kurara
9l3
(66) Sindub:Tra
944
(6i) Karnikara
945
(G8) Njla
946
(G9) Agnimukhya
941
(70) P:iribhadraka
948
(71) Naktamala
949
(72) (73)
(74) (75) (7G) Muclmkanda
954
(77) Karailja
9H
(78) . Raktakuruvaka
956
(79) tree
951
(80) Atimukta
958
(81) Pad-
9 3 l
.33
7
A ra..,yaka...,da, 1hh 'ar"l\.
Ajodhyakii..,da, 94th sarga; Arnt;l",ka...,d", 7:3ru ; Ultarakal)cla, 31.t .arga.
AjoJhyaka.l) la, ; )a, 9,j,th .arga; 1st
sarg"; ['"nkakal)da, 4th .arga.
Ajodhyakiil) la, Hlth Barga; Aral)Yllkal)da, 11th anu 15th sarga.;
ka..,d .. , 1st and 27th sargas; L:lnk5.kal),la, 4th ,arga ; UttaraUi...,ua, 5:2nd .arga,
Ajodhyakiil),la, 04th "arga.
Lonkakal),h, 4t', 'arg",
Ajdhya.ka,:da, 91th sarga;
sarga .
27th Barga; Lanka.U..,da, 4th
Ajrdbyakal)h, 84th .arga; Aral)yakal)da., 15th sarga; 27th
Barga; Lankaka.l)dll, 4tb sarga.
810
'1

.. ,
9<&
Ajodbyaka.l)da, 94th sluga..
Balaka.l),\a, 24th .arga; Ar.wyakal)dlt, 15th sarga; Sundarflka..,da, 56th Barga..
Aral)y"kal),la, 15t h "arga .
Aml,lyaUil)h, 6,)th ht, 27th and 28th sarglle; Lanka
ka1)dR, 4tb ; Uttaraka1)da, 31st and :i2nd sarga .
Aral)YRkal) la, 60th sarga.
Lnnkaka..,da, 4th sarga,
Aral)yakal)da, 7.)rd Barga:; 40th and 5')th sluga; UttarJ.ka..,da,
31st Barga.
IBC.arga.
Aral)yakal)da, i3rd sarga.
Aral)yakiil,lda, 73rd sarga'
... Aral)yakiil)ua, 73r3 sargllo; 1st sarga..
"'0 Alal)yakal)ua, 75th sarga ; 1st and 4Znd sargas; SllndaraUpda,
14tll and 15tb Barg_' .
" 1st sarga.
In 1st ; Lankakal)da, 4th sarga.
o.a 1st sarga; Lankaka1].da, 4th sarga ; Uttarakal)da, 52n<1 .arJa,
.u 1st sarga.
066 Lankakiil)da, 4th Barga.
let Barga.
on
118
26th Barga.
Ki,kindhyikl\lda, 27th sarga
103
maka
959
(82) Sarjja
960
(83) Sarala, Indian pine tree
961
(84) Banira
9U
(85) Timida
963
(86) K!itam:tla
964
(87) SaptaparQ.a
965
(88) Baiijllla
966
(89) Vabya
967
(90) Rafijaka
968
(91) l\IucllUlinda
969
(92) P:ltalika
970
(93) Kutaja
971
(94.) Hint:i1a
912
(95) LU:rsoka
973
(9G) Priyangu
9
74.
(97) Tungaka
975
and (98) Kh'ldira
97
6- (Acacia Catechu) from whose timber
four-cornered sacrificial Clll)s,9 77 thrones,9 78 saCl'iticial posts
9
7 9 and
dipping spoons 980 were made.
From the RamayaQ.a we learn that the art of gardclling was known
and practised in those days. rfhe trees, flower-plants and fruit-trees were
planted in the Asoka forest, the royal pleasure-garden of Lauk.l by experts
(in horticulture).
9
81 The garden was furnh;}ICd with tallks having rows of
trees planted on their banks with pleasure-houses, beautiful groves and
... 27th aud 4 )I'd Bargas; L"ukakalJd .. , .jth sarga .
0 28th Barga
01 27th sarga; Lankakal}Ja, 4th Barga .
41 27th sarga .
.. a 27th 8llrga.
g .. 27th Barga .
Ki.!kiudbyakal}da, 30th sarga; Sllndarakal}da, 15th Barga; Uttarakiil}da, 52nd
oU
"7

o.g
070
n
sarga.
50th sarga.
Sundarakal}da, 14th sarga.
Lankak:i.l)da, 4th sarga
Lanka"al}da, 4th sarga.
LllnHk:i.I]Ja, 4th sarga.
Lankakiil)da, 4th sarga.
lst and 27th sargas ;
978 Lankaka:J;ldH, 4th sarg-a .
" Uttarakiil}da, 31st and 52nd sarga .
... Uttarakiil},la sarga .
LankakaJ;lda, 4th sarga .
,. Atharvl\veda, III. 6. 1; V. 5. 5 ; VII r. S. 3; X. 6. 7; XII. 3. 1 ; XX. 131. 17,
18; White ajllrveda, V. 42; VIII. 3l; X. 26; BLLck Yajurveda, III. 5.7.1;
HamiiYIIl}', Biilal-aJ;ld'l., Bth sarga; Aral)ya-kiil}Ja, 15th s.,rga.
0., Wldte Yajurveda, VIlI. 3:1.
9 .. White Yajurveda, X. 26.
Of. Ramayal}a, 1 alakiiJ;lda, 14th sarga .
0 Black Y"jurveda, III. 5.7. l.
lea 52nd earga.
104.
raised seats here and there. 9 8 The following flower plants and trees are
mentioned in this period :-(1) Asoka
983
(2) Ketaka
984
(3) Ohampaka
985
(4) Bakula
986
(5) Raktotpala
987
(6) Kadamba
98
& (7) Malati
989
(8) Mallik1990 (9) Padma99
1
(10) (11) Sindubara,99s
(12) Blsanti
9
9
4
(13) Matulinga
995
(li) PUl'na
996
(lJ) Chirabilva
997
(IG) Kunda
998
(17) P,"trijlta
999
(18) Aguru
1000
(19) Kaliguru
100l
(20) Tagal'a
1002
(21) Mand:rra
1003
(22) }\fa.dhavi
1004
(23) BafijuJa
1005
(24) Bakula
1006
(25) (23) (27) NilajhiptP009
Ibid.
DB8 Aj"dhyaUu;l'la 10th Barga; Arn:(lyaka!)do, 15th, 60th, '718& and '75th sargas;
Lt amI 27th Bargas; 8nndamHl!)h, 14th Barga; ete.
985
9.'
988
9.9
Ara!)y"i,;!!) la, 15th and 60th Bargas; Ki;kindhya kii!)da, lot and 27th Bargas;
Lankakiil)<ia, 4th sarg"'; Uttar,ka!) la, 31st sarga.
Ajodhyaka!)da, 10th sarga; Ara:(lyaka:(lh, 15th s".rga; Snndarakal;lda, 14th and
15th Bargas'; 1st aud 50th stlrgas ; Lankakiil)da, 4th sarga;
U ttarakiil)da, 31 st sar((a.
Aral;lyakiil)la, sarga,. 9 8 7 1st sarga.
Aral)rakal)da, 60th and 73rd Bargas;
31 st and 52nd "argas.
K; 27th Barga; ULlarakiil)da,
1st and 27th sargas,
White Y"jurveda, II. 33; Compare Ibid.,
1st Barga.
9.0 1st Barga.
XI. 32; XXI. 31 ; RamaYRl}-a,
Aral)yakiiI,lda, '73rd sarga; 1st sarga; Lankakiiltda, 4th sarga.
1st and 27th sargas ; Lankakal)da, sarga.
Ki:kindh) akal)da 1st sarga; Lankaka!)da, 4th sarga .
1st sarga.
9" Ibid.
997 Ibid .
98 1st and 2'7th sargas ; Lankakal)da, 4th sarga .
9' UttarRkal) la, 52nd
1000 Uttarakal)da, 52ud .ar<:(a. The southern Sea-ocast of the Deocan was adorned
1.001
10 0
100fS
looe
1007
1008
1009
with ag-orn fllre.ts ( Aral)yakal)da, 35th Barga).
ITttalakiil)da, 5'nd sarga. 1003 Uttar"kal)rla, 31st and 52ud sargas.
ITltaf:lkiil):IR., 31st Barga. 100< Lankakiil)d'l, 4th sarga.
IBt and 50th Barga.
I, 1st, 27th and sl1rgas ; Laukakiil)la, 4th sarga ; Uttara
kiil)da, 31st, 5'!nd lind 114th sargons.
akiil)da, 12th and 14th sargas.
1st and 27th sargas.
30th sarga.
105
(28) Jivaka I 0 I 0 (29) Nilotpaia I 011 (30) Lodhra l 012 (31) AmUIa (Menthonica
Superba),IOl3 a species of lily (32) Kandala.
1014
The following fruit trees were known in t1lis period :-(1) Mango 1015
(2) TakkoIa
lo16
(,3) Darimba,1017pomegranate (4) Cocoanut
l018
(5)
Date-palm (kharjura)lOI9 (6) Amalakp0
2
0 (7) Trrla
lou
(8) Kadali
plant (plantain tree) IOU and Bilva (Bel tree) [already referred to ].
Among the herbs and plants are mentioned (1) Abayu, 1023 a plant
poisonous in its natural condition but medicinal when cooked and
properly prepared. IOU (2) Andikam, a plant with eggshaped fruits or
) 0 10 Ibid.
10 11 let Barga.
10 to 1st and 43rd sargl!.9 ; Uttarakii.l;tda, 31st and 52nd Bargas.
101$ Atharvaveda, V. 31.4.
10 U Ramayal;ta, sarga.
1015 Brharlaral;tvaka Adhyaya IV. III. verse 36; Ramayal;t",
Ajodhyakiil)da, 63rd, 9ist and V4th sargas; Aral)y .. kii.l)da, 15th and 73rd
sargas; 1st sltrga; Lankaka!}da, 4tb sarga; Uttarakii.l;tda,
3:st and i>:2nd sargas. The kingdom of was adorned with many
mango-gardens (Ajodbyakii.l;tda, 50tb sarga). Tbe City of Ajodbya also had
many mango-gardens ( Ajodbyakal;tda, 5tb sarga ).
10 to Ramaya!}a, Arat;lyakii.l;tda, 35tb sarga.
1017 Ar,!}yaka!}cia, 60th sarga; Uttarakii.l)da. 52nd sarga.
10" Uttarakii.l;tda, 31st sarga; The southern sea-coast of tbe Decoan was adorned with
groves of cocoanut trees ( Aral;tyakii.l)da, 35th sarga ).
1019 Ihid., AraJ;lyakm.da, 15tb sarga.
10110 Ibid., Ajodhyakii.l;tda, 91st sarga ; Ibid., 94th sarga.
Ion Ibid., Ajodbyakii.l)da., !)let sarga and 99th sarga; Ara.t;lyakal;tda 15th Barga, 35th
and 60th sargas; 11th, 12th, 40th and 50th eargas; Uttara-
kii.l)da 114th Barga. The poet Valmiki oompares tbe breasts of 81ta to tbe
large tala. fruit ( Aral;tyakat;lda, 46th sarga).
101:1 Ibid., 13th sarga. Tbe hermitages of Agastya. on t"e
Godava.ri (Lankaka!}da, 12Mh Barga.) and of Rama in the Paiicbbati forest
( Ara!}yakii.l;tda, ;35th and 42nd sargas ) were adorned with groves of plantain
tree; 4th Prapataka, verse 2.
10" Athafvaveda, VI. 16. 1.
10B Griffith's Atharvaveda. Vol. I. p. 253 fn.
106
bulbs
lOtli
(3) Ap;rm;rrga
10U
(from mrija, to cleanse or wipe, with apa+!i)
Achyranthes Aspera, a biennial plant frequently used in incantations, ill
medicine, in washing linen, and in sacrifices, and still believed to have the
power of making men proof against the stings of scorpions. It is called
also parakpuspi, pratyakpuspi and pratyakparni from tllC reverted direction
of the growth of its flowers and fruits
1027
41
(5) Guggulu 10
2
9 I Borassus Flabelliformis' from which a fragrant gum
exudes. (G) Jai'igiqa
1030
a plant frequently montioned in the Atharvaveda
as a charm against demons and a specific for variolls diseases. It appears to
have been cultivated
10Sl
(7) Nalalli
10s2
8. N \9, Pi11
10S40
(10) Pata, probably identical with P.-Itha (Clypea Hernandifolia .1035 Vke
the Scottish rowan or like St. John's wort it was )lotent against fiends.
(11) Baja, 1036 apparently some strong-smelling herb (Atharvaveda,
VIII. 6. 10 I by whose scent the demon is chased away as was Asmodeus
by 'the fishy fume that drove him, though enamoured, from the spouse of
Tobit's son' (Pararlise Lost, IV. lUSI (12) Pinga
1031
(13) Pramandilli 1038
(14) 0 3 9 having variegated leaves) Hemionitis Cordifolia, a
medicinal plant, a decoction of which is recommended by Smruta to be taken
as a preventive against abortion. (151 Ajasringi,l 0400 literally goat's horn,
Odina Pinnata, a plant used in incantation. (U) 1041 Blyxa
10 6

10218

1080
1081
108,
1088
1015
1086
103'7
1039
104,1
Atharvavedlt, IV. 34.5; Compare Ibid., 17. 16.
Ibid, IV. 17.6; IV. 18. 7, 8; IV. 19.1, 4; XIX. 20. 3; White Y.jorveda.,
XXXV. 11 ; IX. 38.
See Atharvaveda IV. 19. 4, 7 ; VI. 129. 3 a.nd VII. 65. 1.
Atharvaveda, IV. :17. 3.
Ibid., II. 36.7; IV. 37.3; XTX. 38.1,2 ; Compare White Y . jurveda. V. 13.
AtharvRved" II. 4.2,4,5; XIX. 34; XIX. 35.
Ibid., II. 4. fl. ('Sprong from the saps of ).
Ibid., IV. 37.3. "Smelling of spikeQl\rd."
Ihid., V. 31. 4. toH Ibid., IV. 37.3.
Ihid., II. 27. 4; IV. 19. 4.
Atharvaveda, VIII. 6. 3; VIII. 6. 24.
Ibid., VIII. 6.18; VIII. 6.24. 1088 Ibid., IV. 37.3.
Ibid" II. 25.1. 1040 Ibid., IV. 3',2,3.
Ibic1, IV. 37. 8; VIII. 7. 9; d. Ibid., III. 13. 7; VI 12. 3; White
Yajurveda, XXV. 1; Comp,re Ibid., XIII. 30 ; XVII. 4.; Kau4ikabl1tra,
XL. 3-6.
107
Octandra, a water plant called in later times (17) Saluq.a
I040
'
(IS) Sappaka,1043 an aquaticplant (19) Muil1in,lOH an aquaticplant
(201 S:lInl
loB
(21) Si11chi
1046
more usually called Arundhati
10407
; a
med;cinal climbing plant formerly applied in cases of severe contusion or
fracture
10411
(221 Sipudru,I049 an unknown plant or tree, a magic cure for
consumption.
l
0 (23) Vihalha,l 0 51 an unidentified plant (2-t) Madavati,l 0 5
an unidentilied plant (25) Tauvilikl, 1 0 5 3 some kind of plant or animal
(26) Vatar;t3.,l054 Crataiva Roxburgh;i, a plant used in medicine and
supposed to possess magical powers. It grew abundantly on the banks of
the river Varar;t:1vati. 'r:lis Vara'/a healeth all diseases 1 055 (27) Visha,1?5 6
some unknown herb 128 Vishltaki, 1 0 5 7 some nnknown herb (29) Visha-
I).akii.
1058
some unknown plant or tree (30) Costus Speciosus
or Arabicus, a medicinal plant, grown on the snowy mountains, a banisher
of fever.
1060
(31) Jival:i, Jivala,
1
06
1
two species of plants (32)
was a root used as yeast, for fermenting the sur;Ll063 (33) P;rtika or
Putika, I 064 a plant used to expedite the curdling of the sacrificial milk
1065
and as substitutes for Soma plant; a kind of grass according to Mahidhara
10'0;
1060

10a6
1068
106"1'
106'
1080
IOli
106 a
1011
Atharvaveda, Vll1. t.!. 17.
Ibid., IV. 34.5 lOU Ibid.
Ibid, 1. :!4 4. In,teat.! of gama the Pnippal:l.da recenHion reads gyama (the
dusky) with wl'ich comp"re Atharvaveda I. 2:3 1; so also Pandit
to two ObRerve 110190 gamaka=Syamaka in Kauikasutra VilLI.
S) ama is the nil. ne uf various plants (See St. Ptltersburg Di;tiooary, B. v.).
Atharvaveda, V. 5. l.
Ibid., V. 5 5 ; IV. 12. 1 ; VI. 59. 1; IX. 38. 1.
Ibid., IV .. 12.1. 10'" Ibid" VI. 127.2.
Ibid., VI. 127.2. 1061 Ibid., VI. 16.2.
Ibid., VI. 16.2. 10158 Ibid., VI. 16.3.
Ibid., IV. 7. 1 ; VI. 85. 1 ; X. 3.
Ibid, X. 3.3. 1068 Ibid., VII. 113.2.
Ibid., VII.. 113. 2. 10 Ii. Ibid., VI. 44. 3.
Atharvaveda. XIX. 39. 1 ; V. 4. 1 ; V. 2:2. 2 ; VI. 95 ; VI. 102. 3 ; XIX. 57. 2.
Ibid., V. 4. 1-2. 1061 Ibid., XIX. 39. 3.
White Y"jurveda, XIX. 14 ; XX. 57 ; XXI. 31.
A tharvlL veda, XIX. 8:{.
White Yajnrveda, XXXVII. 6.
Dlaok Yajurveda, II. 5.3.
108
(34) SaQa (Cannabis 8ativa
l066
) or Bhanga= Bh:Iiig,
1
067 a plant frolD
which an intoxicating drug is prepared.
The following varieties of grass and reeds are mentioned:-
(1) Darbha,1068 a grass used for sacrificial purposes. It spreads rapidlJ
and continually re-roots itself and hence described in the Atharvaveda aI
'having a thousand joint.' 106 9 'rhe strainer of Soma juice was made of two or
three blades of Darbha grass.
1
0 70 Girdle or girth with which the sacrificial
horse was to be girded was made of Darbha grass.
I07l
(2) Durv;t (Panicum
1 0 7:1 a creeping grass with flowering branches erect; by far the
common and most useful grass in India. It grows everywhere abundantly,
and flowers all the year. (3) KU5a (Poa Cynosuroidesl,1073 much used in
sacrificial ceremonies and endowed with various sanctifying qualities. It
is strewn on the place of sacritice, specially on the altar, and forming a
layer on which the offerings are placed, and a seat for the sacrificers and
the gods who are present at the ceremony (4) MUiija (Saccharum
Munja), 1074 a sort of rush or grass which grows to the height of about ten
feet. It is used in basket-work, and the mekhala or girdle worn by the
Brahmal)as is made from it. It appears from the Kausikasutra XXV. 6.
and D:rrila's Commentary thereon, that the head of a stalk of Mwija grasa,
is to be tied with a cord, then, perhaps, to be suspended from the neck of
the patient or to be otherwise attached to his body. Thus worn the grasa
will prevent diarrhcea in an acute form. Small round mats were made oil
1\fuiija grass and used for ceremonial purposes.10
75
(5) Sara (SaccharuDI
10615
10.8
10eo
1070
1071
1072
10'73
101'
1075
Atharvaveda, II. 4. 5. 1067 Ibid., XI. 6. 15.
Atbarvavedtt, II. 73; VI. 43.1,2 ; VIII. 7.20; X. 4.2; X. 4. 13 ; XI. 6.15 ;
XIX. :J8 ; XIX. 3:3 ; XIX. 68; White Yajurveda, V. 6. 21, 25 ; XVIII. 75.63;
Black Yajurveda, V. 6. 4.
Atharvlweda, II. 7. 3.
White Yajurveda, 1. 9. 3 ; X. 34. :n.
Ibid., XXII. 1-2.
Atbarvaveda, VI. 106. 1 ; Wbite Yajurveda, XIII. 24. 20.
Atbarvaveda, II. 7.1; XX. 131. 9 ; Wbite Yajurveda, IV. 1 ; V. 42.
Atharvaveda 1. 2.4; Compare White Yajurveda, IV. 17.10; XI. 68.
White Yajurveda, XII. 2.
109
Sara),1076 a reed of which arrows were made.
l077
(6) Babbaja
1078
(7) Kasa
1079
(8)
Sheep anli Oattle-1'earing-Despite the great development of agricul-
ture cattle remained the principal wealth of the people. In the Satapatha
in connection with the Royal Coronation the raid of cattle is
mentioned, a relic no doubt of older days customs. In the Atharvaveda we
find innumerable prayets for the increase of cattle. Thus, we bave a
benediction on homeward cattle,
1
081 a charm against worms or bots in
cows,
1
08 a benediction on cattle-pen, 1 08 3 gloritication and benediction of
cows,
1
084 a charm for the increa,e of cattle, 108 5 a charm to protect
cattle,
1
086 a benedictiun on cattle-calf, 1081 a charm to bring the cattle
home, 1 0 8 8 a blessing on cows, I 089 a glorilication of the typical bull and
cow, 1090 a glorification of the sacred cow, I 091 on the duty of giving cows
to Brahmanas. 1 0 9
The twenty-fourth book of the White Yajurveda contains an exact
enumeration of the animals that are to be tied to the sacrificial stakes
and in the intermediate spaces, with the names of the deities or deified
entities to which they are severally dedicated. The principal stake, the
eleventh and midmost of the twenty-one, called thc because it
stands nearest to the sacrificial fire, is mentioned first. About fifteen
victims are bound to each of these stakes, all domestic animals, the
total number being 327. In the spaces between the stakes 282 wild
animals are temporarily confined, to be freed when the ceremony is
concluded, bringing the total number of assembled animals upto 609.
"There is perhaps some exaggeration in the numoer" says Mr. Griffith,'09S
10'6
10'17
1078
10'0

10es
1084.
loB8
1088
Atharvaveda, I. 2. :3 ; Ramaya!)a, Ajo iilyakaI}da, 30th sarg ...
Black Yajorveda, VI.!. 3. (Compare, Vedio Index, II. 357.)
Black Yajurveda, II. 2. 8.
BamayaI}a, AjodhyakiiQda, 30th sarga.
Ibid. 1081
Ibid., II. 32.
1083
Ihid., IV. 21.
1096
Ibid., VI. 59.
108'1
Ibid., VI. 77.
108D
Ibid., IX. 7.
10Ul
Ihid., XII. 4.
10va
Atharvaveda, II. 26.
Ibid., III. 14.
Ibid., V. 16.
Ibid., VI. 70.
Ibid., VII. 75.
Ibid., X. 10.
White Yajarnd., p. 258 In.
110
"and some almost impossible animals are mentioned, but it must be
remembered that the Aswamedha was a most important tribal solemnity of
rare occurrence and that no effort should he spared to assure its performance
with all possible splendeur." The Taittirlya Br:Ihmrt1)a' 094 in its account
of the Aswamedha recommends 180 domestic animals to be sacrificed.
Among t1le domestic animals the following are the most important:-
tl) /'(,,/(;-'1'he fooll-value of its milk was very great. The Satapatha
1095 describes the various articles of food prepared from cow's milk.
From the Panchavil]l:oa BrahmaI,la
1096
we learn that bags were made from
cow-hide for bolding milk, wine and other liquids. The flesh was also used
as food. In the Taittiriya BrJhmaI,la
1097
mention is made of scores of
Kiilllya I: tis or minor sacrifices with prltyers whi.ch required IJeef for their
performance. In the larger ceremoni.es, such as the R;Ijasuya, the Vajapeya,
and the A;wamedha, the slaughter of the cow was an invariable accompani-
ment. 1 098 The Taittiriya Brahmana 1099 recommends tile slaughter of
cows, bulls, nilagaos etc. for the Aswamedlla ceremony. It also recommends
tbe slaughter of seventeen five-year old, humpless dwarf bulls and as many
d wad heifers under three years for the Panchasaradiya ceremony. 11 0 0 The
Tal!da Brahmana of the S:Ima Veda
1101
recommends the slaughter of
cattle of a different colour for each successive year. The Atharvaveda.
gives us a prayer accompanying animal sacrifice
11
0 2 and tells us that the
dissectors of the sacrificial bull are to call out the names of the several
parts of the carcase as they divide them, each portion being assigned to a.
separate divinity.ll03 The Taittiriya Brahmal)a describes in detail the
10" .. ala.ba.dbya!1 - Taittiriya. Brabmatla., II.
p. 6f> 1.
.IOU III. 3.3, 1081 XIV. 11.26; XVI. 13,13.
l.Ofl7
lUD8
1011)9
1100
1101

III. cb. VIII.
TaittiriYIl Brabmatll>, III. p. 658. Yathii goup a.rstlye swachchaodacblrl,
ebamayal\l bubmalokopi Bwataotro bbabati - Taittiriya Aratlya.ka..
II. p. (bl.
Taittiriya Brahmatl", Book II.
Tstlda BrahmllJ;la, 64:l :- hra.di karttike masi Yajet.
myam til ba.tBa.tarlrevala.vera.o
Atha.rvaveda, II. 34. 1108 Ibid., IX. 40. 11-14.
111
mode of cutting up the victim after immolation, evidently for distribution.
The Gopatha Br:LhmaJ;lu ::: of the Atharvaveda gives in detail the names of
the different individuals \ like the Holli, the Udg:lt:i, the Adhvaryu, the
UpagJta, the householder who ordains the sacrilice, the wife of the latter
etc.) who are to receive the thirty-six shares into wh:ch the carcase is
to be divided. Directions similar to these occur also in the ktareya
Br;rhmar;ta. The Satapatha Br:thmana
l104
and Taitt'riya Br:Lhmalfa
l105
describes Yajiiavalkya and Agastya as taking beef. Yajiiavalkya was
"wont to eat the meat of milch-cows and bullocks, if only it was
tender."lI06 In the Aitareya. Br:-thmaQa
1lo7
we are told that when a
king or a d:stinguished person comes as a guest One shoulU kill a Vehat
(old barren cow I for his entertainment. The great sage Yaji"lavalkya
expresses a similar view.
lloe
At tbe salUe time we notice a gro,\ing feeling
against beef-eating in this period. In the Satapatha Br.;hmal!a
I109
we
have a long discourse on the non-advisibility of and we tind
the injunction "Let him not eat the flllsh of the cow or the ox for, the
cow and the ox doubtless support everything on earth."
The cow was used as a stan<lard of value in purcbas:ng art:cles even in
this period.
11lO
Moreover, bullocks werll used for ploughing, 11 I 1 for
drawing waO'O'ons
lll
9 and CJ.rriaO'es
ll13
and for carryiuO' load!> III
00 0 I:)
(2) Tllp. bltffal,,-In addition to its milk, the flesh of the buffalo was
probably eaten, The Taittiriya Br:thmal?a
llI5
recommends the slaughter
of buffaloes for the Aswameuha sacrifice; so also the White Yajurveda.
1116
uta. w'\nusya acavadbwal\l. IT !Mnayata medllya
hu.pati medlll\l\l, etC.
l ,u.baniyasya paorbibha.;al\l byak hy a.yarr al:t ete.
1106 Ill. L 2. 21. 110. II. 7. 11. 1.
1100 III. 1.2.2\ = Vedic Indes, II. 145.
110' I. 3.4. 1108 Vaj. I. 109. 1. 1 0 v III. 1. 2. 3.
111. Black Yajurvedu., VI. 1. 6.
11lt Black YA.jurved&t V. 2. 5.2.
l11i Ibid., V. .21.
11" White Yajllrveda., XXIV. 13.
1118 Boob II u.nd III.
111 a Ibid . V. 6. 21.
1111 Book XXIV. 28.
112
The dung of buffaloes was used as fuel for protection against cold. II I 7
(3) The were used in battle I I 18 and in horse-racing. I 119
From the Ram:ryal)a
l
uo we learn that Kamboja, Bahlllka and Sind were
famous for horses. Horses were sometimes given to priests as a sacrificial
fee.
lul
(4) The dOllk"lI-In addition to the horse, the donkey was also
used for drawing chariots and waggons and for carrying loads. The story
of the race won by the Aswins with a chariot drawn by donkeys is founel in
the Aitareya Br:Ihmal).a.
112
(5) hardiness of mules is praised
and their sterility dwelt upon and explained in some of the Br:Thmanas.
They were mainly used for drawing cars, 112 sand wag-gons and carrying
loads. (6) The camel-Camels were objects of giftlllH and of sacrifice. I us
In the Atharvaveda
l
U6 we read of "camels that draw the car." (7) The
goat-It was an object of sacrifice in the Aswamedha,lu7 to Indra
l128
to the Aswins, 112 9 to PU\l'tn, I 13 (I and to Vayu. II S I Its flesh was used as
food,1l32 milk as drink
l133
and sk:n as elothing.
lIS4
(8) Sheep-The
flesh of was used as food, I 135 milk as drink and wool as a material
for cloth. In the At'larvaveda kambalas
ll38
and Slmulyas liS 7 a.re
described as ordinary outfits of men and women and were probably made of
1117

1119
1121
1113

1126
1121S
112'1
1128
1129
1180
1181
lI8S
1113
1134
Ramay"J;l'\, Ajodhya'l.g,h, 8 ..
White Yajurved .. , XXIX. 3S-:i9.
Athl\rvaveda, II. 14.6.
White Y"jllrveda, VII. 47.
Atharvaveda, VIII. 8. 22.
Ibid, XX. U7 1-!.
White Yajurved:t, XXIV. 28 and 29 ;
XX. 127.2.
White Y"jurvena, XXIV. 16, 32.
IbId., XXVIII. 23.
Ibid., XXI. 40, 41, 46, 47, 59.
Ibid., XXVIII. 23, 27.
Griffith's White Yajurveda, p. 281 In.
Atharvaveda, IX. 5. 4.
1110
lUI 'J
Ba\".kiiJ;lda, 6th sarga.
IV. 9.
Black Yajurveda, V. 6,21.
"The milk of goat is the highest form of draught"-Black Y ajnrveda, V. l. 7.
Brahm"r;J.a, III. 8. 1. 12 ; V. 2. 1. 21, 24; Brabman ..
. . ,
XVII. 14-16 ; of. Atharvaveda, IV. 7.6.
Ramayal)a, AragyakaJ;lda, 11th sarga.
XIV. 2.66,67. 1187 XIV. 1. 25 = Rigveda, X. 85.29.
113
sheep's wool. Cloths made of avika, sheep's wool are clearly mentioned in
the R:tmayaQ.a. 113 8 Acceptance of sheep has been described as having bad
effects in the Black Yajurveda.
1l39
The sheep seems to have been used in
drawing the plough, though the commentator takes sheep to mean 'small
oxen like sheep.' 114 0 (9) The ass-The ass has been described as "the best
burden-gatherer of animals." 1141 They are also described as drawing the
car of the AswinS.
I14
(10) Swine-The 8atapatha Brahmana describes
the origin of the boar and refers to its fat and the sandalS"' made of its
skin.lI43 The Atharvaveda
IIH
refers to its extraordinary quickness at
discovering and unearthing all sorts of edible roots. The boar was an
object of sacrifice to Indra.
114
5 (11) Elepllants-Elephant-keepers
are mentioned in the White Yajurvecla.
1146
There is a hymn in the
Atharvaveda
1l47
whose subject is the taming of elephants and of training
them up for the king to ride. From the RJm1yal)a
ll48
we learn that the
elephants of the Himalayan and Vindhyan regions were famous for their
large size and great length. Hides of elephants are also mentioned. I 14 9
Hunting and Fishing-Hunting remained the occupation of &
large section of the people. 11 0 No doubt the forest tribes resorted to
hunting mainly for obtaining food but the people in general as well would
resort to hunting not only for the pleasure and excitement which it
afforded but also on economic grounds, as the frequent slaughter of
domestic animals would reduce the livestock before long. Hunting down
wild beasts was also necessary for the protection of cattle. The wild dog
was tamed mainly for the purpose of assisting the people in the hunt.
1138
75th sarga.

lUG
11'0
114dl
1168
11 ....
II. 2.6. 3: 'the natura of the sheep he u.cce[.lts who acoepts a. sheep'.
Illu.ck Yajnrveda, V. 6.21. 1"1 Ibid., V. 1. 5. 5.
White Yajurveda, XI. 13; XXV. 44..
V. 40. 3. 19.
II. 27. 2; V. 140. 1 ; VIII. 7. 23.
lUS White Yajurveda., XXIV. 40.
11'8 XXX. 11.
lU. 6th sa.rga.
11" A.tharva.veda, XX. 131.23.
1110 White Ya.jllrveda.,_XVI. 27; XXX. 7.
11'1 III. 22.
114.
The Atharvaveda
l151
refers to the hunting of boars with the help of
hounds. The arrow was sometimes employed but the normal instruments of
capture were nets and pitfalls. The word akhal;t occurs in the Black
Yajurveda
l152
which is taken by Sayana as a pit artificially made where
the hunter could lie in wait at a convenient distance for shooting.
1
15 3
The net called ja:la 1 1 5 4 which was fastened on pegs 1 1 5 5 was used for
capturing wild birds and beasts. The hunting of the deer 1156 and
antelope
1157
'with the help of the bow and the arrow is referred to in the
RamayaJ;l.a.
Fishing became the main occupation of a section of the population.
The fisherman fishing in rivers
1
15 8 ancl in lakes 11 59 and the fishvendor116 0
are mentioned. Of fish the Nirala is mentioned in the Atharvaveda.
1161
Of aquatic animals crabs (kakkata) and tortoises (kurma) 1162 are
mentioned. The Satapatha 13r:lhmaq.a
1l63
describes the (which
is identified with kurma), a sacred animal, a form of Prajapati from which
all beings sprang up, though we do not learn that the kasyapa was
worshipped or eaten sacramentally. 116 4
The word krsana, meaning a pearl occurs in the Atharvaveda.
116
5 The
belief mentioned by Dioscorides and Pliny - a belief also prevalent
among the Persians - that pearls are formed by drops of rain falling into
the oyster-shells when open is recorded in the Atharvavecla. 116 6 Pearls
seem to have been fished in large quantities for, we find that they were
1151 XX. 126. 4. 4. 11. 3.
1158 The word is mentioned In III. 3. 125, Vartt. 1, while himself
gives akhana.
11"", Atharvaveda., X. 1. 30. 11" Ibid, VIII. 8. 1>.
u, 14th Barga.
1167 Ibid . Ajoahya',ar;tda, 56th Barga.
1108 Wbite Yajurveda, XXX. 8.
111S D Ibid., XXX. 16.
1101 VI. 16.3.
1100 Ibid.
1lOS Atharvaveda., IX. 4.16 ; Blaok Yajurveda, V. 2.8. 4-1'>.
1108 VIII. 5. 1. 5.
1186 Keith - Blaok Yajurveda, Intro:luotion, C XXI.
11 U IV. 10. I, 3; XX. 16. 11. .10. IV. 10.
115
used by men and women not only for the beautification of their persons
but also for adorning their horses.
116
' Amulets of the shell of pearl-
oyster were also worn by the people as a protection against disease and
indigence.
1168
Progress in arts and crafts-In keeping with its wider geographical
outlook and its growth of towns this period is marked by a striking
development of industrial life and the subdivision of occupations
caused by the ever-increasing needs of the townpeople and the agricultural
and military requirements of a community settled in the midst of a hostile
population. Among the more important industries of this period we may
mention the following :-
( I) Weaving-Technical terms connected with weaving like
otu (woof), 116 9 La /ltu (yarn, threads), 1170 anuchada
117
1 or pracinatalla
1l1

(forward stretched web) are frequently mentioned. The veman (loom)1l1S
and the mayu 1174 wooden pegs to stretch the web on or
shuttle are mentioned in simile:
"Like shuttle through the loom the steady ferment mixes
The red juice with the foaming spirit." 1175
And in the Atharvaveda we read :
"Singly the two young maids of different colours
Approach the six-pegged warp in turns and weave it." 11' 6
Day and Night are compared here to two young maids, the six regions of
the world to the six wooden pegs: Dawn weaves the luminous weft of
110. Atharvaveda, xx. 16. 11. 1188 Ibid., IV. 10. 3.
110. Ibid., XIV. 2. 5l ; White Yajnrveda, VI. 1.1.4.
t 11 0 A tharvaveda, XIV. 2. 5 ; of. XV. 3. 6 ; Kathaka SaIPhita, XXIII. 1.
UB tha Brahma!)a, III. 1. 2. 13 fl.
u a Black Yajnrveda, VI. 1. 1. 3 fl.
11.3 White Yajurveda, XIX. 83; Maitraya!)i SaIllhita, III. 11.9; Kathaka. Saxphiti,
3; Taittiriya Brahma\la, II. 1.4.2.
117' White Yajnrveda, XlX. 80.
UH White Yajnrveda, XIX. 83.
l1'. AtharvaTeda, X. 7. 42.
Day and Night relUOyeS it from the 100111. The use of a large number of
words for cloth and for its different parts presupposes a fully developed
and long established indigenous weaving industry. For cloth we have the
words vaslra, l17 7 vasas 1178 and vasalla.
1l19
The sic meaning the border
or fringe occurs in thc Atharvaveda 1180 where the child is covered by its
mother's .,le and in the Satapatha Brahmal)a 1181 where a deer horn is tied
in the sacrificer's sic. Das:t meaning border or fringe occurs in the
2 The wider border is specially designated nivi, 118 3 the
closely woven enel of the cloth - from which depends the pr(lghata
1l84
or
the strikers, the loose long unwoven fringe with swaying tassels. The
vasas has only one nivi usually, as now, the other end of the cloth being
much plainer: to this plainer end would belong the 1185 (the chaffs),
a shorter fringe corresponding to the modern cltilka. The v'dtaralla 118 6
descriptive of the vasas as l)art of it, obviously cannot mean 'a garment to
protect against winds' : it is rather that l)art of the cloth which protects
it against winds,i. e., its lengthwise borders 1187 which keep the web
together from becoming thread-bare by fluttering in the wind (specially
during movements). The a/'okJl).1 188 (or 'the brilliants') seem to have been
11'1'1
11'78
1179
1180

1188
118&
1187
1188
Ibid., V. 1. 3 ; IX. 5. 25 ; XII. 3. 21.
White Yajnrvedn, II. 32; XI. 40: Black Yajurveda, VI. 1. 9. 7 ; VI. 1. 11. 2;
Aitareya Brahmal)a I. 3.
Chandogya VIII. 8.5; II. 15.
XVIII. 3.50 = Rigveda, X. IS. 11. 1161 III. 2.1. 18.
Satapatha llrahmal)a, III. 3. 2. 9; cf. IV. 2. 2. 11; 1. 1. 2. 8; Aitareya.
Brahmal)a, VII. 32.
Athrvaveda, VIII. 2. 16 ; Black Yajnrveda, VI. 1. 1. 3 iI.; Kathaka SaIl1bita,
XIII. 1. ; :Satapatha Bdihmal)a, III. 1. 2. 13 ff.
Ibid. The anta\.> of Atharvaveda, XIV. 2. 51. is clearly pragkata.
Black Yajurveda, I. 8. 1. 1; II. 4. 9. 1; VI. 1. 1. 3; Kathaka San,lbitll,
XIII. 1 ; Taittiriya Brahmal)a, I. 6. 1. 8 ; Panchavil1la Brahmal):1, XVII. 1.
That = chaff, like. lashes i. evident from its dedication\to Agni.
Black Yajurveda, VI. 1. 1. 3 iI. ; vatapa : San.1hita, XXIII. 1.
Probably preserved(in the batan (= border) of the Bengal weavers B. g., in
golabatan cloths; also!in vernacular 'bata', split bamboo, ueed in strengthening
borders of tba tches etc.
5atapa.tha llrahmal)a, III. 1. 2. 13 iI: atiroka\.> : Kathaka Sal1lbita, XXIII. 1 j
compare the classification of shawls a.s ek-rokha. and durokha according to the
nature of their embroidered patterns.
flowers, stars or other spotty patterns embroidered all over the cloth, 118 9
corresponding to modern pltul, buta: etc.
The vasas was always tied or girt (nal;t) 119 0 which implies tucks
and knots. The idiom rti17imkr
1l91
shows that each individual wore the
. .
nivi in his or her own way. The nivi-knot was sometimes so fashioned
as to form a pouch, wherein magic herbs could be borne. 119 2 Sometimes
also the nivi consisted of simply two tuckings up (udgiikana) 1193 at the
sides (as now, with men). Elsewhere women are said to tie their nivi on
the right side of the hip; such nivi must have been an ampler gather of
folds and fringe-tassels, for there a bundle of bahris represents the
nivi. 1194 It seems probable that no part of the broad border was left for
covering the bosom and shoulders and the early sculptures, etc., do not
show it. Apparently the upper part of the body was covered by another
separate garment called 4 The adhivasa seems to have been
an 'over-garment', worn by princes over their inner and upper gar-
ments. 11
9
0 We have already seen that in the Rigveda
1l96
the forests are
described as the adhivasa of mother-earth licked by the fire-child. It was
thus more like a long loose-flowing dressing-gown, suiting both men and
women 1191 and not a close-fitting garment as the authors of the Vedic
Index have taken it to be. It may not, however, have been a tailor-made
garment at all being called a vdsas.
11
98 'l'he drapi 1 199 seems to ha va
1188
1180
1191
11U
1193
1186
11,1
1107
So also they are dedicated to the stars.
Atbarv&Veda, XIV. 2. 70.
Ibid., VBI. 2. 16 (what n!vi thou makest for thyself?); Atharvaveda,
VIII. 6. 2. 20; XIV. 2. 49-50. It is possible, however, to Bee in yo.t te
paridhanall}, yal\! n!vill} tvam, a reference to the ordinary wear
ing cloth and a sepllorate woven strip to serve as wBistband and this sepBration
of the nivi is also shown in qnite early sculptures, etc. Bnt even in that case
nivi would be an outer adjunot and not an inner garment as taken by the
authors of the Vedio Index.
Athafvaveda, VIII. 6. 20.
S'atapatha Brahma",a, IIr. 2. 1. Hi.
S'atapatha Brahma",a, V. 4. 4. 3.
Ibid. 11 oe I. 140. 9.
RigvedB, I. 140. 9 ( ) ; of. Rigveda, X. 5. 4. 1U. Rigveda, I. 162. 16.
According to the a.uthors of the Vedic Index dripi is .. coat of mail.
118
beon a gold-embroidered 1 00 vest.
1
0 1 is gold-embroidered cloth
generallyUOi with artistic designs.
12os
The must from the
context
1204
refer to a part of the bride's attire, apart from the newly
woven, excellent garment. 12 0 5 The head-dress occurs for
the first time in the Atharvaveda
uo6
and often in the Yajurveda
Sa!phitas and Brahmar;tas chiefly in connection with the Vratyas 12 0 7 and
kings.
120s
The VrJtya was bright and white as day,1H9 so that it
might weU have been of some fine cotton-stuff. According to Katya:yana
Srauta Siitra
1UO
the was tied with a tilt and cross windings (tiryaii-
naddhaql). At sacrificial ceremonies, however, the king's was
tied in a special manner: the ends were gathered together and tucked
away in front, so as to cover them Up.1 11 Elsewhere in ritual the
was a mere handkerchief
1
1 i; so also IndrJryi wears an like a Zone,
of variegated hue
1213
-clearly a multi-coloured kerchief.
Among the materials used in the weaving of cloth wool was one. Urna
was the hairy covering of any animal while avika in the sense of sheep's
wool occurs in the B!"hadararyyaka U 1 14 Threads of wool are men-
tioned in the white Yajurveda,1215 Maitrayani Saqlhitll U6 and the
aoo Hiral)ya.drapi worn by Arati in Atbarvaveda, V. 7. 10.
a01 Atbarvaveda, XIII. 3. 1 where the Sun wearing the three worlds is described as
making a drapi of them. Hence the drapi seems to have three pieces, two
side ones and one back like a waist-coat. T he fact that it was worn by
women as well ( Atharvaveda, V. 7. 10) and the nse of 'vasanaJ:>' (drapifJ.1
tla8anaJ:> in Rigveda, IX. 86. 14) would show that it was not a coat of mail
but was made of vasas, cloth.
120S! White Yajurveda, XIX. 82, 83, 89.
1108 Ibid., XX. 41 where the design i9 compa.red to the poet's songs.
120& Atbarvaveda, XIV. 1. 8. "06 Ibid., XIV. 1.7.45.
1S08 XV. 2. 1 ff. Br1bmal)a, XVI. 6.13.; XVII. 1.14..
1208 Satavatha. Brahmal)a, V. 3. 5. 23 CKing at sacrifices); XIV. 2.1. 18 (Indral)i);
HI. 3. 2. 3. (King 'Soma') ;:Maitrayani Sar",bita IV. 4. 3 at sacrifices);
Black Yajurveda, III. 4. 1. 4; SaIJ:Ibita, XIII. 10.
1109 Atharvaveda, XV. 2. loto XXI. 4.
un SaIJ:Ikrtya purastad avagu}"yati in Satapatha Brahmal)a, V. 3. 5. 2011.
U1D Satapatbfl Brabmal)a, IV. 5. 2. 2. 7. Compare Satapatba Brabmay.a, III. 3. 2. 3.
1213 Satapatha XIV. 2. 1. 8.
uu II. 3. 6. 1110 XIX. SO. 1211 111.11.9.
119
Sarphita
1217
; while Kambala
1
U 8 (blanket) and !lamulya (under-
-garment of wool ?) are mentioned in the Atharvaveda.
1219
A more common material for weaving cloth for ritual use was linen
or silk. The tarpya
1UO
with which the dead hody is clothed in order
that the dead may go about properly dressecl in the realm of Yama
12
21 is a
silken garment according to Goldstiicker while others take it to mean linen.
If the commentator has any basis for its explanation 'made:from Trpa or
leaves', these would refer to mulberry leaves or other leaves
suitable for silk-cocoons. According to Professor Subimal Chandra Sarkar
12
2 2
the 'uttuda' in Atharvaveda, III. 25.1. probably means 'sprung from 'tuda'
or mulberry i.e., silken (coverlet). The which according to
Max means a linen cloth occurs in the Maitrayani Saqthita
12
2:1
and in the Black Yajurveda.
12
U The Atharvaveda
1
H 5 refers to ana,
hemp as growing in the forest but we do not know whether its fibre was
used as a material for weaving cloth. Garments made of bark, so fre-
quent in later literature are rarely mentioned in Vedic texts; probably
the 'bardsi' of Sarphita
U26
was a barken stuff; and it is interesting
to note in this connection that the Kathakas lived in the North-Western
and sub-Himalayan regions where the Barls tree, a red-flowered rhododen-
dron is still fabled to yield cloths.
No doubt, the word kiirpasa (meaning cotton from the cotton plants
of the genus Gossipium with its typical convoluted structure) does not
occur either in the Rigveda or in later Vedic literature propel'; but we
have already seen that the Babylonian and Greek names for cotton-
1211
1118
12'10
1111
lila
1111
XXXVIII.3.
In vernaoular proverbs and folk-lore the kambala is made of lorna, hair. Compare
Tamil, 'Kam (p) ali .. rough hair-cloth.
XIV. 2. 66, 67 (K&rubala) ; XIV. 1. 25
Black Yajurved&, II. 4. 11.6; Maitrayanl S&f(lhitl, IV. 4.3; Taittirlya Brlh
T. 3. 7. 1. ; I. 7. 6.4 ; V. 3. 5. 20 ; Kltylyana grauta-
antra, XV. 5. 7.
Atbarvaveda, XVIII. 4. 31.
Some A.peots of the Earliest Social History of India, p. 62 fn.
III. 6. 7. 100 VI. 1. 1. 3. ..26 IT. 4. !I.
XV. 4 ; also r.VIII. 9.6 ; XXI. 3. 4.
uo
Sind and Sindon respectively-have always pointed to Sind as the home
of cotton-growing and that cotton as weaving material was known early
in the Chalco lithic Age to the people of Sind as proved by the discovery
at Mohenzo-daro of karpdsa and of even scraps of a fine woven cotton
material. The word ka:rpasa does, however, oCCur in the Asvalayana Srauta.
Sutra which Was composed not later than the eighth ceutury B. C.
towards the close of the BrahmaQ.a Period when the Aryans came to occupy
the cotton-growing districts lying far into the interior of country.
From the RJmayaQa we find that the weaving industry was carried
to its perfection. We hear of beddings decorated with gold, 1 7 coverlets
decked with gems and jewels, 12 8 coverlet decorated with gold 1 9 coverlet
or carpet decorated with gold and silver
1230
coverlet or carpet
(a:staraQ.a) dyed with the colour of lac 1 31 gold-embroi-
dered dress (worn by king Ra,vaija),12 3 2 cloth decorated with designs (citra-
vastra) presented by Kckayaraja YUdhajit to king Rama of Ajodhya,U33
and blankets with variegated designs on them. 12 3 4
Garments were a favourite article of gift to Brahmins and dependents.
King Dasaratha is described as the giver of garments.
1
235 As the fUIlflral
procession of Dasaratha proceeded to the cremation grounds, garments were
freely distributed among the people. 12 3 6 At the sradha ceremony of
Dasaratha Brahmins were lavishly presented with white cloths. 12 3 7 King
Janaka's marriage-dowry to his daughters included among others blankets,
silk or linen garments and ordinary cloth.
l
38 On the eve of her departure
for the DaQdaka forest Sit:! under the advice of her husband gave away all
her best garments first to the BrahJ!l.ins and then to her servants.
12
39
is frequently mentioned in the RamayaQa. We find Kausalya
dressed in in puja time. 12 4 0 The beauty of the hump-backed

1088
1S11aa
50th Barga.
Laokakat;lda 11th sarga.
23rd Barga..
Uttarak1il}da, 113th Barga
AjodhyakaQda, 77th Barga.
Ibid., 77th Barga.

Suodarak1il}dB, 10th Barga..
AjodhyakaQda, 88th sarga.
SnodarakiiQda, 10th sa.rga.
sa.rga.
Ibid., 76th sarga.
Balaka",da., 74th Barga: 'Kambalanancha 'lnuklyanat(l kotyambaraQi cha'.
AjodhyakaT)da, 30th Barga. 1160 Ibid., 4th sarga.
121
maid-servant Mantharli. increased whenever she wore ksauma. 12 ... 1 On the
occasion of Rama's proposed consecration as Yuvar:tja his mother
wore k!?allma. 1 On this occasion Rima himself was (lresse,l in 4 11
On this occasion even the nurses of the royal palace of Ajo<lhyJ were dressed
in k!;l3.uma.
1
h'" King Janaka's marriage-dowry to his dau!;hters included
a. large quantity of k!;lallma. 1 U 5 Dasaratha's q lIeens were clad in
when thcy welcomed their newly married daughters-in-law anrlled them
to the temple.
l
U 6 Leaving aside his usnal dress and weapons Bharata
before entering the hermitage of Varad waja wore as befitting such
an occasion. 1 When RtvaI).a was cremated his dead body was dressed
with U 4.8 It thus becomes apparent that in the age of RlmityaJ;la
was specially used on ceremonial occasions.
Blankets (made of wool) were also used. Blanket-makers (kambala-
kJra) followed Bharata when he left Ajodhy;r to bring Rlma back from the
foreilt. I ... 9 Blankets formed part of the marriage-dowry given by king
Janaka to his daughters. U 50 Bharata received as present from his
maternal grandfather multi-coloured blankets.
l
H 1 Kcl{ayar;tja Yudhajit
sent presents of kambalas to king R1ma of Ajodhya. 1252 In the palatial
houses built by Maya in the Golden Forest Hanum:tna saw innumerable
blankets of variegated designs stored up. 1 2 S When Hannmana set fire
to the city of Lanka many )Jlankets and cloth made of :tvika, sh'Jep's wool
a.long with were reduced to ashes.12 54
Silk cloths are also frequently mentioned. On the occasion
of Rama's proposed consecration as Yuvaraja the streets of Ajodhya were
overspread with patta-vastra and D 5 On the eve of his departure
for the Dal)daka forest Rama gave away cloths to an acarya.
12
56
lUl
Ibid., 9th Barga.
1i,tJ
Ajodhyak:1l).da, 83rd .arga.
110.
Ibid, 20th Barga.

Balakal).da, 74th sarga.
lUI
Ibid., 6th Barga.
lillS1
Ajodhyakal).da, 70th earga.
1., ..
Ibid., 7th earga.
1251
UttaraklivdB, lUth .arga.
'I'a
Balakal).da, 74th Batga. 10.' 50th Barga.
116.
Ibid., 77th sarga.
1116
LankakliQda, 75th sarga.
111
AjodhyilHl).da, 90th sarga..
1011
17th sarga.
1 ,
llSth larga.
11'"
Ibid., R2nd, 8!\rga..
S1m used to wear in the royal palace in AjodhyJ.
1
J & 7 On Dasa-
ratha's death Vasi!?tha sent messengers with pre'icnts of to Bharata
to bring him back from his maternal grandfat.her's palacc in the Kckaya
kingdom. 12 Bharata in the comse of his search for R1ma found silken
threads of Sitt's dress sticking to the grass over which she
slept in the forest. U 59 Sit1 used to wear yellow silken cloth (pita-kalll'eya)
while at Pafichavati Wh;le she wa" heing carried away hy
Sita threw away hel' sqken upper garment of golden hue (kauaka-
at the five monkeys so that they may give a cIae
to Rama ahout her whereabouts.
12
61 Even in the forest. Ham!mana
found Sita wearing her self-same yellowish silk-rlress. U 62
(2) Metal bdustry-The ahance of civilisation is also seen in the
more extended knowledge and use of metals and in the large m:mber of
mining industries of the period. Besides gold 12 6 3 arrel ayas 1 H i known in
the Rigvedic Age, the Atharvaveda mentions silver, III 6 5 tin (trapu), U 66
lead (sisa)1267 and syama, occurrinO' alon'" with asi mcanin'" a sword 1268
0 , 0 .
In a passage of the White Yajurveda we tinc! a. list of six metals then
known. :
"HiraQ.yarp chama ayaschame syama'}1 chame
loharp chame sisa'11 chame trapu chame." 12 69
'May my gold, my ayas, my iron (sy:ima), my copper (loha), my lead (sisa)
and my tin (tl'apu) prosper by sacrifice. Elsewhere in the White Yajurveda
10 &f Ibid, 37th sa.rga.
1131 Ibid., 68th sl\rgR.
1.110 Ibid., 88th sa.rga.
1110 47th, 52nd and GOth
sarga.s.
1111 Ibid., 54tb sarge..
1111 15th sarga.
u" Atba.rvaveda., I. 35. I, 3; II. 7 ;
V. 1. 3 ; V. 28. I, :I j VI. 69. 1;
VI. 124. 3; VII. 14. 2; IX. r>.
14., 21), 26, 29 ;' XII. l. 44 ; XIV.
1. '0; XVIII. 3. 18; XVIII. 4.
lIB; xrx. 26.1 ; XIX. 27. 9, 10 i .
XIY. i>7. 5 ; XX. 57. 16 ; XX. 131.
6,8 ; XX. 127. 3 ; XX 128. 6.
lIe .. v. 28. ], 5; VI. 63.
2,3; VI. 84. 3; VI. 141. 2 ; VII.
H5. 1 ; VIlt. P. 2; XIX. 58. 4;
XIX. 66 ; XX. EO. 3.
lies AtbaTvaveda, V". 28. 1. 5; XIII.
4. 51.
I',. Atharva.veda, XI. 3. f.
lin Athllrvaveda, I. Hi. 2, 4. ; xrr. 2. I,

uu Atharvl\veda, IX. 5.4.
. ... White Yajur\'eda, XVIIl 13,
us
besides gold, 12 7 0 ayas, 1 7 1 lead 1 7 and silver l:a 7 S are mentioned. In
the Black Yajurveda we have the story of the origin of silver. We are
told that Agni carried off the booty gained hy the Devas from the Asuras.
Pursued by the gods he cried and his tears were converted into silver. The
Black Yajurveda also gives us the self-same list of six metals preserved in
the White Yajurveda in the following passage: "May for me ........... gold,
ayas, lead (sisa), tin (trapu), iron (syama), copper (loha) ............ prosper
through the sacrifice." I 74 The mention besides gold, U 75
silver,l g 7 6 lead,1217 tin,1 g 78 loha I 79 and laval)a.
1
80 According to
Maxmiiller lavana is "a kiml of or tanka or tankana. It is evidently
borax which is slill imported from the East Indies under the name of
tineal, and used as a flux in chemical processes." 1 8 1
The B:tlak:1I;lda of the Rimayana 12 8 2 narrates the mythological origin
of gold, silver, copper, iron, tin (ral1ga) a.nd lead out of the womb of Gang:!:,
the daughter of the Himalayas. The Himalayas are described as containing
all kinds of metal. 1 8 3 :Mines of metals on hill-sides are referred to in
the Ajodhyak'iI;lela.
1
8' We finel Rama showing to Sit! the beauty of
Chitrakuta hill, adorned with mines of metals of white, red and yellow
".0 White Yajurveda, IV. 17; IV. 26 ;
V. 15; VII. 4:'; X. 15; X. 25;
XII. 1 ; XII. 3 ; XIII. 3, 4, 28. 39 ;
XVII. 11,71; XX 1; XX. 2 ;
XXnL 37.
1,71 Ibid., V. 8; XII. 63; XXVI. 26 ;
XXIX. 20.
11' I Ibid, X. 14; XIX. 80 ; XXIII. S7.
Ibid., V. 8; XX[I[' 37; XX. 2 ;
XXXVII. 11.
1IfA Black Yajurveda, IV. 7. 5. Compare
Klithaka S"'!IhiUi, XVIII. 10;
Sal\lhitli, XXVIII. 10 ;
Maitrliylltli Sa'!lhilii, II. 11. 5;
Satap:ttha Brlih'l1aJ;la, XVIII.
13-Hi.
1'" Kathopani,ad, I. 1. 23 ; Brbl\dll.ra\lya-
11"
117'
111,8
11'
l!UO
11'1
1".
I. 3. 26; VI. 2. 7;
d. I. 1. 2; III. 1. 1; IV. 4. 4r;
VI. 4. 25 ; IV.
17. 7; V. 10. 9; VII. 24. 2;
VIII. 12. 5; Aitareya Aral}yaka,
III. 2. 4. 17.
Brha.darRl}yakopa.ni,ad, I. 1. 2;
Chan,logyopani,,,d, IV. 17.7.
IV 17. 7.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Sao red Books of the East, Vol. I.
p.71 fn.
37th sarga.
Bll.lakli\lda, 35th sa.rga.
63rd lars .
124
colour. U 85 Bharata while mat'ching with his army by the side of Chitra-
kiita in search of R5.ma, saw on the hill-slopes minerals of various kinds
like gairika etc. 1 S B RJvaQa on reaching the mountaneous southern sea-
coast of the DeCC'lll found the sea-shore strewn with dried up pearls and
corals. 1 S 7 On account of the coppery colour of his waist Hanumana
is described as a hill aclorned with a newly worked up mine of gairika.
1
8 8
Blood corning out of the wounded body of Ball is compared to water
oozing out of mines of copper and gairika on the body of the hill. 1 8 9
There were mines of different kinds in Ajodhya as well. I 9 0 On Sudadana
hill among the Himalayas there was a mine of gold 1 9 I The Ayomukha
monntain otherwise known Malay:tchal by whose side the river KJveri
flows is adorned with mines of different metals. I g 9 g Silver mines in which
Sit:! is to be searched for are also mentioned. I 93
In the RamTIyaQa besides gold, silver, copper, iron, lead and tin we
find mention of various other mineral products like gairika, 1 9 40 sudha, 1 9 II
avra (mica),U96 sphatika (crystal)U
9
7 and diamonds.
u98
In the literature of this period we find references not only to the
goldsmith 1 9 9 but also to his work: "As a goldsmith taking a piece
of gold turns it into another, newer and more beautiful shape so does
the Sdf, after hn.ving thrown off this body and dispelled ignorance, makes
unto Ilimself another, newer and more beautiful shape." 1300 The melting of
gold in fire for purifica.tion 13 oland the softening of gold by means of

1!J8'J'
liBa
li8e
1100
1 81
119')
1'lg3
12DS
AjodhJakavd". 94th sarga.
Ibid., H3th sarga.
Aravyakat;lda. 35th sa<ga.
1st sarga.
2C!rd sarga.
Ajodhyaknvda., lOOth sarga.
Ki,kindhyakat;lda,43rd parga.
Ibid., 41st sarga.
lllid, 39th Barga,
AjodhyakaV(lR, I 13th oarga; Ki,kin
dhyakaVda, 23rd Bug a ; Sundara-
kaDda,l at sarga.
Seth sarga ;
sarga i
7th farga.

1188
1300
1801
9lst sarga.
Aravya];al}da, 55th Barga; Sundara-
kat;ld!\, 9th and 10th sargB8;
Lankakii.t;lda. 11 th s!\rga.
'a 55th sarga;
dbyakaVda, 10th sarga; Lanka-
kavda. 7' th and 77th Bargas.
White YajuTveda. XXX. 17 i Rama-
yava, Ajodhyakavda, c3rd 8arga;
40th sarga.
IV. 4. 4.
Ramayava., 24th
Barga.
lavarya (borax)lSot are mentioned. The use of gold in exchange, in sacrifice
as well as in the manufacture of ornaments and oE sundry other articles for
domestic use lends colour to the view that there must have been sources
of local supply of gold. Professors Macdonell and Keith 1303 are of opinion
that in those days gold was obtained from the bed of rivers, thollgh the
extraction of gold from earth was not unknown. I
3
0 4 In the 1305
we are told by Rama that princes go to the forest on hunting excursions
partly no doubt for the joys of the chase and partly for the flesh it will
fetch but in that connection they search with great care for various metals,
gems and precious stones and for gold. Washing for gold is recorded in
the Black Yajurveda 13 06 Kathaka Salphitl,130 7 Sal!lhitl'18 0 8
Maitrayani Salphita
l309
and in the Satapatha Brahmana.
13IO
We frequently hear of various golden media of exchange like Hiral)ya-
13 II SuvarQa, 13 I gold pieces,I313 Padas of gold, I 314 Sata-
mana
l315
and Chips of gold used in sacrifice I 317 a circular
gold disc or plate with 21 knobs used in sacrifice, I S 18 golden needles with
which are marked out the lines on the body of the sacrificial horse which
the dissector's knife is to follow, 1319 golden figure of Prajapati, Agni, the
Sacrificer technically known as hil'aJ;lyagarva! 320 gold on the priest's
finger, I 321 gold given as fee to the priest, 1 g sacrificial cauldron with gold-
1'0'
110'
110'
1108
1801
1110
Cbandogy .. UplLni,lLd, IV. 17. 7.
Vedic Index, II. p. 504.
AtharvlLveda, XII. 1. 6.
AraJ;lyakaJ;lda, 43rd sarga.
VI. 1. 7. J.
XXIV. 3.
XXXVII. 4.
III. 7. 5. 6.
II. 1. 1. 5. ; III. 2. 4. 921.
Kathaka. SlLn.,bita, Xl. 4 ; cf. B1aok
YajnrvedlL, II. 3. 2. 1.; Taittirlya
Brabma!)a., I. 3.6. 7 j MaitraYB(l1
L ita, II. 9. 2.
Sa.taplLthlL Brahma!)a, XU. 7.l!. 13.
White Yajnrveda, IV. 26.
Brabma(la, Katlda. XIV;
I. 1. 1.
II e
111'
1118
181.
litO
18U
Satapat ha Brabma!)", V. 4. 3. 24, 26 ;
xrr. 7. 2. I'); XIII. 2. 3.2; V.
5. 5. 16; Bla.ok Yajnrveda., II. 3.
11. 5 ; III. 2. 6. 3.
Atbarva.vedlL, V. 14. 3; V. 17. 14;
XX. 131. 8 ; Aitareya.
VIII. 22.
AtliarvlLveda., XViI. 11, 71
Wbite Yajnrveda, X. 2;, ; XII. 1, 12.
Wbite YajnrvedlL. XXIII. 35, 37.
Ibid., XIII. 4, 16, 38 ; Black Yajar-
veda, IV. 1. 8 ; IV. 2. 8; V. 2. 7.
Atbarvaveda, XVIII. 3. 18; Sata-
patha. III. S. 2. 2.
Atharvaveda, IX. 5. 14.
126
en handles, 15 golden vessel fO}, A ;wamedha called Mahiman, 13' 6 and a.
lail0 of pure golllia 5 are mentioned. In the RTmiLyaQ.ll we read of golden
utensils,33 2 6 golden vase for conta;nillg water, IS 2' golden pitchers, 1 G 8
golden pots,1319 golden water-pots used by ascetics,IS30 golden lamps,1331
golden bedstead, goldell bedstead dec:(ed wi til jewels, 13 3 S bedstead adorned
with gold, 13 U seats made of gold, IS 35 golden trappings for elephants,13 3 6
fly-flapper (clnmara) with golden handles 13 3' and decorated with
white gems,1 338 golden throne,
1
3 3 Q scats bedecked with gold
(KliichaM-eitrita I, IS6 0 altars made of goU,1 H 1 g'l.tes mounted with
gold,ISU gold-m1unted arch of a gateway,I34.S golden chariots
lSU
chariots mounted with gold and decked with jewels, 13" pillars (of
chariots) made of gold,1 H 6 windows (of chariots ) made of gold 134.'
golden stair case, 13 4.8 gold-mountei windows,l:14 9 finger-guard (aiiguli-
tr;iJ;ta) overlaid with gold, 13 50 golden hook or g03-d to drive an elephant, 1351
18218
111'
1St 3
1828
18218
11 a
1180
1131
White Yajurvedl<, XXXIII. 19.
I. 1. 2.
Ibid., Vl. 4. 25.
Ajodhyakat;lda, 9lst sarga ;
dhyii.kat;lda, :JOtb sarga; Sundara-
1st and 11th sargas ; Lanka
kal;lda, 75th sarga.
Suvart;la Vrngara in Ajodhyllkat;lda,
l.Jth sarga.
Ajodhyakat;lda, 15th sarga ; Sundara-
ka\lda, 10th and 11th sargas;
kindhyakat;lda, 26th sarga.
Ghata III Ajodhyakat;lda, 14th and
65th Bargas.
Swart;lakamandollu in Sundarakllt;lda,
lst Barga.
Snndarakiil}.da, 9th lIarga.
Ajodhyakat;lda, 16th and 19th eargas;
33rd Barga.
SundarakiiJ;lda. 11th sarga.
72nd targa,
11"0
1"1
18'2

18, ..
1:H: 3
lS'd
ILid., 10th, nnd and 81et BargaS;
Sund,rakat;lda, lst and 11th sargaR.
Lankaknnda, 129th slugl!..
26th sarga.
Ajodhyakat;lda, 15th and 16th
sargas.
26th sarga_
AjodhyllkaI}da. 26th earga; Uttara-
kllt;lda, 1st Barga.
AjodhyakaI}da, 10th sarga.
Ki,kindhyak1it;lda, 3Jrd Barga.
Sundarabit;lda, 6th sarga.
BalakaI}da, 5:3rd sarga.
Ajodhayakii.J;lla 16th Barga; Ara-
t;lyakat;lda, 2Znd Barga.
Snndarak aI}da, 9th sarga..
Ihid., 8th sarga.
Ibid., 9th sarga.
Ibid.
99th sarga.
53rd lIari&'
127
gold armour,lSU weapons mounted with gold,IS88 sword decked with
gold, 13 5 4 sword with golden handles, 13 5 5 bow decked with gold, 13 6 shafts
decked with gold,la57 golden sheath for sword,l3SB golden image (of
Sit!!.13 5 9 golden figures of fish, flowers, trees, birds, mountains and stars
enO'raved on chariots 1360 "'olden imaO'es enO'ravecl on chariots 1361 and
0' ' b 0 ,
golden images placed in the bed-chamber of R;tvalfl1's palace. 13 6 S
Golden ornaments are frequently mentioned. I
3
6" The word alarpkara
does not occur in the fo tr Ved'.l.s b It the wod aiija or a"iji meaning
ornaments does occur.136 5 The word. alarpkTl"a occurs for the first time
in the Satapatha Br:thmar?a 1366 and in the Ch:rndogya U IS 67 In
the Atharvavecla the following ornaments are mentioned :-(1) 'ririta
l36S
_
In it is explained as an ornament of the head (mukutama:t;li
or a tiara-like ornament). (2) Parihasta 13 6 Q - It was
probably a bracelet or two connected rings regarded as one amulet.
1
370
(3) Pravarta 1 S 7 1 - It was an ornament, circular in shape, probably for
the ears; (4) Ring
1372
(5) Goltlenamulets
1373
(6)
coins as the term 13 74 shows; (7) Kurira 137 5 - According to
Zimmer it means peacock. If this meaning is accepted, then kurira is a
tiara-like ornament for the head.
1s76
(8) Kumba
1377
- According to
13"
I' ..
lUI
III.
lilt
II
1111
lin
1'"
11 ..
Lankaka.l}(la, 75th Barga.
Ibid.
Ajodhyak(i1}da, 31st Baqa; Ara:{lya
ka1}da, 12th Barga.
4,ttb sarga; San-
1st Barga.
47th sarga.
AraJ;ly"ka1}da, 8rd and 20th sargas;
16th Barga.
AraJ;lyakiiJ;lda, 12th Barga.
Uttl\rakiiJ;lda, 112th S;l,rga.
AraJ;\yaka"da, 22nd s"rgllo.
Sandarakli,1]da, 6th sarga.
Ibid .. 9th sa.rga.
Ajodhyakliuda, 15th sa.rga.
Ath.rl'aveda, XIV. 40; White
Yajarveda., XV. 50; XVIl. 97;
XXXIV.

1888
1.88V
1870
1871

1,,.3
IS',
Ie, lS
la,.
I. 64. 4.
III. 5. 1. 30 ; XIII. 8. 4. 7.
VIII, 8. 5 : Pretasya vaBa-
nenalal!l!; san.19k urvanti.
AtharV'lved", VIII. 6.7.
Ibid" VI. 81. I, 2.
See XXXV. 11.
A tharvaveda, XV. 2. 1.
Ibid., XX. 128. 6, 7.
Ihid., I. 35 ; V. 28 ; XIX. 26.
Ibid., V. 14. 3.
Ibid., VI. 138. 2 ; XIV. 1. 8.
Camp,ue Apastamva I
'Kumb .. and Knrir.. on th. patni's
head' Prof. Subimal Sarkar in
his Some Aspeots of the Ea.rliest
Social History of India take8 it to
be a kind of harn-sha.ped ooiffure
(p. 72),
Atharvllveda, VI. 138. 3,
128
SiIyana it was used by women in hair-culture; probably it is comb. 11 ,.
(9) Opasa
131
9 - It was used for adorning the head. Roth thinks that
it was a corruption of aba + pasa and hence mcant hair-tape or hair-
net. 1 S 8 0 (10) Lal:Ima - It was a tiara worn on the forehead like a
frontlet. (11) LaHimya, frontlet (12) Lalalllagu, frontlet (13) Surukma,
an ornament for the chest (It) Ruklllastarana, an ornament for
the chest usually of crescent shape. (15) Nin:Lha, an ornament for
the waist. (16) Dev:rftjana (17) N alada (18) Madhulaka (19) Siman
(20) Susra (21) Swand:tilji (22) Haritasraj or Hiral:yasraj. The
White Yajurveda refers to the gold-iolllith
1381
and the
and to gold ornaments.
1
383 It refers to a gold ornament, perhaps a chain,
round the neck of the sacrificer,l 384 to Opasa,l 385 to gold worn as
amulet
138B
and to golden trappings for horses.
lS81
The Black Yajurveda,
refers to Opasa,1388 Sraj, PUl:darisraj a11(l Yoga. In the KathopaJ}.isad1389
we find that Yama offered to Nachiketas an orll'tment called Sriftka. The
Tar:damahabrahmar:a mentions the ornament called Sraj made of gold.
The term in the Aitareya undoubtedly refers to the
practice of wearing necklaces of coins. The Paftchavirpsa Brahmar:a
refers not only to Oposa 1390 but also to necklaces of silver coins worn
by the Vratyas.
1S91
We hear of Rukmap:Isa in the Satapatha
a chain by means of which Rukma was worn on the breast. KarJ}.asovana,
mentioned in the Satapatha Br:rhmar:a, literally means an adornment for
the ear, hence earring. In the Ch:Indogya U S 9 3 we read of a
lU.
118.
1811
1180
lBI.
Prof. Subimsl Sarkar in his Some
Aspects of the Earliest Socia.l
History of India takes it to mean s
style of hair.dressing (p. 73).
Atharvaveda, VI. 138. 1.
Compa.re: A net that hath thou
sand eyes spread over the roof of s
house' in Atl:arvaveds. IX. 3. 8.
See a.lso a.nte, fn. No. 444.
White Ya.jnrveda, XXX. 17.
Ibid., XXX. 7.
White Yajurveda, XV. flO ;
XXXIV. fl2,
l38t Ibid . XXII. 1.
13e 5 Ibid., XI. 56.
lsee Ibid., XXXIV. 50.
1881 Ibid., XXV. 39.
1080 Bla.ck Yajnrveda., IV. 1. fl. 3.
Ult r. 16: 'Taba.iba namna vabit1iya.-
ma.O'nih sriiikaiichema manekll.ril-
" . .
pll.'9
H.. IV. 1. I; cE. tn XIII.
4.3.
1301 Ibid., XVII. 1. 14.
13811 VI. 7.1. 7.
IV. 2.
129
necklace offered to Raikva which he politely refused to accept. Maitrayal
f
l
SaJ11hita 13 94 also refers to opasa.
In the Ramfiya1).a we find mention of golden diadem (kirita), 139);
golden diadem bedecked with gems and pearls; 1396 kUQ.dala, earring worn
by both men IS 97 and women, 1398 golden kUf.ldalas bedecked with diamond
and vaiduryamaQ.i, 13 9 9 maQ.ikw;tdala worn by men as well, 14 00 karQ,avaral!a
(earring or ornament for the ear) call eel trikarQ,a; 140 1 golden bracelets
(kanchana keyilra worn on the upper arm by both men l4.0 2 and women, 14 0 3
karavaral!a (bangles) decked with corals, 14 0 4 hastavaraIfa worn by king
Dasaratha,1405 valaya, (armlet, bracelet) worn by men
1406
as well as
women, 1 ,,07 lmnaka all gada, golden bracelet worn by both men 1 408 and
women 14 0 9; afiglll'iyaka, ring for the fingers 141 0; golden amulet
(kavaca), Ull golden amulet set with vaiduryamaQ.jl412 ; necklace made of
gold 14 1 3 ; kaficanil-mala worn by king Bali on the neck,14 14 pear I neck-
lace,
1
41 5 necklace of Indl'anilamaQ.i,1416 necklace of precious stones strung
together with a golden thread,1411 necklace of vaiduryamal)i,1418 kaQ.tha-
hara; a kind of ornament for the neck,
1
419 hemasutra, a golden chain,
18915
13&e
1397
18aa
148.
II. 7. 5.
RamayaJ;lllo, AraI)YllokaJ;lua, 38th
Bargllo.
Ki,kindhyakaJ;lda, 10th s<\rgll.
AyodhyaUJ;lda, 32nd and 403rd
sargas; Sundarakal)dllo, 8th IIond
10th sllorgllos; Aral)yakal)da, 38th
IJlIorga; Lankakal)da, 65th sarga.
SundllorakiiJ;ldllo, 10th lIoud 15th
Bargllos.
10th sluga.
Balakal)da, 14th sarga.
Sundarllokal)dllo, 15th sarga.
Balakal)da, 15th sarga: Ayodhya.
kaJ;lda, 32nd sarga; Lankakal)da,
65th and 130th sargllos.
Ayodhyakagda, 32nd sarga; Sun-
dllorakal)da 1st snd lith Bargas.
SnndarakiiJ;lda., 15th sarga.
BiUakiiJ;lda, 14th sllorga.
14,06
14:08
14.09
1410
1'11
14.14
1416
1'1'1
1418
14019
Ayodhyakal)da, sarga.
Sundarakagda., 9th sarga.
Ayodhyakal)da, 32nd sarga; Sun
10th sarga.
Ayodhyakal)da, 3211d sarga; Sun-
dal'akagda, 10th sarga.
SundarakaJ;ldl!., 10th sarga; Lanka-
kiil)da, 65th and 128th Bargas.
Lallkiika:v.da, 65 th sarga.
AmJ;lyaka:v.da, 64th sarga.
53rd sarga.
l1th sarga.
Ayodhyakagda, 9th sarga;
dhyakagda, 40th sa.rga.; Sundarllo-
kagda., 9th sarga; Lankakat'da,
130th sarga.
Sundaraka:v.da, 15th sarga.
Ayodhyaka:v.111o, 32nd sarga.
Sundarakagda, Dth sarga.
9th sarga.
130
probably to be worn on the neck 1 .. !J 0 chandraMra, a kind of necklace worn
by both men 1421 and women, 1422 golden chain for sheep 14 2 3 ; kfi,lichidama,
a girdle-like ornament for the waist! 424; kifddl)i-malJ, a girtlle of small
bells, 14 2 5 mekhala, an ornament for the waist and loins 14 2 6 ; and nupura,
an ornament for the ankles and feet.14 2 7
Among the articles made of silver, the Atharvaveda 142 8 mentions
silver amulets which arc sa:d to grant vigour to the wearer. 142 9 The
White Yajllrrerl.a
1430
mentions silver needles for marking out the lines on
the body of the sacrificial horse which the dissector's knife is to follow.
Silver plates used in sacrifice are mentioned ill the Black Yajurveda and
in the Sabpatha BrJ.hmal].a. The Brhadlral)yakopalli\l1.u I 431 mentions the
silver vessel calletl Mahiman used in the horse-sacrifice. 'rhe Pauchavilpsa
BrJ:hmaQa refers, as we have all'eady seen, to necklaces made of silver
wom by the VrJ:tyas. In the Rfi.m:i.yal)a silver utensils, 14 3 S silver
pitchers,l4 H seats made of silver, 14 3 5 altars made of silver,14 3 6 bedsteads
made of silver,14 3 7 pillars mounterl with 14 3 8 silver-mounted arch
of a gateway,1439 windows made of silver,Iuo images of silver engravc<l
on chariots, 144 I and images of silver Illaced in the bed-chamber of
palace
1
H 2 are mentioned.
""\Ve have alre{1dy seen that the third metal ayas is separated from loba
awl syi"Llnam I.l4 3 and according t') Schrader meant purc dark copper. 14. 44
1430



1430
14.31
1433
Sundaraka\lda, 9th sarga.
Lankaka\lrh, sarga.
Ayouh) aU.\lda, 32nd sarg.t.
Ibid, 14th sarga.
Sundaraka\lda, 9th Barga.
Ibid.
Ayodbyaka\ldo., 78th sarga.
Ara\lyaka"da, 5:?nd sarga; SUllchra-
ka"da, I st, 9th and lIth sarg:\s.
V. 28. 1.
Ibid., V. 28. 5.
XXIII. 35, 37.
I. 1.2.
XVII. 1. 14.
Lalaka':l<lo., 53rd surgo.; Ayc:dhya-
1:138
14.37
140
ka"cla, 91st sarga;
kal)Ja, 50th sarga.
Ayoclbyaka"da, 15th sarga.
Ayodhyaka"da, 10th Barga.
Ibid.
Ki 33rd sarga.
AraJ;lyaka"da, 55th sarga.
Snndarakal)da, 6th sarga.
l. ra"yaka"da, 55th sarga.
Sundal'akaJ;lda, 6th sarga.
!l.icl., 9th sarga.
White Yajurveda, XVIII. 13 ;
Hlack Yajurveda, IV. 7. 5.
Comp"re: Latin aes = Goth ai.
Zenel ayari;, meaninq pure dark
c(lPlJ
er

131
Lolla occurs in the Atharvaveda,1445 the White Yajurveda,1446 the Black
Yajurveda
l447
and in the Chandogya The words Lohamaya
and Loh::ryasa occur in the Satapatha Brahmal)a.
I449
According to
Schrader
1450
loha originally meant copper but later it was used to denote
iron. Syii.ma is mentioned in the Atharvaveda, 14 51 apparently meaning
iron as the word occurs along with asi meaning a sword. It is also
mentioned in the White Yajurveda,I452 Black Yajurveda,1453
Saqlhita, 14 54 Sarphita 1455 and in the Maitrayal?i SaTJlhita.
14
5 6
We have distinct references to the iron-smelter 14 57 and the black-
smith.
14sB
The Maitr:tyar:ta-Brahma!)a thus describes the
work of the blacksmith :-"Even as a ball of iron pervaded (overcome) by
fire and hammered by smiths, becomes manifold (assumes different forms
such as crooked, round, large, small) thus the Elemental Self pervaded
(overcome) by the inner man and hammered by the qualities becomes
manifold." The softening of silver by means of gold, of tin by means of
silver, of lead by means of tin, of loha (iron) by means of lead was also
known. I 460 Whatever be the real meaning of ayas, loha and syamam these
metals were extensively used in this period. Thus we read of receptacle
that has been hammered or formed with a tool of ayas, 14 61 metal
vessels,1462 metal jUg-,1461 a pair of shears with sharp blades,1463 sickle to
cut the ripened grain, 14. 64 knife, Ii 65 spade to dig up the hardest soil
14 oj 5
XI. 3. 17.
14.S"1
White Yajurveda, XXX. 14.
14.4:11
XVIII. 13.
14l5e
Ibid., XVI. 27.
14:4.7
IV. 7.5.
14:89
III. 3.
1.448
IV. 17. 7.
1'80
Chandogya IV. 17.7.
1'''8 V. 4. 12 ; XIII. 2. 2. 8.
1,61
White Yajurveda, XXVI. 26.
14.150
Prehistoric Antiquities, p. 212.

BrhadltraJ;lyaka U VI. 4. 13;
1'41
IX. 5. 4; XI. 3. 7.
AjodhyakaJ;lda, S3rd

XVIII. 13.
sarga; Sllndaraldl!)da, 11th sarga.
"l41i8
IV. 7.5.
1'63
Atharvaveda, XX. 127. 4.
1'64,
XVIII. 10.
1'64
White Yajurveda., XII. 68.
1166
XVIII. 10.
1'66
Ibid., IV. 1 ; VI. n.
14.68
II. n. 5.
132
(evidently of metal, 14 6 6 uatra, bill hook, 14 6 7 hatchet, 14 68 iron axe, 14 6
iron hook, 14 70 iron razor 1411 with razor-case, 14 7 2 pair of nail scissors,
1
4 7 3
iron nets, 14 74 fetters wrought of iron, 14 7 5 iron box or
trunk 1476 and collyrium-pots, probably made of metal.
147
7 Among
articles for use in sacrifice we read of the sacrificial hatchet, 14 78 sickle to
cut and trim the sacred grass, 14 7 9 lead needles (according to the
commentator Mahidhal'a copper or iron needles) to mark out the lines on
the body of the sacrifLClal horse which the dissector's knife is to follow, l4. 8
0
bell, evillently made of metal
148
1 and threarls of iron for use in
amnlets.
14B
Among articles for purposes of war we read of phfi.] a, hlade
of an arrow,
1
483 sword, 14 8 4 val' man, armour, coat of mail, 14 8 5 armour for
elephants and horses,
1
486. Iron forts 1481 and iron castles 1,88 used in a
14-(18
110 OJ
1470
14.71

14.74
Aitareya Arat;Jyaka III.
1. 4; khanitra, hoe, spade In
Ramayat;Ja, Ayodhyakal)da, 37th
sarga; taiika, boe, spade m Ibid.,
EOth sarga.
Ayoc1byakat;J:\a, 80th Barga.
Chandogya VI. 16. 1.
Ath"rvaveda, VII. 115.1; VI. 141.
2; II. 12. 3; White Yajurveda,
V. 42 ; VI. 15 ; Ramayal)a, Bala.
Hil)da, 54th sarga ; Ayodhyakiil)da,
80th sarga.
Atharvaveda, VII. 115. 1.
Ibid., VI. 68. 1, 3; White Yajur-
veda, III. 63; XV. 4; Brhadii.
ral)yaka III. 3. 2;
IV. 20.
Compare "Just as the sharp edge
of a razor is difficult to pass over,
thlls the wIse Bay tlle path (tv
Self) IS hard" -
I. 3. 14.
IV. 20.
Karshnayasam in Chandogya Upao
VI. ]. 6.
Atharvn.veda, XIX. 66. I.
1'78
li7U
l18e>
1'61

1'63
1(85
1497
HBB
Ibid., VI. 63. 2; VI. 64.:1. White
Yajurveda, XII. 63.
Ramaynt'.l, l3alak iil)da, 67th B9.rg9. ;
cr. Petaka in :36th
and 37t II
.Ayodhyiikal)d .. , (lIst sargoa.
Atharvaveda. VII. 26.
Ibid., XII. :>.31 i cf. Black Y"jur
o
ved a, 1. 1. 2.
White Y"jurvecla, XXIII. 37.
MaitriiY8l),\.BrahmaJ;l" Upani
V 1. 2:!.
Atharvn.veda, V. 28. l.
Ramayal)'. AyodhyiikiiJ;ld .. , 36th
Barga"
11. G. 4; Ramayal)a,
Balakal)'h, 54th sarga; Ayodhya
kiivda, 2:3r 1, 4:1rd and ,,2nd sargas.
Athn.rvav,d,t. V I. U8. 1; VIII.
5. 18 i IX. 2. 16; XIX. 58. 4;
XX. 16. 6; White Yajurveda,
XIII. 35 ; XVII. 49 ; XXIX. 36,
45; Ramayal)a, Ayodhyakat;Jdn.,
40th and 9lst sarga.
Lankakavda, 75th sarga.
Atba.rvaveda, XIX. 58. 4.
White Yajurveda, V. 8.
133
figurative sense are also mentioned. Pillars made of iron, 14 8 9 ornaments
made of iron worn by king Trisafiku in his chanda:la dress
1490
and images
of tigers made of various metals 14 91 are also mentioned.
We also read of the use of mixed metals (yougikadhatu) In this age.
Bell-metal (karpsya) vessels, made of an alloy of copper and tin are
mentioned in the ChITlldogya U 9 2 In the Ramayary,a 14 9 3 we are
told that after the marriage ceremony of his sons was over, king Dasaratha
on reaching home presented four BrahmiQ.s with cows together with calves
and bell-metal vessels for milching (karpsya-dohanabhll?da). Vessels made
of brass or pittala, an alloy of copper and zinc are mentioned in the
MaitrayaQ.a-BrahmaQ.a U 94 In the RImITyarya 14 95 we find a
reference to brass when Khara angrily speaks to Rama thus: "Just as the
gold-like pittala (brass) is blackened when put to fire, so arc you showing
only your hollowness by self-laudation."
Whether alchemy was known in this period is not certain. Alchemy is
the process by means of which an inferior metal is converted into a superior
one. We find reference to this process in the 37th sarga of the Balakary,da
of the Ramayary,a where the origin of metals specially of gold (jatarupa)
is discussed. But some scholars look upon this passage as a later addition

The art of the jeweller - The maI?ikJra or jeweller is mentioned in
the list of human victims of in the White Yajurveda.
1496
In the Taittiriya Brahmary,al4. 97 the word used for jewellery is kacha which
may mean glass or glass-beads; and it would be unreasonable to suppose
that those who set glass on gold did not follow the same procedure with
diamonds, and other precious stones for which they had names and which
they knew and prized. 14 9 8 When Bharata left Ayodhya to bring back
1'89
1'88
1i04:
Atharvaveda, VI. 63. 3.
58th Barga.
Ibid., Ayodhyakavda, 15th aarga.
V. 2. 8.
72nd Barga.
VI. 22.
... 29th sarga.
1498
14c9'1
14.98
XXX. 7.
III. 665.
Manu ordains a. fine for piercing
fine gems like diamonds and rubies
and for boring pearls or inferior
gema improperly.
134
RIma from the forest he was followed among others by the mal)ikrrra. 14 9 9
As a matter of fact, the Rrmayal)-a which treats of royal families generally
as contrasted with the ritual literature mentions a large number of
jewellery used in this petiod. Thus we read of golden diadem (kirita) set
with jewels and . pearls, 1500 golden kUl)-dalas (earrings) set with diamonds
and vaiduryamaQ.i, 150 1 mal)ikul)-dala,1 502 pearl necklace,
1
50S necklace
of Indranilamal)-i,1 504 necklace of precious stones strung together with a
golden thread,
1
505 necklace of vaiduryama\li 150 S golden amulet set with
vaiduryamal)i, 15 0 7 hastrrvaral)a (bangles) set with corals, IS 0 8 various images
decked with gold, silver, diamonds, pearls and corals, I 509 images of birds
decked wilh silver, coral and vaiduryama'fi,151() im1,ges of serpents decked
with gems,1511 golden s)ats deckerl with gems,! 512 seats decked with
gold and gems, 1513 bedsteld deeke:l with various gems,
1
5 14 golden bedstead
decked with gems,15
15
bed-sheet decked. with gems and vaiduryamary.i,1516
crystal altar decked with various gems 1517 altars decked with white gems
like indranilamary.i and mahanilamal.li, 1518 fly-flapper (chamara) decked
with white gems, 1519 chariot adornerl with gems and corals,
1
5 20 chariot
mounted with gold and decked. with jewels, 1521 and silver pillal's decked
with gold, gems and pearls. I
5
2 2
We may refer in this connection to prrrkasa which is frequently men-
tioned in the Taittiriya, Satapatha and Paiichavirp3a Brahmary.as. It means
lign
1600
1501
1500'S
t1508
150'1
llS08
1lS08
83rd
sarga.
Ibid, 10th sarga.
Ibid.
Balakiinda, 14th sarga.
9th Barga; Kilkin-
40th Barga; Sundara
ka9da, 9th sargIL; Lankaka9da,
130th sarga.
Sundaraka9da, 15th sarga.
Ayodhyaka9da. 32nd sarga.
9th Barga.
64th sartl'a.
15th Barga.
Ibid, 9th Barga.
1510
1511
151!ii
11518
1517
1131S
1519
15
Ibid., 7th SILrga.
Ibid.
Ibid., 11th sarga.
50th sarga.
Ayodhyakii.9da, 76th sargA.;
kindbyaka9da, 50th sarga.
11th sarga..
Ibid., 10th sarga.
Ibid.
Ibid., 9 th' sarga.
Ayodhyaldi9da, 15th Barga.
lItb Barga.
Ayodhyaka9da, 16th sarga ; Aral}ya-
ka9da, 53rd Barga.
SUDdarakal}da, 9th Barga.
13li
looking glass. Geldner thinks that pravepa in }[aitrrryal)i 1 B:I
means the same thing. The refel' to polished mirrors
16H
.
The also refers to polished mirrors (sull1lrjita 5
To people acquainted with crystals and metal foil the iuea of setting small
plates of crystal on foil for the manufacture of looking glasses would be
easy enough. Polished metal plates seem, however, to be more frequently
used and in the present day orthOllox people prefer them to foiled glass
in connectien with marr[age and other religious ceremonies. Such plates
are usually made of silver. 'rhe mirror mentioned in the Svetlsvatara
U 1 5 6 was a metal disc.
1
5 1 The ancient Egyptians preferred
copper or an alloy of copper anu tin; but the Hindus hold that alloy as
impure and unfit for religious purposes. The word k:tcha for glass occurs
in the Taittil'iya Br:thmaI;la
15
2 8 and seeing that the Ceylonese who borrow-
ed all the arts of civilised life from the Hindus, make mention in the
DWipavaTJIsa of a "glass pinnacle" placed on the top of the Rusnwelle
dagoba by Suiuaitissa, brother of Dutugaimuna, in the second century B.C.
and of a "glass mirror" in the third century B .C.l52 9 and Pliny describes
the glass of India being superior to all others from the circumstance of
its being made of pounded crystal
1 5
3 0 it would not be presumptuous to
believe that it was, in ancient times used in India in tha formation of
looking glasses; but we have nothing as yet to show that mercury was
used in fixing the foil on it. The looking glasses used in the decoration
of the marble bath in the palace at Agra, were foiled with a film of lead
and tin poured in a melted state in large glass globes which were
afterwards broken to form small mirrors. This mode of foiling is still in
common practice in many parts of India.
1&28

II. 6. 5 j
II. 14; Aitareya Am-
U III. 2. 4. 10.
Ayodbyak<ll)da 91st sarga.
II. 14.
"As a metal disc (mirror) tarnished
by dust, shinos bright again alter
15S19
1 a 30
it hna been cleansed, so is the ODO
incarnate person satisfied and free
from grief, after be h!l.s seen the
real nature of the self (Mu Mul
ler's Translation in tho S. B. E.
Vol. XV. p.
III. 665.
Tenuet's Ceylon, I. p.454.
Lib. XXXVI., C. 66.
136
(3) Working in wood-The ordinary carpenter made wooden vessels,
implements and furniture for domestic as well as ritual use. Ladles of
various kinds-the sruva
15
31 (small ladle used specially for Soma libation),
the sruc
1532
(large wooden ladle), dhruva;1533 (having the largest bowl
used in pouring libations of clarified butter into fire), the juhu 1534 and
the upabhrV 535 are frequently mentioned. 1Vooden mace used in
sacrifice,
1
536 wooden sacrificial spade 1537 with which earth is to be dug
to form two square beds for the chief cauldron called mahlvira aud gharma
to rest on, large wooden soma reservoir called droI}.a-kalasa, 15 3 8 four-
cornered sacrificial cups of khadira. wood 1539 mortar-shapcd cup of
palasa wood 1540 cup made of udumvara wood, 1541 wooden soma. cups, 15 4
wooden covers for sacrificial vessels,
1
5 4 3 wooden mortal'
1
544 and pestle 154 5
for extracting soma juice, wooden mortal' and pestle for pounding out
rice,
1
546 wooden pegs or wedges with which the pressing stones are
beaten
1547
wooden pegs for strctching out skin or woven cloth
1548
wooden
needles used in stitching together the folding doors of the cart-shed,1 549
fire-shovel or poker made of palMa wood,15 50 wooden instrument called
sphya, shaped like a sword used in stirring up boiled rice, drawing lines
on the ground am1 other sacrificial purposes,
1
551 yupas or sacrificial
1(;81

1033
J li 3 4:
16315
153B
1637
11518
White ajllrvedR., I 29; II. 20;
XVII. 77 ; Brhadara1)yaka U pani-
VI. 3. 13.
White Yajllrveda, I. 29; II. 20;
XVII. 79.
Atharva.veda, XVIII. 5; Black
Yajllrveda. III. 5. 7.
Atharvaveda, V. 17. 5; XVIII. 5 ;
Black Yajllrveda, Ill. 5. 7.
Atharvaveda, XVIII. :>; Black
ya.jllrveda, III. 5. 7. 2.
Atharv9.veda, VII. 28.
White Yajllrveda, V. 22 ; XI. 10;
XXXVII. 1 j Aitareya
III. 1. 4.
Whitte Yajurveda, VII. 29; VIII.
42; XIX. 27; Black Yajllrveda,
III. 1. 6. 1.
1H1
1U3
11545
U54:6
1547
11548
1649
115 60
1661.
White Yajllrveda. VIII. 33.
Ibid., XIX. 33.
B"!"hadara1)yaka VI. 3. 1 ;
VI. 3. 13.
White Yajllrveda., XIX. 27.
Atharvaveda, XVlll. 4. 53.
White Yajurveda, I. 14. i XIII. 33.
Ibid., 1. 15 ; XIIl. 33.
Atharvaveda, XII. 15.
White Yajurveda, 1. i6.
Ibid., V. 16.
Ibid, V. 21.
Ibid., 1. 17.
Ibid., 1. 24; Black Yajllrvoua, r.
1. 9.
137
posts, 15 5 timber posts called svaru, 1553 drupacl
ls
5 4 and vanaspati 15 55
(evidently a dressed and entire siila trunk) arc referred to.
Mention is also made of scats made of udumvara wooel
l
556 and of
thrones of khadira wood. I 557 Among these the talpa is thus clescribetl
in the Atharvaveda :
"Bhaga hath formed the four legs of the talpa,
Wrought the four pieces that compose the frame-work.
(skilled carpenters) hath decked the straps
that go across it.
l
5 5 8
Being the nuptial bed-stead 1559 it was usually made of udumvara
WOOd.
1563
The pftha (alluded to in the mention of plthasarpinl56 I cripple)
was evidently a wooden seat. The epithet 6 2 shows that
Was something like a high and broad hench.
1
563 In the Taittiriya
Brahmar:al5 6 4 is, therefore, distinguished from talpa aml vahya.
As the name suggests vahya is a couch of light structure that could he
carried about when necessary; it seems to have been an essential item of
furniture for the bridal chamber,I 56 5 having an embroidered coverlet.
156o
Asandi which means either a shining seat or the occupier of a shining seat
is referred to in the Atharvaveda in connection with not only the inaugu-
ration of the V ratya chief 1 567 but also a marriage-ceremony. I 5 6 8 In the
White Yajurveda
l569
asandi is specially associated with kingship, being
1868
1&88
1644
liS6'1
Atharvaveda, VII. 30 ; XI I. 1. 38;
XII. 3. 33 ; Wbite Yajurveda, Bk.
V. 41-43 and Bk. VI. 1-6; Black
Yajurveda, VI. 6. 4.; Ramaya!)a,
Balaka!)da, 14th sarga. Aitareya
Brabma!)a II. 1 ; Bral;-
rna!)" X. 1.
Atharvaveda, IV. 24.4 ; XII. 1. 13.
Ibid, VI. 63. 3 ; VI. 115. 2; XIX.
9 ; Wbite Yajurveda, XX. 20.
Ibid., IX. 3. 11; Black Yajurveda,
VI. 2. 8. 4.
Aitareya 1. 2. 4. 10.
Wbite Yajllrved", X. 26.
Atharvaveda, XIV. 1. 60.
.. 669
11560
1681
11l8l111
1863
lli64
166 IS
1666
1667
1088
Ibid., XIV. 1. 31.
Taittiriya Brahmll!)'lo, I. 2. 6. 5.
Wbite Yajnrveda, XXX. 21 ; 1 lack
Yajurveda, III. 4. 17. 1.
Atbarvaveda, IV. 5. 3= RigvedA.
VII. :i5. 8.
Compare vernacular paitba, a broad
plank resting on two logs In the
ri ver boats.
II. 7. 17. 1.
Atharvaveda, IV. 20. 3.
Ibid., XIV. 2. 30.
Ibid., XV. 3. 2. ff.
Ibid., XIV. 2. 6.
XIX. 86.
138
regarded as the 'womb of rajanyas' 15 7 0 and its use in ritual by a sacrificial
priest ensures samrajya for his client! 571 ; but the qualificatory term
r:tjasandi 1572 shows that the humbler asandi's were also in use. The
asandi is usually made of sacred udumvara wood, 15 73 sometimes of
khadirawood.
15
7 4 It had four legs. 1 575 It was sometimes square, 1576 and
sometimes rectangular
1
577 in shape. It was sometimes a spiln high, 15 7 B
sometimes knee high 1579 or navel Ligh.l 580 'rhe V l'utya chief's
described in the Atharvaveda 1581 had framework of wood and woven
straps, two (fore) feet, two (back) feet; two lengthwise and two crosswise
pieces; forward and cross tantus ("'ooven straps or cords), and upsraya,
the support or back of the seat; its adjuncts were astaraI;lil, coverlet,
asada, seat proper i.e., the cushion for sitting on, and upvarhal).a, cushil)n
for leaning against. The paryaiika is a later development being first
mentioned iu the later Vedic texts. 15 8 2 It had four legs and was furnished
with head-piece of the couch, upasri, the supporting back of the
couch and cushion and pillow for the head.
In addition to the ordinary carpenter we find the
who besides making chariots for purposes of war 1584
carts,
1
5 B 5, waggous 1586 and carriages.
1
5 B 7 References
Rathakara15 8 3
and race made
to bOn,ts
1588
1671,
1678
1&7,
16'75
16' e
117 7
tHS
11'19
Cf. also White Yajurveda, XX. l.
Black Yajurveda VII. 5. 8. 5.
White Yajurveda, XIX. 16.
Ai tareya Brahmal):i, VIII. 5, 6, 12
and 17, Sataptba Bdibmal)" III. 4.
26 ff; V. 2. 1. 22; VI. 7. 1. 12ff ;
XIV. 1. 3. Bff.
Brahmal)a, V. 4.4. 1 ff.
Aitareya Drahmal)a, VIII. 12 and
17; Upani5ad, I. 5;
SankUyay'\na Ara\lyaka, III.,
Satapatha Drahmal)t, VI. 7. 1. 12 ff i
Aitareya Brahmal)a, VIII. 5 and 6.
Aitareya Brahmava, VIII. 1:'>.
.. Bdihmava, VI. 7. 1. Uff.
IlJid., XII. 8. 3. 4ff.
Ibid., II I. 3. 4. 2(jjf.
158 J
1583
1 r; 8 IS
1587
---_._--------
XV. 3. 2ff.
U I, 5;
ayana Aranyaka, rrf, Compue
Jaim. Brah. II. 24.
Atharvaveda, III. 5. 6.
White Yajulv<lda, XXIX. 45.
Ibid., I. 8 ; II. 19 ; IV. :0:1.
l3l&ck Yajurveda, I. 8 .. 18; Brhsda
ral)ayk'1 Upani;ad, IV. 4. 1. 35.
Atharvaveda, XX. 125. 3; White
Yajurveda, XII. :1O; Brbadaravy,,
ka Upani5ad, IV. 2. 1.
Ath"rvavoda, II. 36. 5; II [, 6. 7;
IV. 33. 7, 8 ; V. 4. 4; V. 19. 18;
XX. 46. 2; XX. 7'2. 1; Black
Yajurveda, V. 10. 1; Aitarey!\
Aravyaka 1. 2. 4. 6. etc.
139
presuppose the existence of boat builders. Boats of bigger size, having
two rudders (nau-mar;tda)l589 came to be known in this period.
The Rlm1.yat;l.a refers to specialised carpenters 1590 and to the manufac-
ture of boxes (petaka) 1 59 1 wooden sandals 10 9 2 and artificial hills made
of wood. 1 593
(4) Leather-work-The hide-dresser IS mentioned in the White
Yajurveda
l59
4. and the Aitareya BrahmaQ.a15!)5 seems to refer to
the stretching of hides with pJgs, while the Svetasvatara Upa-
1
5
9 S refers to thc rolling IIp of hides. The ilUportance of the hide-
dresser is evident from the fact that skins of aja (goat) (the
black antelope), hariQ.a (deer) and thc eta (spotted deer) were in common
and ritual use. 'rllU!', the religious stmlent (brahmaclri) is clad in the
black antelope skin. 1 597 The gods dresscl in deer skins 1598 used to alarm
their cliemies. 15 9 S 'rhe Kukundhas aUll the Kukill'abhas used to dress
themselves in hides and skins.l 5!) 9 Skins of dccr were used as covcrings 16 0 0
and as seat-spl'cClds.
160
1 According to ritual custom the Brahmin priest goes
clad in goat's skin.1602 Goat skin was also used as coverlet for asandi's.l603
A tradition of wearing cowhides in primitive times is hinted in a passage
of the Satapatha Brahmal)a.
16o
4 Cowhide also servecl as a ritual seat for
thc newly marriad couplc. The skin of the blaek antelope was used as
coverlet for asandi's16o 5 as well as for pressing soma and bruising and
husking thc ricc used III oblations.
l6o
6 The tiger-skin was used as
1689
lUO
111 11
l"dl\i
. 9 IS
Brahma\ll\, II. 3. 3. 15.
Ayodhyakiil)da, S3rd sarga.
Ibid., 36th and 37th sargas.
Ibid., 91 st Barga.
Sundarakii\lJa 6th sarga.
XXX.15.
V. 15 j compare Griffith's
Yajurveda, p. 43 fn.
VI. 20.
Atharvaveda, XI. 5. 5.
Ibid., V. 21. 7.
White

11100
1601

1808
1606
1606
Ibid., VIII. 6. 11.
Ibid., IV. 7. 6.
Ramayal,1a, Ara\lyakal)de., 43rd
sarga..
gata.patha Brahma\la, III. 9. 1. 12.
Ibid. V. 2. 1. 22.
Ibid., III. l. 2. 13ll'.
Ibid, XII. 8. 3. 4.10.
Atharvaveda, XI. 1. 8. See also
Griffith's Atharvaveda, Vol. II. p.
52 fn.
140
coverlet for :tsandi's 16 0 7 and for chariots. 16 0 8 Lion skins were also used
for covering chariots. 1609
Besides the hide-dresser, leather-worker (carmasil pi)l6 lOis also
mentioned. Leather-bags were used for holding milk, wine and other
liquids
1611
and dry skin-bags sometimes formed part of sacrificial fee.
16U
The ritual shoes mentioned in the Black Yajurveda
1613
wcre made of
of black antelope skins while the ritual shoes mentioned in the Sata-
patha BraluuaJ;l.a
1614
and in thc Kausitaki BrahmaIJ.a
1615
were made
of boar-skin.
(5) Pottery-The potter is freqncntly mentioned 1616 Among the
earthen 1JOts made by him we find sthali, cooking pot which occurs in the
lHharvn.veda and the BrahmaJ}.l1s; ITscCana, vessel to hold liquids such I'tS
mcn,t-juiee (Yu\ian) 1617; and ukh:r, a cooking pot which is descrihed
clearly as in the White Yajurveda. 1618 The Ram:ryaQ.a also
mentions sthali, kumbhi and karambhi filled with curds. 1619 Broken
liquor-pots are also referred to 1 6 0
(6) Ivory work-The Ramayal).a mentions altars16 1 and seats ma(lc
of ivory, 1622 legs of bedsteads made of ivory and gold, 1623 pillars amI
windows (of Rtvaf.la's palace) made of ivory, 1624 and lmages of ivory
placed in chariots. 1625
1607
le08
1609
1610
1611
16111
1613
1814
Brahmal,la, V. 4. 4. 1 ff ;
A itareya VIII. 5 a.nd 6.
Ayodyakar;tJa, 16th sarga;
6th sarga.
Ibid., 6th sarga..
Ibid., Balaka\lla, 13th sarga. See
also carmachchhedaka in Ayodbya.
ka,lda., 8'jtb sarga
Par1chavi'11sa XIV. n.
26 ; XVI. 13. 13.
Black Yajllrveda, 1. 8. 19.
V. 4. 4. 4 ; V. 6. 6. 1.
V. 1. 3. 19.
1016
1616
1617
1618
1619



III. 3.
White Yajurvotla, XVI. '37 ; XXX.
7 ; .lIaitrayal!i Sar\lhita, I. 8. 3.
Rigveda, I. 162. 13.
XI. 59 ; see also Black Yajurveda,
IV. 1. 5. 4; Athfnvaved3, IX. 6. 17.
AyodbyakaJ)da, gIst sarga.
Ibid., 114l h
Ayod hyakii\lda, 10th srrga.
Ibid.
Sundarakar;tda, 10th sarga.
Ara'{lY kapda, 55th sarga.
SundarakaJ)da, 6th and 9th sargas.
141
(7) Manufacture (If liquor-rrhe sacred sacrificial drink obtained
from the Soma plant was highly prized in this period as none of the
principal religious rites sneh as the Darsa, PilrQ.amasa,. J Ukthya,
Vajapeya, Atiratra, Aptal'yrrma etc., could be celebrated without
it. It is no wonder, therefore that the Black Yajurveda
16
2 6 furnishes
innumerable mantras for repitiJion at every stage of its manufacture.
It is not necessary to descrihe here in any detail 1172 the several steps in
its manufacture; suffice it to say that it was made with the expressed juicc
of the Soma creeper, diluted with water, mixed with harley meal, clarified
butter and the meal of wild paddy (nlvara) and fermented in jar for nine
clays. 162 S It seems that the starch of the two kinds of meal (barley and
wild paddy) supplied the material for the vinous fermentation and the
Soma juice served to promote vinous fermentation, flavour the beverage
and check acetous decomposition in the same lray that hop does in beer.
Its intoxicating effects as noticed in the Rigveda have already been
described. In the Black Yajllrveda we find a story in which a sage
by name, son of while engaged at the Soma sacrifice is
said to have indulged sO inordinately in the exhilarating heverage as to havc
vomited on the animals brought before him for immolation.
In a distilled condition the Soma would be of no use and as it was
not cl1stilled it could not be kept for any great length of time.
Accordingly no Soma juice was used when arrack was distilled from fer-
mented meal. This fermented barlcy or wild paddy meal whcn distilled
was called surn. which was known, as we have already seen, early in the
Rigvedic Age. It was used as an article of offering to the Gods in two
important rites, namely, Sautrmal)l and the Vajapeya. According to
Baudhayana and Katyayana three articles are use(l in its preparation viz.
sprouting paddy, the slJrout brought on by steeping lJaddy in water, slightly
parched barley steeped in curds and diluted butter milk, and Coarse powder
of the same steeped in whey. After proper fermentation, this was distilled
in the usual way. Unfortunately we do not get any description in contcm-
1128
16.. The and tIle Somapra
yoga supply the details.
1608 Stevenson's Samaveda, p. 5 ; Hang'.
Aitareya I., p. 6.
142
porary literature, of the still in which the distillation was effecterl, the
Taittiriya Brlhmal?a suppling only a number of mantras for the prepara-
tion of the liquor. Another drink known as Kil'Ila. was prohably a
variety of sura wbile Paris rut was a drink made from flowers.
16
2 9
The RrrmrryaJ;la J 630 refers to sura which oozes spontaneously from
trees (tac;li ?) and different varicties of madya preparcd by the SauJ;ldika
of which Val'UQ,i 1631 and Ma:rcya 1632 were famous.
(8) Painting-:Frescoes (patibhlna or convcrsation-pictures 1 c.,
love-sccnos) are mentioned in the oldest Pali literature I\nd the very fact
that Buddha prohibited these paintings I\m1 permitted only the representa.-
tion of wreaths and creepers shows the pre-Buddhistic origin of painting
The 1633 refers by way of simi.le to pictures (light and shade)
and to the painter's brush 1634 while the Maitr:tyitlfa-BrJ:hmat?a U pani-
1 fl3 5 refers by way of simile to a painted wall. l'he R:1mi1yal).a refers not
only to painters (citrasilpavill) H 3 6 but also to rooms (of nXtma's l\[ahal
in Ayodhya) adorned with pictures made by skilful artists.
16
3 7 Picture-
galleries 1638 are also mentioned.
(9) Sculpture-Sculpturer1 images ou wooden posts are as old as the
Rigveda.
11j
3 9 The Atharvitveda refers to deeorated and inlaid (llis)
bowls like the starry night 1640 and to carvings in relief of gorls inside
the bowl.
1 6
4 1 The R tffityarya refers to images of horses, birtls, serpents
ana of with her elephants carved on the aerial chariot of
Rav aJ;la. 16 4 2

1630
1631

1633
Sankhyayana III. :3 9 ;
l'araskara Grbyasiltra, III. 4. 4.
See also Zimmer-Altindisches
Leben, p. 281.
Snndaraka\lda, 11 th sarga.
Ayodhyaka\lda, 114th sarg"-.
Ibid, 918t sn,rga ; Uttllraka\lda, 52nd
sarga.
II. 6. 5.
H. 6. 17.
1(186
1-637
1638
16:3 9
1640
IV, 2.
Uttarakii.\lJa, 107th sarg',
Ayodhyakal)da, 15th Barga.
Citragrha In Ayodhyaka\ld", 10th
sarga ; Citrasala in Sundarakiil)oa,
6th and 12th sargas.
IV. 32.23.
Atharvaveda, XIX, 49. 8.
Ibid., XII. 3. 33.
Snndarakiil;lda, 7th sarga.
143
(10) Architecture-The Atharvaveda 1643 gives us a graphic account
of a style of architecture which evirlently refers to the ordinary type
of a dwelling house in this period. According to it four pillars (upamit)
were set up on a gooJ site anel against them beams were le:1llt at an angle
as props (pratimit;. The upright pillars were connected by cross-beams
(llarimit) resting upon them. The roof was formed. of ribs of bamboo
(va'psa), a ridge called. and either the wicker-work or Sl)lit
bu.:uboo-lining, over which the thatch wail laid and to which thc description
of thousand-eyed 1644 could aptly bo appliel or a net spread. over the
to keep the straw-bundles of the thatch in tact during stormy
weather. The walls were filled up with straw or long reedy grass 1645
and the whole structure was held together with ties of various sorts. 1646
Besides the store-house of Soma,1647 the agni-s:tla (the hall of the fire
altar), 1648 patnin:1rp sadana (ladies' apartments),1649 sadas (a shed erected
in the sacrificial enclosure to the cast of the Pr;icinavarpsa chamber,
which had its supporting beam turned towards the east)1650 and covered
veran(lahs (at least along the front and back as denoted by the term
each house had a big store-room or sala full of clean corn 165 1
and sheds for sheep and cattle.
1
6 52
In the Black Yajurvcda we finel frequent mention of bricks and
of their use in the comtruction of fire-alters. Among the various forms
of altar-bricks known to the people of this age, we may mention
,.U
186.
1 ....
1
Atharvaveda, IX 3 ; III. 12.
AtharvavedB, IX. 3. 8.
Palada, Atharvaveda, III. 12. 5;
IX. 3. :;; palava, Atharvaveda,
XII. 3. 19; JaiminlYB UpBni,ad
T. 54. 1; paHili .. Hllar
vaveda, II. 8. 3; palala,
Sntra, LXXX. 27.
S,'tp priil}iiha, nahana, paris-
vaiijalya-Atharvaveda, IX. 3. 4, 5 .
.Atharvavcda, IX. 3.7. ; IX. 6. 7.
Ibirl., IX. 3. 7.
Ibid.
Ibid., IX. 6. 7.
1615 1 Ibid., III. 12. 3.
16" As there is distinct mention of play-
ful calves and children In the
house in the Atharvaveda III. 12.
3. Com petre Rigveda, VII. 56.
16. Moreover, the house 1S des-
cribed as rich lD horses and lD
kine (Atharvaveda, III. 12. 2) and
as giving rest to man and beast
(Atharvaveda, IX. 3. 17.)
The nrst explicit mention of burnt
(pakva) bt'icks OOcurs in tho
Satapatha Brahma1;la late in the
7th century B. C. (VI. 1. 2. 22 ;
VII. 2. 1. 7.)
144
(circular bricks)16 5 3 vikarryi, (corncrless bricks) 16 H
COc;ll (conical bricks) 16 5 5 (pot bricks) 16 56 aHei other hricks
with various linear markings.
I6
51 Was usc(l in making
bricks firm and has therefore been aptly compare'! to flesh adhering to
hones.
165S
Such adhesive plasters must have been essential in the
construction of the alternative form., of the altar 16 9 like the 'bird'
styles (representing the syena, kanka. or ala,ia' or the 'bowl' or granary
(drona), 'chariot-wheel,' 'circle' 'cementery' (smasina) amI 'triangle'models.
It would be extraordinary if bricks were not use:! for the secular house-
buildings as well, whUe altars (householcl or special) anrl cemeteries 1660
were brick-built.
The Satapatha descrihes at length the smasana (fnneral
and mcmorial) structure, anfl them into vastu, grhjn and
prajnanam.
166
I The vastu reliquary of bones etc., wa3 built in two
styles. The Pracya or unorthoclox type was round and domeshaped
(parimal').dal:r), 16 6 separate from the earth (i. e., towering), male of stone,
instead of bricks IS 6 3 amI enclosel by au ia'le5.nite num
1
nr of
stones.
I6
S 4 The orthoiox style of V.lstu s1 uara or qU'1,lrilateral, 1665
not separate from the earth,1666 and m3.ie of brhks one foot 81u'1ro.
16
67
The 1668 was either an actm,l house with many room'>, cr()ctecl
over or beside the grave in meu'H'y of th] cle::lCl:l"lel or ch1.mryers anel
vaults of subterranean or rock-cut C.wes. 1669 The prajnlnam means a
pillar-like memorial monument. A pillar (sthU}l) is indeecl set up on the
1853
J 6056
1857
l.6fS9
1680
Black Yajurveda, IV. 4. 5; V. 3.
9; etc.
Ibid,. V. 3. 7.
Ibid., IV. 4. 3 ; V. 3. 7 ; etc.
Ibid, V. G. 1 ; etc.
Ibid., V. 2. 3 ; V. 2. 10.
Ibid" V. 2. 3.
Ibid" V, 4. 11.
The direction tbat brick-altars crmld
be erect.ed after tha model of
(round or square) show
that these latter were aho brick-
structures by tbe time of tile mack
Yajnrveda.

1668
1607
1668
166g
Satapatha BraumU)a. XIII. 8. 1.
Ibid.
Ibid., XIII. 8. 4. 11.
Ibid " XIII. S. 2. 2.
Brahmatllt, XIII. 8. 1. 11'.
Ibid., XIII. 8. 1. 1.
Ibid., XIII. S. 4. 11.
Atharvaveda, XVIII. 3. 51- Rigveda
X. 18. 12; A tharvaveda, XVIII.,
4. 37.
The Roman catncorubs and EQ'YP'
tian eavegraves offer instructil'e
parallels.
145
Vedic grave
1670
and in the time of the Satapatha Br:rhmal?a a stone 167 I
pillar was set up along with thr.Je timbor onos at the fOllr corners
of the smasiina. 167 2
The great variety of names for doors 1673 and pillars 1614 shows that
they were a marked feature of one other type of house-builliing,
characterised by timber-work as 0pp03ed to bamboo, brick and stone work.
This timber architecture seems to have been strengtheneel by the use
of ayasthut:ta's 1675 (pillars made of the metal called ayas) and parigha's 11176
so that it constituted a necessary earlier stage of architectlll'e to account
for the elaborate goLI-plated and inlaid timber-pillars of the
palace.
(11) Town planning-Town-planning seems to have been known
in this period. 1.11'. E. B. HavelP 67 7 remarks "The close connection of the
geometrical system (denoted by the mystic figures Paramasayika, SW'astika,
Sarvatobhadra, etc.,) with the Vedic sacrificial lore, and the position of the
master-builder as high priest or sacrificial expert are indirect proofs of
the /;rreat anti(luity of thE:l Indian science of town-planning; for, geometry
as a science was an Indo-Aryan invention and had its origin in the
complicated system of Vedic sacrifices III which it became necessary to
lIJ70
18'71
1678
Athe.rvlIoveda, XVIII. 3. 52 = Rig-
vella, X. 18. 3.
According to the commentator made
of v!tra = ,tone.
Comp:ne the four pillars adjacent
to "tupas and later on to mediwval
mausoleums.
Dvar (White Yaju rveda, XXX. 10 ;
5atllopatha BrahmaJ;l1!. XI. 1.
dvara (Athllorvaveda, X. 8. 43);
durya (White Yajurveda, 1. 11;
Billock Yajurve:la, J. 6. 3. 1);
durCJ;la, signifying house itself
(Atharvaveda, VI. 17. 3; White
Yajurveda, XXXII. 72.)
SthiiJ;la (Atharvaveda, XIV. 1.63 ;
BrahmaJ;l1lo XIV. 1. 3. 7) ;
16'1/5
1 6'1 I)
stIJiil)a-raj" (Satapatha 81 ahrnRJ;la
III. 1. 1. 11; III. 5. 1. 1; "yarn
(Atharvavoda, IV. '34. 4; XIr. \.
13) ; methi, with variants 'medhi,'
'metLi,' or 'methi' (Atharvaveda,
VIII. 5. 20; XIV. 1. 40; BIlle k
Y IIojnrvedl\, VI. 2. 9. 4; Kathaka
SaJ!.lhita XXXV. B; Aitareya
I. 29. 22; etha
BrahmaJ;la, III. 5. 3. 21 ; Pancha-
Brahm"J;la XIII. 9. 17;
Jaiminiya Brahma.J;la. 1. 19. I).
Rigveda, V. 62. 7, 8.
CI:hlndogya [I. 2-t. 6, 10,
15.
E. B. Ihvell-History of Aryan
Rule in India, p. 25.
146
resolve geometrical problems such as constructing a circlc equal in area
to a square and vice-versa. The laying out of the Indo-Aryan village is
treated in the Silpas:istras as the preparation of sacrificial ground. I have,
therefore, considered it justiliable to refer it historically to the Vedic
period and to connect it with the camp or fortified settlement of the early
Aryan invaders." In a later volume Mr. Havell writes that subsequent
investigations confirm his foregoing observations. He says "If it be true-
as the Russian scholar Sheftdovich, asserts -that the Kassites who took
Eabylon in 1766 E. C. and established a dynasty there which lasted for
600 years "fere Aryans speaking Vedic Sanskrit whose chief god was
Suryya, Babylon must be regarded as a half-way house of the Aryan race
in its march towards the Indus valley and some, at least of the early
Aryan tribes I m ~ s t have acquired, before they entered India, not only the
high spiritual culture which is reached in the ltigveda, but a prolonged
experience of the civic arts, including' architecture. Recent German
excavations on the site of Babylon show that the science of building
in Vedic times had advanced much furthcr than has hitherto been
suspectecl." (E. n. Havcll-Anc:ent and :Thfeclimval Architecture, p. 3.)
Indeed the plan of the towns aml their denominations were identical
with those of the geometrical figurcs that liacl to be drawn on the sacrificial
altars. These figures suggested the plans and the names. And the
description of the cities of Ayodhya and Lanka as preserved in the
RamayaI).a seems to show that they were built according to a definite plan
and are in wonderful agreement with the principles laid down in the later
Silpasastras. Thus we are told that the city of Lailka was situated on the
top of a hill, 16 78 surroundecl on all siues by a wa11
16
7 8 and outside the wall
was a ditch sorrounding the city.1678 The ancient town-planners were
not slow to seize the slighest opportunity to make thc city as pictures[lue
as they could. Accordingly, in the ditch were carefully nurtured lotus
anll lily plants 1678 The diteh was spanned by bridges in
front of each of the many gates which pierccd the wall surrounding thc
city.lll1
8
Inside the city were roacls which wcre broad and well-
diviclcd.1618 There were rows of beautiful honses plastered with lime. 16 7 8
147
The royal palace Was sorrounded by a wall pierced by many beautiful
g
ates.
1679
It contained lat:iO'rha 1679 citrasala 1679 kridagrha 1679
O. , . . ,
kamag!-ha, 16 7 9 divavih;tra-grha 1679 and eveu artificial mountains made of
,rood 1619 besides many orchards 1679 and gardens. 16 79 The famous Asoka
forest with its rows of flower and fruit trees planted in their proper order by
skilful sylviculturists, its well excavated tanks with their beautiful steps, its
raised seats, rest-houses and lat:tgrha's vied in beauty with the Nandana-
kanana of Indra, the Garden of Brahmii. or the Chaitra-ratha of Kuvera.16 8 0
N ear the royal palace were the houses of Prasasta, },iahaparsva,
KUlllbhakal'l:a, and other notables of the kingdom. 16 7 9 The city
also contained sav1grha's, 16 8 1 1681 and yantr;rgara's.16S 1
In fact, the buildings were so faultlessly constructed that they appeared
to haV'e been made by Maya(bnava himself.
16s
2 The city has, therofore,
describecl as a mind-wrought city in the air, of Viswakarman.16 7 9
It is likened to a woman with the walls and ramparts for her thighs, 16 7 8
the wide expanse of water (in the ditch) and the surrounding jungles for
her clothes, 16 78 the sataghni (guns? i and sUlastra for her locks of hair, 1678
the palaces for her ornaments 16 78 and the yantrlgara's for her breasts.
I6
81
Similarly, the city of Ayodhya is said to have been built by Manu.
16
8 3
It was twelve yojanas in length and three yojanas in breadth,l 683 It
was sorrounded by a deep moat, which made it difficult of access. 16 8 3
It was divided by one broad road which Was met by other fine streets all
regularly watered. 16 83 The city was founded on a plain 1683 and had many
stout arched gates with large door-panels. 1 683 In the middle of the city
were rows of shops.168a In all quarters of the city were theatres, pleasure-
gardens, mango-groves and avenues of sala trees.
1683
Its innumerable
palaces high like hills, 16 8 3 sport-houses for ladies,
1
683 tanks,! 68 S
chaityas,I 6 8 4 temples, 16 8 4 yaj5asalas 1684 and panasala's l685 -all
enhanced its beauty and magnificence. The buildings were not constructed
in an irregular fashion, for, there was co-operation in alignment and
structure (Sunivesitavesmantam).
Ilj19
1680
HSl
H83
Ibid., Btl, Barga.
Ibid., Uttarakal)da, 52nd sarga.
Ibid_, SunciarakiiJ;lda, 3rd Barga.
Ibid., 7th Barga.
11583

Ibid., Balakiil)da, 5th sarga.
Ibid., Ayodhyaka\lda. 71Bt Barga.
Ibid., lOOth sluga.
148
In consonance 'wiiih this great attention to town-phl.lming the people
developed a high tone of civic consciousness. In the Ram[yaJ}a, the ci.ty
of Ayodhya and everything in it fill the poet with delight. "He loses
himself in the thought of its palaces, its arches and its to,,,ers. But it is
whcn he comes to paint Lai'ika that we reap the finest fruit of that civic
consciousness which Ayodhyii. had c1evcloped in him. There is nothing
in all Indian literature, of greater significance for the moc1ern Indian
mind than the scene in which Hanumana contends in the darkness with
the woman "'ho guards the gates saying in mumed tones "I am the city
of Lanka."'" 168 6 Such a civic sense was quite probable because the cities
in ancient times were more than centres of trade and corporate life;
they were the ultimate resorts of the people against hostile invasion.
The cccupathns-We have already seen that the Rigveda shows germs
of a social division, arising out of the adoption of different occnpations by
different sections of the communi tv. An idea as to the enormous extent

to which division of labour was carrlee1 out in this period will he evident
from the following list of principal occupations most of which are des-
Cl'ibed in the White Yajurvecla
1681
in connection with the victims of the
ceremony :-
(II) A g1'icIIUnl'aZ Occu)1(tlirJns-Besides the husbandman 1688 we hear
of various agricultnral la1Jourers: (1) ploughman (klnasft, 16 8 9
(3) smyer (V:lpa),1
6
90 (3) one employed in husking (tlhJllyalqt)1691 and
(cJ..) woman employee1 in grinding corn 169 2
(I,) Inllllstl'ial occupations-Of those engaged in the various industrial
arts the following are important: (5) smelter (dhmatr\ 16 a 3 (6) black-
Ahan; hi Lallka Bv"yameva
plavang"m,,-Su :3rd
fiurga.
16.B Sister NivcdiUl-Civic Rnd National
Ideals, pp. 6.7.
16S7 Chapters XVI and XXX.
1d.8 Athlrvl\veda, VI. 116.1.
1690
1691
White Yajurvena, XXX. 11.
Ibid, 7.
Ibi'l., XVI. 33.
16 9 Rigveda, IX. 112. 3.
16 93 White Yajurveda XXX. H. Com-
pare smeltina: of oreB ("sman) in
Satapatha Bral,ffia!Ja, VI. 1. :3. 5.
smith (karmara), 16 94 (7) arrow-maker 1 G 9 5 (8) female scabbard-
maker,16
9
6 (0) goldsmith (hiral.lyakara, suval'l!akara),16
9
7 (10) jeweller
(mal.likara), 16 98 (11) carpenter 16 99 17 0 0 8utradhara 1701 ),
(12) carvel' (pesitr),I 70\1 (13) chariot maker (rathakara), 17 0 3 (14) bOlYl11akcr
1 704 (15) bowstring maker (jyakara), 1105 (IG) ropemakcr
(rajjukara),1706 (17) woman who splits cane,170
7
(18) basketmaker (vidala-
kari), 17 0 8 (19) woman who works in thorns, 17 0 9 (20) weaver (vaya\ 171 0
(21 \ weaver of rugs (kambala-kara\,l 711 (22) female weaver (v:iyitri), 1712
(23) woman who embroiders (pesakari),1 713 (21,) female dyer (rajayitri),1 7 14
(25) female ointment-maker,
1
7 1 (2f3) scent-maker (gandhajivi), 1716
(27) stone-carver (prakaritr), 1717 (28) leather-worker (carmamna, 1718 carma-
1611'
1696
1606
16117
1808

1700
1701

t 70S
1704
170B
1708
110'1'
1708
1708
1'10
White Yajnrveda, XVI. 27 ; M,\itra-
yal)a Brahmal)a U III. 3
White Yajurverla, XVI 46; XXX.
17'
Jbiu., XXX. 14.
Ibid., 17 ; Ramaya1)a, AyodhyakaJ.lda,
S3rd sarga ; BrhadaraJ.lyaka Upa-
IV. 1. 4.
White Yajnrveda XXX. 7; Rama.
ya1)a, Ayodhyakal)da, 83rd sarga.
Atharvavcua, X. 6. 3; White Yajur-
veda, XVI. 27 ; XXX. 6.
RamayaJ.la, Balakatlda, 13th sarga.
Ibid., AyodhyakaJ.lda, 80th and S;)rd
Bargas.
White Yajurveda, XXX. 12.
Ibid, XVI. 27 ; XXX. 6.
Ibid, XVI. 46 ; XXX. 7.
Ibid., XXX 7.
Ibid.; Black Yajurveua, VII. 2. 4.
2; compare Aihreyn. AraJ.lyakn, I.
2. 3. 9-10.
White Yajurveda, XXX. 8.
Compare ronnd mats of mUI'ja
grass for ritual use in Wbite
Yajurvedn, XII. 2.
White Yajnrveda, XXX. 5.
See Vedic ludu, BV. Viya.
1711
1713
17115
l'1iG
1717
1118
Wimayal,la, A yotlbyakal)ua, 83rd
sar'.!A..
PalichaviTl)} \ Brahm,,!)a, 1. 8. 9;
compare Satapatlm BraiJmaI)a, III.
l. 2. l:3ff.
White Yajnrveda, XXX. 9.
Ibi,l., 12.
Ibid., 14.
Ramayal)a, Ayodhyakii.l,lda, S3 .. d
sarga.
A remarkable fe3ture found in tbe
of the Briih-
m3!)C\ is tbe regulation: "Let thoro
be citras on the back of the 'Sma-
"for 'citras' mean ofit"pring"
(The commentator takes it as natural
scenery; this is absurd, specially as
natural scenery is suggested as an
alternative in the following Fnes).
In the caso of the stone-built round
reliquary tho most suitable citra.
would be figures III
relief. It is to compare
the account in the Epic of tl.e
representation of the fertility
goddess Jara on the palace walls
of the king of Girivrl\ja, of a plump
woman with c l:ildren all arou ad.
White Yajurveda, XXx. lll.
150
silpi,17 19 carma-chchhedaka 17:) 0) and (29) Potter (mrtpaca, 1 7 2 1
kumbhakara17 22)
(c) Priestly occupations-The class who carnell their liveli-
hood by officiating ill sacrifices, by teaching the sacred lore or in other
ways ministering to the sp:r;tual needs of the commLlnity Came to be
divided into the following classes :-(30) the rtvig 01' hotr-the leading
priest who while the sacl'ifice was being performed recited hymns of praise
in honour of the particular god he was worshipping; (31) the udgiit!--the
priest who sang the samans or hymns in praise of the Soma plant hyposta-
tised and regarded as god; (32) adhvaryu-the priest who was concemed
with the manual acts of sacrific'cng (33) astrologer (gaJ;laka, 172 3
darsa
17
2 4), (34) weathcr-prophet (sakadhumam),1 i 25 one who foretells
the weather by the way in which smoke rises from a fire of cowdung
and (35) physician 1726 vaidyaka).17 2 7
Cd) Domestic and Menial addition to the above we
find the (36) shepherd (avipala),l728 (37) the cowherd (gopa),1730
(38) goatherd (ajapJla),I 731 (39) elephant-keeper (hastipa), 1732 (40) horse-
keeper (asvapa),17 33 (41) drivel' of horses,I 7 H (4,2) charioteers, 17 3 5
(43) cook,
1
7 36 (44) servant, 1 737 (4,.) houseguard, 1738 (,t6) washerman,1 7 39
1719
1710

I7l1i
17:i15
1 Tli6
Ramayal)3., Balaka1.lda, 13th sarga.
Ibid., Ayodhyakal)dll., 80th sarga.
White Y.jurveda, XVI. 27; XXX.
7; SaJ\,hita, I. 8. 3;
Maitrayal)a Brii.bmat:'a U
II. 6 ; HI. 31.
Ramii.yal)<t, Ayodhyii.kal)da, 83rd
sarga..
Ibid. Balakal)da, 13th sargll.
White YHjurveda, XXX 10; XXX.
20.
Atbarvaveda, VI. I, 4. Compare
Sutra, XXX. 13. Bloom-
field in American Journal of Philo-
logy, VII. pp. 454-88; Weber-
Omina ct Portenta, p. 363 ; Zimmer
-Altiudiscues Leben, p. 353.
Whito Yajnrvedll., XXX. 10 j Black
Yajorveda, V. 4. 9, 2.
17 !,J7
1728


1731
173 :iii
1735
17$6
1787
1738
173g
sarga.
White Yajurveda, XXX. 11.
Ibid.
Ibid., XVI. 7.
Ibid., XXX. 11.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid., XVI. 26.
Ibid.
83rd
Ram:iyal)B, Ayodhyakal)dB, 50th
slI.rga.
Ibid., Bai.tka(lda, 13th Barga. ;
White Yajurveda, XXX. 13.
Grbll.pa, White YlI.jnrveda, XXX.
11 i dVii.rapll., ILid., 13; pay",
Ibid., 20.
Ramayal)a, Ayodbyiikii.l)da., 80tl.
Barga.
151
(47) washer-woman,I 7 40 (48) barber (vaptr), 1741 (49) waiter (parivest!,
paricara), 1742 (50) messenger (palagala) 174 3 and (51) bath-attendant
(upsektr) 1744
(e) Recreationary occupations - Besides these there were others
who earnell their living by amusing the public specially the richer sections
of it. Such were the (52) druml)eaterl745 (53) lutc-player
l746
(54) flute-
blower
1747
(55) musiciall
1748
(56) public dancer
1749
U)7) ll1inistrel (ma-
gadha)1750 (58) actor (nata)1751 (59) artist (silpi)1752 (60) painter
(citrasilpavid)1753 (61) artificer
1754
(62) magician
1755
(63) question-
solver17 5 6 (6t) jester
1
757 (65) keeper of gamhling (sa.hh1.vin)l7 58
(66) pole-dancer or acrobat (varpsanartaka) 17 5 9 (67) prize-fighter
l76o
and (68) woman who deals in 10ve-charms.
17
0 1
(f) Otlter non-industrial occupations-No less important were
the occLlpations of the following non-industrial groups: (69) hunter
(govikartana),l 762(70) fisherman, 1763 (71) fishvendor, 1764 (72) merchant, 17 6 5
17iO
1741
J 7! 3
171.1
174:6
1748
174,(.1
] '1 15 11
17151
17 lHI
Whito Yajllrved .. , XXX. 12.
Rigveda, X. 142. 4
White Y XXX. 9.
Ibid., 13.
Ibid . 12.
Ibid . 19.
Ibid, 19.2::>.
Ibid.
Ibiu., XXX. 20 ; Ramaya'.l"', Uttnro.
kaJ)do., 107th sarga.
White Y"jurveda, XXX. 6; Ma.itra.
ya1,la Brahmal}a VII.
8; Ramaya'.la, BalakaJ)da, 13th
sarga ; UttarakaJ)d ... , 107th sarga.
White Yajnrveda, XXX. 5, 22.
Tlamaya'.ln, Balakii'.lda, 13th sarga;
AyodhyllkaJ)da, 83rd Barga. Com
pare: changing dress in a moment
like all actior in Maitriylu;l!I. Brah
IV. 2; VII. 8.
White Yo.jurvedo.. XXX. 6; Rami
13th sarga.
1750
1754
1755
l'Ui7
1758
17 I:'i 9
17GO
1761
176'l
17113
1'7 il"
Ramay!l'.l", Ayodhyaka'.lda, 15th
Barga; Utttlrakii'.ld ... , 107th sarga;
II. 6.5 and 17.
White Yajnryeda, XXX. 7.
Atllarvaveda, XIX. 27.5; compare
ab'lidbyatur vistritir iva IU
B"ahma\la
VII. 1 ; VII. 8.
Wbite Yajurveda, XXX. 10.
1biu., 20.
Ibid., 18.
I b,d., 21.
Maitraya'.lilo Brahma'.la U
VII.8.
Wlli te Yajnrveda, XXX. 9.
Ibid., XVI. 28 ; XXX. 7.
Ibid" XVI. 27 ; XXX. 8, 16 ; Chhiin-
dogya 1. 4. 3.
White Yajnrveda, XXX. 16 .
White Yajurveda, XVI. 19; XXX.
17; Ramaya'.ll>, Ayodhyakavda,
83r d Rarga.
152
(73) banker (74) usurer (kusidin),176
7
(75) wood-ranger,1768
(70) wood bringer, lj 69 (77) forest fire-guard, I 7 7 0 (78) hoatman (lli1V:Lja),
(79) mason,1771 (80) sudhalepak:rra,t772 (81) bcelhakara,I773 (82) vastra-
sivanakara, 1774 and (83) sastrajivi.l77 5
Labour-(a) Free la/)ourer;: change in their socia I status--With the
elevation of the princely and classes, th3 agricaltul":1l an:l indus-
trial population lost th3 stJ.i;LlS they once enjoyed. ,Ve have seen
that in e:1rly V mHe times the rathaktras as the buildcrs of his war-chariots
were on terms of friendly intimacy with the king. 'rhey were, moreover,
regarded as the representative3 of the Ribhas, thosc ancient artificers
whose wondrous skill obtained for them a place among the golS.l 77 (; In
the Taittiriya BrIllmaQ,'t, how,wer, they appc'tl' as a special clftsS along
with the vai jyas auel through their elevotion to a mechanical art,
lost status as compared with ordinary freemen. Similarly, though
the physician's skill was highly lauded in the lUgveda the germs of the
later dislike for his profession are to be found in the Black Ya jurveda. 1 777
The position of the vaijyas, the mass of the inclustrial population also
underwent a change, for, in thc Aitareya Brahmat).a they came to be
regarded as being tributary tJ another (anyasya valikrt) anI their function
was to be devourecl by the priest and the nobleman.
17
7 8 The industrial
population, however, tried to improve their position towar(ls the eml 0 f
this period by organising themselves into guilds.
(u) Slave la'i01P'-Ill this period. agricultural work was mostly done, as
before, by the freemen of the tribe along with their sons and kinsmen.
Gradually, however, there arose various labouring classes recruited from
the landless poor or conquered enemies. We have already seen that the

Aitareya Brahma!)a, III. 30. 3
1771
Ramayal}l1, Ayodhyaka!)da, 80th ,
Brahma!)a, XXVIII. 6' , s<lrga.
Taittiriya Byahma!)a, III. l. 4. 10 ;
177:1
Ibid.,83rd Earg \.
IV. 20.
1773
Ibid.
1767
Compare Atharvaveda, VI.
,6.3-
1774:
Ibid.
Rigveda, VIi 47.17.
1775
Ibid.
1768
White Yajnrveda, XXX. 19.
177G
Rigveda, I.
21
,
l'1tHI
Ibid.,
17'17
Black Y"jurvJd". VI. 4. 9. 1-2.
,770
1 bill., ! 9.
l778
Airt"rey" VlI
29.3.
153
Rigveda refers to d:rs[l,'s who could be gifted away, 1779 so that they must
have been in some sort of bondage. In another hymn of the Rigveda
l7
8 0
we are told that King Trasadasya, son of Purllkutsa gave its composer
fifty vadhu's. As these young women were gifted away they must have been
in some sort of bondage. In the Atharvaveda we read of dasis's husking and
pounding the rice 178 1 or collecting the alkaline droppings of the cow. 1 782
The word dlsa which usually denotes a slave does not, however, always
mean a slave; for all non-sacrificers were called dasa's. 17 8 3 It is also worthy
of note that thou;;h we have mention of gifts of slaves we have none
of slave-markets. This absence of slave-markets may be taken to mean that
slaves weroJ never largJly employed and t1.at the institution of slavery never
attained that imporbnce which it did in Grecce or Rome or in the social
system of the Semetic countries.
(0) Female LCIUOlI)' -In this period we find a large number of
women earning their livelihood by husking and grinding corn 1784, working
as dlsi's 1785 weavin" 1786 splittinfJ' cane 1787 workinoo in thorns 1788
, 0' 0' b ,
doin" embroidery work 1789 dealinoo in love-charms 1790 washinoo179 1
o , 0 ,
and dying clothes
l722
and making scabbards
1793
and ointments.
1194
An interesting refrence to the position of women with regartl to
agriculture is to be found in the Taittirlya
1795
and and S:'l.tapatha Brah-
1779
1'180
17 S i
1783
17 8'
See ante, fn. No. 592.
VnI.J9.36.
XII. 3. 13.
Ibid.., XII. 4. 9.
Rigveda, V. 34. 6; X. 19. The
Yadns and were Aryan
tribes but as they secedod from the
Vedic faith they had been descri-
bed as Dasa kings (Rigveda,
X. 62. 10) Brbadrathn. and Navn.-
vast va became .wourites of Agni
by their performance of sacrifices
(Rigveda, I. 36. 8) but both
were afterwards ki lIeu by lodra,
probably because 01 their subse-
quent hetrodoxy and. were called
diisas (Rigveua, 1t. 4i:1. 6).
Atharva.veda, XII. 3.
1786 Ibid., XII. 3. 13 ; XII. 4.9; V. 22. 6.
1186 PanchaviJtlSa Brahmaga, I. 8. 9.
Compare Satapatha. Brahmaga,
III. 1. 2. 13ff.
1181 White Yajnrveda, XXX. 8.
1788 Ibid.
178D Ibid,9.
17"" Ibid.
1'1" 8 Ibid., 12.
17.' Ibid.
17!) 3 Ibid" 14.
119< Ibid.
17" 5 III. 3. 10. In the Paraskara
sutra II. 17. 18 we are told that
'women should make accomp"ny-
ing oblations [in t he sacrifice to
the rustic deity of the furrow
(sita)] because such is the custom.'
154
mal)as
1796
where we arc told that in the harvest-offering ritual "as a rule
the wife of the sacrificeI' was present, with hamls joined to her husband."
This participation of women can be explained by the fact that in primitive
times the duties of agriculture lay, for the most part, in the hands of
women.
I
? 97 After tracing the historical development of this portion of
the sacrifice
1798
Jevons remarks: "It is, therefore, an casy guess that
the cultivation of plants was one of women's contributions to civilisation
and it is in harmony with this conjecture that the cereal duties are usually
both in the Old 'WorM as in the JII ew, female." Agriculture, however, when
its benefits became understood, was not allowed among civilised
races to continue to be the exclusive prerogative of "\"Vomen and the Corn
goddess, maiden or mother, had to a(lmit within the circle of her worship-
pers, the men as "'ell as the women of the tribe.
Caste system in relation to mobility of labour-In this period, the
caste-system was getting stereotyped. Besides the priesthood and the
nobility there comes into existence a new factor, the introrluction of
divisions among the ordinary freemen-the Vaisyas. In this development,
there must have heen two maiu influences-the force of occupaticn and
the influence of the aborigines. ViTe llRve already seen how in
the Taittirlya Bl'uhmaI),a the chariotmakers, the type of skilled
workers m thJ Rigveda, have through theil' devotion to a
mechanical art., lost status as compared with ordinary free-
men. Similarly, in the Rig-veda the healing art is highly lauded and the
Aswim, the divine physicians arc repeatedly invoked; but by the time of
the Black Yajurveda, the physician lost his previous high position, for,
we read "The gods said of these two (the Aswins): impure are they,
wandering among men and physicians. Therefore a bl'ahmaJ}a should not
1796
8791
1198
II. 5. 2. 20.
Jevons-Iutroduction to the His-
tory of Reliu;ion, pp. 210-41.
The grad ual transition from tho
early sacri fice of human beings
to the stctge in which horses tended
hy man rlnling the pastor"l stnS'e
--------- .. ..
were sacrif:ced, thence to the 5ul)6-
tituLion of various animals as they
became domesticated ending with
the offeriug of frnits of tbe earth,
when a'.;ricuiture became widely
known, is set forth as a recognisrcl
fact. in the Aital'eya Briihm.U)a.
155
practice med.icine, for the physician is impure. unfit for the sacrifice".17 99
:Nloreover, contact with the aborigines
lSOo
must have raised questions
of purity of 1)1001 very much like those which at present agitate the
southern states of the U. S. A. 01' the White people in South Africa.
In deciding the question how far the caste system stood as a barrier
n.gaillst the mobility of labour ancl the people were tied down to the rigidity
of a social system ill which herelitary occupation was alloted to its mem-
bers it is necessary that we should divest our mind of prejudices and guard
ourselves against associating mo:iern iJeas with the oM state of things.
,Ve are accustomed to say t:lat the brlhmal)as alone could be priests, they
alone couM teach the Ve,las, whereas we have evidences which tend to
prove that at least in the eadiest times they alone were brahmaI..J.as who
possessel a knowlelge of the Ve:hs and c:)uH pJrform the function of a
priest. Rules were inrleel laid down that no borly should serve as a priest
who could not prove his descent from three (according to Kaui?itaki Sutra)
or ten (according to Laty.lyana Satra) generations of fi?i's. But these very
rulcs prove indirectly that the unbroken descent in a line
was yet an ideal awl not an actuality.
We have, however, not to depend upon negative proof alone to estab-
lish our thesis. Authentic ancient texts repeatedly declare that it is
knowledge and not descent, that makes a brahmaI..J.a. In the Black
Ya.jurveda we read vai brIhrnat;ta yal.l susravan." (VI. 6.1.4)
"He who has learning is the br:thmal)a Again, we have in the Kathaka
(XXX. I) and MaitrJyani (XLVIII. 1; eVIl. 9) Saqlhita:s: "Kim
brahmaQ.asya pitaram kirp. tu Pfchchhasi mi1taram." 'fhe Pafichavirp.sa
18 0 1 spe;l,ks of certain persons as royal seers and the later tradition
preserved in the Anukramat;ti 01' Index to the composers of the Rigveda
ascribes hymns to such royal seers. The hymns No. 30-34 of the tenth
maI..J.<;lala of the Rigveda were composed by Kavasha, son of Illui?ha, a low
caste woman. In fact, the Aitareya 0 2 refers to his acceptance
17t1u
1800
Illack Yajurveua, VI. 4. 9. l-Z.
Comparo the case of Kavasha.
1801 XII. 12.6.
II. 3. 19.
156
as a for purity, learning and wisdom. The Satapatha Brahma9a 1803
refers to royal seers like Viswrrmitra, Devapi and .Tanaka. Viiwrrmitra, the
Purohita of King Sudas is described in the Pafichavimsa and Aitareya
as of royal descent, of the family of the J ahnus. Yaska 1 II 0'
represents a prince named Devapi sacrificing for his brother Srrntanu, the
king. Similarly, king Viswantara sacrifices without the help of priests in
the Aitareya Brahmal?a. 'rhe U tell us of kings like J anaka of
Videha, 18 0 5 AsWalJati, king of the Kekayas in the Punjab, 18 0 6 Ajatasatru
of KITsl,1801 and Pravahana Jabala of Pafiehi1la
lBoB
disputing with and
instructing brahmins in the lore of the Brahma. The Chhandogya
tells us how a brahmin imparts knowledge to a sildra
accepting presents and taking his daughter for his wife. The Jaiminiya
U speaks of a king becoming a seer. Another case of interest is
that of Satyakama Jrrvrrla who was accepted as a pupil by a distinguished
priest, because he showed promise, although he could not tell of his
ancestry.lSl0 Jrrvala, it may be noted, became the founder of a school
of the Yajurveda. In the Ramayarya
lB
11 a brahmin is seen earning his
livelihood by ploughing with no stigma attached to his action. Moreover,
who was Valmiki, the author of the Ramayal?a itself, but a sildra ?
Craft-guilds-The question now presents itself whether there existed
in this period industrial combinations called craft-guilds. Geldner and
Roth find references to them in the Brahmanas but there are other Vedic
scholars who hold the opposite view. No doubt, considered by themselves
merely as literary passages, these references se3m to be doubtful indications
of a formal and well-definecl institution; but if we combine with the
literary evidence, the evidence of history, the evidence furnished by the
evolution of Aryan life, much of the uncertaint.y of the purely literal'1
ovidences will disappear. No doubt guild-life belongs to a consider-
1803
1805
lSQ(i
1807
XI. 6. 2. 1.
II. 10.
XI. 6. 2. 1.
Ibid., X. G. 11 j Chhandogya Upani.
V. 11.
Brhadaral)yakop:mi5'ld, II. 1 j
taki Upanisa.d, IV. 1.
180::1
lBOlJ
1 S 10
1811
.
Ch !.andogya U I. 8ff.
V. 3. Iff j
VI. 2. Iff.
IV. 2.
Chhamlogya V. 4.
Ayodbyakal)da., 32nd sarga.
157
ahly advanced stage of economic progress in which imlividual mcchanics,
artisans am1 trader.;; have sufficient Imsincss instinct developed in them
and have achieved sufficient success in their respective businesses to appre-
ciate the necessity of organising themselves into a community for the
purpose of promoting their individual and collective interest. But we
have already seen the enOrmous extent to whieh the differentiation of
of economic occup:ltions was carried on anl1 the rcmarkable progress which
the arts anlI crafts achievcd in this period. And this will lead any sobel'
am1 unbiasscd historian to the COllclllsion that those scholars who choose
to find in certain passages of the Br:ihmat.las proofs of the existence of
guilc1s cannot very well he considererl as guilty of making any extravagant
claim and taking up an untenable position.
Let us now proceed to the passages themselves. In the White Yajur-
l"i.Jda
l
B 1 we have tho wod ga!?a bo;ides ga.'.lapati, which means the head-
man of a gal)a. in later Sanskrit always means a guild or corporate
union, In the U 1813 we read "Sa naib vybhavata.
Sa visamasrjata yanyetii.ni deYaj:tt1ni ga,?asal.lakhyayante." Commentator
Sailkaracarya says: sa naiva vyabhavat karmal.JC brahma
taya VY:ibhavat vittoparjjanyiturabhavat. Sa visamasrjata karmasadhana-
vittoparjjanaya. Kal;l lJUnarason bit? Yanyetani devajatani, svarthe
ya ete devajatihheda ityarthal,l gaIfasa gaIfam gaIfam akhyayante
kathyante gaIfapraya hi visal).. Prayena sarphatya hi vittoprtrjjanasamarthrrl).
Thus the gods of the Vaisya class were called gaQ.asal). on the
analogy of their human prototype because they could earn money evidently
by industry and trade, not by their individual efforts but in a corporate body.
We have also certain which contain the word 1 B 14 mean-
according to Hopkins a modern seth (banker) or more probably, accor-
ding to Macdonell, the headman of a guild. IS 15 Metaphorical and indirect
a.llusions to and made in order to explain obstruse philosophical
suhjects show that they were already well-known existences within the
l! 1
1 B 1 8
1111 ,
xxnI If!. 1.
1. 4. 12.
Kau,itaki Bril.hma!)a, XXVIII. 6 ;
Aitareya Brahma!)a. III. 3 i
IV. 20.
181$
According to tho Taittriya BriihrnaQa
(III. 1. 4. 10) Bhaga was the Sre,th
of the gods.
158
rauge of common observation and the allusions are warranted on the
logical pl'inciple of arguing from the known to the unknown, of explain-
iug the unfamiliar and the abstract from the familiar awl the concrete. This
is further corroborated by the R IIp:ty;:rl).'11S 16 where we arc told that in
the procession of citizens who accompanied Bharata in his quest of Rlma
figured merchants, jewellers, potters carpenters, goldsmiths, physicians,
wine-distillers, tailors etc., so that the recognises the position
held by trades and crafts in society.
Domestic and Foreign trade-The striking devolopment of industrial
life and the conseq L1ent sub-[livision of oc:mpations self-supporting
life an impossibility and. gave greater scope to the interchange of the pro-
ducts ot agr:cnlture and industry. U nfortunC1,tely from the evidences
at our disposal we can gather vcry me"gre information about the inter-
change of commodities of various localities. The Atharvaveda describes the
guggula (baellium) as "produced from Sindhu" or coming from the sea; IS17
Varal).a, a plant used in medicine and supposcd to posscss magical powers
is deseribell as IS 18 growing on the banks of Varal).JVati
lake or river aml bartered for coverings (pavasta), skins of goats ajina) and
woven cloths (rlursa).ISI9 Horses aN described in the Satapatha Brahma[,la
and the B!harlaral!yaka U IS 20 as "coming from the Indus regions"
(Saimlhava). Salt is similarly described as "coming from the Indus" in
the Brhad:tralfyka 21 From the Rlm:tyaI?-a we learn that
K::uuboja, Bahllika and Sind were famous for horses Is 22 and that elephants
of the Himalayan and Vindhyan regions were famous for their large size
and great strength.
IS
'2 3 The excess production as well as excellence of
prorluction of particular localities induced energetic men to carry them
to other places where these could be disposed of with profit. Such men
were called the Vanijl8 24. or merchant, who in a hymn of thc Atharvaveda
1,:16
83rd sarga..

II. 4. 12. Compare Chhandogya
1.81'7
Atharvaveda, XIX. 38. 2.
VI. 13. 11.

D5.lakal)da, 6tb sargi\.
1818
Ibid., IV. 7. G.
J B!;l 3
Ibid.
IBID
XL 5. 5. 12.
18'l!L
White Yajurveda, XXX. 17 ;
1810
VI.!. 13. Taittiriya III. 4. 14. 1.
159
is made to speak of "the disttint pathway which his feet have trodden"
and to address the god:> ill the following strain :-
"I stir a11(1 aninmte the mereliant 1llllra; may he
approach and ue our guide and leader
Chasing ill-will, wild beast, antI highway roblJCr,
may he who hath the power give me riches.
*
..
* *
Propitious l1nto liS lJe sale and hater, may
interchange of merchtindise ell rich me ;
_\.ccept ye twain (Ag-ui antI 1mb-a) accordant, this
libation! Prosperous be our ventures and incomings.
The wealth wherewith I carryon my traffic, seeking,
ye gods! wealth with the wealth I offer,
:May this grow marc for me, not less: 0 Agni,
through sacrifice chase those who hinder profit."
For the conduct of this trade thera were roads amI travellers' rest-
houses. The Atharvaveda refers not only to the parirathya
18
2 6 or road
Sclitable for chariots hnt also tn well-:llade cart-roads on a higher level
than adjoining fields, forests and otlier village tracks with great trees
phntel passing through villages or towns ancl with occasional pairs
of pillars (i. c., gateways, evillently near the approaches of some town)
through which bridal processions pass.
18
27 Every tirtha along the In'idal
route is said to be well-provided with drink, so that it must have been a
rest-house like the prapatha's of the Rigveda.
1
828 Indeed travelling
seems to have been quite common in those days. The Atharvaveda has
charms to ensure a prosperous journey 1829 anel gives us the parting
traveller's address to the houses of his village.
18
30 Villages al'e some-
times described as connected with mahapathas or high roads 1881 and
&
III. 15.
UI!;IU
A tharvaveda, VII. 55.
, 6
Atharvaveda, VITI. 8. 22.-

luiJ., VII. GO.
"
Ibid., XIV. 1. 63 ; Xl V. 2. 6, 8, 8, 9,
1 S 8 1
Ai tarey It Brahm"!.,",, IV. 17. 8
12.
,
, 8
I. 166. 9.
Vnf. (i. 2.
160
causeways (hadvan) firmer than an ordinary road arc known.
18H
Scb"
moaning a raisor1 bank for crossing inuUl1atc1 hn(l frqucntly OCCtl:'S ill
the literature of this period.
1
S 33
Scholars are, however, divided in their opinion a'l whether this h'arlc
was carried on across tIl(} SC:l.S to foreign la11<ls. P1'0fcssol' Keith Ob3Cl'VuS
"There is still no hint of sea-horne COlll'U(WCe or of more th1.11 rivur navi-
gation, though we need not SLlppose that the sel. unknown, at lC'l.st
by hearsay, to the eml of t'w perio:l." 18 31 Bllt, as a m tttJr of fact, we
find distinct references to sea and to sea-voyages and at least indirect proof
of sea-borne commerce in this perill. Tha.t the sea. was widely known will
be eyirlent from the use of the sea by way of simile ill the following :-
"Whatever I eat I swallow up, evcn as the
sea that swallows all." 1 8 3 /I
"Raise thyself up like heaven on high and
be exhaustless as the sea." 1 S 3 6
That the sea is not the Indus in flood will be evil1ent from the cx:stcnco
of throe seas
lS
31 and from the fact th'1t in a passa;c of the Atharvaverh
VarUl?a'S throat eviuently means the sea. into which the seven rivers flow:
"Thou, VarU1?a, to whom belong t110 Seven Streams,
art a gloriolls god.
The waters flow into thy throat as 'twere
a pipe with ample mouth"18 38
That the evaporation of sea-water went to form the cloud!> is clearly
stated in the following verse: "U rlirayata marutaQ. samurlra arko
naval;1 utp:itayatha." "Up from the sea lift your dread might, ye Maruts as
1833
Paiichavin.llb Brabmat;la, I. 1. 4.
Black Yajurveda, III. 2. 2. 1 ; VI. 1.
4. 9 ; VI. 5. 3. 3; VII. 5. 8. 5;
Katbaka San.lhita, XXVII. 4 ;
Aitareya DrabmaJ}a, III. 35; Sata-
patha Brahmat;la, XIII. 2. 10. 1;
Taitl iriya Brabmat;la, II. 4. 2. 6 i
1134,
1835
1836
1837
1838
Chhiindogya 4. 1. 2;
BrhadiiraJ}yaka Upani,a(l, LV. 4. 4.
Cambridge History of India, p. 136.
Ibid., VI. 135.3. Compare VI. \3:\. '.!.
Ibid .. VI. H:3. 2.
Atbarvaved" XIX. 27. 4.
Ibid., XX. 92. 9.
161
light and splendeur, send the vapour upward I" 18 S 9 The White
Yajurveda also refers to the sea: "Samudra!p gachchha sVilha,
gachchha svah}, daiva!p savitarar!1 gachchha sva:ha."184
0
"Go to the
sea. Ail hail 1 Go to the air. All hall 1 Go to god Savitar. All hail I"
In the Satapatha BrlhmaQ.a we are told how Manu, the Indian Noah
had directed to build a strong ship for carrying him safe from the floods
which were prophesied by the Fish of the l!'ish-Iegend and how when the
requisite ship was built, Manu was taken safe to the mountain. 14 9 I
A string of words connected with navigation equally lends support to
the view that extensive navigation existed in this periml. Thus we have
(1) aritram-This means an oar and we find ships propelled by one hundred
oars: "SunavamaruheyamasravantimanagasaJ!l. Sataritr:tii svastaye". 1842
"May I ascend the goodly ship, free from defect, that leaketh not, moveu by
a hundred oars, for weal"; (2) aritr-rower of a ship: "eyatirvacamariteva
nltvam" ;18U (3) navaprabhra!psanam-the sliding down of the ship; 1844
(4) nau-maQ.c.la-rudder of a ship. The Satapatha Brii.hmaQ.a refers to big
ships having two rudders each ;1845 (5) navaja-pilot, boatman.
1846
There are also passages which indicate that sea-voyages were undertaken
in this period. Thus in the RlmayaQa, Sugriva asks his followers to go the
cities and mountains in the islands of the sea in search of Sita.
1S
4 7 In another
passage they are asked to go to the land of the (the land
where grows the worm which yields the thread of silken cloth), generally
1889
Ibid., IV. 15. 5.
White Ya.jurveda, VI. n.
Brahma,)a, 1. 8. 1. 1-10.
White Yajurveda. XXVII. 7.
Rigveda., II. 42. 1.
Atharvaveda, XIX. 39. 8. This
seems to be connected with mano-
ravaearpanam in the Sa.tapllothllo
Brahma,)a, I. 8. 1. 6.
18'6
184:7
II. 3. 3. 15.
Ibid., II. 3. 3. 5.
parvat1i.n
pattanani cha -
40th sarga.
18U ko,ak:ira,}a1t1 in
dbyaka'}da, 40th Barga.
162
identified with China. In a third passage they are asked to go to Yava-
dvipa
1849
and SuvarQ,advipa: 1850 "Yatnavanto Yavadvlpa!p saptarajyo-
pasohhitam. SuvarQ.arupyakadviparp suv[mplmrmaT;lc:litam." 1851 In a fourth
passage they are asked to go as far west as the Ited sea: "Tato raktajalarp
bhimalp Lohita!p nama sagaram" .1852 Lastly, we have a passage which
hints at preparations for a naval fight thus indicating a through knowledge
and a universal use of the waterway: "Nlv:tm sat:Inalp pai'iehanarp Kaivar-
tanarp sata!p satam. Sannaddhana!p tatM yunarp hhyacho-
dayat."1853 "Let hundred of Kaivarta young men lie in wait in five
hundred ships (to obstruct the enemy passages)".
The chief article of trade with China hinted in the Ramayal.la1854
was silk. Mr. J. Yeats in his Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce
observes "The manufacture of silk among the Chinese claims a high
antiquity, native authorities tracing it as a national industry for a period
of 5000 years." This intercourse with China is corroborater! by Professor La
Couperie in his Western Origin of Chinese Civilisation which refers to the
maritime intercourse of Imlia with China as dating from about 680 B. C.
when the sea-traders d the Indian Ocean founded a colony called Lang-
ga (after the Indian name Lanka or Ceylon) about the present Gulf of
Kiao-tchoa.
According to Professor Keith "sea-borne commerce with Babylon
cannot be proved for this epoch." 1855 The BJveru ,Tataka, however,
relates the a(lventures of certain Indian merchants who took peacocks
by sea to Babylon. No (loubt the Jataka goes l)ack only to 400 B. C. but
the folk-tale on which it is based must be much earlier. Moreover, we
18 <0 Ptolemy has evidently adopted tbe
na.me Java for the Sanskrit yava-
dvlpa, the former being a Greek
equivalent of the latter; while
modern writers like Humboldt,
call it the Barley Island.
Alhiruni has observed that the
Hinhs call the Islands of the
:\1 alaya Archipelago by the general
of Suvarl;la I.land. M. Rei-
18li1
185i
1853
18lio6
naud interprets Yavadvipa and
Suvarl)advipa to mean the Islands
of Java and Sumatra (vide Journal
A,iatiqne, IV., p. 265).
40th earga,
Ibid.
Ayodhyakal;lda, 84th sarga.
Ki,kindhyakal)da, 40th sarga.
Cambridge History of India, p. 144.
163
have already seen that IVlr. H. Rassam found a beam of Indian cedar in
the palace of Nabuchadnezzar III. (580 B. C.) at Birs Nimrud; and
of Indian te'l.k in tIll) temple of the moon-god at Ur refounded by Neboni-
dus. According to Mr. Hewitt this wood must have been sent by sea from
some sea-port on the Malabar coast, for, it is only there that teak grew
near enough to the sea, to be exported with profit in those early days.lS 56
Further, Baudhayana's condemnation of the Northern Aryans who took
part in the sea-trade proves that they were not the chief agents though
they had a considerable share in it. In the words of Mr. Kennedy
".Jhl'itime commerce between India and Babylon flourished in the 7th and
6th but more specially in the 6th century B. C. It was chiefly in thc
hands of the Dravidians, although Aryans had a share in it. And as Indian
traders settled afterwards in Arabia and on the coast of Africa and as we
find them settling at this very time on the coast of China, we cannot
doubt that they had their settlements in Babylon also." 1857
Indeel there are circumstantial evidences which go to prove that
there existed some sort of intercoLlrse between India on the one hand and
Babylon, Assyria, Judma and Persia on the other. Mr. Keith observes
'It is indeed probable enough that even before the time of Darius, Cyrus
of Persia had relations with tribes on the right bank of the Indus and
Arrian 185 8 a s s e r t ~ that the Assakenoi and the Astakenoi were subject to
Assyrian kings." 18 5 9 Dr. Wincler has pointed out that Shalmanesar
IV. of Assyria (727-722 B. C.) received presents from Bactria and India,
specially Bactrian camels and Indian eleIlhants. In the Historians' History
of the World we are told "The pictures on thc black obelisk of Shalmanesar
shows ns such beasts as apes and elephants being brought as tributes to
the conqnerers or confirming in the most nnequivocal way the belief based
on Ktesias and Strabo that the Assyrians had commercial relations with
India ...... The first article which we may confidently assert the Babylonians
to have obtained at least in part from these countries were precious stones,
,." Jonrnal of the Royal Asiatic So-
ciety, 1888., p. 337.
,SH Kennedy-Early commerce betweon
India and Babylon in J. R. A. S.
1898.
1968 Indica I. 3. (McCrindle's Trans.
p. 179).
18 a. Cambridge Hititory of Indip"
i64
the use of which in seal-rings was very general among them. Ktesias
says expressly that these came from India and that onyxes, sardines and
the other stones used for seals .were obtained in the mountains bordering
on the sandy desert ...... The passage of Ktesias to which we have just
referred contains some indications which relatively to onyxes appear to
refer to the Ghat moutains, since he speaks of a hot country, not far from
the sea. The circumstance of large quantities of onyxes coming out of
these mountains at the present day, viz., the mountains near Cambay and
Broach (the ancient Barygaza) must render this opinion so much the more
probable as it was this very part of the Indian coast with which the
ancients were most acquainted ...... Also the Babylonians imported Indian
dogs. The native country of these animals according to Ktesias was that
whence the precious stones were obtained. And this account of the
regions has,been confirmed by Marco Polo who mentions that the large
dogs of these regions were even able to overcome lions. A third and
a no less certain class of productions which the Persians and the Babylo-
nians obtained from this part of the world were dyes and amongst them
the Cochineal or rather Indian The most ancient though not quite
. accurate description of this insect is also found in Ktesias." 18 6 0
Weights and Measures-The development of trade facilitated the
growth of weights and measures. Tho tiltu, or balance is mentioned in the
White Yajurveda
18
61 and in the Satapatha Br:thmaI)a. Wooden vessels
of definite size IS 62 called ilrclara were uscll in measuring grains. Standards
of weight were also invented. Thus the (berry of abrus precato-
rius) aml masa aml some other grains wcre used as standards of woight in
mcasuring precious metals. 18 6 2
Methods and l\ledia of Exchange-In this period there was not only
simple barter, proved by the evidence of words like prapaI)a (barter) and
pratipaI;la (exchange of merchandise)1863 but the use of gold as well as
silver money. We have already seen that the of the Rigveda was
U!80
18S1
Historians' History of the World,
Vol. 1,. pp. 484-90.
XXX. 17.

:M acdonell & Keith-Vedio Index,
V 01. I., p. 185.
Atharvaveda, Ill. 15. 4; IV. 7. 6.
165
not a mere metallic standard hut a coin. The usc of these niskas was also
known in this period. The word occurs in many passages of the Atharva-
veda 18 6 6 a1111 the Aitareya BrJhmal.la186 5 describes a man as
wearing a necklace of coins. The PanchaviIpsa Brahmalfa
18
6 6 refers
to silver worn by a Vratya chief.
A different kind of currency called satamlna was known in this period.
Reference to it occurs not only in the Taittiriya
18
6 7 and Katl}.aka Sarp-
hitis
1868
hut also in the Taittiriya
1S69
and Satapatha Brahmal)as; so that
it seems to havA heen wi(lely useel as a metallic standard at least in those
regions where the Taittirlya Sarphit:t and the Satapatha Briihmal.la were
composed. It is interesting to note that the passage in the Taittil'iya Brah-
maQa I. 7.6.2 occurs also in the 'raittiriya SaIphita187
0
thus proving that
sab.1U:tna. was pt'dvalent not only when the Br1hlll'1l).aS were written but also
ill the early periQ(l Wilen the Sa'11hitii. was composed. In KalfcJa V of the
Satapatha 71 dealing with the Rajasuya, we have a section which
treats of the Ratha-viJUochaniya oblations; and in connection therewith, we
a.rc told that behind the right hinel-wheel of the cart-stand, the king fastens
two round !i3hmlnas which he h'1s aftenvards to give to the brahmin
priest as his fcc for this ceremony. In another passage of the Satapatha
Br:ihmana
18
7 we read: "Thre() BatamInas are the sacrificial fee for this
(offering) which he presents to the brahmin; for, the brahlllin neither
performs (like the a<lhvarya.) 1101' chllnts (like the udgatr) nor recites (like
the hotr) and yet he is an object of worship: therefore he presents to the
bra.hmin three sataUl:inas. Many other passages of the Satapatha
BrlhmaQa181 S contain this reference to the satamii.na which was given as
fee to the officiating priest in the sacrifice. No doubt Sayana takes sata-
mi\na. to denote a. round plate but the Case is not unlike that of Nagoji-
bhatta who commenting on a celebrated. passage in the has
explained the Mauryas as idol-manufacturers. But just as no scholar
J I ,
V. 14.3 ; V. 17. 14 ; XX. 131. 8.
1869
I. 2. 7. 7 ; I. 7. 6. 2.
ISIS
VIII.2J.
1870
II. 3. 11. 5 ; III. 2.6. 3.
18.,
XVII I. 14.
1871
V. 4. 3. 24, 25.
lin
II. 3. 11. 5; III. 2. 6. 3.
187a
V. 5. 5. 16.
1'"
Xl. B.
un
XII. 7. 2. 3; XIII. 2. 3. 2.
lOG
would now explain the as idol-manufacturers but take them to
denote )Iaurya princes only, so no one Can explaIn the term Satam:Ina in
the way ill which S,1.yana has dono. Sat amana may, however, have been
100 1l11nas or gunja-bel'ries in woight as explained by Sayana and accepted
IJY Professor EO'O'cliulJ' and as it is spoken of as vrtta
1S74
it must have been
.. 0::) t:)
round in shape.
Another class of matallic standard has been montioned in the Sata-
IJatha BrJhmaJp side by side with the satamana. Thus we read: "Suvar-
I)arp bhavati rupasya eva abbaruddhai satamanam bhavati
SatJYlll'bhai purul?1t." l 875 "Hirm:,J.yalp suvarl:tam satamanarp
tasya oktam:' 1876 In both the n,bove passn,ges SUvarl)a is associatell with
Sat.'\1l11na and both are called hirlJ.ya or gold; so that suvarna like satn,m1na
denotes a matallie standard, evidently of gold.
Another class of metallic standn,rd called pjda is mentioned in the
concluding kJI).QB of the Satapatha Brdhmal),:1 where we are told that king
.Tanaka of Villeha a sacrifiee in whieh he bestowed huge largesses
upon brahmins of the Kuru-Pailehi11a country. A curiosity sprang up
in his mind as to who was the best road of these brahmins. He collected
!\ thousan(l kine and we are told that to every single horn of each cow
wero tied ten p:ldas and it was procbimed that they should be taken away
hy him alone who is hest c06'llisant with Brahman. N ow what were these
1,1(las? It has been suggested by Bohtlingh and Roth and accepted by
Professor Rhys Davids 1 S 7 7 that the word pad a here denotes thc fourth
pnrt of a cert.'lin goM weight and not a metaljic standard. Arc we then
to suppose that as the cows were one thousand in number, as each cow
had two horns and as cach horn carried ten pfi.<las, king J anaka ordered
twonty thousallll pieces of gold to be hammered out, cach again weighing
just one-fourth of a certain weight-all this just on the spur of the moment,
whim the idea of testing the erudition of brahmins occurred to him ?
Thia idea, we arc afl'aiel, is too ridiculous for any scholar to entertain
in his mind. On the other hand, pada is known to be the name
.. ,. Sa"'patha Drihml\\I&, V. 40. 3. 24..
,. Ibid., XII. 7. 2. 3.
. ,. Ibid .. DU. 2. 3. :!.
,.77 Ancient CDins 110m} Measures of
Ceylon, p. 3 n. 2.
167
of a metallic standard and has heen referred to in PaIfini's Siitras IS 78 and
Rlso in an inscription of the tenth century A. D.IS 7 9 Only if pada is
tRken to stand for a metallic standarJ., it is easy to understand th1.t Jallaka
could at any moment get holU of twenty thousand such pJdas from his
treasury for heing tied to the horns of the cows.
IS
8 0
'Ihere is still another class of metallic standard referred to in the Tai-
ttiriya Br;thmaI;1tJ.18 8 I called where we are told of a gift of
to each racer. denotes the well-known raktika or gunjaberryand
what here means is a metallic standard possibly of gold weighing one
gunjaberry. 'rhis receives confirmation from the fact that the Kathaka
SarphitllB 8i makes mention of hiral?ya or gold In fact
continlled to serve as a metnJlic standard as late as the age of the
B B 3
The general economic condition of the masses and classes --By tho
time the Br:lhman:ls were composed the whole fertile plain of Northern
India was appropriated and colonised by the Aryans. Agriculture became
the principal occupation though cattle-rearing was not altogether neg-
lected. Thrice a day the cows were driven out to graze 1884 and they
were milched thrice I B B 5 as milk was required thrice daily for pouring
libations into the sacred Household Fire. Villages were established in the
midst of tho conquered country-the conquered being pushed back to
the hills or allowed to live on conditions of submission, service or
tribute. These villages "were scattered over the country some close
together, some far apart and were connected by roads." 18 S 6
(1) The dwelli/lg 01 tlte ordillary householder-Each village contained
a. number of families, each possessing its own separate dwelling. In the
comparatively 1887 drier and hotter Upper Gangetic regions the entrance and
1818
18'1
118111
1181
1881
V. 1. 34.
Epigr1.phia Indica, I. 173. 23 and
178. 11.
The slI.me stOty also occurs in ti,e
Brhad:1rBJ;lyakl)plI.nislI.d, III. 1. llf.
I. 3. 6. 7.
XI. 4.
1888 VIII. 215, j IX. 84; XI. 137.
1884 Taittirfya Brahma:pa., I. 4. 9. 2.
1995 Blnck Yajurveda, VIr. R L
18 8' Macdonell and Keith- Vedic Index,
Vol. I, p. 211.
1881 Compare the sense of enclosure \U
'vrnj"; Rnd 'vrjani.'
168
enclosure aspects of the dwelling house must naturally ll1lve been more
prominent and the references to these features and their figurative use
accordingly, occur in texts like the Rigveda which were mainly of Miulandic
ol'lgm. With the march of Aryan arms into the rain-flooded Lower
Gangetic valley the roof naturally had to be built carefully and we there-
fore find much care bestowed on the constrllction of the thatched r;;of
in the house-construction outlined in the Atharvaveda
18
8 8 which is pre-
eminently a book of the Angirasas, who are definitely locate(l in aml as-
sociated with the very same Lower Gangetic provinces in PaurdI;lic trauition.
In every house guests were welcomed and attended to in the avasatha 18 B 9
which seems to be a structure of some sort for the reception of guests
on the occasion of feasts and sacrifices and afterwards came to be used in
in its literal sense of an abode for the first time in the Aitareya Upa-
90 Every Vedic householder's house was supposed to have its own
presiuing Deity and his favour was constantly sought. The householder's
warm attachment his sweet home will be evident from the parting
traveller's address to the houses of his village:
"These houses we invoke, whereon the distant exile sets his thought
Wherein dwells many a friendly heart: Let them be aware of our approach.
* *
Full of refreshment, full of charms, of laughter and felicity
Be ever free from hunger, free from thirst! Ye houses fear us not
Try here and come not after me, prosper in every form and shape
With happy fortune will I come Grow more abundant still through me." 18 91
(2) Domestic furniture and utensils-The ordinary Vedic house-
holder possessed wooden furniture like the pitha, talpa and while the
comparatively well-to-do people used the more comfortable hahya, asandi
and the paryafika as well. I 892 Among the domestic utensils we find earthen
]888
III. 12; IX. 3.
Atharvavedll, IX. 6.5. (ent.ertaining
brahmins; Taittiriya Brahrnar.ta)
I. 1. 10. 6; III. 7. 4. 6 ; Siltapatha
Drahmar.ta, XII. 4.4.6;
IV. 1. 1.
III 12.
Atharvaveda, VII. 60. 3, 6 and 7'
See ante, pages 13;'-'38.
169
cooking pots (ukhJ)189S, earthen pots like sthali,1894 kumbhi
1895
and
liquor-pots1897 and asecana [vesscl to hold liquids such
as meat-juice ] 1898; skin bags for holding milk and othm'
liquids; 18 99 winnowing basket (surpa),! 900 wooden Soma tuhs called dr0t:\a-
kalasa, 190 1 wooden cups, 1 9 0 wooden mortar and pestle for pounding
rice 190 S and for extracting soma juice, 190 4 fire-shovel or poker made of
palasa wood 19 0 wooden stirring prong, 1 906 fork, 19 0 7 and ladles of various
kinds-the Sruva, Sruc, Dhrnva, Juhu and Upabhrt-already described.
1908
The also refers to the use of boxes (petakas) 1 909 and iron
trunks 0
(3) The food of the people-The food consisted of various prepara-
tions of barley, wheat and rice and other food grains and cereals; flesh of
of animals like goat, sheep, deer, buffaloe and ox, fruit, honey and
various preparations of milk.
Barley, wheat and rice were often powdered or boiled and made into
various kinds of bread or cakes along with milk and other ingredients.
Of such the purodrrsa, apupa and pakti were important. Rice was
often boiled in milk to form which was highly valued as food.
Brahmaudana was offercd in the' sacrifices. 19 11 Other kinds of mess called
1803
18{1.t.
1886
1898
1800
1.01
Atharva.veda, IX. 6. 17; White
Yajllrveda, XI. 59; Black Yajur-
veda, IV. 1. 5. 4.
Ramayal)a, .Ayodbyakal)da, 9Ist
8arga.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid., 114th sarga..
Rigveda, I, 162. T3.
Paiichaviqla Briibmal)a, XIV. 11.
26; XVI. 13.13. Cf. Black Yajnr-
veda, 1. 8. 19.
.Atharvaveda.. IX. 6. 16.
White Yajurveda, VII. 19; VIII.
12; XIX. 27; Black Yajurveda,
III. 1. 6. 1.

1003
100'
lU05
1108
190'1
1908
1909
1911
White Yajurveda, VIII. 33; XIX.
27; XIX. 33; Brhadaral)yaka
VI. 3. 1 ; VI. 3. 13.
.Atharvaveda, XII. 15.
White Yajurveda, 1. 14-15; XIII. 33.
White Yajurveda. 1. 17.
.Atharvaveda, IX. 6. 17.
Ibid.
See ante, p. 136.
RamaYILQa, Ayodhyakiil)da, 36th and
37th Bargas .
Ibid., Ualakal;1da. 67th sarga.
Atharvaveda, IV. 35. 7 ; XI. 1. 1 j
Black Yajurveda, III. 4. B. 7.
170
dadhyaudana, ghrtaudana, maqlsaudana, mudgaudana, tilaudana and
Udaudana were also known and used as food. Of fried grains we find
mention of saktu, praivapa and laja.
The people seem to have been fond of meat-eating. In the Aitareya
:Brahmal!a 191 there is a passage which distinctly says that when the king
or a respected person comes as a guest one should kill a bull or an old barren
cow (vehat) for his entertainment. In the Brahmal}.a
1913
the
slaying of a great ox or a great goat (mahaja) for the entertain-
ment of a distinguished guest has been enjoined. The great sage Yajiiavalkya
also expresses a sim11ar view.
1914
He was "wont to eat the meat of
milch cows and bullocks (dehnvanaduha) if only it was firm or tender
(arpsala)." 1915 We have already seen 1916 that the flesh of the sacrificed
bull and the buffaloes was taken besides the flesh of the goatl
91
7 and
the sheep.1918 The flesh of hunted animals like and
varaha
19
2 0 and of birds was also taken. The Ramayal)a 1 9 21 besides referring
to the use of dried mcat as food, also gives us a graphic account of the
dainty dishes prepared in Rava1?a's kitchen containing boar's flesh prepared
with curds an d salt, salyapakva flesh of the deer, flesh of buffalo, cock,
peacock, hare, and various kinds of kf kala.
19
2 2 boiled with rIce
(maIpsaudana) was also highly prized in those days.
Though we h ear very little of fish-eating in the Rigveda, fish was in
regular use as food in this period. This is evident not only from the frequent
mention of fishermen but also from the large number of words denoting
them that came into use e. g., Dasa, Dhivara, Dhaivara, Kaivarta, Kevarta,
Mainiila, etc. That fish was caught and offered for sale as food
is apparent from the eXlstence of a separate class of men-the fish-vender
mentioned in the Whi.te Yajurveda.
1923
The MaitrTIyaJ?a Brnhmal}a Upani-
1924 employs the simile of a fisherman drawing out the deni.zens of the
1013
1.15.
1918
Ibid.
l.'i)lft
111.4. I. 2.
1910
Ibid., 56th sarga.
lQ14
Vaj. I. 109.

Ibid., 9lst sarga.
'It6
III. 1. 2, 2 .

Ibid., 84th sarga.
1918
See ante, pp. nO-13.

Ibid., Snndarakada, 11th sarga.
t 1\1
H:im aya'.'" , Ayo(lbyakil'.'da !l] st
19.3
XXX. 16.
!larga.

VI. 26.
171
waters with a net and offering them np (as a sacrifice) into the fire of
his stomach to explain higher philosophical truths. The Ramayaf.la19 5
refers to dishes of cooked fish in Rlvana's kitchen. Fish was also offered
to thc guests and the mancs.
We have already seen that the milk of the cow, the buffalo and the
goat was llSC(1.1H6 The Satapatha BrlhruaQ.a
1927
describes the various
articles of food prepared flom cow's milk-butter (navanita), creamy butter
(pli:i1.1ta) c1arilled butter (ghrta) an(l curd (dadlti). Mixed milk (payasya)
is also mentioned. The driuk cOllsisted of milk and wines of different
kinds already described. 'fIle it lmu.yaQ.a
192
S also refers to another drink
called asava. It was prepare,l from honey, sugar, flowers and fruits
flavoured with various powdered ingredients.
1
9 29
(4) ecolwmy-We have already seen that in the Rigvedic
age many of tho household (iuties were entrusted to the women of the
house. The grhapatni was an 'alter ego' of the husband and the Atharva-
veda 1 g 30 tclls us how she joined her husband in ceremonials and sacrifices
and how she hacl often to take care of the Household Fire. In the marriage
hymns she has been described as the queen of the household.
u31
Cooking
WaS left to the wife as is proved by many passages of the Atharvaveda
19
8 2
and the Black Yajurveda
1933
and the cooked food was distributed by the
mother (mItl) as philological evidence shows. That the wife had to
partake of the husband's burdens and household duties, seems to be
indicated by Bomo passa.ges in the marriage hymn of the Atharva-
vooa.. "Blest be the gold to thee, blest the water, blest the yoke's
opening and blest the pillar." 1936 Here the yoke's opening stand sym-
102' llth sarga..
loU See a.nte, pp. 110-13.
I. 17 I II. 3. 3.
1 .. ' u3rd sarga. i Sundilora-
kal)da. 11 th sa.rga.
110' Snnda.ra.kar;tda, 11th ea.rga.
1"0 XII. 3.
11 51 Atharvavedll, XIV. 403-404 :
"A. vigoroal SiDdha won himself
imperillollord.hip of the strelloms
So be imperial queen when thou
ha.st come in thy husband's home.
Over thy huabl!dld's father and
his brothers be imperial queen.
Over thy husband's sister and his
mother bear supreme oontro!."
XII. 3. 4.
1933 V.l. 7. 1-2.
19 o. Atha.rvaveda, XIV. 1.
172
bolical of agricultural operations, while the pillar in the middle of the
threshing floor evidently refers to the wife's participation in the work
of treading out corn. The tending of the cattle in her husband's house
also formed part of her duties as would appear from a passage of the
marriage hymn of the Atharvaveda in which is asked to make
her gentle to the cattle.
193
5 It seems to have been the custom in those days
for the bride to weave the garment which the husband is to wear on the
first day of his wedded life-das Brauthemde-the bride-shirt of the peasant
of Saxony mentioned by Weber: "(May) the garment woven by the bride be
soft and pleasant to our touch." 19 3 6 'rhe girls of the house continued
to be the milk-maids of the family in this period as well :
"Quickly and willingly like kine forth come the singers and their hymns:
Their little maidens are at home, at home they wait upon the cows." 19 37
To women of the house was entrusted the work of fetching water, 1 9 3 B
preparing the Soma drink, churning curds and milk and preparing butter,
creamy butter and clarifiecl butter (ghrta) out of them. It is
no wonder, therefore, that among the blessings which the king hopes the
Horse-sacrifice will bring to him is the birth of inclustrious women
in his kingdom .. a 3 9
It is thus evident that the average Vedic householder lived a life of
self-sufficiency, depending mainly on his own exertions. He tended his
own cattle and his own fields with the help of his kinsmen and the products
of his farm and dairy supplied almost all the needs of his family. There
was at first very little of luxury as well as of scarcity.
(5) Development of capitalism and of a landed aristocracy-But this
state of affairs did not last long. Conquest brought in wealth and with
the growth of towns luxury invaded society. Gambling and want of thrift
reduced families to want and and poverty and much of this wealth passed
into other hands. The existence of little restrictions on transfers, whether
of cattle or of real property together with the almost unfettered power
tv38
1911
Ibid., 1. 62.
Ibid., 2. 51.
Ibid., XX. 127. 5.
1030
White Yajnrveda, XVI. 7.
Ibid., XXII. 22.
173
of the patel' familias in the matter of disposal of property helped the
growth of capitalism. Usury came to be the occupation of the rich, some of
the merchants made huge profits aml money came to be accumulated
into tho hrmds of the few. We ha V"e already seen 1940 that the Rigveda
refers to the 1faghavans who were famous for their wealth and liberality.
An idea of the wealth of the princes of this period may be gathered from the
account of gifts bestowed by them on brahmins, even though the accounts
be a bit exaggerated and the figuL'es conventional, as they come mostly from
the recipients of these gifts. Thus hesides ordinary gifts Janaka bestowed one
thousand cows with twenty thousand pldas of gold to the best read
brahmin.
1
II '1 Again, we hear of the liberality of a worshipper who gave
eighty-fiV"e thousand white horses. ten thousand elephants and eighty
thousand slave girls auol'Iled with ornaments to the brahmin who performed
the saerifice.19U We also find the gift of a village by Janasruti to Raikka,
when the latter agreed to teach him the Deity he worships.1943 Kaurama,
king of the gave away twenty camels with females by their side,
one hundred chains of goM, three hundreu mettled steeds and ten thonsand
COWS.
19
" We also notice, hesiues the Maghavans and the princes, the
growth of a landed aristocracy 1 \/45 d lie either to the acquisition of superior
rights by men of merit over equals in the village or to the custom of
granting villages to sacrificial priests and srotriyas.
(6) Prillcely palaces-These princes and richer people lived in com-
para.tively comfortable dwellings called harmya in the Rigveda.
1946
The
harmya primarily denoting a unity including the stables etc, 19 4 7 very
Boon added on the qualification of being protected by a wall of some
sort.
1
i' 8 In the Rigveda we find a prince standing probably
18<0 See ante, p. 78.
Utl gatapatha XIV. This
story 18 repeated in the Brhadll.
rettYBh. Upani,ad, III. 1. 1 f.
IOU Weber-Indische Studien, X. p.54..
See alBo gBtapatha Brll.hmBt;lB,
II. 6. 3. 9 ; IV.!. 11; IV. 3. 4. 6 ;
Taittiriya Brll.hmat;la, III. 2. 5.
11-12.
19< 3 Chbiiodogya U III. 2. 4.
1 D U Atharvaveda, XX. 127. 2-3.
1 0 H See ante, pp. 88-89.
10!' t. 121. 1; I. 166. 4; IX. 71. 4;
IX. 78. 3 j X. 43. 3 ; X. 73. 10.
10 n Rigveda, VII. 56. 16 ; of. X. 106. 1>.
19 is Ibid., VII. 55. 6.
174
on the roof or rather the balcony of his palaCll
1
94 9 just as any later Indian
king would (10 to pleaslJ his pClople. ,Vhen the Athal'vave!la thinks of a
rClsidence for Yam:)', it is a harmya.
19
50 Some details regarding this
harmya aro to be found in the literature of this period dealing with Raja-
suya.
1
9 51 During this sacrifice the 'ratna-havis' rite was to be performed.
at the house of the king's ratnin's including the Ohief Queen and the House-
hold officers so that Rl1tnins' houses must have been round ahout or
adjacent to the king's harmya, being in the same royal and sacrificial area;
and the separate houses of the sacrificing king's vi1V.lti1. and pari-
vrkti indicate the existence of a complex palace of the harem type.
The royal offieer called 1952 docs the work of the distributor of
the king's gifts 1n the Rigveda and the Atharvaveda, that of the gate-keeper
in the Yajurvedas and early Brahmar.ms and that of the harem superintendent
in the Satapatha Br:rhmal!a. 'rhe princes and nobles
also employed dasi's for doing all sorts of domestic drudgery like husking
and winnowing grain 19 3 allli. collecting the alkaline droppings of the
COW.
19
54. They usually maintained a large number of attendants, 19 5 5
cooks 1956 servants 1957 messen"'ers 1958 waiters 1959 door-keepers 19 6 0 and
, , 0 , ,
hath-attendants.
1
961
The description of KaikeYi's Mahala with its separate kroclh:Igara,
(picture-gallery) (grove) and many rooms furnished with
altars amI seats made of gold, silver and ivory; 1962 of Yuvaraja Raffia's
Mahala with its white gate decked with gems and pearls and crowned with a
golden image, with images of tigers macle of different metals here and there,
19150
19151

Ibid, VII. 56. 16. (Geldner-Vedis-
ebe Studien, 2, 278, n. 2; Alt.
Leb.149).
Atbarvaveda, XVIII. 4. 55.
Black Yajurveda, I. 8. 9. 1 if ; Mai-
tri'iyaJ;li Sal,lbita, II. 6. 5 ; IV. 38 ;
Katbaka Sa-rvbita, XV. 4; Taitti-
riya Brahmal)a, 1. 7. 31 ff ; ta-
patba V. 3. 1. 1. ff.
Macdonell and Keith-Vedic Index,
Vol. I., p. 201.
Atbluvaveda, XII. 3. 13.
1968
19ti7
1!H.i8
1960
1961

Ibid., XII 4. 9.
Atharvaveda, IX. 6. 50-51.
RamayaJ;la, Ayodbya-kiillda, 80th
sarga.
White Yajurveda, XXX. 13.
Ibid.
Ibid., XXX. 9.
Ibid., XXX. 13.
Ibid., XXX. 12.
Ayodhyakiil)da,
Barga.
10th
175
with its rooms adorned with the paintings of skilful artists; 1963 of R;tvar,ta's
palace ornaUlenteLl with plasterecl jewelled pavements, studded with gems,
crystals and l)earls, with elephants of burnished gold and speckless white
silver, girt round by a mighty wall, furnished with golden doors with beaut:-
fnl golden stairs with ornaments of burnished goM, with lofty
edifices having excellent windows made of ivory and silver, with golden nets,
with its beautiful latagrha's (groves), citragrha (picture-gallery), k!"<;la-
grha (play-room), k:imag!-ha, diva-vihara-grha and artificial mountains made
of wood 1 964 show the improvemcnt of art and the luxury of the age. Well
might Hanumana exclaim at the sight of the bed-chamber of RaYaQa with
its jewelled staircase illumined with heaps of gems, its terraces of crystal and
statues of ivory, pearls, diamonds, corals, silver and gold, adorned with
jewelled pillars, furnished with carpets, golden lamps, 1 6 5 crystal altar,
bed-stead with ivory legs decked with goM, artificial ladies with fly-
flappers in their hands moving by mechanism 1966 that this must be
svarga!
(7) Growth of luxury-The luxury of the age is equally evident as
much from the use of the large number of gold and silver ornaments and
jewellery already described as from the use of toilette of various kinds
(snana-dravya) kept in different pots, 1967 sandal powder (candanakalka), 19 6 8
sandal paste 1969 a"'uru paste 1970 white paste 1971 sticks to brush the
'b' ,
teeth with 19 H and of hair-comb (kaflkatik;t).197 3 Mana\!sila, a red-coloured
mineral product found in the mountains (girija-dhatu)1974. was used by
ladies to colour thcir cheek. In the Ram1ya!'.J.a Sit! asks Hanumana to
remind Rima of the fact that one day he painted with his own hands the
cheek of Siro with tilakas of manaMila.
1
975 It Was usual for the com-
paratively well-to-do people to burn aguru and sandal wood, 19 7 6 resin
loe::s
Ibid. nth Bargo..
]9'10
Ibid, Ayodhyaka!lda, 9Ist sarga..
ID8&
Ibid., 6th SBrgo..
In'll
Ibid, 26th sllorgll..

Ibid., 9th

Ibid., AyodhyakaI}da, gIst sarga.
1960:
Ibid . 10th sarga.
18'18
Ibid.
1974.
Ibid., 26th sarga;
1087
Ibid., Ayodhyakiil)da., gIst BlI.rga..
1st Barga.
1888
Ibid.
t 015
Ihid, Suudarakal)da, 40th sarga.
UtO"
Ibid . Ayodhyak1il)cla, 78th and !JIst
19'18
Ibid., Ayodhyakal)da, 14th, 76th and
sargnB ; 10th
SSt h s:trgas.
176
(sala-nirYYds)1977 and various other kinds of incense (gILlHlhadravya).197
8
Not only do WJ find m:)lltion of the ganrlh.jivl
1979
hut also of pcr-
fumes
1980
and ointments
1981
made by them. In the 'Vhite Yajurvcda
the ointment-maker (who is usually a female) is mcntioncll
1
9 8 and we arc
told that in the Som::\, sacrifice the Adhvaryu priest annoints the eyes of tho
sacrificl3r with collyrium. 19 8 3 Collyrium-pots are mentioned in tho
RimayalJ.ft 19 8 4 and the annointing imtrument in tho Blaek Yajurvoda. 1985
The annointing instrument was called as opposed to !hIalt which is used
by men according to the Sarphit11986 and }Iaitr:iyal'}.i Sarphit:i.198 7
According to Satapatha Bl':ihmuQ.fL 1988 the annointing instrument was a
reed stalk with a tuft. In the Black Yajurveda
1989
the mytho-
logical origin of eollyrium is thus told: "Indra slew Vrtra; his eye-ball
fell away; it became collyrium." We also hear of musk (Imsturi),1990 lac
1991 of saffron (kumkum) 19 9 for colouring food 1993 and of flavour-
ing ingredients for 00d.
1994
The use ofumbrella,1
9
95 chamara (fly flap-
per), 1991\ wooden sandals 19 9 7 alldleather-shoes 1998 was also known inthis age.
1 U 'J 7 Ibid., 76th Barga,.
19 7 B Ibid.; Ibid., SundarakaJ;lda 10th
1970
1930
Bal

1988
1984:
1986
198'1
1989

1990
l.\)'ill
sarga.
Ibid., 83rd sarga.
Chhandogya VIII, :Z. 6 ;
VIII. 8, 5 j
1.4.
Black Yajurveda, VI. 1. 1. 5-6 ;
KMhaka SaIJ:lhita, XXIII. 1;
San.lhita, XXXV. 7;
Maitraya:(li, San,lhita, III. 6. 1-3;
Satapatha Brii.hmaJ;la, III. 1. 3.13.
White Yajurveda, XXX. 14.
Ibid" IV. 3.
9lst Sarga.
VI. 1. 1. 6.
XXIII. 1.
III. 6.1-3,
III. 1. 3, 13.
VI. 1. 1. 5.
Ramayal}a, Lankakal}da, 75th Sarga.
Atharvaveda, V. 5. 7 j B:hadii..
ral}yaka U II. 3. 6;
lOU)
1993
1996
1997
1999
Ramii.yaJ;la, AyodhyakiiJ;lia,
sarg-a ;
snrga.
75th
23rd
RamayaJ;la, 2Gtb
sarga.
Ibid, SUlldarakiiJ;lda, 11th sarga.
Ibid.
Ibid., AyodhyakaQda, 14th,
45th and 9lst Sargas; Ara'.1ya.
kaJ;lda, 35th and 51st sargas j
10th and 26th
sarg.lS j SundR.rakaJ;lda, 10th sarga ;
LR.nkakaQda, 11th and 129th sargas.
Ibid., Ayodhyakii.'.1da, 14th, 15th, 16th
and 91st sargas ; Aral}yakaT;lda, 35th
and 51st sargas ;
10th and 26th Bargas; LankakiiT;lda,
11 tb and 129tb sargas.
Ibid., AyodhyakiiT;ld",. 9lst, 112th and
113th sllrgas;
26th sarga.
See Itnte, p, 140.
177
(8) Existence of social ineqltalit by side with richer people
enjoying these luxuries we find also peoples in debt. In the Aitareya
BrJhmaQa VIII. 11 we read: ','ro overcome the foe thou movest like one
taking payment for debt; hail!" Debts weec contmete:l for y,tl'ious pur-
poses, gambling being one of them. 1 999 The amount of interest payitble
is impossible to make out. There is a passage in the 000
where an eighth and sixteenth are mentioned as paid; but, it is quite un-
certain whether interest or an instalment of the principal is meant. The
Atharvaveda contains prayers to Agni for absolution from sin arising out
of non-payment of debt
2
001 and for release from debts incurred without
intention of payment. 0 a 2 In another hymn of the Atharvavec1a 2 a 0 3 the
reciter prays to the two Apsaras (U grajit and U grampasya) for forgiveness
for incurring debt in dice-play. Such prayers are really significant in as
much as thoy show not only an advanced state of society with frequent
occurrence of debt but also a corrupt state of affairs where people contracted
debt with the intention of non-payment, though at the same time non-
payment of debt was regarded as a sin which brought evil consequences in
the next world.
The state in relation to economic life-Before we conclude this
chapter something may be said about the part the head of the state was
expected to play in moulding the economic life of the people. The Coro-
nation ritual proves beyond doubt that not only was it the duty of the
ruler to protect the life and property of his subjects but also to promote
their material welfare. Thus the priest during the Coronation ceremony
addresses the ruler as follows :
1180
lIOOO
lIOOl
2001
1008
"This is thy Sovereignty. Thou art the ruler, thou art
controller, thou art firm and steadfast.
Black Yajurveda, V. 4. 4. 4;
V. 6. 6. 1; Brahma.l)a,
V. 4. 3. 19; Ka.u Brabmal)a,
III. 3; Brahmal)a,
XVII. 14. 16 ; Ayodbya-
k1il)da, 91st sarga.
VI. 47. 32=R1gveda, VIII. 47.17.
Atharvaved", VI. 117.
Ibid., VI. 119.
Cbid., VI. 118. According to
Saunaka the Rig mantras beginning
with kakara and ending with
hakara. if uttered thirty thousand
times wDuld bring freedDm from
debt. Rig VIII. 30. 4 if uttered
eight or twentyeight times a day
for six months would brill" free-
dom from debt. 'l.'he 1':1lintr<t
(ht 2nd Adhyaya., 13th
Varga) beginning with "Knsya
Dunam" if nttered with priyangu
and honey will bring freedom from
debt.
178
Thee for land culture, thee for peace and quiet, thee for
wealth, thee for increase of our substance.
2
00 4
In the Ramayaf.la we similarly find Rama asking 13harata whether the
people are living happily in his kingdom; whether the agriculturist and
the cowherd find:favour in his sight; whether every day in the morning he
watches from the balcony of his palace the prosperity of his subjects passing
through the high roads; whether royal forests and cattle are well-protected ;
whether the forts are always filled with wealth, grains, weapons, water-
appliances (jala-yantra), artisans and skilled archers; whether his income is
always greater than the expenditure; whether the physicians and other
notables are always kept in good humour by sweet words, gifts and
honoUl's.2005 It is thus evident that the economic side of national life was
to receive its fullest attention from the head of the state. The idcn,l of
hapIJiness which the king prays to the gods for his country to attain will be
evident from the following hymn in connection with the Horse-sacrifice:
"0 13rahman, let there be born in the kingdom the Brahmin illustrious
for religious knowledge; let there be born the Rajanya, a skilled
archer, piercing with shafts, a mighty warrior; the cow giving abundant
milk; the ox good at carrying; the swift comser ; the industrious woman.
May Parjanya send rain aecoruing to our desire; may our fruit-bearing
plants ripon; may acquisition and preservation of property be secured to
us."
2
006
We have evidence in the panygerics of rulers how the theoretical
concept of royal duty was translated into practice. In the eulogy which a
subject of bestows, he makes particular mention of the fact that
agriculture and cattle-rearing were in a prosperous condition, that the
subjects of not only thrived well but also lived in unbroken peace
and happiness under his rule.
2
0 0 7
1100'
'JOOI5
White Yajurveda, IX. 22.
RamaYIII}9., Ayodhyakal)dn, lOOt h
sarga.
2006

White Yajurved .. , XXII. 22.
Atha,'vaveda, XX. 127.
CRAPTER VI.
The Age of Gautama Buddha.
(600 B.C.-321 B.C.)
The chief sources of OUl' knowledge of the economic conditions pre-
vailing in this period arc the .Jatakas or the Birth-stories of Buddha and
to a more limited extent the Vinaya and the Suttapitakas. It is true that the
JMakas arc mere stories; but it is fairly clear that the folk in those tales
have given them a parochial sctting and local colour. And this evidence
from the J,1.takas is freqnently borne out by the coincident testimony of
other books not dealing with folk-lore. Of such books which furnish corro-
borative evidence, the Srrtras (specially the Grhyasutras, Srautasu.tras
and the Siitras of PiiQ.ini) and the works of Greek writers like Herodotus
are important. Whatever may be the age of their representative works in
their present form, the Srrtras undoubtedly had their roots in a period at
least as early as the rise of Jainism and Buddhism. The purpose of the
Sutras, so called from the su.tra which means a thread, is to afford a clue
through the mazes of Brahminical learning contained ill the BrahmaJ;las and
the earliest of them represent a phase which is transitional between the
language of the BrahmaQ.as and Classica.l Sanskrit as fixed by the
.
grammarlans.
Towns-This period is marked by a remarkable growth of towns
2008
and
the development of town-life which is so closely associated with the growth
of industry and commerce. According to the Mahaparinibbana Sutta
200ll
there were some "great cities (mahanagara) such as Champa, Rajagrha,8ra-
vasti, S:rketa, Kausamvi and Benares" as against "this little wattel and daub
100S Aristobnlus when he w&s sent on ~
commission by Alexander to a
region left desert by a shifting of
the Indus to the east, saw the
remains of over a thousand tOWDS
and viIlages, once full of men
(Aristobulus, Frag. 39", Strabo
XV. C. 693).
~ o o 0 V. 4 ... S. B. E., Vol. XI. p. 99.
180
town" of Kusinagara." We get the following list of towns from the literature
of this period :-(l)Alavi 2010 (= Sanskrit Mav!). It was situated ncar thc bank
of the Ganges on the way from Sravasti to Rajagrha and thirty-five yojanas
away from Sr[l,vasti; (2) Andhapura on tho bank of Telavahanada ;2011
(3) Anupiya in Malladesa ;2012 (4) in the Sivi country.2013
It had four gates ;20
14
(5) Asitanjana ;20
1
5 (6) Assapura, a nigama in
Auga (i) Ayojjha=(Sans. Ayodhya) ;2017 (8) AHaka in Anga ;2018
(D) Variil,lasl ( = Beuares). 2 0 19 It was surrounded by a wall,2 0 2 0 pierced
by gates 2021 with watch-towers over them.
2
0 2 2 It was served by a good
system of drains 2023 through ono of which a prince fled from the hands
of the invaders.
1
0 24 It was famous for her scents 2025 and textile fab-
rics ;2026 (10) Bhadrav;rtika ;20
21
(11) Bhrgukachchha ;2028 (12) Brahmot-
tara ;2029 (13) OhampJ, ancient capital of Anga.
2030
It was surrounded
by a wall, pierced by gates with watch-towers over them; 2031 (14) Danta-
ootO Uvasagadasao (Eng'. Trans. by
A. F. R. Roernle) p. 52; Tri-
paryasta J ataka (X o. 16); Mall-i
(N o. :25'3).
OOlt Seriviil)ij Jatab (No.3).
10 Sukbavihari JHaka (No. 10).
0013 Jataka (No. 499);
00" Ullmauayanti Jataka (No. 527) j !Slvi
JAtaka (No. 499).
J' GbtB Jataka 454).
l\Iajjhima Nikaya.
00J7 Vimanavatthu Commentary, p. 82.
00," 1IIajjbiwa Nikaya.
'010 U v3.8agadasao (Eng. Trans. by
lIoernle), p. 52; Digha Nikaya,
XIX. 86 j Vimanavatthu Com.
mentary, p. 82; Jataka
(No.1) j (No.2);
'l'aJ)llu\anali (No.5); Devadharma
(No.6) ; 'l'ailnpitra (No. 96) etc.
.020 Grdhra J:1tRkfI (No. 164); San,1gra.
mi\'l\cara Jataka (Xo. 182).
10' 1 Khll.dirangaro. Jataka (No. 40) j

to 3 1
Mahasilavaja (No. 51); Chulla-
p3dma (No. 193); Bhimasena
(No. 80) ; also Nos. 156 and 34').
San,lgram;\vacara Jataka (No. 182)
SrgaJa Jataka (Nos. 113 and 14Z).
Asatari'ipaka Jataka (No. 100).
Bhimasena Jataka (No. SO).
Bhim,ena ( No. 80); Kama-
ViJapB (No. 297); Mahasvaroha
(No. 302). Madiyaka (No. 390);
Vih (No. 438) j Mabaval,lij
(No. 493); (No. 53Z);
Uahaban,lsa (No. 534); Khal,lda.
MIa. (No. 542); Mahaunmarga
(No. 546) j Viswa.ntara (No. 547) j
Surapana Jataka (No. 81).
SuSrol]i Jataka (No. 360) ; Suparaga
Jataka (No. 463).
Divyavadana (MaitrakanyaHvadana)
Uvasagadasao (Eng. Trans. by
Hoernle), p. 52; Digha Nikaya,
XIX 86;
Mahajanaka Ja:taka (No. 539).
lSI
pura on the coast of Kalinga; 2032 (15) Desaka in Sumbha kingdom;
(16) GambhirJpattana, a port ;2033 (17) Halidda-varpsa, a nigama in the
Koliya country; 2 034 (18) Indapattha; 2035 (19) J etuttara in the Sivi
country.
2
036 It was surrounded by a wall pierced by gates ;2037
(20) Kampilya, the capital of N. Paiichala ;2038 (21) Kosamv! (Kau-
samvi), 2039 the capital of Vatsaraja U dayana. According to Cunningham
it is modern Kosam on the bank of the Jumna, thirty miles N. W. of
Allahabad. It was an important halting place both for goods and passengers
coming to Magadha; (22) Kapilavastu
2040
on the bank of the river RohiJ;li
100 miles north of Benares, birth-place of Gautama Buddha; (23) Kita-
giri
20U
a nigama in the K:rsi kingdom; Kusina:ra,204
2
(=Kusanagara).
It is modern Kasi:r, 35 miles East of Gorakhpur. It was surrounded by a
wall ;2043 (25) K:rveripattana in the Dravi<;la country ;2044 (26) Kajangala.
It was the namc of a city according to the commentator of ViSa Jataka where
there Was a viha:ra at the time of Ki1syapa Buddha; (27) Kury.diya ;20
4
5
Koli On the bank of the river Rohiry.i, just opposite to Kapilavastu.
DevMatta and Yasodhrrr;i bolonged to the ruling family of this city; (29)
Madhura (Mathura), capital
2046
of the Surasenas; (30) Ma:hissati ;2047
1033
:1087
"039
Dighllo Nikaya. XIX. 86; Kuru-
dharma Jata.ka (No. 276) j KhuJla.-
blinga (No. 301); Kumbhakara.
(No. 408) j Kalingavodhi (No. 479).
Jiitaka (No. 41).
Majjhima Nikaya.
U vasagadasilo (Eng. Trans. by
Hoarn/e), p. 52; Knrndharmll
(No. 276); MaUsutasoma (No. 537).
Jataka (No. 547).
Ibid.
Uvasagadasao, Lecture X. Vimana-
vattbu Commentary, p. 82. Kum-
bhkara Jiitaka 408).
Uvasagadasao (Eng. Tra.ns. by
Hoarnle), p. 52; Vimanavatthu
Commentary, p. E2. Its drainage
system IS referred to in
dvaipayan& Jataka (No. 444).
2040
aon
Compare t be epithet Kauil.mveya
In Satapatha BrahmaJ;lIl, XII. 2.
2. 13 and in Gopatha BrahmaJ;l!l
1.4.24. According' to the RiimayaJ;la,
(1. 32. 6) and KaSikil. commentary
on (PaJ;lini's Siltra, IV. 2, 68) : tena
nirvrittam, was founded
by prince Kusamva.
U vasagadasao (Eng. Trans. by
Hoernle) p. 52.
Majjhima Nikaya.
Uvasagadasao (Eng. Trans. by
Hoern/e), p. 52 j
Jataka (No. 95).
Ibid.
Akirti Jiitah (No. 480).
Matarlipaka Jataka (No. 100).
Vimiinavatthu Commentary, p. 82,
Dighs Nikaya, XIX. 86.
182
(31) ;2048 (32) Nandana ;2049 (33) Polasapura ;2050 (3
L
.I,) Po-
tana ; 2 0 5 1 (35) Pati tth1na ( = Paithan) ; (36) Pataliputtaka; 11 0 5 (37) Potali
in the Kasi kingdom; 2 0 5 3 (38) Potali in Asvaka kingdom.
2
0 5 4 Its gates
are also referred to; 2 0 5 5 (39) Roruka, \I 0 5 6 capital of Sovira. It was an
important cdntre of coasting traLle; (40) RamaI)aka ; 2 0 5 7 (41) Rajagaha
( = Rljagiha. = 2058 RIjagrha ; (42) Slgala; 2 059 ('i3) SravastJ/ 0 6 0 capital
of Uttara K03ala. It is modern Seth in the Gonda district of
U. P., ten miles north of ValarJmapura, on the bank of the "iver Aciravati
(modern Ra:ptI). It gates arc also referred to;2 061 (-U) (= Pali
Samkissa). 2062 It is modern Smpkisa On the Kall river in the Farakkabad
llistrict; (45) SUl'Uudhana in the KtSi kingdom ;20
6
3 (46) Sadlmatta ;2064
(47) Sl1kala
2oo5
in the laml of M:alra's (=modern Sialkot); (tS)
S:xketa
2066
(otherwise known <19 Ayocl.hyc\ or ViSikhl) on the bank of
the river Saraju in the Faizabau uistrict; (49) S:iLItura ;2067 (50) Sarkard',
a nigama near (51) Setavya ;2069 (52) Sagula;2070 (53) Sum-
Uvasagll.dasao (Eng. Trans. by Hoe'
rnle),p. 52; Vimanavatthu Commen-
tary, p. 83; Digha Nikaya, XIX.
86 ; Makhadeva Jataka ( No.9) ;
GanJhara (Ro. 406); Kumbhakara.
(No. 408) ; Mahajanaka (No. 538).
Divyavadana (Maitrakanyakavll-
dana)
50 Uvasagadasao, Leoture X.
61 Assakananca potanam-Digha
NiHyB, XIX. 86.
Uvasagadasao (Eng. Trans. by Hoa-
rule), p. 52.
Asvaka Jatl'ka (No. 207).
KhuJJakalinga Jataka (No. 301).
0 Ibid.
Digha. Nikaya, XIX. 86 j Adipta.
Jataka (No. 424).
20 H Divyavadana ( Maitrakanyakiiva-
dana).
Uvasagadasao, Lecture X; Jataka
NOB. 4, 11, 14, 37 etc. It was
once the capital of Magadha..
aD"" Vimanavatthu Commentary, p. 82.
!lODO Jataka Nos. ],2,3,5,27,37,41,44,
54-, 75, 103 etc.
0 61 A vikgla Jataka. (No. 27).
2 Uvasagadasao (Eng. Trans. by
Hoernle), p. 52; Jatah Nos. 29,
134, 1:15 etc.
Udaya Jataka (No. 456).
6 4 Di vyavadana (1.1aitrakanyaka.vadana).
Ka.lingavodhi Jahka (No. 479);
(No. 531).
Buddbist Suttas-Roys Davids, p.
99 j Uvasagadasao (Eng. Trans.
hy Hoernle), p. 52 ; Vimanavatthu
Commentary, p. 82 ; Saketa Jataka.
(Nos. 68 and 237).
6 7 Pal)inT.
0 6 S IJlisa Jataka (No. 78).
06" U vasagadasM, Lecture X.
iu70 Uvasagadasao (Eng. TranB. by Hoe-
l'nle), p. 52.
183
sum:tra!)07I ; (54) Supprrraka; 8019 (55) Svativati in Ohedi kingdom ;9073
(56) Takkhaslla (Taxila).2074 Its gates are l'eferred to ;2075 (57) Ujjaill
in Avanti ;907
6
(58) Ukkattha ;2077 (59) Vttara Mathura ;2078 (GO) Vai-
sali 2 a 19 (= Pali Vesii.li). According to Cunningham it is modern Besara,
20 miles north of H'ijipm. It was suronndei by three walls each at a
distance of oue gauyuti (=- two miles) pierced by three gates with watch-
towers over thcm.
20BO
With its subnrl)s of Kulluga and Kundagama
ValsJli was called Vaniyag1ma according to Jaina tradition.
2oB1
(a) of towns :-Some the5e were in their beginnings mere
villages auclgradually developed into towns. In the JayadUvi?a J1taka
2082
we are told that a c3rtain king m'tde settlement on a certain mountain,
brought virgin soil under cultivation by clearing off the jungles and
bringi.ug a thousand families with much treasure founded a big village.
This villagc, we arc told, grew into a town by name).
The town of also grew out of a vilIage
2083
The
growth of villages into towns is further shown by the fact that some
tcrnu! while gellerally illI:Jaulllg towus also mean villages e. g., kheta,
pattana, ktl'vata etc.
2
0840 In fact, One of the most potent factors which
influenced the amalgamation of several villages into a city or a capital
was the political condition of ancient India. MI'. well remarks
"A naturn.l consequence of the consoli(lation of Aryan tribal system into
these larger stn,tes and kingdoms was the gradual development of the
village settlcmc.lts into larger towns and cities planued on the same prin-


1078
1075
1070
So 71

Ibid.
Buddhist Indi;\-Rhye Davids, p. 31.
Cbedi Jataka (No. 422).
U trans. p.
52 ; i Jataka Nos. 61, 71, 96,
408.
PIl!iiyi Jiitaka (No. 229).
ChitrasambhOtlIo J:itakllo (No. 498).
U viiBllg!ldasao-Hoernle's trans. p.
52; Rhys Davids-Dialogues of the
Buddha.
Ghlltn. Jataka (No. 45f).
!lOSl

U vasagadasao-Hoernle's trans. p.
53; Vimanavattu Commentary,
p. 82; Tittjra (No. 37); Ekapllrrll
No. 149}.
Ekaparl)a Jataka (No. 149).
Uvasagadasao-Hoernle, p. 4.
No. 513.
Mahiisutasoma Jatah (No. 537)
History of Aryan Rule in India,
p.38.
Vaijaysnti by Yiidsvaprakasa, p.l59,
LL. 1-6 p. 232, L.2; Mayamatam,
Ch. IX.
184
ciplcs in which wards Or village units, were gronped round the royal palace
and the citadel."
Some of the towns were fortresses in the midst of a collection of
villages amI these fortresses grew into towns. According to the Maha-
parinibbana Sutta
2086
Ajatasatru of Magadha built a fortress at P;[tali-
gr"Jma to check the ad vance of the Vajjis. This village and the fortress
grew up into the town of Pataliputra in the course of two generations.
2
0 8 7
The hill-fortress of Girivraja four miles and a half in circumference
which was said to have been built by Mah1govinda, the architect also grew
into a town.
The necessity of a trading post led to the growth of many commercial
towns in India also as in other countries. A centre of trade is very likely
to be posted on or nCar by the well-known trade-routes of the Ancient
World and Taxila is a case in point. "The valley in which the rcmains
of Taxila lie is a singularly pleasant one, well-watered by the Hal'O river
and its tributaries, and protected by a girdle of hills ;-on the north
and east by the snow-mountains of Hazra and the Murree ridge, on the
south and west by the well-known Margalla spur and other lower emi-
nences. This position on the great trade-routes which used to connect
Hindusthan with Oentral and Western Asia, coupled with the strength
of its natural defences, fertility of the soil, and a constant supply of
good water readily accounts for the importance of the city in early
times." 2 0 88
(b) Town-planlling :-Though we have no detailed description of the
town-plan in early literature the fragmentary evidences concur III
describing an Indian city as surrounded by walls pierced by
lofty gates and defended by a moat or even three moats; an2. as
divided into different wards or quarters which were allotted
to men of different castes and trades excepting the Chal).dalas who lived
outside the city. In the P3:Qdara Jataka 2089 we are told that one should
~ O B 6
I. 26 - S. B. E., Vol. XI. p.18.
V. A. Smith-Early History of
India, 4th edition. 1'. 39.
~ 0 8 S
iO B 9
Sir J. lIbrshall-Guide to Taxil't,
pp. 1-2
No. 518.
185
keep a secret carefully guarded in his mind just as a city is strongly guarded
by being girt round by deep moats. In the Mahajanaka J:rtaka
2090
we
are told that expert sthapati's have built the walls, wards and places of the
city of Mithil;r after proper calculation and measurement, have beautified
it with gates (torat?a" watch-towers (atp:lakas) and well laid out (suvillyasta)
roads and kUpgara's made according to proper measurements (yathamana).
From the Mahaunmarga J:ttaka
2
091 we learn that thD king dug three moats
rOL;nd Uithil:l-a water-moat, a mud-moat and a dry moat. The city of
Ku;avati was surrounded by seven ramparts (vapra) with four gates.
20H
The story of how king Pasenadi of Kosala was kept out of his capital by the
stratagem of Digha Karaya1).a
2093
and how this made him lose his kingdom
also proves the existence of completely walled up cities and of the stringent
rules for closing the city-gates.
2
094 From the Uvasagadasao we find that
the quarter of Vesali was different from that of the brahmins.
From that J;rtakas we learn of the ivoryworkers bazaar (danta-vithi),2095
weavers' place (palli)209
S
and vaisya quarter (vithi)2097 in Benares,
florists' quarter (utpalavithi)
2 0
98 and cooks' quarter2099 in Sra.vasti. The
evil consequence upon the corporate life of the city of segregating people
into detached wards where they could be liable to develop different habits
and customs was provided against by the composite warus or simple resi-
dential blocks, by the establishment of temples in the centre with magni-
ficicnt debating halls and rest-houses where all sorts of people congrcgatcll
togcther irresper.tive of their caste. Moreover, caste-clistinction prevcntc(l
One thing; it did not make poverty a crime and did not diville the city into
two parts like the East End and the West End of London.
(c) Oorporate life ill the lawns :-As a matter of fact, we finel a
sturdy spirit of corporate life in these cities. In the KaJ?dukapiipa
Jataka 2100 we find that by ralsmg subscriptions (ehhandaka), the
1090
No. 538.

KaliiyB Jatah (No. 221) j

2081
No. 546. (72).
lOUt
Mabasndassana
Sutta, I.
3-6
2006
BhimaseDB Jiitah (No. 80).
(-s. B E, Vol. XL rp. 449-51.
!lO9'1
JatBka (No. 547).
aou8
In Bnddhist literature be is known

Padma. Jatab 261).
a8 Dirgba Carayal,lB.
2099
Mar!1S11 Jiitaka (No. 315).
'OH
Bho.dro.Sii.la J:Uaka (No. 4,115).
0100
No. 109.
186
citizens of Sravasti used to supply food on certain occasions to
the monks of the Buddhist saYpgha in the city. Another
example of such a corporate gift (gal}a-dana \ by the citizens of Sravasti is
given in the S usima Jataka
2
101 where tho question as to whether the gift
is to be made to the Tjrtbikas or the Budclhists was decided by majority
vote (sarp.vahula). Such corporate gifts were also made Ly the citizens of
Benares
210ll
and Rajagrha.2103
Rural Economy-Despite this remarkable growth of towns and the
development of town-life the economy of India in this period, as in other
periods, was mainly rural, based on a systom of village-communities. Like
the Jatakas the Dharmasutras also depict the life of the country as mainly
rural. Cities are not ignored but despised. Apastall1Ya
2
1 040 says "Let
him avoid going into towns." Baudhayana
2105
goes further and says "It is
impossible for one to obtain salvation who lives in a town covered with
dust." 'Moreover, the Sutras clo not l)rescribe any ceremony for urLan life
though there are many for agricultural life in the villages. The constant
injunctions to sacrifiee at a 1)lace where the foul' roads moot or ncar a hill
etc., therefore, imply life in the villages rather than life in the towns. 21 0 6
(a) Origin and clashification oj villages: :From the evidences at
our disposal we arc able to dbtinguish three main tYIJes of villages
in this period: (1) the ordinary agricultural village or mixed type
(2) the special and suburban village 01' industrial type and (3) the
border village or frontier type. The first type consisted of those
villages which were occupied by men of all castes and occupations and
some of which were destined, in course of time, to grow into towns. The
special and suburban type was occupied solely by particular communities,
and some of them specialised in a particular branch of industry. We thus
read of villages inhabited solely by hunters, ~ 107 Cbat;ld'Ila villages,
2
108
0101
No. 163.
2106
Govila Grhyasiltras, III. l':. 32-35.
2102
Durdada Jataka (No. 180).
210'7
Mayura (No. 159) ; Rohantamrga.
Sl108
K a ~ a y a Jataka (No. 221).
(No. 501); Khullahan.lsa (No. (33).
11104.-
1. 32. 21. tlD8
Chittasambhiita (No. 49S); Amra.
~ 10 ts
II. 3. 6, 33.
(No. 474); Matltnga (No. 497).
187
Brahmin villages,2i09 a village of 500 robbers,21iO a village of carp en-
ters
2111
and a village of 100 families of smiths.Il112 The rise of these
industrial villages in the suburban areas was partly due to the policy of
segregation adopted by the higher castes or the king with regard to the
people of the lower castes who were thus not allowed to live within
the walls of the city. We find a ChaJ?dala village lying just
outsiue the city of Ujjain. 11 S Chal).llala villages outside the city are also
referrel to in Amra
ll114
and M:\tanga
IlI15
Jatakas. A village out-
side Benares is refel'L"e 1 to in Rohantamrga2116 and yama
2117
Jatakas.
A nipda village neal' Sakula is mentioned in Khullaharpsa JatakaY 18
The village containing 500 families of carpenters mentioned in the Alina-
chitta .Htaka
ll119
wa.'l situ1.ted new B,mares. AccorJing to the Uva:saga-
<lasao II 1'1 () thJrJ W0rJ 50:) potter-shop.3 outside the town of Polasapura.
Apparently these formJl a suburbl.n village of potters. Indeed the very
nature of thtBJ imlustrial village3 maie it essential that they should be
nel.r a. to\VLl which alo:le C:lon afforl to give their inhabitants a good market
for their labour or fOl' the proiucts of their labour. The third or border
type of villages are fret]. uentlyH U referred to in the Jatakas. Thus the
Saklllla and Kharamvara'll U J:ttakas refer to border villages in Kosala
while the lhsaka II U 3 and the n H Ja:takas refer to border
villages in Klsi. The lhh::rvaI1lia also refers to such frontier villages
founded by king SiI1lhavii.hu of the Vanga country over which he placed a.
son of the princess's uncle, commander in the army of the Vanga king.
211l5
lIlO Snvo.rl)o.kakhta JlI.tako. (No. 389) ;
Knrndbo.rma (No. 276).
UIO go.ktignlmo. Jii.to.ka (No. 503).
1111 AlinacbiHa J.'itaka (No. 1(6);
Pbandana (No. 475).
0111 Slicbi Jii.to.ka(No. 387).
UlS Chittaso.mbbilta (No. 4098).
No. 474.
1115 No. 4097.
:1111 No. :JOt
n17 No, 540.
u18 No. 533.
1119 No. 156.
n VII. 181, 1840.
No. 36.
No. 79.
No. 44,
No. 302.
nH "Nivasetvana. sakba.m te pa.chcha.nta
gamsm agamum. Ta.tbasi raja..dhi
taya matu\a.ssa. auto tada. Sed
pa.ti Vangaranno tbito pachcbanta..
sadba.ne nisinno vatamule 80 kam.
ma.nto.m S8.IQ.vidhapaY!lm-Maha-
Ch. VI. 15.16.
188
It scorns that villages were sometimes founcled for military purposes. in
the MahiiunmJ:rga .T;rtaka
2126
we find that the king, previous to his starting
on a military expedition gave ore1ers to his minister to build villagos
on the line of march. The minister, after accomplishing his task and
completing the arrangements informed the king: "Great king, wait not a
moment on the road, but advance immediately. I have alreac1y built
villages for you at intervals of seven yojanas, establishing halting places,
and ftllecl the hundreds of villages that arc Oil the way with cloths and
ornaments, foorl aud drink. I have kept clephants, horses and vehicles
rearly for you in those villages." These villages, were evidently utilised,
subsCJuently to eXl)ec1ition, as resting places for caravans.
(I)) Oorporate v Wage-lile -Over each village was the gama-llhojaka.
who Was p:1i(l according to the Kulayaka Jii.taka
2
127 a tax on wine levied on
each tub of wine (hence called cMti-kahapal)a) and fines. According to
Professor Rhys D<1virls
2128
from the fact that tho appointmcnt of this
officer is not claimed by the king until the later law-books it
is almost certain that in earlier times the appointment was
either hereditary or was conferred by the village council itself.
The villages of the industrial type appears to have had an Alderman
(.J eHaka) as the head. Thus, for instance, the S Gehi Jrrtaka 1 9 tells us
that there was a ,J cHaka at the hen.d of the village of 1000 blacksmiths.
The hC.lclman appc:tl':3 also to have been sometimes appointeel by tho
king as the Khn.ramvara Jataka
H30
shows. Though we hear of the mis-
conduct of some of the headmen as 111 the 130
aml G!"hapati Jrrtakas
2131
the villagers were not altogether
powerless. From the Paniya Jataka
2132
we find that the headman
who prohi.bitell the sbughter of animals anr1 the sale of wine in the village
hal ultim ltely to reseinc1 orders 011 account 0 E the protest of the
villagers. Even when the headman was a nominee of the king the villagers
212i6
Ne. M6.
2180
No. 79.
au.
No. 31.
No. 199.


Bu,1dJ,iot Iudia., p. 48.
noD
No. 387.
aHa
No. 459.
189
had a voicc in thc management of their affairs.
2
133 In fact they met
to confer with the glmabhojaka and carried the upshot of their counsels into
effect. The MahMvaroha J;rtaka
21
34 tells us that the thirty villagers of a
bortler village met togther to transact the business of the place. The Kula-
yaka Jataka
ll13
Ii tells us that the members of the thirty-five families of a
village met in the middle of the village to transact the affairs of the village. 2136
Weare further told that they went about the village with axes and
clubs. With the clubs, they would roll out of the way stones that lay on the
four highways and other roach of the village. The trees that would strike
against the axle of chariots, they cut down; rough places they smoothed
down; cause-ways they built; dug water tanks and built a hall but they
wanted to put a pinnacle on it. They fonnel it in the possession of a lady
from whom they could not buy for want of money. But the lady gave it to
them when they agreed to make her a partner in their work. The
Losaka2137 and Takka
2138
Jatakas give us the story of the establish-
ment of a village-school and the construction of a hut for the teacher at the
instance of the villagers. In the Grahapati Jataka
2
139 we are told that the
villagers contracted a loan (of an old ox) from the gamabhojaka. In the
Maha unm:rrga Jataka 2 If, 0 a krc;lasaIIT, a panthas:ila and a vicarasala) were
constructed by raising public subscriptions from the villagers. U 41 Such
co-operative undertakings by villagers are confirmed by the later
evidence of Kautilya's ArthsJstra.
ua. Being thus between two
masters the beadml\n's lot was
not an enviable one as is apparent
frOll the Via Jll.talra (No. 48B)
where among the or
rl\ther corses that might befall
a man is mentioned village head-
manship.
11 u No. :002 :-"Te pato va gamama jjhe
sannipatitva gamakiohcham ka-
ronti."
1138 No. 31: "gamamajjhe thatv1l gama-
kammaql k aronti."
SU8 In case of division of opinion the deci-
llion of the majority prevailed [So nil
(No 163) a.nd (No. 2H)
Jiitakas].
0187 No. 41.
H8i No. 63.
0139 No. 199.
21'0 No. 546.
nit On occasions of royal hunt the villa-
gers were sometimes put to forced
labour and therefore the villagers
would in a body sometimes bel"
the forest and collect the game in
an enclosed place where the king
could bunt (Nyagrodha-mrga (No.
12) and Nandika-mrga (No, 385)
Jatakal].
190
The corporate character of villages is equally evident as much from the
fact that the village elders administered justice in petty cases as from the
fact that fines were sometimes imposed on the village as a corporate
whole.
U
4<2
Land System-The village arrangements remained practically the
same as at the end of the previous period. In the centre was the inhabited
portion containing the homestead of the villagers. Around this inhabited
portion was the arable ground (khetta) the limits of which might be extended
hy elc:uillg of forest laurl.
2143
The m'1jority of the holdings were
were probably small, though estates of 1000 2144 also occur in the
J:Ltakas 1 h 5 and in the Vinaya. n 4 6 According to Baudhayana an ideal
economic holding seems to have been a portion of land measuring six
nivartanas which should be kept free from taxes on the ground that this
mnch is necessary to support a family. Nivartana was used in the sense of
vrtti or allowance or livelihood; so an area of land sufficient to support
one man from its produce was called nivartana. Around the village
lay its grazing pastures of herds of cattle. In the earlier periods the pasture
does not appear to have becn organised in any particular way. In the
Jiitakas, however, we come across an indirect reference to an enclosed
pasture. In the Dhumk<11'i Jataka,2 147 for instance, we read: 'A Brahmin
goatherd took a flock of goats and making a pen in the forest, kept them
there.' According to Gautama
ll148
unenclosed land WaS used by all for
grazing cattle, obtaining firewood, gathering flowers and getting fruits.
(a) Was there state-landlordism ? -We have seen that in
the previous periods while the king had absolute right of disposal
of his own lanlls, he had, if any at all, at that remote age, very limited
rights over the laml of his subjects or clansmen. The Jatakas also very
clearly distinguish private land from royal domain. Thus we were told in the
S:Iliked:tra Jataka : 14<9 'Once upon a time, a king named Magadha reigned
"" Dbllrmastltra, Ill. 4.
till Kama Jataka
1 I ., Karl,a _ amnar.\!> 8 acres.
Sunrvakakkalu. (No. 389); S ali-
kedara [No. 4'34.)
'1 U I. 287 ; II. 186.
'1<7 No. 413.
t 4: 8 XII. 28.
2140 No. 484.
191
in Rajag!ha. At that time there stood a Drahmin village named Salindiya,
towards the north-east as you go out of the city. In this north-eBlitern
district was property (cultivable fields) belonging to Magadha ()Iagadba-
khettam) A Brahmin named Kosiyagotta belonging to this village appears
to have takcn lcase of one thousand out of that royal uomain and
sowed paddy in it.' 115 0 The JTItaka
2
10 1 shows us one of the ways
in which royal domain increased by way of colonisation. The Kurudharma
Jataka
11
5 '2 draws a distinction between the land of the king (raililo
santakam) and the land of the ordinary land-holders (kutumbassa santakam).
The Dharmasutras also distinguish royal domain from pri-mte land. Thus
says V '2 153 "A pledge, a boundary and the property of minors, an
open deposit, a sealed deposit, women, thtl property of a king amI the wealth
of a srotriya are not lost by being enjoyed by others."
(b) Private ownership 0/ land-As to vastu and the arable land privatc
ownership was fully established. Gautama
2154
recognises this private
property in land when he says "Animals, land and females are not lost by
possession of another." The Jatakas abound in references to the kutimva.ka.
or kutamvika. They seem to be private landowners. 21 5
As regards the mode of acquisition of property the Gautama Dhn.rma-
sUtra
2
156 lays down that 'a man becomes owner by inheritance, purchase,
partition, seizure or finding.' Acceptance is an additional mode of acquisi-
tion for a brahmin, conquest for a and gain by labour for a
vaisya or sudra. It is true that many of these ways of acquiring wealth
n 5 0 Rajagahe Magadharaja nama rajjam
kareti. Tada nagarato pll vvat-
taraya disaya Balindiyo nama
brahmat;la-gamo ahosi. Tassa
pllvvattara disaya magadha-
khettam. Tattha Kosiyagotta
nama salindiyavasi brahmat;lo
sahass& karisamattam khettam
gahetva salimv apapesi-5alikedara.
Jatak& (No. 4S4).
un No. 513.
uu No. 276.
n 53 XVI. 18 (= S. B. E., Vol. XIV.
p.81).
UH XII. 30 (- S. D. E., Vol. II. p. 2i3).
n 55 5atupatra Jatllka (No. '17ll) ;
!lIatsJadana. (No. 288); Snj:H&
(No. 352) etc. See Childers-
Pali Dictionary and Rbys Da.vids-
I'iiJi Dictionary.
U'. X. 39-42. Cf. XVI. 16
S. B. E., Vol. II. 231 and Vol.
XIV. 81.)
192
relate to moveable property, but it is also clear that immovable property
like land may be acquired by inheritance and succession, which involve
acquisition by partition and acceptance of dowry; by purchase, which
implies commerce; by conquest and occupation or valour; and by acceptance
of gifts in return for instructing a pupil. Land thus aC(luired might, at
least in the kingdom of Magadha, be given away and in that of Kosala be
sold. In the former case a Brahmin landowner (Kosiyagotta by name) offers
1000 of land as a gift to the Buddha who, however, accepted only
eight ; 2157 we also hear of the donations of pleasure-gardens to the
Buddhist Order by the physician Jivaka at Rajagrha, by the courtesan
Amvapali in Vaislili and above all by the merchant Aniithapil;ldada at
Sr:rvasti. 2158 As regards the sale of land we are told in the Chulla-
vagga
H59
that the merchant Anathapil}dada entangles an unwilling noble
(prince Jeta) in the sale of a park. And in the law books we read that land
might be let against a certain share of the produce.
2
160
In proving property, documents, witnesses and possession are admitted
as proof of title by V 161 and if the documents conflict, the state-
ments made by old men, by guilds and corporations are to be relied
upon.
2I
6 2 gives some good provisions on the right of way and
evidence in disputes regarding immovable property. 2163 Gautama 164 and
16 5 give the law of accluiring property by usage. The following
eight things use(l by another for ten years continuously, are lost to the
owner: ancestral property, a purchased article, a pledged property given to
a wife by her husband's family, a gift property received for performing a
sacrifice, the property of reunited co-pal'tncrs and wages. A pledge, a
boundary, property of minors, an open deposit, a sealed deposit, female
slaves, the property of a king and the wealth of a srotriya are not lost by
'1&7
Jatah (No. 484).
.160
II. 11, 28 (1) ; I. 6,
211158
For references see N. Dutt's Early 18 (20.)
History of the Spread of Budddhism
21161
XVI. 19.
and the Buddhist Schools, pp. 10),

XVI. 15.
1'3--44, 153, 161.

XVI. 10--15.
216U
VI. 4. 9. (-S. B E., XX. p. 187) ;

XII. 27-39.
Kern-Manual of Indian Buddhism,

XVII. 16--18,
p.28.
193
being enjoyed by others. Animals, land and females are not lost by pos-
session of another. Accoruing to property entit'ely given up
by its owner goes to the king who is enjoined to administer the property of
widows and minors.
(e) Law of Inhe,.Uance--From the very modes of acquisition it follows
that the land under private owners cOILld pass from generation to generation
under the customary rules of inheritance and succession. The rules of
inheritance supplied by the Satras make sapir:das the heirs after or in
default of sons. The sapit;lda here is Oae within six: degrees and is a male
only. The widow is ex:cludecl and the daughter according to Apastamva,
inherits only in default of sons, teacher or pupil. 2167 The nuptial presents
and ornaments of a wife were inherited by the daughters. 216 8 Probably
the general rule anticipates not the death of the owner but a division of
property among the sons during his lifetime. The king inherits in default
of the others named and some say that among the sons only the eldest
inherits. These rules are sufficiently vague but local laws are also provided
for in the additional rules: "In some countries gold or black cattle or
black produce of the earth (grain or iron ?) is the share of the eldest." 2169
Then in regard to what the wife receives, the Satra leaves it doubtful
whether the rule "the share of the wife consists of her ornaments and
wealth received from her relations according to some (authorities)" is to be
interprettcd in such a manner that 'according to some' refers only to thc
last clause or to the whole. "What is obvious" says Mrs. Rhys Davids' 17 0
''is that the whole matter of inheritance was not yet regulated by any general
state-law. Different districts of India have different laws of inheritance.
Baudhayana treats the subject of inheritance first under the head of impu-
rity where he says that sapit;ldas inherit in default of nearer relations and
sakulyas (remoter relations) in default of sapiQ.das ; but afterwards he adds
that the eldest son in accordance with the quotations cited by Apastamva
may receive the best chattel or the father may divide equally between the
uee XIV. 8-9.
!11 07 II. 6. 14. 4.
nee BandMyana, II. 2. 3.4. i
XVII. 46.
u 09 Apastamva, II. 14. 7.
U' 0 in Rap8on's Cambridge History of
India, Vol. I.
194
sons. Here also the fact that the same sllbject is treated in different sec-
tions shows that as yet tho matter of ci viI law was not trcate(l systemati-
caBy but incidentally." Nevertheless we can partially reconstruct the law
of inheritance as it prevailed in those days. Accorrling to Baudh1yana, of
the fourteen kinds of sons, am'asa (legitimate), putrilnputra. (son of an ap-
pointed daughter), (bastard) datta (adopted), krtrima (made)
ga<;lhaja (secretly born) awl the ap:widdha (aballllonccl by the parents) were
entitled to inheritance. The next six, kinina (son of an unmarried
daughter), punarbhava (son of a ronan-io(l female), swaya.ndatta (self-given
son) and (son of a twice-horn father in a sadra mother) were l'egarded
as members of the family. The last Par.lsara was not even regarded as a
member of the family. Galltama names twelve kinds of sons of whom
auras a, the datta, krtima, aUll apaviddha can inherit while
ka:nina, sahoda (son of a pregnant hride), punarbhava, putrikJputra,
swayamdatta and krita (pLll'chased) cannot inherit they are main-
tained as memhers of the family. V regards aurasa, putl'i-
kaputra, punarbhava, kTnina and guc;1haja as heirs while sahoda, datta, krita,
swayamuatta, apaviddba and cannot inherit except when there are
no legitimate heirs of th3 lh'st six classes above mentione:l. 211 I Apastamva
who flourished a few centuries later reeognisecl the i1ums:t sons alone as the
lecritimate heir for, the reeo::!;ilition of othCl' sons as heirs cO:.lld not be
:J , \..J
allowe(l among sinful men of his age.
2172
Yet the ancient cnstoms did not
die out soon.
Gautama, the earliest law-giver of this age seems to have favoured parti-
tion of an estate, for, "in partition there is an increase of spiritual
merit."u 7 3 According to him, the eMest son shouE get, as an additional
share, a twentieth part of the estate, some animals and a carriage, the middle-
most son shall get sheep, grain, utensils, a house, a cart and some animals anu
then the reml1illing property is e(l uaIly diviclel. Or, Ga:itama would allow
the eluest son two shares and the remaining sons one share each. Or, they
may take one kincl of property by choice accorcling to seniority; or the
special shares may he adjustml aceordinO' to their mothers.
2
174 Vasistha
o ..
11 1 XVII.
II. G. II. 10. ';7.
:J173 XXVIII. 4.
2174 XXVlII,5-17,
195
allows the eldest SOil to have a double share aud a little kiue amI horses'
,
the middle-lUost gets utensils aud furniture, the youngest takes the goats,
sheep amI house.
2
175 Bau(lhayana allows all the children to take equal
shares or the eldest son to take one-third in excess.
2
176
The property of ullrJunited brothers, (lying without issue goes to the
eldest brother; the property of a reunited co-parcener goes to the co-
parcener; what a learned co-parcener has acquired by his own labour may
be withheld from his unlearned co-parceners and unlearned co-parceners
shoulrt divide their acquisitions equally.
2
177
A hrahmin's SOll by a k;rJ.tl"iya wife, if the eldest, shares e{lually with a
younger brother by a brahmin wife. 'rho sons of a by a vaisya
wife share equally. The SOll hy a su(lra. wife, if virtuous, is maintained,
while even the son of a wife of c'l u'11 caste does not inherit, if he be living
unrighteously.
2
178 Accorlliug to B[l,uclh:iyaua
217
9 the sons of wives of differ-
ent castes will take four, three, two and one shares accurding to the order
of castes. According to 0 if a brahmin has sons by brahmin,
and va.isya wife, the first gets three shares, the second two and
the third one share. Apastamva, however, protests against such unequal
division of property and declares that all the virtuous sons should inherit
but he who spends mOIley unrighteously shall be disinherited, though he be
the eldest son.
2
1 S 1
Ordinarily the heirs should pay the debts of a deceased person. But
the money due to the parents of a bride, immoral debts and fine shall
not devolve UpOIl the sons of a debtor. 2182
(d) Lrtnd revellue: (i) the amount of (he /'oyal share-The Jatakas
make it clear that in the monarchies the king had a right to a portion of
the pro1uce of the soil. In the Kurudharma Jataka
216
3 a person having
... X VIII. 42 f.
01'. II.2.3.2f.
'177 Gautama, XXVIII. '27. Sl.
:;J178 Ibid., XXVIII.
:.ill' II II. 2. 3. 2-10.
0180 XVIII. 42-:iO.
II. 6. 14.1-15 .
nS. Gautama, XII. 40-41.
0183 No. 276: Imamha kedara maya
ra.fiiio bbiigo databbo, adinna.bba
gato yeva cha me kedarato saiisi'
eamuHbi gahapita.
196
carelessly plucked a handful of corn from his own field regrcts: "From
this fiol(l I have yet to give the king his due, anrl I havc taken
a handful of corn from an untithed field." The exact share of
the king is not known. Baudhayana
U
84 prescribes one-sixth of the
income of the subjects as th(} pay of the king. According to
V 2 18 5 the the royal share is a sixth part of the wealth of
the subjects. According to Gautama
2
186 cultiva.tors must pay to the
king a tax amounting to one-tenth, one-eighth or one-sixth of the produce.
This difference in the royal share was due probably to the differences in
the nature of the soiL A great deal also depended on the whim of the
king, for, he secms to have exercisecl the right of increasing the taxes
at will
2187
or of remitting them_I 18 8 Again according to
no taxes are to be paid on the usufruct of nvcI', dry grass, forest, (places
of) combustion and mountains.
(ii) Land survey-For the purpose of an accurate realisation of
revenue land surveys were also made. In the Kama Jataka
2
190 we find
the royal officers taking a survey of the fields. In the Kurudharma
Jataka
H
91 we read that one day the Rajjugahakamachcha (literally the
rope-holding minister) was measuring a fieM by tying a rope to a stick
and giving one end of the rope to the owncr of thc field to hold, while
himself keeping thc stick into his own hand. Thc rope-hoMing minister
(or surveyor) happenecl to put the stick in a crab's hole with the crab in-
side, whereupon he thought: 'If I put the stick into the hole, the crab in the
hole will be hurt; if I put it on the other side the king's property will
lose; and if I put it on this side, the fal'mer will lose.'
(iii) Land revenue administration -The local officials who carried
on the civil, judicial and military administration appear also to have carried
on the work of collecting the revenue. The Central Government, however,
i 85
Ill"
I. 18 1 (= S. B. E, Vol. XIV. p. 19D)
I. 42 (= S. B. E., Vol. XIV. p.8)
X. 2t 27 (=S. B. E. Vol. II. pp.
229-30).
Gagga Jabka (No. 155); Maha-
sutasoma JUaka (No. 302).
:l188


:.IIDt
Kama Jataka (No. 467).
XIX. 26 ( = S. B. E), Vol. XIV. p. 99.
No. 467: Rajakammika khettappa.
mana-gahanatthaya tam gimam
agamimsu.
No. 276.
197
maintained a body of officials who co-operated with the local bodies in this
respect. In the Jrrtaka period Northern India was divided into sixteen
independent statcs 2192 Some of these
were organised into provinces under viceroys and the province into districts
(janapada) and villages. Thus thc Kama Jrrtaka
U93
tells us that a prince,
having at first no desire to rule his kingdom, left it but later on became
greedy and won over a village. Then he wanted to have the janapada and the
viceroyalty (uparajjam) as well. The Mahaswapna Jataka
2I
94 also refers
to kingdom (raHa), district (janapada) and village (gama) in successive
order. From the Kharamvara Jataka
2
19 5 we find that the revenue specially
from the distant border villages was collected by an amachcha. According
to 196 the king should appoint men of the first three castes
who al'C pure and truthful over villages and towns ...... (and) shall make
them collcct the lawful taxes. 'l'he royal share known as vali was collected
gencrally in kind. The produce of the field was taken to the public granary
for the excision of the. royal tithe before being taken to the barns of the
respective owners. Such public granaries were in charge of officers who
are aptly called Droq.a-mapaka mahamatto. In the Kurudharma 197
we art told that sitting at the door of the granary he caused to be
measured the king's share of the produce. The tax was collected
by officials called Valisadhaka and Rljakammika.
U98
Though the vaH
was usually paid in kind, cash payment was not altogether unknown.
Thus the Vardhaki-sukara 199 records the gift of the sata-
sahassutthayikam Ka:sigamam [a village of Kasi yeilding 100,000 (kahapa9as)
as revenue]. The Avarya Ja:taka
l1200
also refers to a village yielding the
same amount.
Agriculture-Most of the arable land was cultivated by peasant-
proprietors (khettapati, vatthupati) and cultivation of lands by peasants
un Rhys Davids-Buddhist India, p. 23.
u.s No. 467.
uu No. 77.
1195 No. 79.
11 ee II. 26. 4. 9 (_ S. B. E., Vol. II. pp.
163-64).
2197 No.276: KoHhagaradvarc nisIditva
rajabhage vibim minapento.
U os Kama Jata.ka (No. 467); Ga\ldBtind II
Jataka (No. 520).
2119 No. 283.
oUO 0 No. 376.
198
for princes was regarded as a mark of social decay. 22 U 1
vaO'O'a
2
2 0 2 we learn that Buddhist sam "has sometimes
00 v
].!'rolll the Maha
cultivated lands
belonging to private persons and used to get half of the prod lICe as their
share or sometimes let out their own lanus in lieu of half of the produce.
"0 the seedlings belonging to the Sarpgha, grown upon private ground,
half the produce, 0 Bhikkhus, you m:.l.y have, when you have given a
part to the private owner. Of seedlings helonging to private persons
grown up on the ground, tho property of the Sa1!lgha, you may have the
usc, when you have given a part to the owner."
(a) AgriGlllturul operations: In the Suttanip1ta we have the story
. of Kfi,si Bharadwaja where we fin(1 mention of the (nang-ala), the
oxen-team, the yoke (yuga) and the goad (p:Leitna). The Sakllna Jataka
UOS
describes the successive stages of agriculture. In it we are told that
when a Buddhist monk asked the villagers to builcl:t house for him the
latter agreed to do so after the rains have come ancl watered their fields;
when the rains came and watered their fields they agreed to build
the house for the monk after sowing the seeds; when seeds were sown they
agreed to do the monk's work after enclosing their fields; when their
fields were fencd, they agreecl to do the monk's work after clearing up
the weecls in their fields; when the weeds were cleared up they agreed
to do the monk's work after reapi.ng the harvest; when the harvest
was reaped, they agreed to do the monk's work after the corn had been
threshed on the threshing floor; in this way the work of builcling a house
for the monk was indefinitely put off. In the Chullavagga'l2 0 4. Maha.nama
the Sakyan thus describes the farming operations: "First you have to
get your fields ploughed. When that is done, you have to get the water
let clown over them. When that is done, you have to get the water let
off again. When that is done, you have to get the weeds pulled up. When
that is done, you have to get crops reaped. When that is done, you
have to get the crops carried away. When that is done, you have to get
it arranged in bundles. When that is clone, you have to get it trodden out.
Jatn.ka It 339.
.. VI. 39, i (=8, B. E., Vol. XVII.
p.143)
No. 36 .
VII. 1, 2.
199
When that is done yon have to get the straw picked out. When tbl\t i8
done, you have to get all the chaff removed. When that is done, h,,\'e
to get it winnowed. When tha,t is done, yon have to get the h:m'est
garnered. When that is done, you have to (10 just the same the next
year and the same all OV0r again the year after". 'rhe Uraga. Jataka
(No. 351) refers to thCl custom of maid-servants hringing food to the
cultivators working in the field.
(b) Proteotion of the crops: In the Rigvedic period the cultivators
kept away birds ft'om the corn fields by making clin and noise. H 0
But in this as the S1likechra Sl lOWS, nets made of the
hair of horse's tail were userl for catching hirds that used to cat up the
crops. The Mahi1vagga (1. 50) even refers to the use of scare-crows. In
the .JJtaka 2207 we find that to kill the deer whieh llsml to eat up
the harvest, the cultivators userl to dig up pits, place snares, fix stakes and
pasal).a. yanta (stone-made instruments to catch beasts).
(c) Ceremonies connected with agriculture :-For success in agricul-
ture the Grhyasutras prescribe a number of ceremonies. Thus there is B
rite for ploughing when sacrifice is made to asani and to Sit1
(furrow) as well as to Aralla, Angha, Parjanya, Indr.l. and Bhaga with
similar offerings On the occasion of the threshing floor sacrifice, when one
reaps the harvest or sows the seeds, all portraying the life of the agriculturist
who also offers a sacrifice at mole-heaps to Akhur7ija, the king of moles.
uo8
(d) Rainfall: --The North-western part of the country seems to have
enjoyed sufficient rainfall. Aristobulus
uo9
recorded that rains begall when
the European army reached Taxila in the spring of 326 B. C. and bec.'lme
continuous with the prevalence of the monsoon, all the time they were
marching eastward along the foothills of the Himalayas. When the Greeks
looked rounel upon the features of the country India seemed, before anything
Rig Venn, X. 68. 1
No. 484.
No. 11.
Govila GrbyaelUra. IV. 4. 2-'
Ibid., 3Of.
Fragmllnt XV. C.6"1
d. r,. 6!l7.
200
else to be the land of rivers.
2
2 10 Megasthenes mentions 58 rivers of which
thirty-five names are preserved and arc still recognisable to-day.
2
2 II
(e) Irrigation :-Despite this natural supply of water various methods
of irrigation were also known. From the Dharmapada
22
12 it appears that
the boundaries of each house-holder's plot of arable land were made by
channels dug for co-operative irrigation. These dividing ditches, rectangular
and curvilinear, were likened to a patch-work robe, prescribed by the Buddha
as a pattern for the uniform of his order.
2
213 The Kama Jataka
2
U 4
speaks of a brahmin making little embanked squares for water. We also
hear of the rivers being dammed for the purpose of irrigation. We thus
read in the Kunala Ja:taka : 2215 "The Sakyas and the Koliyans had the
river Rohini which flows between the cities of Kapilavastu and Kolia,
confined l)y a single dam and by means of it cultivated their crops. In the
month of J ettamula when crops began to flag and droop, the labourers from
both the cities assembled together. Then the Koliyans said 'Should this
water be drawn off on both sides it will not prove sufficient for both us and
you. But our crops will thrive with a single watering, give us then the
water."
(f) Oultivated plaids :-The Grhyasutras prove that there were two
harvests a year and that the people long l'ealised the advantages of a rotation
crops in that a season of barley was succeeded by one of rice.
2
2 16 As to
the cultivated plants we find the names of (1) vrihi (rice)
2
u 7 (2) gandha-


Strabo xv. C. 689.
Fragment 18= Arrian-Indica, 4;
Pliny-Natural History, VI. Art.
64.
Dhp., verse 19.
Vioaya Texts, n. 207-09; Mab .
VIII. 12; cf. Psalms of the
Brethern, p. 152.
No. 4.66.
No. 536.
Vrihiprabhrtya a yavebhyo yave-
bbyo va vrihibhya Bwayam haret
sVIlYlim hllret-Kbadira Grbya-
slitra, 1. 5. 37 (- s. B. E., Vol.
XXIX. p. 388) j also Govila Grhya.-
aiitra, I. 4. 29.
1\'1 a.hasvn pua Jataka (No. 77) i
Sudhabhojana. (No. 535); Avala-
yana Grhyasiitra, I. 11. 2; I. 9. 6 ;
I. 17. 12 ; Saiikhyayana. Grhyasutra,
I. 17.7 ; r. 22. 5 j I. 24. 3 ; I, 28. 6 j
III. 1. 3.
201
sali2
218
(3) chinaka
2219
(4) taJ;l,dula:!l220 (5) syamaka
2221
(6) yava
22U
(7) godhuma
2223
(8) mudga
2224
(9) masa
2225
and (10) sugarcanc.
2226
The Ja:takas 2 227 refer to the parlfikas who used to earn their Ii Villg by
growing green vegetables on their fields. Among the green vegetables we
find the mention of (1) gourd (alavu) 2228 (2) pumpkin 2229 vali-
va)2230 (3) cucumber
2231
(4) el'val'uka (a kind of cucumber) 2232 (5) yag-
dummura (a kind offig)2233 (6) garlic
22H
(7) radish (mula)2
23
5 (8) a
kind of sweet potatoes (mlluv:t)2236 and (9) pot-herbs or esculent vegetables
(saka).2237 The Viswantara Jataka
2238
refers to karoti (=rajamasa=
Bengali varbati) and to kalamvi. The leaves of a shrub (gulma) called
kara
22
3 9 and of Indravarut;ll tree
22
40 were taken by the people after
boiling them. Among different varieties of kanda (bulbous or tulJerous
UlB -= Scented rice Jiltaka
No. 346).
= Sanskrit vribibbeda (Sudba-
bhojana Jiitnka No. 535).
NikkuI)duka thusii swayaqljiita taI)-
dulasisiini - rice that comes from
the plaut, ha,ing no husk etc.
(Sudhiibhojana Jataka No. 535).
The seeds of a kind of grass called
yamii which were eaten by the
poor ( Sudhabbojana Jiitaka
No. 535).
Mab1i.swapna Jataka (No. 77);
AsvaJayana Grhyasntra. I. 11. 2;
I. 9. 6; I. 17. 2 j Sailkhyayana
Grhyasntra. I. 24. 3; I. 2B. 6 j
III. 1. 3 ; IV. 4. 9.
Mab1i.swapna Jataka (No. 77).
Mahaswapna Jataka (No 77) ;
Sailkbyayana Grhyasiitra I. 22. 5 ;
Paraskara Grbyasutra, 1. 15. 4.
Mahaswapna Jataka (No. 77).
Ibid. The word harel)uka occurs
in the Sudhabhojan:1 Jataka
(No. 77). In Pali it is tbe collec-
tive name for mudga. til a,

aJavu and In Sanskrit
it means a kind of beans.
Kuddala Jataka (No. 70); ParI)ika.
Jataka (No. 102).
Kuddala (No. 70); MahaswapnB
(No. 77); Pa.rl)ika (No. 102);
(No. 514); Soumanasya.
(N o. 505).
Kuddala Jataka ( No. 70); Par\li 1.11.
(No. 102); SoumanBsya (No. 505) ;
(No. 514).
Viswantara. Jataka (No. 547).
Kuddala Jataka (No. 70).
= Pilli Elaluka No. 5H).
U 4.amvara Janaka (No. 298).
Viswantara (No. 5407); SuvarQ&-
halllsB (No. 136).
Pai'ichayudha Jiitak& (No. 55).
SudhabhojaI)a (No. 535); Kanala
(No. 536) ; Viswantara (No. 5407).
Kuddala Jiitaka ( No. 70 ) j Parl)ika
(No. 102).
No. 547.
Akirli Jataka (No. 480).
Ibid. j JiLtaka (No. 440).
202
roots) the Takkala
2241
and Viswantara Jatakas
2242
mention (1) takkala
(2) alupa (3) and (4) kalamva which according to the commentator
are (1) piQ.daln (2) alnkanda (3) viralavalli kanda and (il) talakanda
respectively.
Of oil-hearing plants sesamum 224 3 and mustard 2244 are frequently
mentioned. Among spices thc Jatakas refer to (1) aclral\a (ginger)2245
(2) jiraka (cumin-seecl)2
2
46 (3) marica
2247
and (4) pippali (pepper).224R
Of colour-bearing plants indig02249 was the most important.
As to fibrous plants karpasa is mentioned for the first time in the Asva-
layana Srautasutra.
2
2 5 0 Herodotus also speaks of the cotton plant as yield-
ing vegetable wool "surpassing in beauty and quality the wool of sheep and
the Indians wear clothing from these trees."2 2 51 From the Mahavagga we
learn that simula or cotton silk mentioned in the J;rtakas 2252 was used in
the preparation of quilts (tulika) stuffed with cotton-wool. Sana (Crotalaria
Junica) is mentioncd in the S:tiikhyayana Grhyasutra2 3 5 3 and in the sutras
of Pi1I?iui. Linen flax (Linum U sitatissimum) was also known.
2
2 54 M!1kaci,
a kind of fibre with which strainers were made is mentioned in the Valo-
daka Jataka.
2
2 5 5
Forests and their economic imp)rtance -The forcsts continued as
in the earlicr periocls to serve the purpose of natural pastures. "The
No. 446.
No. 547.
Grhyasiitra, I. 9. 6;
I. 17.2; II. 4. 4 ; IV. 4.13; IV. 7.
11; Khadira Grhyasiitra, II. 2. 26 ;
I. 3. 18; IV. 1. 16; Paraskara
Grhyasiitra, I. 15. 4; II. 6. 17 ;
Sankhyayana Grhyasiitra, I. 28. 6 ;
III. 1. 3 ; IV. 1. 3; IV. 3. 4.
Jataka (No. 547);
Paraskara Grhyasiitra, I. 17. 23 ;
Sankhyayana Grhyasiltra, III. 1. 3.
Kapota Jataka (No. 42); Godua
Jataka (No. :-:25).
:il155
Kapota Jataka (No. 42) ; Romaka
(No. 277); Godha (No. 325).
Romaka (No. 277) ; Godba (No. 32:.
Godha Jataka (No. 325).
Sankhyayana Grhyaslitra, 1. 2:3. 1 ;
compare Nnr of Viwantara. Jataka
(No. 547).
V. 4.17.
1I1cCrindle's Ancient India, III. lOJ.
Khullanarada Jataka (No. 477).
I. 24. 11.
Jataka (No.4).
No. 183.
203
Bodhisattva had a herdsman who when the corn was growing thick,
drove his cows to the forest and kept them there at a shieling."2256
Secondly, they suppliell the people with wild rice
2
257 and esculent vege-
tables.
22
58 In the third place, the forests were a perennial source of
supply of fuel and timber.2 259 In the fourth place, the forests supplied
the people with aloe (aguru),226
0
bdellium (guggulU),2261 spikenard
(naladil,2262 camphor (karpura),2263 liquorice costus
226 5 lac 2266 tail of a yak,2 2 6 7 ivory2 268 and sandal-
wood. 22 6 9 Sanda.lwood-powder used by ladies as a toilleto for the
breasts,
2
270 essence of sanaal wood (candanasara)2 2 7 1 and sandalwood
oi1
2
2 72 were highly prized. In the fifth place, the forest-tracts served as
habitations for certain classes of people. According to the Pancha-upsattha
Jataka
2
27 3 people who h'1d curhecl their worldly desires inhabitecl these
regions. Thc Siltras 2274 also describe different classes of hermits
living in these forests. The forests were also the habitations of
the Ataviyas who appearcJ. to have been fully acquainted with the
forest-paths and used to hire themselves out as guides to cara-
8 .. 3
ViSwasa.bhElfijana Jataka. (No. 93);
Sandhibheda Jataka (No. 349).
VaHihasvo. (No. 196); P,,\asa (No.
368) ; Viswantara (No. 517). In the
Viswantara Jataka wild rice of two
different kinds is mentioned (l)
Swayaql = Pali
According to commentator it is
otherwise known as Sukarasali (2)
PrasiUika = Pali Pasadiya.
Par1,lika' Jataka. (No. 102).
Alinacitta Jiltaka (No. 156).
llha.llatika (No. 504); Khal,ldahala
(No. 542); Viswantara (No. 547).
Mataiiga Jataka (No. 497); Viswan-
tara Jataka (No. 547).
Viswa.ntara Jataka (No. 547).
Viswantara. Jataka (No. 547);
Andhabhiita Jataka (No. 62).
Visw,mtara. Jataka (No. 547).
no 5 Ibid .
068 Nyagrodha.mrg& Jataka (No. 12);
(No. 313); Snva.r1,la.-
m!ga. (No. 359); Vidurapal}dita
(No. 545).
Nyagrodhamrga. Jataka (No. 12).
Jataka (No. 221).
9 Kuniila Jataka (No. 536); Viswantara
Jataka (No. 547).
.070 Kusa Jiitaka (No. 537).
Kurudharma Jiitaka (No. 276).
Kusa Jiitaka ( No. 537).
..13 No. 490.
'!H Apa.stamva.. II.9. 13 (". S. B. E., V DI.
II. p. 123.; Baudhayana. III. 3
( = S. B. E., Vol. XIV. p. 291 ff.;
Gauta.ma, III. 2 ( '" S. B. E., Vol.
II. p. 192).
204
vans.
2
2 7 5 I.astly, some of the forest-tracts were extremely valuable
for their supply of elephants. The earliest reference to elephant-forests
( mataiigaral?ya) is probably in the Mahavagga.
2
276 The Majjhima
Nikaya also refers to elephant-preserves (nagavana). 227 1
The various useful trees known to the people of this period
are :-(1) TiritP 278 = Til'ita of Amara (2) Sallaki. II 279 According to
the commentator it is Indrasala tree (= Boswellia Thurifera). From
its extract (niryyasa) a scent called lavan or kundura was prepared
(3) Karpura (eamphor)2280 (ol,) Khadira
2281
from which we get catechu
(.') Dhanga
2282
from which a narcotic (hemp) is obtained (6)Asvakarl!a2283
(7) Asvattha
2284
(8) PaL'isa
ll285
(9) Tvaksara (10) Kutaja2287
(11) Visa
22
8 8 (12) Simula (silk-cotton troe)2 \I 8 9 (13) Slla \I \I 9 0 (14) Tilaka2 291
(Hi) Souhhafijana (=Sajilla)1l29\l (16) VaruQ.a\l293 (17) Vurjja (Birch)2296
(18) VedL5a
2295
(19) VeQ.u
2296
(20) Muchakullda
ll
\l9
7
(21) Picu-
Jataka (No. 265) ;
Jayacldvisa (No. 513).
X. 3. 1.
See li:pigraphica Indica, Vol. II.
p. 265).
K\lnala J1i.tah (No. 53:.
Jataka (No. 547); Matr
Jataka (No. 455).
Anclhabhuti Jataka (No. 62); Vis
wanto.ro. (No. 547).
Ka"dagalaka Jataka (No. 210) ; Vis.
wantara ( No. 547).
Sudhflbhojl<na Jataka (No. 5%).
Kakkara Jataka (No. 209); Viswan
tara (No. 547).
Jataka (No. 210); Pi\laSa
(No. 30;) : Sudhabhojana (No. 535);
Viswantara (No.
Jataka (No. 3)5); PaiiiSa (No.
368) ; Viwantara (No. (47).
Tvaksara Jataka (No. 86S).
Jataka (No. 455); Ku
nUa. (No.u36); Viswanta.ra. Jatab
(No. tl47).
1Iat!po5aka Jataka (No. 455).
Khullanarada Jataka (No. 477).
BhalHitika (No. 504); CMmpeya
(No. 506); Nalinika (No. 526);
Sudhabhojana (No. 535); Kunala
(No. 536) ; ViSwo.ntara (No. 547).
Nalinika (No. 526); SUdhabhojana
(No. 535); Kunaillo (No. 536) j
VidurapatJdita (No. 545).
Sudbabhojana (No. 535); cf.
= Sajina in Viswantara Jiitaka.
(No. 547); = Sajina in
Viswantara Jataka (No. 547).
S\lahabhojann (No. 535); Kareri-
Var\l"a in Viswantara (No. 547).
S\lclhabhojana (No. 535); Kunala
(N o. 536) ; N alinika (No. 526).
Sndhabhojana Jiitnka (No. 535).
Ibid.
Sudhabhojanllo Jataka (No. 535);
Vidurapal)dita (No. 545); Muchi
linda = Mucbak\loda in Kunala
Jataka (No. 536).
manda (=Neem)229B (22) Kuravaka
H99
(23) Chetasa
1800
(21) Ba.
ju<;la
2301
(=sanskrit Vanjula) (25) (26) PriyakaltOS (=Piyl-
sala) (27) Asana
2304
(28) (Pine) (29) K1ragula (-K:lI!I.
guru)23
0
6 (30) Padmaka
2307
(31) Devadaru
23
<>B (32) Kllkudh& (=
Kakuhha=Arjuna)2309 (33) Kachchikara
U10
(3t) TUI)a (=Toon)1S11
(35) KaQavera (=Karavlra)2312 (36) (37) Kovidlra
131
'
(38) Anangana
2315
(39) Anavajja
23t6
(40) (UI Bhagini
U18
(42) D hanukarika 93 1 9 (43) Talisa ( = Tali = Paniyala)!loU 0 (U) Kotta IS 11
(45) SaptaparQi2322 (46) Uparibhadra
n23
(47) Karajlia (=Karlliijaka=DaI-
bergea Arborea) 2324 (1,8) Dhava.
2325
It is called Dhao tree in Orissa and in
the Santhal Pargannas (49) Dhrrtri
2326
(50) Vallika
2327
(51) Putrailjiva
Uu
(52) Kosamva
2329
(53) (5ct) Pangura
23Sl
(55)
21301
2802
2808
2306
2801
.a08
$1309
Piili Puchima.nda (Pichuma.nda.
Jiitaka (No. 310).
Kuniila. Jiitaka (No. 536); S'veta-
Jhinti Kurava.ka while
Jhinti =
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid. ; Viswantara Jataka. (No. 547).
KUllala Jataka. (No. 536); Asalla-
PiyMala ill Viswanta.r& (No. 547) ;
cf. in VHwa.n-
tara (No. 547). Piyasala= Pentap-
tera tomentosa.
Kunala Jat!!.ka. (Ii o. 536).
Ibid.; Viswantara Jataka (No. 547).
Kunala Jataka. (No. 536).
Ibid., Viswantara. Jataka (No. 547).
Kunala Jataka. (No. 536).
Ibid.; Viswantara. (No. 547); cf.
Kakuda in VislVantara (No. 547).
Ibid.
Kunala Jataka ( No. 536).
Ibid.
ViSwantara (No. 547). It may be
Kurut.ltakll> of Ama.ra ; cf.
of Kunal .. Jataka (No. 536).
.814 (No. 547) i KuDila
Jatab (No. t>36).
921 Kunala Jataka (No. 536).
'31G Ibid.
S t 7 Ibid.
8118 Ibid.; cf. Bb&ginlmal. in Vidu .. -
Jata.ku. (No. 545).
Kunala Jataka (Yo. 536). Accordiag
to the commentatOr it is the ... me
as Dhallu patali.
0300 Kanala Jataka (No. 536); V,6""D-
tara Jataka (No.
Uu Kunala Jataka (No. 536).
'30. Vidurapal;dita Jataka (No. M:i);
Viswantara J:ltaka (Na. 5'7).
.nos Vidurapavdit.. JUaka (No.
Uparibhadra- Bhadrah - .ilher
Devaduu or
.3" ViSwi\ntara Jitaka (No. M7).
31' Spandana Jatah (No. '75) ;
Viswantara Jitak .. 5'7).
.... Viswantara lAtah (No. 5'7).
a 17 Ibid. Vallika _ Valll\&h (P).
sail Vis"antara Jitaka (No. 5'7).
un Ibid
.. ,., Ibid. Somayrkta-Soma plaD' (').
206
(56) SvetaparQ.i2
333
(57) Sveta:guru
U34
(58) Jatama!psi
2335
(59) (60) Svetavari
2337
(61) Kateruha
2338
(62) Tulasl
plant
2
3 3 9 (63) Asitaru
2
340 (64) Katam-ala (Viswantara Ja:taka) = Krtamala
of Amara = Sonali) (65) Cocha (Kunala Jrrtaka). According to Amara
it belongs to the 'guratvak' species (66) Phaf,lijjaka (Viswantara Ja:taka) =
Phaf,lijjhaka of Amara. Accorcling to Amara it belongs to the 'Jamvira'
species and (67) from which a gandhadravya was prepared.
Among the flower plants and trees the following arc mentioned in the
literature of this period :-(1) Kusumbha (saffiower)234
1
(2) Karf,lik"Il'a =
Uddrrlaka = Sonali = Casia fistula 2342 (3) Kaf,ltakuraf,lda 2343 (4) Kim-
suka 2344 (5) Kadamva 2345 (6) Ankola = 2346 Ankolaka = Ankolla .
Afikola = Ai'ikotha (?) of Amara. Accol'lling to the author of Plora Indica
it is Bengali AkarakaI].tha. (7) Sattali (PaH) = Sans. Sap tali = Bengali
Navamalika 2347 (8) Mrrdhavi 2348 (9) Yuthika: 2349 (10) Lodhra 2350
(11) Sthalapadma (plant)
2
3 51 (12) Ketaki
2
352 (13) Vakula
23
53 (14) Cham-
U3'
1133'
ViwBntBrB Jataka (No. 547).
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid. The commentator adds the
gloss: Siniddhaya. bhiimiyar;I
thita talaviya rllkkha.
Jataka (No. 147).
Dardara (No. 1::2); Bhallatika (No.
a04) ; Cbampeya (No. 506); Nali-
nika (No. 526) j Sadbabhojana
(No. 53!; Knnala (536) ; Kbal)da-
ha.la (No. 542) j Vidurapal)dita
(No. 545) ; ViS;;-antara 547).
Dardara (;if o. 172); cf. Karal)daka
in ViSwan(ara Jataka (No. 547).
Kinylukopo.ma Jataka (No. 246);
KIlDll. (No. 536); ViSwBntara.
2360
(No. 547). The Viswantara Jataka
(No. 1i47) refers to a plant clIlled
KiI\lsukalatika.
1I1ahotkrosa ( No. 486); Nipa =-
Kadamva in Kirpchhando (No. 511)
and Viswantara (No. 547).
Vallatika Jataka (No. 504) ; Kunala
(No. 536) ; Viswantara(No. 547).
Vallatiko. Jataka (No. 504)
Vallatiko. Jatakll (No. 504) ; Atimuk-
taka. = Atimukta = Madhavilata in
Kunala Jataka (No. 536).
Vallatika Jataka (No. 504); Yodhi
= y odhika = Yiithika in Kunala
(No. 536) and Viswantara (No. 547).
Sudhabhojana Jahka (No. 535).
Ibid. j Viswantara (No. 547).
Sudhabhojana (No. 535); Kuuala
(No. 536); Vidurapal}.dita (No.
545) j Viswantara (No. 547).
Kuniila Jataka (No. 536); Vis wan-
tara Jataka (No. 547).
paka
2354
(15) Asoka
2355
(16) Nagake
sara
!lS56 (17) Vanamallikl\U51
(18) Tagara
2358
(19) Nagami1lika
2359
(20) Nagavalli
2s60
(21) Madhuka
uu
(22) Nyagl'odha
2362
(23) Kuravaka
2363
(21l) (25) Sindhuv.'ln
= 2365 (26) Bhar:di = Bhar:dila = or Ghen!u flower' us
(27) Jati
2367
(28) Sumana 2368 = Davala Yuthik:I or "Mallikl (29) Madhu-
gandhika
2369
(30) Swetachchha
2370
(31) Raktamala = Nnktam:tla
lS71
(32) Sirpsapa 2372 (33) Asphotaka
2373
(34) Suryyavalli
2374
(35) Anoja
ua
(36) Vasanti
2376
(37) Kit}lsukalatika
2377
(38) PadmoUara
H78
and
(39) Elamvara,2 37 9 a plant of the species the scent of whose flowers
last for a week. 2380
Among the fruit trees of this period the following are the most impor-
tant :-(1) Mango
2381
(2) Dhruvaphalo Amvo (mango tree which yoilded
Kunala Jataka (No. 536); Vidura
pal}dita Jataim (No. 545).
Kunala (No. 536); Khal}dahala (No.
542) ; ViSwan!ara (No. 547).
Viswa.ntara (No. d. Nagaruk-
kha (PaIi) = - Naga-
kesara (?) in Kunala (No. 536).
Kunala Jataka (No. 536).
Ibid. ; VislVantara (No. 547).
Vidurapavdita (No. :;45). In the
land a kind of Ynthika
flower is called Nagamalli.
Viswantara. Jataka (No. 547).
This tree yields Mabna flower. Ma-
basva.pna. (No. 77); San,lkalpa.
(No. 251); S'aktignlma (No. 503);
Sndhabhoja.na (No. 535).
Sarpkalpa Jiitaka (No. 251); Sudbii-
bhojana (No. 535).
Vallatika Jataka (No. 504).
(No. 504); Cbampeya (No.
506); N alinika (No. 526); Sudha
bhojana (No. 535);
(No. 542); Viswantara. (No. 547).
VaIHltika (No. 504); Sndbabbojana
(No. 535); Vidnrapa.vdita (No.
!j366
2 SO 'J'

3:5'70
U70
iH7


.3eo

545). Compare Nirgul)dl - Ni,indl
in J:l.tak:a (No. M7).
Knnala (No. 535) j .. ntal'& (No.
547) ; is mentioned in Vi'-
wantara. Jat:.ka. (S' o. 547).
Kunala Jataka (No. 536); Vih,an-
tara Jataka (No. 547).
Knnala Jataka (No. 536).
Jataka (No. 547).
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid. Is it of Amara P L-
is anotber n8me of Aparljitl,
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
JAtab (No.
CMmpeya (No. l'>IJ6); N .. linlU
(No. 526) ; (No, M2);
Vidurapa\ldita ;
tara (No. :>47).
208
mangoes throughout the year)2382 (3) .hmvn (hlack-herry trco)2383 (4)
Vilva
2384
(5) Vac1ari'l385 (6) Kapittha
2386
(7) Kharjjnra
2387
(8) Tala'l388
(9) Cocoanut
23B9
(10) Haritaki'l390 (11) (12) Vibhitaka
(Vahe<;tI) 2392 (13) Tinduka (Glva or Ebony)2393 (U) U<,lamvara
2394
(15) Kuruvinc1a=Mutha or Vadama (Terminalia (16)
Panasa
2396
(17) Piyala
2397
(18) Lavuja 2399 (20) Kara, a
shrub
2400
(21) Kadali (plantain)2401 (22) Mocha (Pali).2402 According to
the commentator it is (= Bengali Vichekala) (23) Timvaru
H03
which yields a kind of Gi1va fruit (Diospyros glutinosa) (21)
(vine)2404 (25) Saha'l405 (= Sahaklra, according to the commentator). The
tree which yields scented mangoes is called Sahalnra (Sahak:rral,l atisoura-
bhal,l). In Sanskrit, however, Saha means other kinds of trees like Rasna.
Among shrubs, plants and trees yielding scents we find (1) Haridrl
U
06
(turmeric, curcuma, haldi) (2) (costuS)2407 (3) Aguru(aloe)2408 (4)
Narada (= nalac1a, naladi, spikenard) 240
9
(5) Guggulu (bdcllium)2410




UBS


gavaka Jataka. (No. 309).
Jataka (No. 495).
Champeya (No. 506) ;;Nalinika (No.
526); Sudbabhojana (No. 535);
Vidurapal,1dita (No. 545);
wantara (No. 547).
Jataka (No. 495).
Ibid.; (No. 547).
Jataka (No. 547).
Ibid. Keka = Koka (?) - Kbarjj 11 ra.
in Sudbabhojana Jataka (No. 535).
Vinilaka Jataka (No. 160) ; Markata.
(No. 173); (No.
389) ; ViSwantara (No. 5407); of.
Vibbed!lka. = Tala. tree in Vis wan-
tara Jataka (No. 547)
Viswantara Jataka (No. 547).
DaSabrabmal)a Jataka (No. 495);
Viswantara (No. 547).
Dasabrabma9a Jataka (No.495).
Karkal'a (No. 209); Dasabramal,1a
(No. 495) ; Viswantarll (No. 547).


H03

Hoe
HOD
Uto
Tinduka. Jataka (No. 177); Pa.laSa.
(No. 305); 5aktigulma. (No. 5)3) j
Sudhabhojana Jataka(No. 535).
SaJ'!lkalp3. Jataka (No. 251).
J5.taka (No. 455).
Jataka (No. 547).
DlIsabrabmal,1a Jata.ka. (No. 495);
gaktigulma (No. 503).
Dasabrabmal,111 Jataka (No. 495).
Viswanta.ra. Jataka (No. 547).
Saktigulma Jataka (No. 503).
Jataka (No. 514) ; Sudba-
bhojana. (No. 535).
SudhabbojaD80 Jata.ka. (No. 535).
Viswantara Jataka (No. 547).
Ibid.
Vidurapal,1dita Jataka (No. M5),
Viswantara Jataka (No. 547).
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
209
(6) (liquorice) (7) (8) Priyaiign,2413
(9) Gandhasila
H14
(10) Bhadramusta2415 (11) (12) Jha-
IUlka
2417
(13) Tungavrnta
241S
(H) Hrivera
2419
(15) Choraka
2420
(16) Kalinga
h21
(11) Unnaka
2U2
(18) Lolupa
h23
(19) and Karpilra
(camphor) already mentioned.
The followiug varieties of gl'ass and reeds were also known in this
period :-(1) HU (2) Ku;a
2U5
(3) Potakila (Plli) = Pvtagala
(Sans).2426 It is a grass of the Sara species. (4) Pavvaja=Valvaja
2427
(5) Munja
2U8
and (6) Usira (=Khaskhas).2429
Mines-As to minerals we find mention of (1) iron
2430
(2) copper
24031
(3) lea(12432 (t) tin (ranga)U33 (5) silver 2434 (6j gold24.35 (7) yellow orpi-
ment (ll1.ritlh) U3a (8) m'\!Htl);ila
U37
and (9) hingulaka.
2438
Preciou8
stones like Vaiflurya 24 3 9 and diamond 24400 were also known. The procluc-
tion of gold must have been considerable in North-western India, for, accor-
ding to Herodotus,
2
4 41 the Inclian satraphy of Darius paid a tribute exceed-
ing that of every other people, to wit, three hundred and sixty talents of
gold dust. The fact of India prtying her tribute in gold naturally lea'ls to
the question -Where was the source of all this gold? According to Hero-
0611 Ibid.
ua Kudla (No. 526);
(No. 547).
ViSwal)tara j cr. Piy.mgn
in Kunala Jataka (No. 536).
uu Jataka (No. 547).
2615 Ibid.
'0" Ibid.
un Ibid.
lU1S Ibid.
.. 10 Ibid.
''''0 Ibid.
'''1 Ibid.
s", Ibid.
,"3 Ibid.
.... Ibid.
.... Ibid. j Sudhabhojana (No. 535).
u". Jataka (No. 547).
'''7 Ibid.
0408 Ibid .
... 0 Ibid.; Kunala Jataka. (No. 536);
SudMbhojana Jiitaka (535).
2<30 Jarndapiioa Jataka (No. 256).
..81 Ibid.
H82 Ibid,
0438 Ibid.
..84 Ibid.; Kuuiila Jiitaka (No. 536).
048 5 Ibid .
U86 Kuna1a Jataka (No. 536).
0437 Ibid.
Ibid.
2489 Jarudapdna Jiitah (No. 25') .
""0 Supiiraga Jiitah (No. 463)-
'''1 Rawlinson - Herodotus, Vol. 11.
p.4g7.
210
dotus "there is abundance of gold i.n Inclia partly brought clown by the
rivers and p[tl'tly seizerl in the m[tnner I have de;cribeJ." 2 U 2 The words
refer to his famous story of the gohl-(ligging ants which is repe:ttc:l hy snb-
sequent writers like Pliny, lElian, Chryso:,;tom ana even by more tt'ust-
worthy writers like Magasthenes anel N earchos. The real origin of the
theory of ant-gold was first explained by Dr. Wilson who pointcJ. out that
the Sanskrit name for small fragments of alluvial golll (gold (lust) was paip-
palaka ( = ant-gold) in l'efel'enc;) to their resemhlance to ants in size and
form. The Greeks accepted a too literal meaning of the word and supposed
that gold was dug out by ants. When Herodotus says that the ants wel'e
of the size of dogs and fiercely attacked anyone carrying 011' the goM, it has
been plausively suggested that the account was derivcd from people who
had been chased by the formitlahle nogs kept by tho native minors. H 3 The
further addition of the myth referre(l to hy Pliny who says that "the horns
of the gold-digging ants were pl'eserverl in the temple o[ Hcrcules at Ery-
thral" has heen explained by Professor V. nall, Sir H. llawlinson and Dr.
Schiel'll. The explanation may he thus given in Professor Ball's :
"The so-called myth was not cleared up till hy chance, information was
received as to the customs and habits of the 'ribetan gohl-miners of the
present clay. The myrmeccs of Hcroclotus a11<l were Tibetan
miners and their dogs. The horns mentionecl by Pliny were the golrl-
miner's pick-axes. I have heen informed by an eye-witness, R. Lyllekkcr
that the picks in use in La'lak consist of horns of wild sheep mounted
on hamlles."2 444 Megasthenes has a(Med the useful information that the
country from which golel Came was the country of the Derclae (in Sanskrit
Damua or Dar:1d = mOllern Dal'uisthan in Kashmere).2 44 5
It is interesting to note in this connection that from very early times
mines appeal' to have been regarded;as state property. According to Gautama
all treasure-trove belongs to the king, but an cxception in case of the
Hi3
McCrindle's Classical Literature,
Herodotus.
McCrincle's Ancient India, p. 44,
note 2.
Prot V, Ball-A geologist's con-
trihution to the history of Anciant
India in the Indian Antiquary,
1884.
)IIogasthenes, Fragment 29 - Sh'abo
XV. C. 706.
211
treasure-trove is made when a preist is the finder and some :say that any-
body who finds it gets one-sixth.
2
H 6
Clttle-rearlng, pig-culture and poultry-farming :-Oattle formed
an important item of wealth of the ordinary householder even in this
periol. Oxen were for agrieultura,l work and apart from
s3.crificial usc milk formo 1 tho pl"in.cip3.1 drink of tile people besilles being
tho source of supply for cUIds, whey, butter and ghee. From the Sutta-
nipata we learn that a Brahmin cultivator K!i.si Bharadwaja by name
had fi vo ploug:ls all,l til(} 1'0 I uisite number of oxen in acldition to a large
herd of cows. In the Dlw,niya'lutta a cultivator spea.ks of his wealth
in cattle anrl is prourl of his milch cows. The helus of cattle
2U7
and
were customarily cntrusted to a communal neatherd who
woultl bring them back every evening aud count them out to the several
owners.2449
From the )funika245
0
and Salilka245
1
Jatakas we find that pigs were
domestica.tcl and fattened before being eaten up.
The Val' taka Ji1taka
H
5 a refers to it hunter who earned his livelihood
by catching quails, fattening them in his house for some time and then
selling them to his customers.
Hunting and fishing-A large number of people earned their living
by hunting birds and beasts. We read of hunters going to the market
with cart-loads of f!e"h to sell. 245 3 For captul'ing deer people used to dig
up pits, place snares, fix up stakes and 2454 After the
beater,;; had done their work deer were hunted either from a machan
on a tree 2455 or from a thatch constructed for the purpose. 2 4 6 We
UU Gautalll't, X. Z5 f.
' .. 7 Jatah III. H9.
Ib:d" III. 409.
.... A. I. 205; )1. Dhp. comm. 1. 157.
No. 30.

No. 118.
ula Mal\.lsa Jat!>ka (No. 315).
"H Jataka (N"o. 11.).
.466 Kurangamrga JaLaka (No. 21)
.... Manoja (N"o. 397). For catching
deer net of leather-ma.de straps
made bright with lac were used
[Syagrodhamrga (No. 12) and
Suvarl}a.m!ga Jat .. ka (No. 3j9).
212
rea/J. of birtls
H
5 7 and peacocks H 58 being C3 ught in traps made of wool t4 59
or of the hail' of horse's tail246
0
with the help of decoy birds.
u61
Lions
were hunte:! from an 'aHaka' (tower or machan) specially constructed
for the purpose.
2
462 The method of capturing elephants described in the
Jataka. 24 6 3 is substantially the same described by :M:egas-
thenes,2 4 6 4 the precursor of the modern 'Kheda' system.
Fishing became the main occupation of a section of the population.
We read of fish being caught from rivers and tanks in ncb;2465 01' in a
cage-like structure of cane or bamboo-splints called kumina. H 6 6 Of
fish a large variety was known. We find mention of :-(1) ltohita (=
Bengali Rui
2467
(2) Pagusa (=Sanskrit Vagusa=Bengali i.e, Kala-
vayua)2468 (3) Pithina (=Bengali Voy:tla)2469 Sakula (=Bcngali
801)2470 (5) Sringi (=Bengali singi)2471 (6) Valuka (=Bcugali Vele
(7) Pavusa (= Bengali 24 7 3 (8) (= Bengali :M:ira-
gela ?) 2 474 (9) K:lkiI).Q.a (= Bengali Kankley?) 24 75 (10) (0&
a seafish with razol'-likenose=sword-fish ?)2476 (11) Aligargara
2477
(12)
Savakl'a
2478
(13) Kakamatsya2479 and (14) Satavakra.
H80
Tortoises
H81
corals 24 82 and pe arIs 2483 are also mentioned.

24:63
1iU.66
Has
Kakkara Jataka. (No. 209).
MayUra. Jatlloka (No. 159).
Kakkara Jataka (No. 209).
Salikedara Jataka (No. 484).
Ka,kkkara (No. 2':,9); MayUra (No.
159) ; Tittira 317).
lIfllonoja Jataka (No. 397).
No. 514.
Frag. 36 = Strabo, XV. 1. 414:3,
pp. 70-t-05; Frag. 37 = Arrian-
Indica, XIII-XIV.
Jataka (No. 34).
= Bengali gbolla or
m3.ta ( = J5.taka
No. 239.
Chakravaka (No. 451); Sudbabho-
jana (No. 535) ; VidurapaJ;ldita (No.
545) ; Viswantara (No. 547).
Vidurapalldita Jataka (No 545).


ChakraVllka J5.taka (No 451}; Sudha-
Ll (No. 53j) j
(;-{o. 545); M ,hallnmar;1lo (No. 516).
Sudhabhojana Jataka (No. 535).
Ibid.
Chakrllovaka Jatah (No. 451).
Ibid.
Ibid.
Sud:dibhojllona Jataka (No. 535).
Suparaga Jataka (No. 463).
SU'lhabhojRnR Jataka. (No. 535).
Ibid.
Ibid_
Ibid.
Mahotkrosa. (No. 485); Parlloskarllo
GrhyasUtra, I. 14. 5.
Suparaga Jataka. (No. 463).
Anavirati Jataka (No. 185) ; Jaruda.-
pana (N Q. 256).
213
Arboriculture :-It seems that when a cluster of villages was turned
into a city, the intervening space between any two villages was trimmed
with spacious parks. We find frequent mention of such parks in the
Jatakas. In the Jetavana of Sravasti we find arbours (malaka) of
Naga ( = Sala, and other trees specially planted for the pur-
pose. H 8 4. A gardener (udyanapala) was appointed to see that the trees
are properly watered with the help of buckets made of leather or wood. 48 5
The Sankhyana 486 also lays down rules for the consecration
ceremony of a garden.
Progress in arts and crafts: -In early times mechanics and craftsmen
earned their living by serving the villagers. The Sutra "Gramab. Silpini"
in 4 8 7 clearly points to such craftsmen attached to the village.
Another sutra mentions such a village carpenter: "Gramakautabhyam
ca 4. 8 8 But dependence on the village compelled the craftsmen
to subsist on the occasional doles and remunerations granted by the
villagers according to their whims. To remedy this state of affairs, they
had begun in the previous periods to organise themselves into guilds
which gave them protection against oppression and helped them in
making their economic condition better. When the growth of towns
and town-life coupled with the development of domestic and foreign
trade led to a greater demand for their pl'oducts the craftsmen began to
free themselves from the tutelage of the agricultural interest by with-
drawing to those places where they had better opportunities of pursuing
their own occupations, thus leading to the establishment of suburban
industrial villa.ges. This separation of the industrial element of the popu-
lation is a notable feature of the economic life of this period, for, it is
at once the effect and the cause of the remarkable growth of industry.
It is curious that the Greek observers should call the Indians back-
ward in the scientific development of the resources of their country.
They had, for instance, good mines of gold aud silver, yet "The Indians
U8'
1'8'
Varu\la. Jataka ( No. 71).
Jabka (No. 46).
V. 3. 15.
lU8T VI. 2. 62.
H88 V. 4. 95.
214
illeXl)cricllccd in the arts of mining and smelting do not even know their
OWIl resourccs but set about the business in too primitive a way."248
9
They did 1l0t pursue accurate knowledge in any line excoIJt Medicillo;
in the case of some arts it was oven accoullted vicious to carry their study
far, the art of war, for instance.
H90
But the construction and contents
of Piprawa stupa belonging to 100 B. C., discoverer! on the epal
froatier prove that among' Indian Cl'ilftsmen of 450 n. C. there WJre
skilled masons, accomplished stone-cutters and uainty jewellers. "The
masonry of the stupa is excellent of its kind, well and truly laid; the
great sand-stolle coffer could not be better made; and the ornaments of gold,
silvcr, coral, crystal and precious ::;tolles which were deposited in honour of
the holy relics uispby a high degree of skill in the arts of the lapidary and
goldsmith." An examination of the crystal bowl and the steatite vases
accompanying it shows that they are all turned on the lathe and we
thus learn that the Indian lapidaries were familiar with the use of the
lathe
2U
1 in or abont 450 B. C." Equally evident is the skill of the ancient
Indian craftsmen in "shaping, polishing and piercing gems of extreme
hanllless as well as the extensi.ve use of jewellery of an elaborate kind."
(1) Metal illdustry : In fact, the metal industry WaS highly specia-
lised. The word 'kammara' mentioned in the earliest Buddhist literature
is as comprehensive as our 'smith.' We find mention of weapons, tools and
implements, household utensils and ornaments of various kinds. The manu-
factllre of arrows is described in the Mahajanaka .Trrtaka
2
492 and Hero-
llotus
U9S
(lcscriues the Indian army in the service of the Persian King
Xerxes as armed with iron-headell arrows. Swor(1,2494 adjustible sword,2495
spear,u 96 armour, H9 7 and iron helmet
U98
are also mentioned.
&
."0
Ull
... 3
,a"
Str",bo xv. C. 700 .
StI-abo XV. C. 701.
Imperi.l Gn.zetcpr, Vol. n.
No. fl38.
VII. translated by
eRry. London, 1848. p. 434.
Bhojljlneyll. .1MRkn. (No. : Mll.ba
"lanj. (No. til); Kbal,1dahaia
(No. M2); 8iiikhyayauIl. Grbya..
tG\ra, 1. 13. 1. .
AsadJ'Sa. Jataka (No. 181).
Suchi Jata.ka (No. 387); Paraskara
Grhyasiitra, II. G. 16.
Bhojajaneya Jata',a (No. 23);
bhan!,la (No. (22); Mahaunmarga
(No. G4G) ; .Aswalayana Grhyasiltra
III. 1Y. 1, 3.
Ma.baunmarga. Jataka. (No. (46).
21Ci
A small swor(1 cftllccl illi 24 9 9 and a sword of high quality eltHed sikaya-
samay1:2 500 were also known. was famous for the high quality
of her swords.
2
501
Among tools and implements we find (1) l)al'asu (axe),2S02 (2) "Vasi
(adze), '1 0 3 (3) vasiparasu, a combination of the carpenter's adze and axe,
2
504,
(4) keen-edged saw (PiLli Krakacha),25
0 5
(5) bill_hook,2
50
6 (6) hammer,2507
(7) fishing hook made of iron,250
8
(8) iron goad (Pali pachana=Sans. pri1-
jana),2509 (9) crowbar (tomara, khanitra),2510 (10) spade,2511 (11) grass-
cutter's knife,25
1
2 (12) auger (nikhadana),2513 and (13) siiighataka (an
instrument having three pointecl Corners like a singara, an acquatic
nut)2 14.
Among domestic utensils we fil1fl (1) iron vessels,2 515 (2) iron jar
(kUlllhhi), '15 16 (3) bucket (PiLli udauchani .. Sans. udarrchana),2 51 7 (4) colan-
der, a vessel with many holes (PJli parisavana karoti),2 518 (5) fork
(sandarpsa)'1519 ancl (6) iron rods used in roasting meat.
2520
Razor
mn.clc of metal, '152 1 fino needles with case,
2
522 key (PJli avapural)a =
('0 1
21500

SCl)a (No. 529); Mahajanaka(No. 5:19).
)'hl,annmarga Jatak& (No. 54'3).
(No. 401).
'l'ailap:Hr;\ Jatah (No. 96); Dadhi
val.ana (No. lEG) ; 8ucbi (No. 287) ;
Grhy!l8utN, I. \6. 18 ;
III. 1::'.21; A,1waHiyana Grhya;utra,
I. 15. 3 ; SailkhyaYllna
1. 28. 14.
Sneh! Jataka (No. 387) j
Jataka (No. 514).
Dadhivahana Jataka (No. 186).
Silavannaga Jataka (No. 72);
Asitahbu (No. 234);
payana (No. 444).
V (No. 38).
Val}l)llpatha (No.2); Mabiipingaia
(No. 240) ; (No 514).
Sllcb! Jataka (No. 387).

.s18
2519
Suchl Jataka (No. 387).
.latah (N"o. 105);
(No 514).
(No.2); Nanda (N"o. 39);
(No. 66); K"ddaia
(N"o. 70); (No. 514).
Jataka (No. 340);
danta (No. 514).
Jiitaka (No. 514).
Ibid.
IT daya Jataka (N" o. 458).
Lonhakumv! Jataka (No. 314).
IT dancb<.tui Jataka (No. 100).
Kapota Jataka (No. 42)
Jataka (No. 267).
Jataka (No. 316).
Kbadira Grbyasutra, II. 3. 27.
Such! Jataka (No. 387).
216
Sans. avrrvaral)a)!JS23 and seal (lafichchhana-mudra)2524 are also mcntione(l.
Iron nets
2525
iron fetters
B26
(anelu) and iron chains for prisoncrs
2527
were also in use.
Copper implements 2528 are frcqucntly mentioned. Copper 52 9
and copper vessels
2
5 3 0 including 1iL1a usell in religious worship being
the most important.
Among silver wares we find (1) silver vesscls25 31 (2) silver pot for mil-
ching COWS
2532
(3) hare m,de of silvcr2533 and (1) silver boxes for
keeping ornaments.
2
5 34
Of alloys karpsa (bell-metal) is mentione(l in Plt:lini. 253 The .Tatakas
refer to (1) bell-metal vessels
H36
inclnding (2) kii.rpsyrt sth:ili
2537
; amI
k:tnsara, (a plate of bell-metal struck with a stick serving the purpose of
a bell).
2
538 Among articles made of brass (pittala) we finel (1) brazen
vessels/
539
(2) bowls2540 and (3) hare made of
The goldsmith is frequently mentioneu anu among articles of gold
we find (1) gold vessels
2542
(2) gold pitcher
2549
(3) goM stlnliH H
(4) gold drinking pot2545 (5) gold vasc (bhfi'igara)25
4
6 (6) gold plate
!jlS30
21S3t

5!gala Jataka (No. 148).
Kalingavodhi Jataka (No. 479).
Abhyantara Jataka (No. 281) j
Bhadrasah Jataka (No. 464).
Vandhallagara Jataka (No. 201).
Ibid.
Aswalayana Grhyasutra, IV. 3. 19;
Sankhyiiyana G!hyasutra, I. 28. 7 j
I. 28. 14 j Paraskara Grhyasutra,
II. 1. 11, 19, 2l; ASwiilayane.
Grhyasutra, 1. 17. 9, 10, 16.
Kouseyi Jataka (No. 130).
U daya Jataka (No. 458).
Viswantara Jataka (No. 54'7).
Ghata Jataka (No. 454).
Viitamrga Jataka (No. 14).
IV. 3. 168; IV. 5. 183.
Mahasvapna Jataka (No. 77).
Khulladhanurgraha Jate.ka
374); Sikhi Jataka (No. 387).
Losaka Jat"k", (No. 41).
Khadiran.,;ara J:ltaka. (No.4');
Khadira GrbyaeiHra. U. 5.
III. 4. 18; III. 4. 20 jIll. 4. 23 ;
III. 5. 12 j Paraekara. HI. 4. 9.
Khadira G!hyaeutra, I. a. 11.
Ghato. Jataka (No.
Kaka (No. 140); Uyuta (No. 240) j
Udaya (No. 458) j Matanga
(No. 497) ; Mahaswaroha (No. j
Aswalayanll Grhyasiitra. I. 15. J.
Saiikhyayam G!hyasutra, I. 24. 3.
Matanga J:ltaka (No. 497).
(No. 254).
MabiiSilavaja Jataka (No. 51).
Ibid. ; M<\hasv:lroha (No. 302).
217
(7)golcl plate worth one lac pieces
H48
(8) golden
basket (ehl1ngotftka) 2 54 \I (n) gold spoon 2550 (10) an instrument of gold
used in giving honey nnd clarified butter to the new-born child in
the }!edhJjanana (prolluctioll of intelligence) cercmony2 5 51 (11) a
small pair of pincers made of gold 5 fj (12) golden stick H 5 3 (13) golclen
(H) golrlcn (15) golden sandals
H56
(16) golden
trappings for horses I
5
7 (17) golden cage25 58 (18) golden cup for a
(10) golden bedstead
H60
(20) golden seat (Pali kochchha)25S1
(21) goIclen image of a (22) hare made of gold
2563
(23) elephant
made of gaM 56' ann (21,) gold box for keeping scents.
2
565
The jeweller (ma\lik1ra) 566 and ornaments 2 JS 67 specially those made
of gold H 68 are frequently mentioned. Among the ornaments of this
period we find (1) kirita, tiara for the head. 569 A seth's daughter
Vii!lkh:r by name ohtained from her father as part of her marriage-dowry
a peacock-shaped tiara for her head. It was SO nicely set up with pearls
and gems of different colours that it looked as a real peacock and used to
emit a cackling noiso with the movement of wind; (2) mukhaphulla.
2
570
According to the commentator it is "nalatante tilakamllabharanam"
'1'
IIS5

264'
Suji!.u. J lItske. 304).
SoriVll\lij Ja.tsks (No.3); Bhoji!.ja.
noys (No. 23); MsMsvapnC\ (No.
77); Asa.drh (No. 181); Kiimllonite.
(No. 229); Msnojs (No. 397); TO,a
(No. 338).
Rum JUa.ka. (No. 48:2).
Asvlliayans GrhyasOtrs, I. 15. 1;
Si!.nkhyi!.yana GrhyasOtrs, 1. 2 L. 3.
P:lraskars Grhyasiitr", I. 5. 4.
MakhAdeva. Ja.to.ks (No.9).
Mi!.ta.nga JlUaka. (No. 497).
Andhahhnts Jatska (No. .
Ibid.
Manoja (No. Mi!.tl\ngs (No. 4097).
KhsJ)dshi!.11lo Ji!.taka (No. 542).
Ss.tyan.1kila (No. 73); KiiJllviibn
(N o. 329) ; B:lvoru (No. 339).
KiUavahn Jatl\h (No. :129).
'Jill" 8

!J1'lO
Dyiita Jataka (No. 260).
Mahahaqlsa Jato.ka (No. 53t).
An"llusochaniya Jatab (No. 338);
Kuse. (No. 531).
Ghats. Jatako. (No. 454).
Miikapanga Jataka (No. 538).
Mahii3ilavaj Jataka. (No. 51).
Kunal80 Jataka (No. 536) j Yidnra-
pllol.1dita (No. 545).
GrhYllosUtra, I. 6. 1, 2 ;
I. 8. 10 j Piiraskara. Grhyasiitra,
I. 8. 9; Khadira GrhYllosi:itrll, II.
4. 7; II. 5. 9; III. 1. 24.
Khadira Grhyasutrllo, n. 5. 33 j
Si!.nkhyaylloDa Grhyasiitra, 1. 22. 17 ;
III. 1. 7.
KiIl.1chhando Jatako. (No.
Jiitaka (No 547).
218
(something like our sinthi); (3) kUl)dala, earring ;H7 1 (1) earring set
with stones; 25 7 2 (5) earring set with jewels; H 73 (6) necklace; 257,
(7) necklace of coins; 257;; (8) golden necklace worth 1000
pieces; 2576 (9) l'atnadama, a necklace of gClllS; 2 77 (10) ratnamaya
graiveya, an ornament for the neck set with jewels; 2578 (11) 579
According to the commentator it is an ornament for the Heck; (12) wreath
of gold; 2580 (13) unnata, nose-ring (?); H S 1 (1.1,) ring for the finger of
the hand; Hi 82 (15) keyura, 53 3 bracelet on thc upper arm; (16)
angOOa,2 584 bracelet on the upper arm; (17) golden comb; 585
(18) valaya,25 8 6 bracelet on the lower arm; (19) golden bangles set with
pearls and precious stones; 2587 (20! mckhatT, 2 88 an orllamcnt for thc
loins; (21) gingamaka,2 589 an ornament for the waist; (22) pJlipada,H90
an ornament for the feet; (23) golden kinkilfl, 25 91 a girdle of small golden
bells worn on the legs and (24.) udghaqana,2 592 an ornament for the legs.
(2) Weaving-In the :Mukapanga Jataka 2593 thcre is a nice simile
from weaving. Life has becn compared to a piccc of cloth, Death to the
weaver and Night to the woof. The weaver will place the warp first and
as he places the woof, there will be less of the cloth to be woven; so also
21&'1'6
!:i 6'1 8

KhaJ.ldabala Jata'u!. (Nn. 51'!);
Bhiiridatta 543);
G!hyasiitra, Ill. 8. 1; l'arp.skara
G!hyasiitra, II. 6. 26 ; Sailkhyayana
G!hyasiitra, Ill. I, 18.
Nauachhlludo Jataka (No, 289);
Rohantamrga (No. 501).
MaJ.likuJ.ldala Jataka (No. 351);
Champeya (No. 506); NaliniH
(No. 526) ; Unmadayanti (No 527).
Nalinika Jataka (No. 526),
Kusa Jataka (No. 5'\1),
Kurudharma Jataka (No. 276).
Apawaka Htaka (No.1).
Jataka 547).
Ibid.
Khadi ra (; rhya.iitra, III. 1. 43.
(No 5t7).
118 3

21HlO
(Xo. 7); PilrI;lapatrl
(No. 53) ; ParantapaNo. 416).
Matrpo,,,ka Jatflka (No. 454) ;
(No 506) ; Kin.lchhrmdo
(No. 511) j KhoJ.ldahab (No ;
VislVant:tra (No. 547).
Kin.1chhando Ja'ah (No. 5ll) j
Visw:tntara (No. 547).
Alamvu Jatakl!. (No, 5:l3).
Jataka 539).
KhaJ.ldabah Jakka (No. 542).
Nalinika 526) ; Kusa (No. 531);
Viswanhra (No. 517) ; of. mekhala
in Viswantara (No. 547).
Viswantarlt Jataka (No. 547).
Ibid.
Roi,antamrga Jataka (No. 501).
Viswalltara Jataka (No. 547).
No. 538.
219
with the passing of successive nights there will be less number of years
for a m9.n to live. Besides the wool of sheep and goat silk, linen and
cotton formed the materials for weaving.
(a) OottM: From the Chullavagga we learn that the Buddha allowed
bhikkhus "to comb out the cotton, and make the cotton up into
pillows if it be of any of these three kinds-cotton produced on trees,
cotton produced on creepers and cotton prolluced from potaki-grass." is U
In the P:ttimokkha wo fLll!l weavers being employed to weave cloth for
monks. The Jiitakas also refer to chiYara (dress of the Buddhist monks)
being made by the monks themselves.
2
595 The chivara consisted of
(1) alltaravasaka, a small piece of cloth like a (2) uttardsanga
which covers up the whole body from the 597 and (3) sarp.gha:ti,
an upper garment which covers up the whole body from the shoulders and
used only when stirring out of the monastery. 5 9 8 A kayavandhana, belt
made of cloth, was also llsed by all the monks. 25 99 The ordinary lay
householder used to wear (1) niv;Isana, undergarment
2600
or sataka
2601
a.nd (2) upper headdress
2603
and
kaiichnka, an overcoat resembling very much a dressing gown
2604
were
worn by the nobility. We also find mention of (1) coverlet
26
0 5 (2) coverlet
for elephant inlaid with gold 2606 (3) coverlet for royal chariot with
designs on 607 (4) multi-coloured coverlet for beddings 2608 (5) bathing
cloth 6 0 \I (6) cloth embroidered with gold 26 I 0 (7) costly
'l101
alue
la88
IIIDD
,000
.. 01
VI. 2. 6; Seo also IV.
4040 Ilond VIII. 1. 3.
( No. 10) j
Vllok& (No. 39); (No. 71) ;
Khullllovodhi (No. 44,3).
Satntddhr JUu.h (No. 167).
Ibid.
181).
Cbn ( No. 40); Mateya
(No. 75).
Jlt"ka. (No. 197).
(No. 6(); Mangah.
(No. 87); Alinu.cbittu. (No. 156) ;

t606

1807

2609
1610
( No.
254).
Gu'.lu. J:H"ka (No. 197).
SO'.lanand" (No. 532); Bhilridu.ttu.
(No. 543).
Asadr1!. (No. 181); Sarabhllongllo
(No. (22).
ApaJ.lJ.ll!.kl!. Jiitaku. (No.1).
Sivi (No. 499) ; Sor;m. (No. 529).
Chitras&rubhiit& Jatu.ka (No. 498).
Tailapatra Jataka (No. 96).
Matsya Jatu.ku. (No. 75).
Jatu.kll (No. 531).
220
s1taka, cloth dyed red and probably perfumed with aguru or
(8) cloth with flowers embroidered on 6l!J (9) handkerchief
2613 (10) canopy decorated with golden stars H 14 (11) screen 2615
(12) purse (13) kanth;tHl7 (H) sea.ts made of
(15) padapunchhanam 2619 (16) and pillows. 6 0 The Chulla.vagga B U
refers to bolsters which were made for the use of high officials and were
of five kinds according as they were stuffed with wool, cottoll-cloth, hark,
grass or leaves. The floor-cloth, mosquito-curtain amI sumiry other
articles are also mentioned. \16 \l \l
""Ve read of an extensive field near Benmes where cotton was culti-
vatecP623 and of a weavers' ward in the city itself. \16 24. The Therigil.thil.
and the Jatakas
2
S \1 5 frequently refer to the cotton-cloth of Bonares some
of which were so fine in texture that they fctched a thousand picces
H26
or even a lac.
2677
The Mahavagga
2628
and the SiTi Jatakas
tn29
refer to
the high quality of the cloth of the Sivi country.
(b) Linen: Oloth woven with the thread of sana ,vas called saui.
. .
Screens were usually made of such linen cloth and were also called saQ.P630
1611
2ile
Kajaya Jataka (No. 221).
Chandrakinnara (No. 485).
Chnllavagga, VI. 19 j V. 9. 4.
Bbojajaneya Jataka (No. 23) j
Tailapatra ( No. 96);
(No. 254).
(No. 254).
8usltna Jiitaka (No. 163);
(No. 254); Tri.
(No. 521).
II. 4. 20; IV. 2. 14243.
GuV!\ Jiitaka (No. 157).
Ibid.
MahaSiiavaj Jataka (No.5).
VI. 27. 1.
Ibid" VI. 20. 1 ; V. 14. 1; V. 9. 4 ;
VI. 19 j Mahavagga (V. 10. 3)
refers to cottou coverlets dyed with
fii(uree of animals (compare fn.
Nu. 2607). The Bhilridatta Jataka
11680
(No. refers to mWlraka, a
seat covered with 'gadi'.
TuVdih Jata1.:a (No. 388).
Bhimasona .Htaka. (No.8).
Ibid. ; Kamavilapa. .latah (No. 297);
M ahMwiiroh" (No. ;m2); Madiyaka
(N D. 380) ; ViSa (No. 458); MBha..
(No. 493) ;
5:12) j (No. 534) j
(No. 542); Mahann
miirg!\ 546); Viswantara
(X o. 547).
GUDa Jataka (No. 157) j Tberigatha
CII. XIV.
Ma/,a5waroha Jata.!ca (No.
Mah:iunmarga (No. 546).
VIII.l.
Nc.499.
':"0) )
,
Jiitaka (No. 181) j
(No. 254).
221
We also read of (1) cloth-made bags for storing up grains (bhasta) 2631
(2) cloth-made bags for keeping shoes
2632
(3) tents (maf.1dapa)2633 and
(4) linen cloth.uS4 Kautumvara was famous for her cloth
2635
specially linen The Sudhabhojana Jataka
2687
refers to
coarse cloth made from the threads spun out of the roots of trees.
(c) Silk: Silk-fabrics are mentioned in the Majjhimasila and in the
Bhikkhu-Patimokkha (on Eqakalomavagga). The word kosiyamissakam
(meaning mixed with silk) shows that mixed silk was also known.
cloths are also referred to in Pa:J},ini.
2
638 The Dadhivahana Jataka 26 3 9
refers to screens made of silk cloth; while from the Therigatha we learn
that the sick fabrics of Benares were highly prized in those days.
(d) The Mahavagga
2
64.
0
refers to coverlets with long
fleece, counterpanes of many colours, woolen rugs with long hair on one
or both sides, carpet in wrought with gold or with silk, large woolen
carpets, rich elephant housings, horse-rugs or carriage rugs, large cushions
and crimson cushions. In the Jatakas we read not only of blankets
2641
but also of carpets,26U traps made of wool for catching birds,2643 screen
made of raktakamvala
2
6 U and shoes made of cloth woven with threads
of different colours and decorated with gold. 2 6 U
In the Mahavafiij Jiiotaka
2646
we have "kuHiyo patiyani cha." The
commentator says "kuHiyo hatthattharadayo patiyani ll.I;lQ.amaya pachcha-
ttharat;liini setakamvalani pi vadanti" ; so that woolen shawl or some such
.. 11 11118110 Jataka (No. 78).
IOU Mitramitra Jataka (No. 197).
u B3 JiHaka (No.4) i
Devadharma (No.6) i Kolayaka
(No. 31); (No. 44);
(No. 316) ; Uddalaka (No. 487).
IOU Alinachitta Jataka (No. 156).
,. Jataka (No. 539 ) ;
Viswantara (No. 547).
U36 Jiltaka (No. 547).
No. 535.
HIe IV. 3. 32.
!:I639 No. 186
V'. 10. 3.
H vat\naga Jataka ( No. 72);
Mahlival)ij (No. 493).
(No. 254}.
Pal)ini (IV. 2. 12) also refers to
carpets.
Kakkara Jiitaka (No. 209).
soU Bhojajaneya Jlltaka (No. 23),
go.. Bhiiridatta Jiitaka (No. 543).
,8U No. 493.
222
costly woolen is meant. In the samc .Tatakrt we also have "Uddiyane cba
kamvala." The commentator says "Uddiya nama kamval:'r atthi." If
uddiya be taken as derived from Sanskrit udra then uddiya will mean made
from the fine hair of uc1birala Blankets made of "'oat's hair called ",onako
. 0 0
are mentioned not only in the Majjhimasila but also in the J:rtakas. 6. 7
The Salikecliira J;rtaka
2648
refers to net made of the hair of horse's tail
for catching birds. Giindhara was famous for her blankets 26 U and some
of them were so fine as to fetch a lac pieces. 6 5 0
(3) Garpe ntl'Y: In acldition to the ordinary c:J.rpcntcr who made
wooden articles for domostic use, there were skilled workmen
employed in bui.lLling carts Jataka No. 315) and chariots 651
and in buildin'" duO'outs 2 S 5 2 boats
2
6 5 3 and ships 2 6 Amon'" woouen
00 1 0
articles for domestic use we find (1) paryanka, high class bed-
stead 2655 (2) phalakasana, 2656 bench (3) sayyaphalaka,
ordinary wooden bed-stearl (4) stool 2658 (5) bcnches long enough to
accommodate three persons 2659 (6) i),sanui266
0
(7) asandaka (rectangular
chair)26S1 (8) sofa (sattango)2662 (0) sofa with arms to it 2663 (10) arm-
chair 2664 (11) state chai.r (12) cushioned chair


(No. 523); M"hajanaku.
(No. 539).
No. 484.
Viwantara. Jataka (No. 547).
Ibid.
Spandana (No. 475); Paraekara
GrhYBsiitra, I. 8. 18; I. 10. 1-3;
III. 14; Safikbyayana Grhyasiltra,
IV. 7. 32; Grhyasutrl\,
II. 6. 1, 9 ; III. 12. 2; I. 8. 1.
CMmpeya Jataka (No. 506).
Sa.mudra-vaJ;lij Jataka (No. 465).
Jataku. (No. 442).
Devadbarma. Jataka (No.7);
Snrapana (No. 81) ; Vairi (No. 103);
Panchaguru (No. 132);
(No. 257 );
(No. 351), Sivi (No. 499) i Alam-
torsa

(No. 523); d. Pallanka In
ChnlIavagga, VI. 1401; VI. 8. l.
etc. ; \[ abiivagga, V. 10. 3.
Kuhiyaka .Jataka (No. 31); Mal'kata
(No. 173); Kunala (No. 536).
.Jato.ka (No. 66);
Indraso.milna.gotro. (No. 161).
Mo.basva.pno. (No. 77); I1IlsB (No. 78).
ChullBvo.gga, VI. 13. 2.
Ibid., VI. 14. 1; VI. 8. 1 etc.;
Mahavagga, V. 10. 3,
Cbnllavagga., VI. 2. 4; cf. Chlllla-
Vl!.ggo., VI. 20. 2 and VIII. 1. 3.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
Ibid.
223
(vi thika:)!1 66 6 (13) chair raised on a pedestal (elaka-padaka pitham) 2 6 6 7
(It) chair with many legs (amalakaval!tika-pithalll)26 B 8 (15) cane-bottomed
chair (koceham)2!l69 (10) straw-bottomed chair 2670 (IG; litter or sedan-
chair !l6' 1 (17) board to lean against tapassena-phalakamj2 672 (IS) wooden
plank (phalaka) used as a slate for writing 2673 (19) dice-board (akkhasas
phalakam)2674 (20) wooden pestle and mortar 2675 (21) wooden Spo
on
2
676
(22) juhu, spoon !l67'23) upabhrt, a spoon 2678 (24) darvi, a spoon 2619
(25) sruk, a laddIe Hao (2Gl sruva, small sacrificial ladle 2681 (27) dhruva,
big sacrificial ladle J 68 9 128) agnihotrahavani, the ladle with which
Agnihotra oblations werc offered 2683 (29) a wooden vessel called patl'i H 8 4
(301 pra!>itraharana (the vessel into which the portion of the sacrificial food
belonging to Brahman is putl2685 (31) wooden dish
2686
(32) wcoden sacri-
f1cial CUp2687 (33) drOl:m or droI).i, a vessel for measurement
2688
(34)
a vessel for measurement 2689 (35) amnana, a vessel for measurement 2690
(36) wooden tubs used in watering plants 2691 (37) wooden yoke
for carrying loads (Pali kajo or kacho) 2R 92 and (38) wooden boxes
------------
... 1 Ibid.
'" 07 Ibid.
'18. Ibid.
Ibid.
"70 Ibid.
III,.
1I"re
(No. 14); Mn.ha-
vagga, V. 10. 2.
MaHvagga, I. 25, 15, 16.
Kat:ihaka Jatako. (No. 125).
Alamvu,a Jatnka (No. 523). The
commentn.tor however tn.kee ak khn.
in the sense of gold: akkhR8sa ti
viya visalii. Com-
pare in PiirsskBra
Orhyo.,ntro., II. 10.17 which accOr-
ding:to the commentator Hiimn.-
W!l8 made of udumvara wood.
Nanllchhando Jiitaka (No. 289).
Jiitn.kn. (No, 125) ;
tara (No. 547); cf.
n, 1. 2, 9.
Grhyasllera, IV. 3. 2.
Ibid., IV. R. 3 .
'J 79 Khadira GrnyaFiltrn., III. 2 2;
Paraskara G rhyMutrB, IT. 14. 14,
20, 24,
'lfl80
'lRS1
5

saelo
t. 91
S1inkhyayana Grhyl\siitrn, I. 9. 14.
Grhyasutra, IV. 3, 6;
Siinkhyiiyana GrbyasGtra, T. 8. ;
I. 9. 4; 1. 9. 13; I. 9. 14; Paras
kara. Grhyas!itra, J. 1. 3.
GrhYRsutl'B, IV. 3, 5.
Ibid., IV. 3. 4.
Ibid., IV. 3. 10,
Ibid., IV. 3, 8,
Ihid., II, 1. 4.
Ibid., IV. 3. 11.
Imra Jataka ( No. 124) ; Vikn.rt;lab
(No. 232).
VartBka JiitBka (No, 35).
Ibid.
JiitBka (No, 46).
Mrdulak,al)a Jataka (N"o, (6).
224
(petika).2693 The manufacture of wooden sandals is described in the
Mahajanaka Jataka
2ll
\l4; while razor of udumvara wood,2695 sphya (wooden
sacrificial sword) 2691\ anel wooden shields 2697 are also mentioned.
In the construction of houses the carpenter ohtained the full scope for
his skill. The Alinachitta Jataka
2698
tells us how the carpenters of a
village near Benares would go up the river in a vessel and enter the forest,
where they would shape beams and planks for housebuilding and put
together the framework of one storey or two storey hou!les, numbering all
the pieces from the main post onwards; these they then brought down
to the dver bank and put them all aboard; then rowing down-stream
again they would build houses to order, as it was required of them. The
palace of the King of Benares mentioned in the Klisaniili 2 6 II \I and Bhadra
sala Jatakas
27
00 Was a one-pillared one, probably like the famous
one-pillared Durbar Hall of Fatepur Sikri, the pillar being made of
wood.
(4) Gl'ass and l'eed- work -The worker in grass and reeds (nalakara)
made a large variety of articles for daily use among which the more
important were (1) mat (kilinjaka), 2701 (2) basket (pachchhi = kalopi), 2702
Mangala (No. 87); Mahamaynra.
(No. 491). Box made of sandal-
wood is mentioned in Mateya
Jataka. (No. 75).
No. 539.
Khadi ra. G rhY8siUrB, II. 3. 17,
23, 25.
.A.valayana. Grhya.sutra., IV. 3. 4.
On the different implements men-
tioned in the Grhyasiitras, compare
Prof. Max Muller's paper in
Zeitschrift der Deutsohen Morgen-
landischen Gesellschaft, Vol. IX.
pp. VII. eeqq.; LXXVIII eeqq.
On the Prii,eitraharana compare
HiUebrandt, Neu-und V- ollmond-

2898
2'100

1901
8opfer, pp. 119 (with note 6), 120
and 131.
Svetaketa Jataka. (No. 377).
No. 156.
No. 121.
No. 465.
Sukhavihari (No. 10); Griimal)l-
chBl;lda. (No. 257); Jo.vanahal\1sa
(No. 476); Pllra.sko.ra. Grhyasiltra.,
I. 5. 2.
Nanda. (No. 39) ;
(No. 66) ; IJIisa (No. 78) ; Surapii,na.
(No. 81); (No. 529); Paras-
kara Grhya.siltra, II. 14. 11, 20;
III. 2. 4; AvaJayana G!,hyasiitrt\,
IV. 3. 15; Khadiro. Grhyasiltra,
III. 2. 6.
225
(3) small basket (changotab)2103 (4) winnowing basket (Pali
(5) cage-like structure made of cane or bamboo-splints for catching fish
(6) cage-like structure made of straw for birds to live
(7) sandals made of grass
2707
(8) hand-punkha
2708
(9) umhrclh
made of leaves (10) string loop (sikya)2710 (11) a ring made of
straw Over whieh coolies keep the load they are to carryon theil' heads
711 (12) brooUl-stick
27
B (13) rope
2713
(H) flute or pipe
27140 Receptacles were also made out of the leaves of trees
(patra.puta). 7 1 S
(5) Potlei'Y: This industry was sufficiently developed to admit of
localisation in particular places. The Jfi.takas 716 repeatedly mention
village of potters. According to the Uvasagadasao
z
7 I 7 there were
500 potter-shops outside the town of Poliisapura; apparently these formecl
a suburban village of potters. Among the vessels of 718
we find (1) pitcher
U19
(2) (3) jar2721 (4) a large water-jar
2722
(::') drinking 7 as (j) 12 4 (7) sthTIli27 2 5 (8) pot 01' keep-
.170'
"01
''108
,'Of
11'101
2100
'''10
''11.1

I\Iisa Jataka ( 78 ) ; PlLrl)ika.
(No 102); (No (34).
Vsrdhakiiilksra (No. 283); Nana-
clibando (No 289); Mahaj .. oab
(No. 539) ; Mval:iYlLna G r
h
YS8
u
trs,
IV. Ii. 7.
JIari tamata Jatake. (No. 238).
Kapota (No. 42) ; Lola (No. 274).
Dasaratha J:ltaka. (No 461).
Jataka (No. 101i);
(No. 153).
Jatalca. (No. 252) j
(No. 323).
E!ra.riljll. Jatab (No:'4!03).
Sammodll.maDII JataklL 33).
Tripn .... Jataka (No. 16).
Mahii!vlLpnll. (No. 77); Khll.dira.
G !hyasiltrlL, III. 1. 52.
Chaudrakinn,\ra Jiitl!.ka (No. 48:j).

1717

1718
2722
Putac.l\illLklL Jataka (No. 28) i
MBtsyadana (No. 288).
III. 376; III. 50S.
VII. 181. 184.
.Mv5.layana Grhyo.siltra, IV. 7. 10.
Viitam!ga (No. 14): Mahiisvapn[l
(N' o. 77); IndrasamaolLgotrlL (No.
161); SankhyaJILnlL Grhyastltra,
I. 13. 5; II. 17.2; Ill. 4. 3 ; IV.
1. 3 ; IV. 3. 4 ; IV. 17. 4 ; Khadira
Grhyaslitra, 1. 3. 5.
AsvaliLyana Grhyasiltra, II. 1. 2, 9.
Ibid, IV. 6. 4.
Jataka. (No. 66).
Ibid.
IIlisa Jataka (No. 78).
Mallilamukh" (No. 26 ); Khulla-
dhanurgraba (No. 374).
226
ing and (9) vat The sHll of the potter was exhibited
in the preparation of earthcn pots wit.h female figurcs cng-raverl on them
and of earthen dolls for children mentiolle:l in the .J:1taka.
2
728
In the Viswantal'a .T:tbka 272 9 we arc told that somo of these (lolls wero
representations of thc images of horses, hulls, syama deer,
monkey (kadalimrga), hMo, owl, peacock, swan and bir(ls like heron etc.
(b) Leather-lOork: 'fhc leather was tanned and softened hy the
application of 30 and the lcather-worker manufactured oil flasks
and "shoes of whitc leather very elahoratcly worked anel so
as to make the wearer sccm taller." 731 The shocs of the Vr;HYas arc

described in the Katyayana Srautasfitra
2
7 H as hlack and pointed
The Grhyasiltrasn 3 3 1'1.11(1 the .Trrtakas
2
7 94 refer to shoes
some of which hacl only one sole
27
H aIHl were stylish as to fetch 100,
500 and even 1000 pieces.
2736
in his Dhal'masutras!J737 refers to
objects malIc of ICrtthel' mnong which the mention (1) leather
undergarment (chamm:t n;vJsana)273
8
(2) leather upper (ehamma
pravaral!a)
2
7 3 9 (3) leathcr coverlet of chariot
2
14 0 (1.) leather-made fittings
of 7 4 1 (5) lertthel' by whic
1
1 the arm is protected against the
bowstring
2
7 42 (6) leather-belt for elephant 1743 (7) leather shoe for
elephant2744 (,,) leather ltmbrella for elerhanP 7 45 (9) leather strap to
i7 In
17']8

nS3
Sankhya.YllOa Ill. 2.9.
Panchaudha Jat"k,\ ( No. 55);
Kumbha (No 512).
No 531.
No. 547.
In the Jataka
546) we have "Pha\asatam cho.m-
mam." According to the commen-
tator phalasam=pha.ltlsatap pam a-
!,lam vahn khadapetva m]'du-
bhiivamupanit lID.
Nearchos. Fragments 9 and 10 _
Arrian-Indic", 16.
XXII. 4.
AvaHiYll.lla, III. 8. 1; Khadira,
II. 5. 16; III. 1. 25; III. 1. 41 ;
:iI 7 :\ f,
2738
'l7"0
i' 4 5
II. G. 30, 32;
yuna, III. 1. 10, 18.
Upanahll Jatlka 231).
JJ.taka 2(6) j
Br"hm"de.tta (Xo. 321).
Sl1ukho. J.u"ke. 42).
III. 49-63.
Brlihmlldatta JatJ.ka (No. 323).
lbid.
Jataka (No. 22).
Ibid.
Asva.la.yana G],hyaslitra, III. 12. 11.
Jiitah (No. 514).
Ibid.
Ibid.
227
bind 1\ dog
2746
(10) net of leather-straps to catch deer
2
74 7 (11) leather
case for keeping sword 27 U (12) leather bag for keeping wealth (chamma
pasivvakap' 49 and (13) leather made vessel for sprinkling water on
plants. 750
(7) Wi"e-disWling: The preparation of wine was an important
industry as drinking was quite common in those days. The Surapana.
51 gives us the mythological origin of sura and varuq.i wines and
dilates on tllC evils of drinking'. In the Ayogrha Jata.ka 2752 the uncer-
tainty of human life has been compared to the uncertainty of the cloth of
the drunkard which is liable to be exchanged at any moment for a glass
of liquor. From the Sankhyayana Grhyasutra
2
75 3 we find that on occasions
of marria.ge four or eight women who arc not widows drink wine and
dance four times. The 754 also show that drinking formed an
importa.nt part of all festive ceremonies. From the Surap'Ina Jrrtaka
27
5 5
we learn that there was a Drink Festival probably like the Greek Dionysia
a.nd the Roman Baccanalia. In the GangamMa Jrrtaka
27
56 we read of a day-
labourer a.nd his lady-love who decided to join a festival and to regale
themselves with strong drink, garland amI perfumes. We read of liquor-
shops liquor and of dried fish taken along with
We find different varieties of wine like (1) sura
2760
(2) meraya
(=Sans. maircyap761 (3) (4) (5) kilrrla
2764
n.. Sunl10Ka Jab.ka (No. ;
(No 5140).
au' Suva.rt.lllom!g" Jahkl10 (No. 359).
.. 48 J<ltnh (No. 181); Ga\ldl1o-
tindukl10 (No. 51!).
.u. V!hllchcbbatra JatBka (No. 336) ; cf.
(No. 514).
01>0 Ara.madil,aka Jata.ko. (No. 46).
61 No.81.
.... No. :'110.
., 63 I. 11.5.
O'"' 'l'u1)dila Jatakll. (No. 388); P:ida-
(No. 432).
.UG No.8l.
li767
2168
:oI7l'10

No.4:n.
Ana.virati Jataka (No. 65).
lilian Jataka (No 78).
Ibid.
IllIs60 (No. 78) ; Surapana (No. 81) ;
Padakusalama\lava (No. 432) ;
TU1)Jila (No. 388); Sankhyayana
Grhyasfitra, 1. 11. 5 .
Viwantarl1o Jataka (No. 547).
(No. 47); Snrlipan& (No. 81).
SUrapanl10 Jata.ka (No. 81) .
Siinkhyiiye.na Grhyasiltrl1o, III. 3. 7;
See Zimmer-Altindisches Leben,
p.281.
228
(6) wine prepal'ccl out of the juice of sugarcane. 765 (7) and wine prepared
out of gral)es for which Kapisa was famous in the da.ys of PaQinL 7 66
Kapotika wine was a rarity though the ordinary variety of wine seems
to have been cheap for a glass was worth only one 6 7 Liquor of
sUl)crior strength
2
76 S was however dear as appears from the Varm;rl
Jataka
2
76 \I where we are tolcl of a wine-distiller who used to sell strong
drink in exchange for gold and silver pieces.
(8) Stone-w:n'k: In the Vabhru Jataka
27
7 0 we find a worker in stone
busy with his work of cutting stone in a ruined village
and also hollowing out a cavity in a white crystal as a cage for a mouse.
A crystal cave for a mouse is also mentioned in the Satyalpkila Jataka. 77 1
Crystal palaces mentioned in the Ja:takas
2
7 72 some of which were seven-
storeyed
2
773 are probably exaggerations. In the 8ukara .Tataka
27
7 4 we
are told that the Gandhakupra monastery was furnishccl with a marble
staircase (mat;lisol)'Jna). Stone images of hares
2
7 7 and elephants
2
776
were also manufactured. We have already referred to the crystal bowl
and steatite vases discovered within the Piprawa stupa belonging to
450 B. C., an examination of which shows that they were turned on the
lathe the usc of which acconnts for their high polish and beauty.
(9) Ivory work: The worker in ivory (dantakara) produced various
articles inchuling ornaments like bangles.
2
777 According to N earchos
"the Indians we[1r earrings of ivory, those that are very well off." 2778
Benarcs Was one of the l)rincipal centres of this industry which was
developecl enough to be localised in the Ivory workers' ward
(dantakaravithi). 2779
'l7G6
SaD1udravaJ;lii J;i.taka (No. 465).

L!)saka Jataka (No. 41).
::J766
IV. 2. 00.

No. 153.
'17 ft '7
Illis[\ Jiitaka. (No. 78).
2? 7 6
Gbata J:Uaka (No. 41)4).

Paraskara G!hyasiltra, HI. 4. 9.

J5.taka (No. 455).

No. 47. '77?
Jabka (No. 221).
27'70
1'0.137.
'778
Fragments 9 and
10= Arrian-

No.n

Mitravinda .lataka (No. 367) ; ManU
Indica, 16.
. (No. 380) ; Cbaturdviira (No. 439) i
.778
5ilavannaga J5.taka. (No. 72) ;
Nemi (No. 541).
(No. 221).
229
(10) Work itl bone, horn, and coral: in his
Dharmasutras 7 80 refers to objects made of bone and conch shells. The
J:rtakas 2781 frequcntly refer to the manufacture of bows from the horn
of the sheep on account of its flexibility just as Homer's Illiad refers to
the Greek custom of manufacturing box from the horn of the ibex. The
mention in the Ghata Jataka
2
782 of images of hares made of coral and
of jcwels (mat:Jikya) is corroborated by the find of ornaments made of coral
and precious stones in the Piprawa stupa belonging to 450 B. C.
(11) _<':':alt i7ldustl'Y : The preparation of salt by the evaporation of
saline water is clearly referred to in the Bhuridatta Jataka.
2
783 The
manufacture of salt by the 10l;takara
27
84 is also mentioned in the
Kausi\mvi J:rtaka.
(12) Sugar: Extraction of JUIce from sugarcane and preparation of
molasses by thickening the juice by heating it on fire is described in the
Mahasvapna Jataka.
2
7 8 5 In this connection the following remark of
Megasthenes will be found interesting: "Stones are dug up of the
colour of frankincense, more sweet than figs or honey." 2 7 8 6 These are
prohably sugarcandy which he took to be a kind of crystal.
(13) D!leillg: We find monks dyeing their chivara
2
787 and people
using cloth dyed (1) in red colour (2) with safflower
(kusumbha)2189 (3) in yellow with karl?ikara flower,279o (4) in blue with
kaJ;ltakuraDda 2 791 and (5) in golden colour. 2792
In those days cloth was stiffened with n 98 starch and then polished
with conch' (sankha). The Khullanarada Ja:taka i7940 also refers to an
1'80
III. 49-63.
1'71'1
(No. 71); (No. 157).
i7il
AsadrSa (No. 181) ; Sarabbanga

Godba (N 08. 138 and 325).
(No. 522) ; (No. 542).

Pu Jataka eN o. 147).
1781
No. 454.

eN o. 157) ;
Da.rdara eN o. 172).
.113
No. 543.
nol
Dardara. JatakB (No. 172).
11784
No. 428.
2781
Jataka (No. 221).
uo,
No.77.
n93
Vaks Jataka (No. 38).

Fragment 10 '" Strabo XV. C. 703.
3194
No. 477.
230
upper garment which was thus stiffened (ghattita.) with starch. The
Pu?parakta Jataka 2795 refers to the custom of wearing cloth after it has
been curled into a thousand folds.
Architecture :-In the pratyutpannavastu of the Jatakas 96 we
find frequent mention of (instruction to monks about
the construction of houses) which is found in the Siltravibhanga of the
Vinaya Pitaka. In the Gramal!ichaI;lda Ja:taka 2797 we read of vastu-
vidyacarya who could find out the defects of building sites seven cubits
underground and on whose advice the princes selected the sites for
their p3.laces. The mason (itthakl-va.ddlBki = S:.l.1.s. 9798
Was known and the Jatakas 2799 frequently refer to seven-storeyed
houses (Sattabhiimaka-pasada). In India the usc to which these
seven-storeyed buildings were put was entirely private and had
nothing to do with any worship of the stars like the seven-storeyed
Ziggarats of Ohaldrna. The Jatakas also refer to a two-stOl'eyed
pahce
2800
and to a one-pillared palace.
2801
A vivid description of
an unfinished palace as preserved in the Kukku Jataka
280a
corro-
borates the evidence of the Kusanali
2803
and Bhadras:Ila Jatakas
280
'
rcgaruing the general usc of woodeu pillars in the construction of a house
though the use of iron pillars was not altogethcr unknown.
2
805 The
.Tatakas describe various other types of buildings, among which we
notice (1) thatched houses for the ordinary people
28
06; (2) Dharmasal;r
in which seats were provided and drinking water kept stored up in jars 8 07;
(3) Asana-sala, resting place for travellers 2808; (4) SarpsthlgIra (town

2800
180 l
No. 14'.
Mat;tikil.l)tha (No. 253) j Brahmadatt!L
(No. 323) j Asthisena. (No. 403).
t\o.257.
Mah:i.unmarga (No. 546).
Khadirangara (No. 40); I\Iisa
78) j Matancra (No. 497) ;
(No. 514) j Viswantara (No. 547).
Komayf\putra Jataka (No. 299).
KusanaU (No. 121); Ilhadra-
9ala (No. 4(5).

iSO'
liIISQ6
No. 396.
No.12l.
No. 465.
Ayogrha Jataka (No. 510).
Ayii.chitabhll,kta J:ltaka (No. 17);
(No. 36); Aatamantra
(1); MrJulak,at;ta (No. 66);
Kuddala (No. 70); Madhyama.
Nikaya, Sutra 81.
Kulayaka Jatakil. (No. 31).
Abhyantaora J:ltaka (No. 28 L).
231
hall)lli09; (5) Chaitya built on the relic of Eodhisattva as kapir::tja; 2810
(6) kriQii.slLt which was constructed after the ground was levelled down
an 1 propcdy ll1Jasnred with a tape.
2
811 A portion of this building was
reserved for the reception of guests, a portion for the poor and helpless,
a portion for the delivery of poor and helpless women who were carrying
and a portion for the merchants to store up their wares. 'l'he building
Was decorated with paintings inside and beautified by the excavation of a
tank ne3.r by anl th) of an adjoining garden in which fruit
and flower trees were plantal; and (7) a privy (vachehhattMna) with
doors in which a lamp was kept burning the whole night. B 12
The details of buildings are found in abundance in the canonical texts
of tha Bud(l'lists. Buddha enjoined on. his devotees the supervision of
building construction as oao of the dllties of tht) ordel". B 13 We rJad
even of a car0-bker of houses known as av:rsika. 814 The Bhikkhus were
thus told by the Blessed One with respect to buildings: "I allow you,
o Bhikkhus, aboJes of five kinds-vihlra, arclhayoga, prJ.s'\da, harmya and
guh I.." g 81 5 Villlra. is the well-known Bmldhist monastery, origina.lly
implying the halls where the monks met. Ardhayoga literally means
half-joining an:! according to B 16 refers to suvarqa-vanga-
grha which Professors OlUenburg and Rhys Davicls have rendered as 'gold-
coloured Bengal house'. Was it the much familiar Bengal house with
gold-coloured straw-covering or thatch? It is called half-joining, for,
both the halves of the roof are joined together at the ridge on
the top of the roofing, looking like parted hair. Prasada is a
residential storeyed building; barmya is a more pompous type of
storeyed house. GaM literally means cave and would refer to under-
SI ()'
1810
811
.813
}.f abamllnga.la. Jata.k" ( No. 453);
(No. 465).
Mahaka.pi (Nil. 407).
lIfahaunmarga. Jata.ka 546) .
Triparyosta. Jataka (No. 16).
Chulla.vagg'fI, VI. 17. 1.
Biea Jataka 488).
28U ViDaya texts: Mahii.vaggA, T. 30.
C huJlavagga, VI. 1. 2.
28)6
commentary on
Mahava.gga I 30. 4 runs thus:
AcNayoga ti
Pasado ti dlghap3.siido. Hammi-
yan ti upari akiisatale patiHhitaku-
tagiiro piisiido yeva. GuM ti
itthakagnb1i Bilagub1i daruguha
paf\lBugn I,a.
232
ground buildings. One of the .Tatakas 2 817 actually contains an elaborate
de5cription of an underground palace and such have been thc rock-cut
temples, as in the famous Ajanta caves.
One shoulcl c'1refully select the huilding site so that it might be "not
too far from the town and not too naar, convenient for going amI for
coming, easily accessible to all who wlsh to visit him, by day not too
crowded, by night not exposed to too much noise and alarm."2s1s
After the selection of the site houses, at least of the richer classes,
were extensively built
1
for, we are told that "an upasaka (devotee) has
built for his Own use a residence, a sleeping room, a stable, a tower, an
one-peaked building, a shop, a boutique, a storeyed house, an attic, a cave,
a cell, a store-room, a refectory, a fire-room, a kitchen, a privy, a place to
walk in, a well, a well-house, a yantragrha (which is supposed by Buhler
to be 'a bathing place for hot sitting baths'), a yantragrha room, a lotus
pond and a pavilion." 2 819 Other houses comprised "dwelling rooms and
retiring rooms and store-rooms and service-halls and halls with fire-places
in them, and store-house, and closets, and cloisters and hal18 for exercise,
and wells and sheds for the well, and bath-rooms and halls attached to the
bath rooms and ponds and open-roofed sheds (maq.<;lapas)". 2 8 0 The
extensiveness of the buildings can be imagined from the length of time
devoted to getting a house completely built. We are told that "with
referenceto the work of a small vihiira, it may be given in charge (of an
overseer) as a navakarma (new work) for a period of five or six years, that
on an a<;l<;layoga for a period of seven or eight or twelve years".28U That
the long periods were not idled away will be clear from the detail of houses
gathered mainly from the Vinaya texts. 2 822
The whole compound is enclosed with ramparts (prakara) of three
kinds, namely, brick walls, stone walls, and wooden fences which are again
surrounded with bamboo fences, thorn fences and ditches. 2 8 2 3
1818

Mahaoomarga Jataka (No. 546).
Chollangga, VI. 4. 8.
III. 5. 9 ; also III. 5. 6.
Chullavagga, VI. 4. 10.
Ibid., VI. 17. 1.
Ibid., VI. 5.
Chullavagga, VI. 3. 7. 10.
233
Gateways are built with rooms and ornamental screen-work over
them; 28 H and gates are matle of stakes interlaced with thorny brakes.
2
8 2 3
Five kinds of roofin!!' are mentionecl-brick-roofiu
oo
stone-roofin'"

cement roofing, straw-roofing and roofing of leaves. 2 8 2 6 The roar is first
covere:l with skins and within and withont; then follow w:lite-
wash, hlockiu.3', r-1(l-c::>louriu.3', wreath-work and creeper-work.
2
8 2 7 The
wooden roof of the underground palace described in the Mahaunmlrga
J;ttaka
2
8 8 was covered with ullaka mattiki1 and painted white. Ulloka
was an under-cloth used in the making of 'gadi'; so it appears that the
wooden roof was coverml with cloth plastel'e1 with mud ovcr whieh white-
wash Was applied.
The floors were of earth, not of wood, and were restored from time
to time by fresh clay or dry cowdung being laid down, and then covcred
with a whitewash, in which sometimes black or red was mixed.
the parallel in IVbhwagga (I. 25. 15) and Chullavagga (VIII. 3. 1)
it would see:n th1.t the colouring was used rather for walls, and the
black one for floors. It appears, however, that with a view to removing
the dampness 2829 gravel was spread over the floor. 2830
The doors are furnished with "door'posts and lintel, with hollows like
a mortar for the door to revolve in, with projections to revolve in those
hollows, with rings on the door for the bolt to work along in, with a block
of wood fixed into the edge of the door-post, and containing a cavity for
the bolt to go into (called tho monkey's head), with a pin to secure
the bolt by, with a connecting bolt, with a key-hole, with a hole for a
S82' Ibid t VI. 4. 10; 3, 1; ttOSB.l)a.' of
which exoellent work in stone have
been found at the Sanchi and
Bharhut Topes.
leU Chullavagga, VI. 3. 10.
Ibid., VI. 3. 10; Compare also VI.
3. 8 ; 3. 3 etc.
Jlall7 Ibid" V. 11. 6; tho rencie:ing of
the term 'ogompliCti' which also
occurs in the Mahavagga, V. 11.
by 'skins' seems doubtful and un'
suitable. in his note
at the latter place says 'agu'l'
phiyantiti hhitti dal)dakadisn,
vethetva bandhati.'
No. 546.
Rhys and OI,lenbnrg, note
on Chul\llvagga, VI. 2). 2.
.9" 0 Compare Chullavagga, V. 14. 5.
2341
string with which the door may be closed, and with a string for that
purpose." 2831
The windows are stated to be of three kinds according as they are
made with railings, lattices or slips of wood. 28 32 The shutters are
adjustable and Can be closed or opened whenever required.
2
833
There were stairs of three kinds viz., brick stairs, stone stairs and
wooden stairs; and they were furnished with iilambana-b:rhl or balus-
trades.
2
B 34 The Gandhakutira monastery was aclorneJ. by a marble stair
case.
2835
A detailed description of flights of stairs is given in the
Mahasudassana Sutta: "Each of these had a thambh:t, evidently posts
or banisters; sllciyo, apparently cross-bars let into thoso banisters; and
either a headline running along the top of the banisters or a
figure-head at the lower end of such headline."
2
8 3 6
In the Vinaya Texts
28
3 7 we find described another sort of building-
the hot-air baths. "They were built on an elevated basement faced with
brick or stone with stone stairs upto it, and a railing round the verandah.
The roof and walls were of wooel, covered first with skins, and then plaster;
the lower part only of the wall being faced with bricks. There was an
ante-chamber, and a hot-room and a pool to bathe in. Se:1ts were arranged
round a fire-place in the middle of the hot-room; and to induce perspiration
hot water was poured over the bathers."
In the Digha Nikrrya
28
38 there is a description of another sort of
bath, an open-air bathing tank with flights of steps leading to it faced
entirely of stone, and ornamented both with flowers and carvings. 2839
2533
Chullavo.gga, VI. 3. 8 j also 2. 1
and 17.1.
Chullavagga, VI. 2. 2.
Mahavagga, I. 25. 18; Chullavagga,
VIII. 2. 2.
Chullavagga, VI. 11. 6.
S"Gkara Jataka (No. ] 53).
Mahasuda,ssana Sutta, I. 59. Sea
also Rhys Davids - Buddhist
Suttas, p. 262; Compare Cho lIo.-
VI. 3. 3.
III. pp. 110, 297.
Rhys Davids-Buddhist Sutta-B,
pp. 262 ff.
Rbys Davids in his Buddhist Suttae,
p. 76 refers to several ancient
baths slill to be seen at Anuradha
pura in a fair state of preservation
iuspite of the lapse of more than
two thousand years that have
elapsed since thoy were first
cunstructed.
235
The Grhyasiitras 84 0 have also preserved many rules and rites on
hOU'le-builcling. The building site we aro told must be (1) even
(2) inclined towards tho 842 or a place from the water
flows off to the north-west
U
43 Or to the north 2S U (3) non-saline soil
of undisputed property2S45 (4) covered with grass, herbs and
(5) having no plants with thorns and milky juice
28
4.
7
(6) immune from
destruction (by inundation (7) square in size
2849
or an oblong
qua:lranglo in size
9s50
or should have the form of It brick
2851
or of a
round island 852 and (8) there should be natural holes in the ground on all
directions.
2
S 5 3 The building-sit is also to be examined in the following
ways: "He should dig a pit knee-deep and fill it again with the same
earth (which he has taken out of it). If (tho earth) reaches out (of the
pit, the ground is) excellent; if it is (it is) of middle quality; if it
does not fill (the pit it is) to be rejecte:l. After sunset he should fill (the
pit) with water and leave it so through the night. If (in the morning)
thert) is water in it (the ground is ) excellent if it is moist, (it is) of middle
quality; if it is dry, (it is) to be rejected". 2 8 54 The arrangement not only
of the posts but also of doors28 5 5 is carefully described. One should not,
we are told, build a house with its door to the west. S 56 Let him construct
a back-door so that it does not face the (chief) house-door; so that the
householder or rather his valulble objects etc., which are in the house
cannot be seen by passers-by. u 57
... 0 Sankhyayana, III. 2-3; AAvalayana,
II. 7-9; para.akara, III. 4. 14;
1014, 18 i Kha.dira., IV. 2. 6-15 i
IV. 7 i Hira.Qya.keMn,
I. 2728 i Apll.Sta.mva.. 17.
I8H Govila., IV. 7. 7.
28.. Apllostamva, 17.1.
28'3 Kbsdira., IV. 2. 7.
'8 U Govila.. IV. 7. 3.
UH Asvalayana., II. 7. 2; Khadira..
IV, 2.6.
28U Asvalayana., II. 7. 34, i Kha.dira,
IV. 2. 6, 9-11 i Govila, IV. 7. 2.
28U II. 7. 5-6; Kha.dira.,
IV. 2.8; Govila., IV. 7. 4.
!.IS'S GoviIa, IV. 7.2.
28 49 II. 8. 9.
518 liD Ibid., II. 8. 10.
28 51 Khadira, IV. 2. 12; Govila.,
IV. 7. ]2.
28 U Govila, IV. 7. 13.
2863 Ibid" IV. 7. 14; Kbadira, IV. 2. 13.
2S.' Grhyasutra. II. 8. 2-5
= S. B. E. Vol. XXIX. p. 212.
28" Kha.dira. Grhyasutra, IV. 2. 14-15 i
Govila Grhyasiitra.. IV. 7. 15-21.
2".6 Govila Grhyasiitra., IV. 7. 18.
." 6. Ibid., IV. 7. 19-21. See a.lso Olden
burg's notes on this passa.ge In
S. B. E., Vol. XXX. p. 121.
236
The temple of tho gods is mentioneu in PaI)inl. 8 5 8 In the Manava
Grhyasutl'a
28
59 we are tolcl "Let a daughter be marrieu in a temple."
The Sankhy:lyana 860 also refers to god's houses whieh one is
enjoined to walk round, keeping right side turned towards them.
Fortunately for us we have some extant remains of the buildings of
this period. The Baithak of JarJsandha and the walls of Rajagrha the
the ruins of whieh have been unearthed, were built according to Ounning-
ham before the 5th century B. O. Many of the Buddhist Caves like those
of Khal).dagiri and U dayagiri in Orissa were anterior to the invasion of
India by Alexander the Great (326 B. 0.) The DJgobas or topes were
another chss of monuments erected in the cemeteries.
2
S 6 1 "The solid
dome e'rooted by the S:tkiyas over their share of the ashes must have been
ahout the same height as the dome of St. Paul measured from the roof." 2 8 6 2
Indeed much light is throwll on the fine masollry work of this period by
the lliscovery in 1898 on the Nepal frontier of the Piprawa stnpa about
which V. A. Smith rightly observes "The construction and contents
of the stupa offer valuable testimony concerning the state of civilisation
in N orthcrn Imlia about 450 B. O. which is quite in accordance with that
clicitCll from carly literary sources." 2 8 6 3
Sculpture-The scu1l)tor (Kundakara) 2864 worked in wood, gold, coral
[\n<1 stOllC. Tile vivid description of the life-like imftgcs of many birds and
heasts sculptured on the Vaijayanta chariot
28
6 5 may be a poet's imagination
but the image of Buddha made of red sandalwood which minister
of king Udayana of the Vatsa country, a contempora.ry of Bnddha caused
to be maJe existed down to the time of Hiuen Tsang who saw it during
his visit to Kaus:1mvl. 2866 In the Asatamantra Jataka
2
867 an acarya of
Taxila is s:tid to have produced out of udumvara wood a lifu-like image of
Lis own self.
V. 3.
1 7. 10.
o IV. U. 15.
1 Vinaya texts. IV. p. 30S.
,. Rhy, Davids.
Imperial Gazol\.Qcr of lu<1ia (new
V Ill. 11. p. 102.
2886

Mahaunmarga. Jataka (No. 546).
Sudhabbojaua Jatako. (No. 535).
Records of the
Western world, Vol I. p. 235.
No. 61.
237
In the .Tatakrts 8 6 8 we also read. of a prince who agreed to marry only
when a girl like the image of gold which he causecl to be prepared could
be fouml onto In tho Kusa 8 6 9 we are told that the golden image
of a princess which was made by prince Kusa was far superior to the one
prepared by the royal A life-like image of a lady and
images of elephants made of gold as dolls for are also
mentioned.
A stone-image of Borlhisattva as elephant2 8 7 and images of hares
made of coral 8 1 S were also known.
Pa.inting-Painting was well-known and the painters were organised
into a guild. 8 7 4 The life-like paintings of elephants, hor5es, chariots and
various objects of natllral scenery on the walls of the nnderground palace
described in the Jataka
2
8 7 may be a poet's imagination
but when we find that Buddha prohibited the use of love-scenes painted in
frescoes but permitted the representations of wreaths, creepers, fine ribbon
and dragon's teeth in fresco-painting 2876 we may safely expect at least a
sub-stratum of truth in the poetic exaggeration. Painted punkhas
2
877
and a. picture-gallery (chi tt:rg:tra) belonging to king Pasenadi of Kosala a 7 8
are also mentioned.
The occupations -The pursuit of agriculture in this period was
associated neither with social prestige nor with social stigma. Thc stricter
Brahmin tradition not only in the law-books but also in the Suttanipata, the
Majjhima Nikaya and the Jatakas expressly reserves the two callings
of agriculture and trade for the vaisyas and judges them unfit for the
brahmins and the Thus, the brahmin Esukari of Sr;:rvasti
considers tillage and dairy-farming as not less the property and province
of the vaisya tha.n are bow and arrow, endowed maintenance (by alms)

An .. nuochsniys Jat .. k .. ( No. 328 ) j

Jatah VI. 427.
IT daya. (No. 458).
8875
No. 546.
al8i
No.53l.
a816
Vina.ya texts, Vol. II. p. 67 ; Vol.

Mahannmarga Jiita.ka. (No. 546).
IV. p. 74.
ie'll
MQkapa.ngn Jata.ka (No. 538).
tH7i
Jata.ka (No. 455).

Kda Jataka (No. 531).
_8TD
Ghata Jataka (No. 454).

Rhys Davids-Bllddbiet lndia., p. 68.
238
and sickle and yoke, the property and province of the brahmins
and working classes rcspectively.2879 The Vasettha sutta
2880
reveals
the same exclusive spirit as correct. And in the Dasa-br:thma\la Jii.taka
2
881
brahmins who engage themselves in tillage amI other callings arc declared
to have fallen from braminhood. On the other hand in both the
Jatakas
2882
and the Suttas
2883
not only arc bramins frequently found
pursuing tillage but also no reflection is passed upon them for so doing, nay
the brahmin farmer at times, is a pious man and a Bodhisattva to boot. '2884
Dr. Fick is disposed to think that the Udieea brahmins
2885
of the
north-west inherited a stricter standard.
2
8 8 6 N evcrthelcss it is not
claimed for the pious ones just mentioned living near Benares and in
Magadha that they were Udieca brahmins. As to thc clansmen
of the tribal republics, they were largely cultivators of the soiL For
instance in the Kun11a Jataka
2
8 8 7 it was the Sakiyan and Koliyan pcasants
who began to quarrel over the prior turn to irrigate.
But agriculture though it remained the peincipal occupation of the
mass of the population lost its attraction for the more arduous spirits who
began to crowd into cities lured by the finery of city-life, by the chances
of greater income by trade or employment and by othcr facililies. The
diversity of occupations that sprang up in the period became
more pronounced in this epoch as is evident from the large number of
functional groups.
'870
2;880
288)


28 B 6
M. II. 180.
M. No. 98; S. N. III. 9.
No. 495.
Somadatta Jatah (No. 211) ; Draga
(No. 354); (No.
389) ; Mahahpi (No. 516).
Brahmin peasant Varnd waja III
Stl ttanipata.
U raga Jataka (No. 3:>4).
SatyalDkila (No. 73); Mahiisvapna
(N o. 77); Bhimasena (No. 80) i
'aBBe
.8S7
Surapana (No. 81); Mangala (No.
87) i Parasa.hasra (No. 99) ; Tittira
(No. 117) i .A kiilara vi (No. 119);
Amra (No. 124) i (N'o.
144) i (No. 149) i Sata
dharma. (No. 179) i Svetaketu (No.
377) ; Nalinika (No. 526);
vodhi ( No. 528).
Socials Gliedarang Indian, 138 f.
No. 536.
239
Among those who embraced learned professions we fincl (1) iic1ryas
(teachers)H88 some of whom taught the childr0u of villagJrs arrel W0l'e
maintained by thcm; 2889 while others imparted higher instructiou in
reputed centres of learning like Benares and Taxila in the three Vedas
and the conventional eighteen silpas
2890
and were paid either in advance
by rich students 8 91 or after the completion of studies by poor students
who collected their tuition fees by begging2B 9 2 (2) vejjas (physicians) some
of whom obtaineel a fee of 16,000 picces hy curing a merchant-prince's
(3) (curers of poisonous bites).289t Then there was
the army of (-1,) astrologerlja 9 5 (5) soothsayer8
28
9 6 (6) nimittap:tthakas
(7) angavidyapJthakas (those who can read the phy-
sical features of men and women)2898 (8) magicians (mayakrrra, mlyavi
or aindrjalika)2899 who came to be condemned by the Buddha as they
preyed on the ignorance of the orJin'1ry people. There were also besides the
usual hotr, adhvaryu and udg:Ltr various other classes of priests like those who
officiated at the Ahina s:1crifiecs,2 900 the sadasya,2 901 the samitri and
the kiimasadhvaryavah.
2
902
Besides the cultivator we find others who followed occupations allied to
a.griculture like the parr;tika (grower of green vegetahles only),2 903 trr;ta-
8888
1800

VarnQa 71);
123); Upanaha (No. 231) j Guptila.
(No. 24:l); (No. 252);
(No. 338) ; Tittira. (No. 438).
(No. 41); Takka (No. 63).
Bhlmasena (No. 8u); Dunnedha
(No. HZ) ; Asadrsa (No. 181) ; etc.
Snslma (No. 163);
(No. 252).
Dyilta (No. 478).
Vinaya 1. 272.
Vi,avanta (No. (9); Bhilridatta
(No. 543).
Brahmajala Sutta ; Jataka
(No. 49).
'/ 6

lIOOl

90 3
Ibid.
Ibid; Mangala. JiHaka. (No. 87);
Ma.hamll.nga.la (No. 453); Garga.
(No. 15;').
PanolJaudha. (No. 55); Alina.chitta
(No. 156) ; No.nachhanda. (No. 289).
VidurapaQdita (No. 545);
tara (No. 547); cf. (No.
401) ; Amra (No. 474).
5ranta Siitrl\, IV. 1. 6. 7.
Indische Studien, X. 136, 144.
Max MulIers' A. S. L., pp. 451l,
469 seq.
Kuddala Jataka (No. 70);
(No. 102).
240
haraka (grass cutter),2904 gopala (cowherd),2905 ajap:da (goatherd),2906
asvapalaka
2907
or asvanivandhika
2908
(horsegroom) and hastipalaka
(elephantkcepcr).2 909
Of those engage:! in the various arts the more important are :-(1) pesa-
kara (weaver)2910 (2) karm1ra (smith)2911 (3) maQiktft (jeweller)2912 (4)
vardhaki (carpcnter)2913 (5) (mason)2914 (6) kuudakara
(sculptor)2915 (7) rathakara (chariot-makcr)2
916
(8) kumbhakara (pot-
ter)2917 (9) carmak:rra (tanner and leather-worker)291B (10) nalakara
(worker in reeds)2919 (11) soul!dika (wine-distiller)2920 (12) dantakara
(ivory-worker)2921 (13) IOl).aka:ra (salt manufacturer)2922 (14) pasana-
kuHaka (stone-cutter)
2
9 2 3 (15) sthapati (architect) 2924 and (16) citrakara
(painter).19 2 5
Among those who followed non-industrial occupations we find: (1) fisher
111en
2926
(2) poultry-farmer (vartakavyadha or sakunika)2927 (3)
(butcher and hUllter)2928 (4) barber,2929 (5) washerman (nirl!ejaka)2930
2906


51009

2Ul1
10 UI

'illl1.
(No.4);
(No. 340).
Snrapana (N o. 81); Ekaparlla
149).
Dhumakari (N. 413).
Tirtha (No. 25) ; Snrapana (No. 81);
Ekaparl)'Io (No. H9).
Giridanta (No. 184).
Mahilamnkba (No. 26) ; Ekaparlla;
(No. 149).
Snttavibhanga.
Jataka (No. 531); Mahann.
marga (No. 546).
Vidarapl\lldita Jata.ka (No. 545) j
Kanab (No. 536).
Anilachitta (No. 156); So,mndra
Villij (No. 466); Mahannmarge.
(No. 546).
Mahaunmarga Jatl1.k" (No. 546).
Ibitl.
Snttnvibhanga.

51918
2919
3930
Ibid.
Ibid; Mahiinnmarga (No. 546).
Ibid.; GramaJ)icballda; (No. 257) ;
Knsa (No. 531).
VarutJi (No. 47).
(No. 221) j :)i!avannaga
(No. 72).
Kansamvi (No. 428).
Vabbrn (No. 137).
Knrn (No. 213).
Mahannmarga (No. 546).
(No. 139).
Vartaka (No. 118) ; Tittira (No. 319).
Mayura (No. 159); Robantamrga
(I{o. 501); Syama (No. 540);
KhnllabaqJsa (No. 535).
MaMkedara (No.9) j (No.
152).
Gbata (No. 454); Vidllritpa"dita
(No. 545).
241
(6) sweeper (pupph-chhaddak)2
g
S1 (7) tailor (tunnavaya)2939 (8) ferryman
(tirthanavika)2933 (9) pilot (jalaniyamaka)2934 (10) land-pilot (sthala-
uiyamaka)2935 (11) forest-guard (12) gardener (udy:rnn-
p:ilaka) 937 (13) gal'bnd-makcr (miWi-kara) 293 B (U) confectioner
(modaka) (15) bhutavaidya (conjurer of evil spirits) 2940 and
(16) pcrfomcr of spells. 2941
Among those who performed menial work we find (1) cook (pachaka)2942
(2) boy-scrvant
2943
(3) attendant
2944
(4) bath-attendant (snapaka)2945
and shampoocr (sarpvahaka) [D. 1. 51J.
In addition to these there were others who earned their living by
amusing the public. Such were (1) the musician 2946 (2) trumpet-blower
(bherivadaka)2H7 (3) blower of conchshells (sarpkhavadaka)2948 (4) blower
of an instrument callcu mandraka
2949
(5) actor (nata)2950 (5) wrestler
(malla) 295 1 (7) snake-charmer ( ahitm;tdika ) 2 (J 5 2 and clown (soviya = sou-
vika).2953
38
IVl8
'UO
Knnala Jataka (No. 536).
Nyagrodhl\ Jataka (No. 445);
Mahannrnarga (No. 54'3).
A. v:lrya Jataka (No. 376).
Snparaga Jataka (No. 433).
V"l}l}upatha (No.2).
D,,1ab,.iihmal}s (No. 4')5); Val}l}u-
patha (No.2); (No. 513).
Vatamrga Jataka (No. 14); Pllta.-
dn,uka (No. 280).
Knlm:l,apil)da Jiitaka (No. 414);
Vidllrapal}dita (No. 545).
Viwantara. Jiitaka (No. 547).
Klmanlta Jatake. (No. 228).
Brahmajaillo l ; Vedllovbha
Jataka (No. 48);
( No. 241 ) ;
(No. 33G); Kharaputra (No. 386) ;
Parantllopa (No. 416).
.... Kapot!L Jataka ( No. 42); Lola
(No. 274); VidurILpILl}dita (No. 545)
us Val}l)upatha Jataka (No.2) ; Bhimll-
sena (N'o. 80) ; Valodaka. (No. 183) .
.9U Jataka. (No, 4).
.... KhaIJdahala (No. 542) .
... 6 VidurapaJ.lditllo Jataka (No. 545);
ViillVantara (No. 547).
.U1 Bherivadaka Jataka (No. 59).
.918 Sankhadbarma. Jiitaka (No. 60).
'9U .Jiitaka (No. 547).
... 0 Jataka (No. 212);
VidllrapaJ.ldita (No. 545) ; PaIJini
IV. 3. llO, 129.
09'1 Valodaka (No. 183); Gbata (No.
454). cf. mu}tika III
Vidurl1pal}dita (No. 545).
gilamiman,1sa (No. 86) ; AhitllIJdika
(No. 365); Champeya (No. 506).
29.8 Vidurap"l}di;R Jatab (No, 545).
242
We know further that with the growth of the state there arose a
class of people who lived by accepting service under the king. Prominent
among these were the royal high-priest,
2
954 al'thadharm111usasaka,2 955
sarvarthachintaka,2 9 5 6 vinischayJmMya (judge), 2 9 57 argh,1,karaka (court-
valuer),
2
9 5 8 rajjuka (surveyor) 2959 dro!J,amJpaka (measurer 0 f corn),2 960
valipratigrahaka (tax-collector),2 981 nagara:rala,2 962 (cashier
or officer of the treasury)2963 etc.
Guilds-We have seen that in an earlier period some of the functional
groups came to be organised into guilds; but it was during thisper:od t1lat
the guilds came to play a :Jl'ominent part in the various aspects of social
life. The Mukapangu 2964 anc1 Mah;tunm'Irga JiHakas 2965 refer to the
conventional number of eighteen guilds but it is to be regretted that only
four of them viz" those of wood-workers, smiths, leather-clressJrs and
painters are specially mentioned.
2
\I fi6 On tho evidence of the Jatakas
and the law books of the period we get however the names of the
following guilds :-(1) wood-workers 2 \J 6 7 (2) smiths \! 968 (3) leathcr-
dressers\! 96 9 (4) painters2 970 (5) garland-makers'.!!J 71 (6) carll van-traders 29 72
(7) herc1smen
2
973 (8) moneylenc1ers
2
9 7 4 (9) cultivators
2
975 (10) traders 2976
1055
19&8
'1&8
Mahasvapna (No. 77); Susima (No,
163); Tilamu (No, 25'1) ; Sa.vaka
(No. 309); (No.
120) ; AndhabLiita 62) ; Kuru-
dharma (No. 275); Nanachhanda
(No, 289) ; Rathalatthi (No. 332) ;
Hastipala (No. 509) ; Susima (No.
411); Chedi (No. 422;; Kin)chbanda
(No. 511)_
Trrtha (No. 25) ; Khal.1dahala (No.
5n) ; Kiitav8:l)ija (No. 218).
Suhanu Jataka (No. 158).
Khal)dhala Jataku. (No. 542) ; Kiita-
v3.J;l;ja (No. 218).
Tal)dulllonali (No, 5); Suhanu (No.
158) ; N emi (No. 541). Palms of
the B,ethern, 25, 212.
Kurucllmrmc\ (No. 276).
ILi(1,


2D1'5
G al)datindu (No. 52,). Garga
(No. 155).
Kal)ilVera Jataka (No. 318).
Sllamiman.lsa Jataka. (No. 86).
No.538.
No.
.. Vaddhaki-kammara-chammakara-
chi t tak aradinanasi ppa-kusala,"
Jataka ( No. 4136);
111 aha lln:narga (No, :'146).
Siichi Jiituka,(No. 387); kusa (No.
5;;!) ; (No. 546).
IIIaLaunmarga Jataka (No. 546).
Ibid.
Jataka (No. 415).
Jarudapaua Jata.ka (No. 256).
Gautama. XI. 21.
Ibid.
Ihid.
Ibid.
243
and (11) pilots. 9 77 Similarly, the moss-troopers numbering 500 of a little
robber village neal' the hills of Uttal'8. P,lfich;rla
2
9 7 8 and the forest-police who
escorted the travellers 979 were organised under a J eHaka. These craftguilds
had three characteristics: (1) an alderman at the head (2) heredity of
profession and (3) localisation of industry. The position of the alderman
of the guild is indicated in the Suchl Jataka
2
9 80 where he is a great
favourite of the king (rajavallabha) and in the Uraga jataka2981 where
he is an important minister of the king (of Kosala). These heads of guilds
were called pamukkha (chief or president) and alsojettaka (elder, alderman),
distinction between these two words being not apparent. In the Anguttara
Nik1i.ya we fina the word puga-gamar;tika which means leader of a
guilll. There is one instance of all the guilds having a common chief who
was also lord of the treasury of the kingdom of KIst ij 8 2 The centralisa-
tion in this case was perhaps due to quarrels between the foremen of
the subordinate guilds such as those of Srasvasti.' 9 S:\
The necessity for interdependence among people following a particular
prufc:s:siou or cralL led them t3 live together in a particular locality. We
thus fiu(l villag-cs inhabited solely by fowlcrs, 984, char;tdllas,2 98 5 brah-
mius,\I\)86
ro
hbers,1I987 hunters,1I988 carpcnters29
8
9 and smiths.
2990
This
localisation of illllustry Was also due, as we have already seen, to the policy
of segregation adopted by the higher castes 01' the king with regard
to the people following tho hillasipp:l,'s and partly to the nearness of the
ma.rket for thoir labour or product of their labour as the case may be.
}'or these very reasons people following a particular profession or craft
came to live together in special wards of the city. Thus we find the
i918
11980
s.al
2I8e-a
2983
Sup1l.ragll. Jataka. (No. 463).
Jiita.ka I. 296; 297; H.
IV. 335.
Jataka II. 335.
No. 387.
No. 151..
368 ,
NYll.grodha Jataka (No. 4t5).
in Uraga (No. 154)
a.nd Na.kula (No. 165) Jatakas.
KhuUab!\l],\s8. (No. 533).
SOB"-
iUB6

5D89
!iUVO
Amra Jiitaka. 474); Miitanga
(No. 497); ChittasambhiHa (No. 498).
Kurodhf!.rma Jfttaka (No. 276);
(No. 389).
gaktigulma (No. 507).
Maynra J<itaka (No. 159) ; Rohanta-
mrga (No. 501) ; (No. 540).
Alinachitta (No. 156);
Phandana (No. 475).
So.chi Jataka (No. 387).
244
ivory-workers' bazal',2991 tho wea.vers' ward
29s
! and the vaisya ward
2993
of Denarcs and florists' quarter
29
94 and cooks' qual'tCl
2
(} 9 5 in Sl'dVasti.
Similarly in the Uvc1sagauasao we are told that the quarter of
Vesali was"different from that of the brahmins.
-
Oombined with this widespread corporate regulation of iJl(lllstrial
life there was a general but by no means cast iron custom for the
son to follow the calling of his father. Not only inclivi(luals but also
families are frequently mentioned in terms of their traditional calling.
Thus SMi the fisherman's son is Sati, the fisherman; Chullda the smith
is called Chunda the smithson.
2
9 9 6 Apastamva
2997
says "In successive
'births men of the lower castes are born in the next higher ones if they
have fulfilled their duties." Gautama
299B
says "Men of the several
castes and orders who live according to their caste duties enjoy after
death the rewards of their work." Apastamva
2
(} (} 9 says "In successive
births men of the higher castes are born in the next lower ones if they neg-
lect their duties. Apastamva
3000
enjoins the king to punish those who have
tl'angressed the caste laws. 3001 Gautama
3
00 2 autborises thc king to
punish such transgressors of caste laws.
The functions of these guilds were legislative, judicial and executive.
The Vinaya Pitaka lays down that a thief should not b3 odained as a nun
without the sanction of the guilds.
3oo3
From the Vinaya Pitaka3004 we
further learn that the guilds had the function of arbitrators to settle
differences between mr.mhers and their wives. And Gautama
Soos
lays
down that they have legislative functions, for, he refers to the validity
of the laws and customs established by guilds.
Silavannaga JiHaka (No. 72); Ka,iiya
(No. 221).
Bhimasena Jahka. (No. SO).
JiUaka (No. 547).
Padma Jataka. (No. 261).
1l1aqlsa. Jataka (No. 315).
M. 1. 256; D. II. 127 f ; Jatakfl 1.
98, 194, 312; II. 79 ; cf. =
ludda.pu tto = Iud do; Ja taka HI.
330 f. j V. 356-8.

0 8
2990
3000
5001

aooa
aoo,
B006
II. 2-3; 10-11.
XI. 29.
II. 11. 11.
II. 10. 12-16.
Cf. Apastamva II. 27. 18.
XI. 31.
Rajiinar!.l va saIllghaZJ:1 va ga{ll'!1 va
piigarl,l va va anap;o,)oketa-
vyii.
IV. 226.
XI. 21.
245
The learner or apprentice (antevasika, lit. the boarder) appears fre-
quently in Buddhist books, one of which indicates the relative position
of pupil and master woodwright.
3oo6
In the Mahavagga
3007
the
Buddha says "The aclrya, 0 Bhikkhus, ought to consider the antovasika
as It. son; the antevii.sika ought to consider the acarya as a father. Thus
these two, united by mutual reverence, confidence and communion of life
will progress, advance and reach a high stage in the doctrine and discipline.
The Vinaya Pitaka also gives elaborate rules reO'ardiuO' the duties of the
. 0 0
of the pupil towards his teacher and vice versa and also rules regulating
the relation between teacher and pupil and the conditions determini.ng its
admissibility or cessation. But these relate to the education in the
sacred lore, religion and humanities and not to training in the crafts with
which we are concerned. The apprentice in the industrial sense indeed
appears frequently in the Jrrtakas though no conditions of pupilage are given.
Thus in the Kusa Jrrtaka
3oo8
a prince apprentices himself to a potter,
basket- maker, florist etc., in succession. The senior pupil also acts as
assistant master We have also instances of fees being
paid by apprentices to teachers. 30 10 But the conditions of pupilage,
though not given in the Buddhist books are roughly foreshadowed by
Gautama
3
0 11 who says "The apprentice may forsake his master either of his
own motion (in which case he is liable to correction) or under instructions
from his kinsmen who consented to his pupilage. In the latter case the
deserted master can sue the pupil's guardians for a breach of contract." 3 012
But a contract cannot be onesided. Hence Katyayana who flourished
in the third. century B. C.3 013 fixed a penalty upon the teacher for employ-
ing the apprentice in other work. "He who does not instruct the pupil
in the art and Causes him to perform other work shall incur the first
amercem'ent and the pupil may forsake him and go to another teacher,
released from the indenture." 3 0 14
300e
AtthasalinT, p. 111 ; Jat. I. 251; (No. 252); of. Dyllta (No. 478).
V. 290 f.
8011
II. 43-44.
0007
I. 32. 1.
3011
Colebrooke's Digeat of Hindu Law,
8008
No. 531. Vol. II. p. 8.
800e
Anabhil'ati Jataka(No. 185) ; Maha-
801S
Ma.edonell-Hiatol'Y of SaDskrit
(No. 537).
Literature.
8010
Sudima J4taka No. 163) ;
80U
Ibid., Vol. II. p. 7.
246
Another interesting fact to be noticed is that though normally the crafts
were organisecl on a hereditary basis and technical talent descended from
father to son and was confined to particular family yet the way was still
open to exceptions to that rule. Spiritual ministrations were the work
of the brahmins and administration that of the and brahmins
though some share of it was being appropriated by the vaisyas as
in the case of the office of the king's treasurer
3015
with which was coupled
the judgeship of the guilds. But these distinctions did not hold good
in the economic sphere where all castes seemed to have stood together.
In the Dasahrahmal:a Jataka
30
16 brahmins who followed the professions
of a physician, charioteer, agriculturist, moat-seller, caravan-guard, hunter,
clealer in fruits, ornaments etc., arc condemned proving therehy, though
indirectly, that some hrahmins followed these occupations. In the Bhiiri-
datta J ataka
3
0 17 we read "If the four-fold caste system was true then why
do people other than conquer kingdoms, why do non-brahmins
become proficient in the Vedic mantras, why do non-vaisyas carryon
agriculture, why do not sudras serve the twice-born castes? Indeed the
choice of occupations was qui.te free. Thus in the Vinaya Pitaka
30
18
we find parents discussing the best profession which their wards might
choose without a reference being made to the the father's trades. In the
Chullavagga
30
19 the monks are allowed the use of a loom and of shuttles,
strings, tickets and all the apparatus belonging to a loom. We also read
of brahmins as physicians 3020 O'oatherds 3021 merchants 3022 hunters 3023
'b, , ,
snake-charmers,
3
0 H archers, 3025 robbers,
3
0 2 6 cart-wrights,
3
0 27 agricul-
turists,3 02 8 caravan-guard,
3 0
2 9hawkers,30 3
0
an
d even low caste trappers. 3031
3016

3017
:.l018
8019
80

latah (No. 445).
No. 495.
No. 543.
1. 77 ; IV. 128.
V.28.
J5.taka (No. 513).
Dl.iimakari (No. 413) ; Dasa-
brabmal,la (No. 543).
Da.sabrahmal}1Io (No 543).
Cbnllanandika. Jatllokllo (No. 222);
Iudriya (No. 423).
Cbampeyllo Jatu.ku. (No. 506).
3025

3030
3031
Jataka (No. 522).
Mahak Jataka (No. 469).
Spandana Jataka (No. 475).
I::omadatta Jataka (NIIo. 211) ; Uraga
(No 354); Suvarl}akarkata (No.
389) ; Mahakapi (No. 516); cf. the
Brahmin peasant Bharadwaja III
Sntta Nipata.
Dasabrahmal}a Jataka. (No. 495),
Garga Jataka (No. 155).
DaS(lobrahmal}a Jataka.(No. 495).
247
In the Kusa Jataka
30S11
a 'Prince in his infatuation for a girl apprentices
himself incognito in succession to the potter, basket-maker, florist and
cook to his father-in-law, without a word being said as to his social degrada-
tiou when Clese vagaries bec:1:ne known. Similarly a prince takes to
trade
3033
while another resigning his kingdom goes to the frontier where
he dwells "with a rich merchant's family, working with his own hands. 3034
We also read of a prince who only consents to marry when a princess is
found exactly like a golden imago which he himself had fashioned and
'which was far superior to that made by the chief smith employed for the
purpose.
30
35Th e Sankha Jata1ca 3035 speaks of a Brahmin who takes to
trade to be be tter able to afford charitable gifts. Brahmins engaged personally
in trading without snch pretext are also mentiongd.
3037
Again we hear
of a deer-trapper becoming the protege and then the inseparable friend
of a rich young without a hint at social barriers ;3038 a weaver
looking on his handicraft as a mere makeshift and changing it offhand
for that of an archel'
3 0
39 ; a pious farmer and his SOll with equally little
ado turning to the low trade of rush-weaving
3040
; a young man of good
family, but penniless, starting on his career by selling a dead mouse
for eat's meat at a farthing, turning his capital and hands to every variety
of job and finally buying up a ship's cargo with his signet-ring as security
amI winning both a high profit in his transactions and the hand of a
src!?thi's daughter. "This freedom of initiative and mobility in trade
and labour nnds further exemplification in the enterprise of a settlement of
wood-wol'kers. 30 40 1 Failing to carry out the orders 01' which prepayment
had been made, they were summoned to fulfil the contract. But they
instead of 'abiding in their lot' as General Walker the Economist
30411
said
of their descendants 'with Oriental stoicism and and fatalism' made a.
mighty ship secretly and emigrated with their families, slipping down the
Ganges by night and so out to sea till they reached a fertile island.

No. 531.
30:18
Jataka. III. 49 If.
3083
Jat. IV. 184.
8039
Jataka II. 87.
303'
Jat. IV. 169.
30'0
Jataka IV. 318.
3036
Jataka (No. 531).
Z03t1
No. 442.

Jatake. IV. 159.
3087
Jataka V. 22, 471.
.'J042
The Wages Ql1estion p. 171 .
248
Stories all these, not history; nevertheless they serve to show that in these
timos the division of c:1ste W;'1'l not rig1(\ an:! WMl no to the mobi-
lity of labour, both vertical and horizontal.''30403 Indeel social divisions
aml economic occupations were very far from coincid ing. Th fact that
bra,hmins claimed credit if bol'll of brahmins on both sides for generations
back
30u
betrays the existence of many born from a less pura connuhium.
In the Kusa Jataka
30405
a Bra.hmin. b,!ces to wife tha caildless chief wife
of a king without losing Clste thereby. Elsewhere in the Ji1t'l.kas princes,
brahmins, and even low C:1stes are shown forming friendships,
sencling their sons to the same teachers and even eating together and inter-
marrying without any social stigma. 3046 Even in Apastam va sutra 3 041
we find that a Sudra can become a Brahmin and a Brahmin a Sudra
accorcling to their good or bad deds. P.1Q.ini
3
04 8 mentions a celebrated
grammarian Chakravarman who was a ki?h3.triya by birth. All these
evitlences go to show that the dignity of labour was recognise:! though
there were certain notable exceptions. Thus the Suttavibhanga
3
049
mentions certain low castes and certain low crafts. As iustances of low
castes are mentioned the Ve!'}.a who according to Manu lived by beating
drums etc., and whose prototype we find in the Bheriva;da
3050
and
Sankhadhma
3051
Jatakas; the (hunters or trappers), Pukkasa
3052
whose occupation is said to be that of throwing away dead Bowers
3053
and the ChaQ.dalas who are called the meanest men on earth 3054 who
lived apart in their own settlements
3
0 5 5 by hunting and were sometimes
employed for street-sweeping
3
0 5 6 and policing towns by night.
3
0 5 7 The
:.10' 3
30U
30U
3o"

30'8
!iO,O
Rapson-Cambridge
India, V 01. I.
D. 1. 93 ; M. II. 156.
History
No. 531 ( - Jataka V. 280).
of
Jataka II. 319 ; III. 9-10 ; VI.
422 ; Jataka 1. 421, 4'22.
II.5-10.
VI. 1. 130.
Vinaya Pitako. IV. 6-10.
No,59.
No. GO.
3053
30H
3065
30ti6
According to Mann the pnkkasllo
was the son of a chagdah by 1\
siidra female. He lived by hnnting
animals like iguana, pDrcupine
etc., which live in holes.
Jataka IV. 205.
Jataka IV. 397.
Amra, Matanga and Chitta-
sambLiita Jatakas (Nos. 474, 497
and 498 resgectively).
J ataka IV. 390.
Jate.ka. III. 30.
249
sight of a chalJ.u:tla we are further told foreho(les evil
3058
; contact with
the air that touchcs his houy is pollution 3 0 9; partaking of his food even
without know l()ilgo le1.tls to social ostracism 3060 anll even food seen by
him is not to be ta
1
{cn.
3
0 U As examplcs of low crafts are mentioncd
those of the nalak:rra (worker in grass and reeds) kumbhak:rra, (potter),
pesakara (wewJr), chu.nakIra (leather-wol"kel') and nlpita (barber). It
should, however, be notel that the social stigma rcsting on these low
trades was (lue to their very nature (as in the case of the butcher
and the tannel') but chiefly to their association with the aboriginal non-
Aryan tribes who followed them. Yet other despised callings were the
black arts, explanation of signs, omens, auguries, dreams, foretelling
events etc.
3
0 6 JJ:taka VI. 191 refers to the popular belief that even
Nagas do not dance for shame before actors. J;rtaka II. 82 refer3 to
Brethern who used to get a living by being physicians 3 0 tl3 or runners,
doing errands on foot ...... the 21 unlawful callings. It is very interesting
to note that there is a substantial agreement between the Pali works and
Sanskrit law hooks in this connection. Thus conde.nns
a.ctors; also Baudh:tyana
3065
who adds to them stage-players and teachers
of dancing, singing, and acting condemned as upa piitakins. 3066 It is thus
evident that both the Bllddhist and Hindu social opinions are practically
at one in condemning certain crafts and professions on the basis of an
absolute standard, determined on grounds of moral deficiency and in
some cases of uncleanlincss of the processes of operation involved in the
craft.
Similar agreement between Hindu and Buddhist books is to be found
with regard to thc mobility of labour already mentioned. Thus all the
30158
30119
3050
3061
Matangc\ (No. ; Chittasambhftta
(No. 498).
N a99 c hal)dii,la kala kal)l)i, adho-
vahn.1 (No. 377).
Mat"n;a (No. 497).
Chittasl\mbhllta (No 498).
Chullav.'gg' XLI. 1. 3; MahMiia
Tevijja Suth, eh. If.
8063 Note the prohibition in the Hindu
smrti.
306' III. 3.
soH 1.5.10,14
SO.6 II. 1,2, 13. Compare Apastalllva
I. 6. 140; Gautama XVII. 17;
XIV. 2. 3.
250
Hindu law books authorise the twice-born classes to take to the occupation of
an inferior caste in times of distress or on failul'o to obtain it Ii ving through
lawfullabour.
3067
Gautama in his Dharmasutra
3068
says that a brahmin
can be a farmer and a trader, though tl'itcle in a c;;)l'taln specifieJ. articles
are forbidden by him
3
0 6 9 as also by .\pastamva,3 0 7 0 BaUllha:yam,30 11
and Vasi'?tha3073 prohibits brahmins and from
being usurers but Baudh'Lyana
3074
says that the vaisya may practise
usury. Even the brahmin priest who neglects his (lnties may at the king's
pleasure be forced to do the work of a surlra.3 0 7 But though brahmil1s
lived not only as gentlemen farmers but also as humble plough men 3076
in this period a brahmin who persists in trade cannot be regarded as a
brahmin nor Can a priest who lives as an actor or physician.
3
0 77 In fact,
there were recognised customs, not approved in one part of the country
but admitted as good usage because locally approved in other parts. For,
in discussing usag'e, Baudhayana
3078
expressly enumerates customs pecu-
liar to the south and certain others peculiar to the north and adus that to
follow these practices except where they are consiclered right usage is to
sin but that for e1.ch pra.ctice the 10c:11 rule is authoritative, though
Gautama denies this.3 0 79
The condition of the lab3uring classes: (a) Free laboure1's-There is
very little evidence to prove that ill India slavery ever became the basis
of the economic life of the lleople. were mostly free and were
paid for their work. The free labourers were called kammakara
3080
and their wages
3081
Were settled by higgling and haggling as in the
Gangamitla Jataka
3
082 In the A varya Jataka 3 0 8 3 the ferryman is also
301'
8018
80-'10
10'71
807.
3073
10' to
3016
Gantama VI1. 6; II. 22 ;
BaudM.yana II. 4. Ill.
X. 5. Compare II 24 f.
VII. 9-20.
1. 7. 20. 12-13.
II. 1.2,27.
II. 24.-32.
II. 40.
V. 10. 21.
Baudb1iyana II. 4. 7. 15.
II r. 31.
:JO 7 7
3078
3079
!jOSQ
3081
:; 0 8 a
0 H::;
Ibid, III. 3.
I. 1. 17 .
Sacred Books of the East, Vol. II.
p. XLIX.
Suvarl)amrga Jataka (No. 359) ;
Vidu"apilJ;ldita (No. 545).
Purisatlhakaram III Mal.lika.J}tha
Jataka eN' o. 253),
No. 421.
No 376.
251
ad vised to settle the fare by bargaining before taking a man to tho other side
of the river. The wage-earning class also existed in the days of Panini'OH
who uses the words vetana and vaitauika. The Gangama,la J:ttaka
sou
gives us all insight into the frivolous though gay life led by some of the
free labourers of those days. We are told that there was a poor labourer
who earned his livelihood by fetching water to others. He contracted
questionable intimacy with a poor woman who also earned her living by
fetching water. Learning that a great festivity is in progress in the
city (of Benares) they decided to join it with their total savings of one
each which they in regaling themselves with garland,
perfumes and wine. Though the wage-earner was no man's chattel yet
his lot seems to have been very hard. In the Seriv:iQ.ij Jataka
sose
&
free woman who earned her living by working as a domestic drudge in
the house of a neighbour is as living from hand to mouth and
unable to save anythiug with which she could buy from the hawker articles
for her only dependent, a grand-daughter. In the KUt?dakapupa J:!taka
8087
a free labourer of Sr:tvasti is described as making his both ends meet with
great difficulty and when the other citizens decided to make a corporate
gift to the monks he decided to present Buddha with cakes prepared
with the fine husk of rice which only he could spare.
In addition to these there were the day-labourers
3
0 8 8 whose lot W&S
probably harder. He was to a great extent employed in the larger land-
holdings
3 0
89 and paid either in board and lodging3090 or in money
wages.
3
0 91 In a list of callings given in the Buddhist books he ranks
along with the mere hewers of wood and flowJr-;;atherJrs and below the
slave.
30911
In the Sutanu Jataka
309s
a day-labourer is described 88
earning one or one-half a day with which he is reported to have

IV. 4. 12.
3088
JAtaka III. 406 ; IV. S. N.
3085
No. 421. p. 12.
aoe4
No. 31.
'080
Gangamllia Jiitaka (No. '21).
a 087
No. 109.
'D81
Sutanu Jltaka (No. 39B).
:.l088
Bhrtika. ., Pilli BMta.ka in Sutta
808t
D. I. 51 ; cf. U7 ; 331; A. I.
Nipata. I. 4 ; cf. S. I.
171 ; Jiitaka
146,206.
Ill. 293; I. 46B.
ao.a
No. 398.
252
maintained ltilll3r.lU amI only other dependent, hi... mother with great
difficulty.
(b) Slaves -Next, there were slaves who were an adjunct lU
comparatively rich households. The male slaves sometimes served as
a valet or footman to his master's son
3094
01' as a store-keeper to his
master 3 09 5 j while the female slaves in royal establishments waited
upon the queens and performed such duties as daily buying flowers for
them
3
D 9 6 amI looking after the jewels of the ladies in the royal harem.
s
0 9 7
III other households they had to husk paddy,3098 pound l'ice
3099
and fetch
water.3l00 'rhey were sometimes put on hire to work for others.
3lOl
Slaves seem to have been recruited from all classes of society. The
Viswautara seems to point to the fact that the euslrtvcment of high-
born prince and priucess was nothing which could shock the social ideas
of the day. From the Jataka
310
2 we learn that slaves
were of four kinds :-(1) garvadasa, born slaves (i.e., chilclren of slaves)
(2) kritadlsa or those solll for mouey (3) bhaktadasa or those who volun-
tarily recognise others as their owners for food and clothing (-1) or for
protection. To the fi/ih class belonged the karamaras of I'fLli literature,
those who were captured by the robbers that raiclecl villages as in the
Takka
3lo3
ancl Chullan;iracla
3104
Jatakas. These karamaras are akin to the
dhvajahrta class of slaves described by Manu. To the .eix[;'z class belonged
the danclad:Isa who were reduced to slavery as a judicial punishment. An
instance of such degradation is fumished by the Kulayaka Jataka
31
0 Ii
where thc king enslaves the tyrannical village headman for his crimes.
The slaves formed part of the property of wealthy householders.
"Wives and children, bondwomen aml bonclmen, goats and sheep, fowl and
swine, elephants, cattle, horses and mares, together with gold and coins of
30 g,
Klttiibaka Jatakt\ (No. 125).
3100
Vimanavattu commentary p. 45.
:lo.fi
Ibid.
8101
NamasiLidhiko. .latl1ka (No. 97).
loge
Dbammapada Commentary on verses

No. 114:).
21-23.
7
MaUslra Jitako. (No. 92).
3108
No. 63.
;
D. C. III. 3:'.1. 3<0'
No. 477.
. ,
Robilll Jataka (No. 45)
310&
No. 31.
253
silver"3106 all those tics the householder is said to pursue with blind and
avid appetite. But knowing that they are fetters and encumbrances, even
the unconverted man when speaking in praise of Gautama might say "He
refrains from accepting slavewomen or slave-men." 31 0 1 The Theragatha
indicates that they were completely at their master's control and had no
freedom except that given to them by their masters. 3108 They could be
giftcd away31 0 9 or exchanged for another. 311 0 For this loss of persQlIa
exempts them from taxation. :Por this very reason the master's
consent was necessary for the slave's marriage. Pasenadi, king of Kosala
had to obtain the consent of the master before he could marry Mallik:r,
daughter of a slave woman of one of the leading Sakya cheifs named Maha:-
naman. For the same reason the marriage of a slavc with free women
hardly improved his status.
3111
Similarly, sons born of a slave-girl by a
free man were hardly regarded as free. Hence the Lichchhavis never recog-
nised Vasavakhattiya as a member of the Sakya family since she was the
daughter of a Sakya prince by the slave-girl NagamuQ.da:.
3112
The slaves, however, might be manumiated 3113 or might free themselves
by payment; 31 14 but while still undischarged they were not even eligible
for the pavajj;t ordination. S 115 As Rhys Davids
3
116 points out, although
slaves might be admitted into some of the orders coexistent with the
Buddhist sa!pgha, Gotama restricted this custom, so that "whenever slaves
were admitted to the Order they must have previously obtained the consent
of their masters, and also, I think, have been emancipated". This is
borne out by the story of the jealous woman who mutilated her female
servant. S 11 7 When the outrage was brought to light and the woman and
her husband had been reprimanded by Gotama, they were converted to the
310e
MBjjhimB, 1. 162.
3118
D. I. 72; Psalms of the Sisters,
3107
Dialogues, I. p. 5.
p. 117 ; Psalms of the Brethern,
3101
Psalms of the Brethern, p. 360 ; cf.
p. 22 ; J:l.taka V. 313 (dlisajana.qt
Ibid., p. 22.
bhuj issam katva).
311 t,
Jataka (No. 557).
810 D
Asampradana Jataka (No. 131).
3115
Mab!i vBgga 1. 4.7.
al10
Apastamva I. 20. 15.
3118
Dilllogues I. p. 103.
8111
Jata.ka (No.4).
8111
Dhammapada Commentary on verss
1113
Bhadra.Sala Jataka. (No. 465). 314.
254
faith, and then and there they freed the female slave and macle her a
follower of the Dhamma. The Therigathfi commentary311 S tells us that
PUt?!).l, daughter of AnathapiQdacla's domestic slave, was given freedom
hy her master when she defeated a Brahmin in argument and then allowed
to enter the order.
The lot of the rslave seems to have been far better than that of either
the Greek or the Roman slave. From the Srikalakarqi,3119 Gangamala
3190
and Uraga
3121
.Trrtakas we find that the slaves were treated as members of
the family and lived virtuous lives like their 1ll8sters. Some of them,
however, were in the habit of stealing like Khujjuttal'a
3
122 though the
influence of Buddha's dhamma had a splendi.d effect on their character. That
the slaves rememhered their happy personal relationship even when their
former master had gifted them away to another and even tried to help
their ex-master in his distress is evident from the Asampradana .Irrtaka.
3
19 3
It is no wonder, thereforfJ, to find that a master, at the time of his death
would show confidence in his slave by telling him only, where he had kept
his secret treasures 124 or would consult his slave-girl as to the nature of
the boon he should ask of the king.
s125
In the Uraga .Iataka
3126
a slave-
girl did not weep for her dead master aml when she was told that the reason
for her conduct was probably her ill-treatment by the dead master she
stoutly protested and remarked that she had nursed him up from his
chihlhood with great fonlness but did not mourn his death because a
dead man cannot be brought back to life by crying aloud just as an earthen
pitcher once broken cannot be mended. In the Katdh'1ka Jataka
31
~ 7
we fmd the slave-girl's son pettecl and brought up along with the master's
son a.nd permitted to learn writing amI handicrafts and was afterwards
appointed as store-keeper by his master.
There was the other and darker side of the picture as well; for, in
the llame Jataka we find the slave saying to himself that if he remained as
uu
pp.199 f.
3123
No. 1:31.
"1' No. :182. 3 1 l i i 1 ~
Nandadasa Jata.ka (No. 39).
:Jl1O
No. 421. 3UIO
Nanachhallda Jataka (No. 289).
J11'
No. 3;)1.
5 1 ~ '
No. 354.
}1"
D. C. I., 208 !. 3tH
No. 125.
storekeeper he would have to spend his life feeding on a slave's fare and
at the sligh cst fault might get beaten, branded and imprisoned. Cases of
ill-treatment of slaves were not altogether unknown.
daughter-in-law usetl to illtreat and even beat her dasa's and d1si's.3 H 8
A slave girl Dhanap:tli by name was put on hire to work for others and one
day on hel' failure to earn any wages her master and mistress beat her
severely after throwing her down at the gate of their house. 31 9 Thc
Majjhima Niklya
313
0 also giV0s us a painful instance of ill-treatment by
the mistress of It house. A slave-girl named Kali was never lazy but in
order to find out whether her fame for gentleness and mildness
was true 01' not rose one day late in the morning. At this her mistress
merely questioned and frowned. On the second day she rose up late and
was rebuked. On the thircl day she rose up still very late and was beaten
on the head by her mistress. In the Vimanavattu comment
ary
3131 we
are told that once a slave-girl of a brahmin of Kosala while going to fetch
water saw the Buddha sitting at the foot of a tree. Desirous of earning
religious merit and baing careless whether the brahmin will beat her or
kill her, she offereel a pot of water to the Buddha who drank water from
it. In order to increase her faith in him the Buddha by his miraculous
power made the pitcher full every time its contents were taken by his
disciples andrctul'lleJ the pitcher full of water to her. The Brahmin master
heard all about it and was very angry with her and beat her to death. The
Vimi1navattu commelltar
y
313 2 furnishes us with another pathetic picture of
ill treatment. A Brahmin dislikecl a slavc-girl's daughter to whom she
used to administer kicks and blows for no fault of hers. The fact Was
that at the time of Kaiyapa Bllddha the girl had been the mistress and she
used to beat her maid who was now born as the Brahmin lady and the
situation was reversed. As the Bl'ahmin mistress pulled the hair of her
head the slave-girl's daughter hatl the hair of her head shaven by a barber.
At this the enraged mistress tied her head with a rope and punished her
and thus the girl came to be known as Rajjuma:la. At last she went to a
810 8 Sujata. Jataka (No. 269).
31U Namllsiddhika Jataka (N"o. 97).
3180 I. 125 f.
3131 pp. 45-47.
8tO. pp.206-09.
256
forest to commit suicide unable any more to bear the rwIc treatment of
her mistress. "\Ve also read of run away slavc.3 in t!lC J:rtakas.
3133
(c) Female thc comparatively well-tn-tIn
the great majority of women were supported hy fathcl', hushan(1 or children
and did not do much, if any, work b3yond their householel bsks. But among
the poorer people the case was different and there are v Lrious recJl'd., which
refer to self-supporting women who were engagd in n. trade or profession.
The Jatakas, for example, refer to a free woman working as a maid-servant
in a neighbour'S house,3134 as female astrologer as
water-carrier
3
136 awl a guard over cotton-fields3B 37 wherl! she used some-
times to spin fine thread from the clean cotton. 313 8 Again it is said
that a certain woman was the keeper of a paddy fiehl and she gathered
and parched the heads of rice. 31 s 9 Women also appear to have been
capable of functioning as keepers of burning grounds, though no mention
is made of any wage they might haV'e receiveil.314.0 In the Dhamrnapada
Commentary3141 we read of a woman acrobat: "One day (at R'\jagr ha)
a certain female tumbler climbed a pole, turncJ somers:mlts thereoa, and
balancing herself on the tip of the pole, danced and sang as she trod the
air." The people "stood on bed piled on bells" to obtain a good view so
that thc tumbler earned "much gold and money."
A large number of women also earncel their living by rlancing a.nd
music
31u
while the courtesans formed a far from negligible portion of the
a183
3186
818&
318&
3117
3188
3139
Katahab (No. 125) ; Kalan.
duke. (No. 127).
Serivii'.lij (No.3) ; Vahya (No. 108) ;
Suvar'.lahaqIsa (No. 136)
Jataka (No. 126).
Gangaml!.la Jataka (No. 421);
(No. 544).
Mahilunmarga Jataka (No. 546).
Ibid.
Dhammapada Commentary on
verse US.
Theragatha Commentary on cxxxvi ;
Dhammapada Commentary on
verse 7-f3.
Dhllmmllpada Commenta.ry on V&rSB
34S.
Ma.jjhima NiUy'\ 1. :'lOl;
vagga 1. 7, 1, 2; Dialo,{ues 1. pp.
5 and 7 ; II. 170; Rhys Da.vids-
Buddhist Birth Stories, p. 171;
Dhammapada Commentary III.
pp. 166 and 297 ; Naccagltavadita
kusaHi in Fausboll's Jataka, Jr.,
p. 3:28; V. p. 249 ; Solasasu natCtki.
in Ibid., I. p 4:37;
Ibid., No. 263.
257
community, as is shown by the very ease with which they are ussd in
similes.
3
143 Some like Vimal;t31H and Siriml
lll45
appear to have been
prostitutes hecause their mothers were; while among the Liehcl1havis of
Vai;Jli a handsome girl was considered a public property and she was
re(luircd hy usage to be brought up as an accomplished courtesan, having
an easy access to the royal courts and pleasances of aristocracy. The gal).ik::rs
of this class felt their usefulness generally as trained agents for the satis-
faction of the erotic sentiment of joy anel the resthetic enjoyment of life
in its fullncss and occasionally as spies in state service. Some of them
were extremely wealthy. Mention is made of their ornaments
S146
and
their serving maids.
3
1 1 Salavati asked for a hundred pieces for one
night; 51 U Ambapali askml for fifty kah ipaJ;las for one night ; 11. 9 while
K:tmadhvaj:\ Val).ijagrama was available for a thousand pieces and was
granted the umbrella and yak-tail as the mark of royal favour.
315o
Kiili
also used to get one thousand pieces for one night out of which five
hundred were for the woman, five hundred were the price of the clothes,
perfumes and garlands; the men who ,visited that house received garments
to clothe themselves in, and stayed the night there; then ok the next day
they put off the garments they had received and put on .those they had
brought and went their ways.3151
Foreign trade-There was brisk trade in India at the time both
inland amI sea-borne. Dr. Fick considers navigation in the Jatakas as
not on high seas but this view is long exploded. In fact sea voyages must
have been not a rare occurrence as is shown by their use in similes. ,Thus
in Sonananda Jataka
Bl5
!l the eldest son is seen remarking "I shall bear
the burden of maintaining myoId parents, brothers and sisters just as a
BUt va vibhOsliy&m, "like courte
8&n8 do they p&rade their gear"
tn TberaglitM, verBe 939.
a". Theriglithil., XXXIX.
01'. Nipilta., Commenta.ry I., 144.
"". Mahliunmlirga Jataka. (No. 546).
., JJ1talra (No. 318); Tark1l-
rik" (No. 481) j Dhammapada.
Commente.ry OD verBe 3.
31'8 Afahavagga., VIIL, 1,3.
SliD Vinaya Texts, pt. II. p. 171.
3180 Amulya ChanD Sen-Social Life
in JainaLHerature in the C"loutta
Review for April, 1933, p. 84 .
3101 Tarklirilra Ji!.taka (N D. 481).
811 No. 532.
258
skilful naviga.tor bears the burden of piloting a ship in an ocean (mahlr-
t;tllova)". In Mahanaracla-kasyapa J:itaka
3153
we read: "Just as a merehan-
tile ship if overloaded goes to the hottom of the sea, so does a lUall loa
l
1ec1
with sin sinks into hell." In the Vidurapal.ldita J;ltaka
315
4 the king looks
upon Vidura for help in difficult and anxious times just as shipwreclwl
pilots look upon an island in the breast of the ocean as their ouly refuge.
N or is this all. The Sudhabhojana Jataka 315 tI thus describes the
dangers and risks of maritime trade: "Desirous of wealth the merchant
crosses the main in a vessclladen in mercbandise; but if perchance the
ship founders he loses not only his goods but also his life; and if through
the grace of God his life is sparel he is distressed by the loss of his
merchandise. In the Ohatur(l v;-[ra Jatalca
3
U 6 a mother by way of
dissuading her only son from resorting to maritime trade describes the
dangers of a sea-voyage; but the son did nevertheless embark on a mari-
time voyage and his miseries knew no bounds as his ship struck a hidden
rock in mid-ocean. The Losaka Jataka
31S
7 describes the distress of
mariners when their ship similarly struck a hidden rock in midocean.
The Suparaga Jrrtaka
Sl
5 S descrihes the miseries that befell mariners in
a ship which being attackd by a sea-gale tossed aimlessly throug-h many
seas for four months. The Samudrava0ij JJtalca
S159
narrates the story
of a shipwrecked man who was forced to live in an island without any
dress or shave till he was joined by the passengers of another wrecked
ship. Many other Jrrtakas
S
16 0 also furnish too vivid descriptions of
the suerings of mariners due to ship-wreck in mid-ocean to be reg-ardell
as mere fabrication.
The Nikayas, too, speak of voyages out of sight of land referring
probably to voyages across the seas and not mere coasting voyages. In the
81611 No. 544.
81.. No. 545. The Jiitaka.
(N o. 402) also refers to fishermen
cl\8ting their net in high
wl\y of " eimile.
No
. No. 41(1.
seas by
3167 N 41
o. .
3l&e No. 463.
aug No. 466.
(No. 190);
(No. 196); DharmRdhvaja (No.
384) ; (No. 442); pa'(ldara.
(No. 518) ; (No. 52P).
969
Vinaya
B
16 1 we arc told that in the time of Gotama a Hindu merchant
PilrQa by name who had undertaken voyages on high seas for purposes of
trade was going to the sea for the seventh time in the company of some
Burldhists of Srlvasti. Hearing the recitation of sacred texts by his
Buddhist fellow-passengers on board the ship he acquired great veneration
for Buddhism to which he became a convert on his return to Sravastl
Baudhayana in his Dharmasiitras
316
while enumerating the condemned
practices of tho north, speaks of the custom of making sea-voyages among
the northern Brahmins. One of the siltras of Pa:Q.ini
SI69
also refers to
trading with islands.
In fact, there was a very flourishing shipbuilding industry and large
merchantile marines were huilt up. Thus the Samudrava1;lij Jlltaka
81H
mentions a ship which accommodated one thousand families of woodwrights
who to an island over-sea. The Va:la.ha:sva Ja:taka
Sl65
mentions
a ship which contained 500 merchants. The Suparaga Ja:taka
Sl66
mentions
a sea-voyage undertaken by seven hundred merchants in a ship. The
shi p in which the prince of the :M:ahajauaka Jataka S 167 sailed with other
traders, had on board seven Caravan with their beasts. S 16 8 The ship in
which was rescued from a watery grave the philanthropic Brahmin of the
Sankha .htaka
Sl69
was 1120 cubits in length, 560 cubits in width and
140 cubits in depth. Again in the Maha:unmarga Jlltaka
S
17 0 the Great
Being says "Anandakumara, take 300 wrights, go to the upper Ganges,
procure choice timber, build 300 ships, make them cut stores of wood from
the town, fill.the ships with light wood and come back soon." The ships
described in the Silanisarpsa
s
17 1 and Sankha
31
U Ja-takas seem to have
3101 Quoted in the Journal of the
American Oriental Society, Vol. I.
p.285.
31'a Ch.I.
3183 Dvaip!lo lIa\lik in IV. 3. 10.
31'" No. 466.
01.. No. 196.
810e No. 463.
3117 No. 539.
81 U In the ted we have "sa.ttaja.ngha-
sat!!ni". It means three hundred
and fifty men. The English tra.n-
slator takes the reading to be:
'sattajanghasatthllni" whioh mea.ns
seven cara.va.ns a.nd their bea.sts.
318. No. 442.
31'10 No. 546.
3171 No. 190.
ana Vo.442.
260
been large in size as they had three masts (kupaka). Mrs. Rhys Davids! 1 T
rightly remarks "The vessels according to Jataka tales seem to have
been constructed on a fairly large scale, for, we read of hundreds, embark-
ing on them, merchants or emigrants. The numbers have, of course, no
statistical value, but the current conceptions of shipping capacities are at
least interesting".
There is enough circumstantial evidence to prove the existence of
commercial intercourse with the peoples of western Asia. The BZivenl
Jataka
3
174. refers to the export of peacocks by Indian merchants to
Babylon. In the words of Professor Buhler "the story indicates that
the Banias of western India undertook trading voyages to the shores of the
Persian Gulf and of its rivers in the fifth perhaps in the sixth century
B. C. just as in our days. This trade very probably existed already in
much earlier times, for, the Jatakas contain several other stories, describing
voyages to distant lands and perilous adventure by sea in which the vessels
of the very ancient western ports of Supparaka (Supara) and Bharukachchha
(Broach) are occasionally mentioned". Again Dr. Buhler's discovery that
a large number of letters of the Indian alphabet (Brdhmi) bear a close
resemblance to certain letters on Assyrian weights and the presence of
some of these on the Mesha inscriptions of the seventh and nineth centuries
B. C., presupposes commercial intercourse between India and the regiolls in
the neighbourhood of Snmer and Syria. According to Heroclotus
S
17 5
Babylon obtai.ned precious stones and dogs from India.
In Ctesias' Indica (400 B. C.) we find the word karpion 31711 which
Dr. Caldwe1l
3177
derives from the Tamil-Malayalan word karuppa or
karppu, to which is akin the Sanskrit word karpura, meaning' camphor.
Homer's kassiteros meaning tin is an exact echo of the Sanskrit kastira,
meani.ng tin. These references to Indian goods in foreign literature
cOllpled with the custom of making sea-voyages, prevalent among the
northern Aryans, though condemned by Baudhayana
8178
go to show that
3, 7
- Cambridge History of
1m] ie., Vol. 1. p. 213.
No. 3.1().
I. 192 in McCrindle's Ancient Indie.
.. 8 desoribed in Classical Literature.
317. Ctesia.s transla.ted by McCrindle, p.29
7 .A Comparative Grammar of the Dra.-
vidian Languages, p. 105.
3178 Ch. 1.
261
the people of N. W. India had some share in the trade between India and
the western world by the Persian Gulf route.
In one of the Chinese legends of the lion-prince Siqlhala
317
9 it is related
how the boat in which the daughter of the Lion was cast away was driven
oy the winds westwards into the Persian Gulf where she landed and founded
a colony in the country of western women. The tradition embodied in
the Dvipavarpsa version of the legend 3180 makes her land on an island
which was afterwards called the "kingdom of women." As the Reverend
T. }<'oulkes
3
18 1 remarks "Underneath the legendary matter we may here
trace the existence of a sea-route between India and the Persian coasts in
in the days of Buddha." As a matter of fact we find the Persian king
Darius despatching in 516 B. C. an expedition under Sky lax with orders
to prove the feasibility of a sea-passage from the mouths of the Indus t.o
Persia. "Skylax equipped a fleet on the upper w?ters of the Punjab rivers
in the G:rndh:rra. country, made his way down to the coast, and in the
thirteenth month reached the sea. Darius was thus enabled to annex the
Indus valley and to send his fleet into the Indian Occan."818
2
This
political intercourse must have led to maritime interconrse as well.
Nearer home trade relations existed with Ceylon and Burma. The
VJlahasva In.taka
81S3
speaks of voyages to TamraparI).i dVipa (Ceylon).81S4
The Mahajanaka Jataka
S1S5
speaks of a prince of Champa who having got
t()gcther his stock-in-trade put on board a ship with some merchants bound
for SuvarJ;labhUmi (usually identified with Burma). S 18 6 The SusroQ.i
J:rtaka S 1 8 7 also mentions the voyage of certain merchants of Broach to
Suvarnabhiimi from which as also from the Sankha Jataka
31S
S it is evident
that Burma was another commercial objective of Indian traders in those
days.
317. Si-yu.ki, II. 246.
3180 Ibid., XIII. 55
"181 Indian Antiqua.ry, 1879.
818. V. A. Smith-Oxford History of
India, p. 45.
8183 No. 1 ~ 6 .
lIe. TAmra.pa.rl)i is also mentioned ill the
M.hbiddesa..
318 G No. 539.
3186 Others identify Suvarl)abhnmi with
the Golden Cbersonese or the
whole fa.rther Indinn C08.st.
8187 No. 360'
"18B No. 442.
262
The nature of the articles of foreign ha
r
le is not specified. The
exports to Burma were (1) pear1l,;3189 (2) gems
319
0 and (3) diamonds319
1
and to Babylon (1) peacocks
3192
(2) precious stoncs
3193
and (3) dogS.
3194
According to Professor Rhys Davifls "silk, llluslins, the finer sorts of cloth,
cutlery, armour, brocades, embroideries and rugs, perfumes and drugs, ivory
and ivory-work, jewellery and gold-these were the main articles in which
the merchants dealt." 3 19 5
The ports of departure were :-(1) Bhrgllkachchhrt3196 (2) Dantapur
on the Kalinga coast
3197
(3) Dvi1ri1vatI
31
98 (4) Gamhhlraprtttana
8199
(5)
(6) Raurava
HOl
( = and (7) Suppl-
raka.
3203
i\ t Sea ib were in chargc of pilots (niyamaka)32 0 4 who noted
the'directions hy marking the position of the Sun hy day and of the stars
hy night.3 2 0 5 In a cle 1(ly day when it was difficult to find out the
directions in which the vessel was steering, crows were let loose. The
dhection to which crows went, the mariners thong-lIt, land lay that way.
Such tame crows were called for this reason disa-kaka. 3 2 0 6 Such use of
birds to guide the pilots is also referred to in the Kevaddha Sutta and the
Anguttara Nikaya.
3
2 07
Domestic trade :-Tracle between distant parts of the country was in
the hands of merchants who lecl great caravans consisting of bullock-carts
",89 Mah:ijanaka Jiitaka (No. 539)
"100 Ibid.
3101 Ibid
810i Bavern .Tataka. (No. 339)
Hoa Herodotus I. 192 in l\IcCrindle's
Ancient India as deEcribed III
Classical Literature.
510< Ibid.
81 H Buddhist India, p. 98.
aue Snrol}i (No. 360); Suparaga (No. 463).
819' Knrudharma (No. 276); Khullakalinga
(No. 301); Kumbhakara (No. 408) ;
Kalingabodhi (N o. 479) j DIgha
Nikaya XIX. 86.
3,"8 Gllata Jatf\ka (No. 454) j Maha.
nn marge. (No. (46).
8109 Jataka (No. 41).
32UO Pal}dara Jataka (No. 518).
3001 Adipta Jataka (No. 424)
320. Digha Nikaya XIX. 86.
3.03 Rhys Davids-Buddhist India, p. 31.
3.04 Snparaga Jataka (No. 463).
3.06 Val}.l}upatha Jataka (No.2).
U O. B1ivern Jataka (No. 339) j Dhrma.
dhvaja (No. 384)
3.0' III. p. 368
263
laden in merchandise attended by owners and guarded by followers.
3ios
The Jilt3kas furnish us with a graphic account of the difficulties of these
merchants. 'fhe robbers often looted the caravans. 32 0 9 Accordingly
the merchants sacriliced cocks for pleasing the 10rJ of the pathway.
Such cocks were called pantha iak LLUa. 32 I 0, They also offered animals to
gods for their success in sale.
3
211 Moreover, they combined for the pur-
pose of a long journey, elected one among them as their leader and appoint-
ed caravan-guards for the safety of theiL' goods.
3
212 Occasionally they
had to cross deserts anct on SUC
1
i occasions they travelled in the night and
took rest in day time.
3
213 'fhey carried drinking water, oil, rice, fuel etc.,
with them.
3
214 At sunset they unyoked the oxen, kept the carts in a
circular form and in the middle erected their tent and took meals and rest.
At sunrise they took their meals and started on their ::->lJrney. au 5 S,ome-
times they engaged a guide (sthala-niyamaka) who kept the rib'ht route
by observing the position of the planets and the stars.3 2 16 When they
had to cross the forest infested with robbers etc., they engaged in addition
the services of forest-guards
3
217 In the Mahanirldesa
commentary the difficulties of caravans crossing the deserts or moving
through narrow paths or p,:lths infested by wild tribes and animals are figur-
atively described as Ajapatha (goat-track), Yal!J;lupatha, (rat-
track), Verapatha (enemy track) or as MaraI;I.apJra (region beyond death).
As to inland routes followed by these merchants we find (1) Punna, a
merchant of Supparaka trading with northern Kosala; while (2) Anatha-
pil.ldada's caravans travelled from Sr:Wastl to R;ijagrha3218 and back and
also to the borders. 3 1 Q "It is curious'; remarks Prof. Rhys Davids "that the
route between these two ancient cities was not direct; it was along the foot
of the mountains to a point north of Yais:tli and only then turning south to
3208
Jataka ( No.1. ) ;

3
ApaJ;lJ;laka Jataka (No.1) ;
patha (No. :3) Guptil!\ ( No. 243 ) ; (No.2).
Gandhara (No. 406) etc.
82US
ApaWlaka Jataka (No.1).
320 Q
JatllkB (No. 503 .

Jataka (No.2).
8110
Jataka (No. 5.17).
:'} 21l.
AyCbitabhllkt .. Jataka (N J. 17).
3217
Jiitaka (No. 265).
3:113
Jat"ka (No. 495).

Jiltaka I. 92, 348.
3213
Jataka (No.2).
3',,)19
JiitllkB r. 377 f.
264
the Ganges. By taking this circuitous road the rivers were crossed at
places close to the hills where the fords were more easy to cross. But
political considerations may also have h .. d their weight in the original
choice of their route, still followed when they were no longer of much
weight. The stopping places were, beginning at Sra.vasti, Setavya, Kapila-
vastu, KusinJra, Hattigama, Bhat)Q.agama, Vaisali, Pataliputra and Ni11anclI.
The road probably went to GayJ antI there met another route from the
coast, possibly at Tamralipti to Benares." (3) Another reute from Sriivasti
to PaWthana with six halting places-'Mahissati, U jjaini, Gonaddha, Vedisa,
Kausamvl and Saketa-is described in the Sutta NipJta. H 0 (4,) From
east to west the main route was along the great rivers, along which boats
plied for hire. The Jatakas unmistakably suggest that the Ganges Was
navip:tble by crafts of considerable size. 'rhus the merchant of
221 brings his ship right up to Benares; a sea-fairy as helmsman
brings passengers for India by ships from off the sea to Benares 3 2 2 ; the
defaulting wood-wrights of the Jii.taka
32
3 sail along the
Ganges from Benares to a (listant island on the sea; Prince Mahajanaka
sets out for SuvarJ;l.abhumi from Champa
3
2 u; and Mahindra travels by
water from Pataliputra to Tamralipti and on to Ceylon.
3
2 2 lj Sometimes
the crafts would go up the Ganges upto Sahaj"iti S 2 6 and along the J llmna
upto KausamviS 7 where also came (as we have already seen) the traffic
from the south. Further westward the journey would again be by land to
Sind whence come large imports in horses and asses
H
n and to Sovira. 3 Q
Northward lay the great route connecting India with central and western
Asia by way of 'raxila near modern Rawalpindi and probably also by way
of Sagala in the Punjab. That this route was safe is evident from the
fact that students (sometimes with 1000 Kahapar;tas as advance tuition fee
in their pockets) went unarmed to be educate(l at Taxila.3!J 3 0

5\jil



Verses 1011-13.
No.4.
(No. 190)
No. 466.
Mabajanaka Jataka (N (). 539).
Vinaya III. 338.
Identified with the ruins now exi9-
ting at Bhita, abont eight miles
33r119
3230
from Allahabad-Early History of
Kau9iimvi by N. N. Ghosh, p. 8
and fn.
Vinaya I. 81 ; III. 401, 382.
Jataka I 124, 178, 181 ; n. ::11, 257.
Vimanavattu Commentary, :136.
Jiitah II. 277.
265
The interchange of commodities of various localities must have been
considerahle during this period. For, the products of industries which
came to be localised in a particular place attained a reputation all their own
and were, therefore, much pri7.ed abroad. Such were the seents, ivory-pro-
ducts, cotton and silk fabrics of Benares, the blankets of Gan(lhara., the cloth
of Sivi country, the linen of Kautullvara, the horses of Sind, tha mules of
Kamvoja 'and the swords of DasarQ.aka.
Be!lides tho hig caravan-traders
3
31 we also notiee the hawker (kaeJ.-
chhaputaviiQ.ijo) anel the small traders who used to carry their goods from
one village to another on the backs of asses 3 9 i or on their own heads.8 U 3
Again somo of the merchants specialised in the trade of single commodities.
Of such the Jatakas refer to cloth-merchants, 8 34. grain merchantsB 55
and incense merchants
SUG
while refers to salt merchants and
spice merchants.
As to local trade both retail and wholesale, foodstuffs for the towns
were apparently brought to the gates while workshop and bazar occupied
their special streets within. U 88 'l'hus there was a fish-monger's village
at a gate of Sravasti. S 2 S Q Greengrocery is sold at the four gates of Uttara-
pJfichala
8
H 0 and venison at the crossroads outside Benares. 3 41 Arrows,
carriages and other articles for sale were displayod in the apaI;laS!i U or it
might be stored up in the antarapaQa. 9 4.3 There were taverns for the
sale of liquors
8
H as also hotels for the sale of cooked meat and rice. 8 u
The act of exchange between producer and consumer or between
either and a middleman was a free bargain, SlH 8 leading sometimes to
3,88
8.aI
SerivaI)ij Jata.ka (No.3).
Sin.1ha.carma. Jata.ka (No. 189).
Garg&. Jataka (No. 155).
Vidurapa.l}dita Jiit"ka (No. 545).
Ahitlll}dika Jatake. (No. 365).
Andhabhiite. Jataka (No. 62).
LllvaQika, eaHiluka in PaQinl IV.
51-54.
Rhys Davids-Buddbist India, p. 76.
Psalms of the Brethern, 166; of.
Jiitaka I. 361.
8 U 0 Jiit"ka IV. 445.
814.1 Jataka. III. 49 ; of. M. I. 58 jIlL 91.
lUll Jatak" II. 267 j IV. 488 j Vin!\ye.
IV. 248.
a. u ntaka I. 55, 350 ; III. 406.
81" JIHaka. T. 251 f i 268 f j VI. 328 j
Vinaya II. 267 ; IV. 248, 249; cf.
Dhammapada commenta.ry, III. 66.
DUS Villaya I. 20 ; II. 267; D.22.
at" Jiit"ke. I. III f. ; 195 j II. 222, 289,
424 f. ; III. 28;) f.
266
adulteration 32 47 and the usc of false weights.
3
24 8 We notice not only local
'cornering' in hay32
49
but also the dealer's sense of the wear and tear of
al'ticles
s
2 5 0 and a case of that more developed competition called 'dealing
in futures.' 3 H 1 Again in the Apary.l).aka J ataka
3
2 5 2 two traders agree
who shall start first. The one thinks that if he arrive first he will get a
better, because a non-competitive price; the other also holding that
'competition is killing work' prefers to sell at the price fixed by his
predecessor and yields him a start. But though free competition was the
rule, custom may well have fixed price to a great extent. 'rhe expression
limy wife is sometimes as meek as a 100 piece slave-girl"
3
2 5 3 reveals a
customary price. Moreover, for the royal householU. prices were fixed by
the court-valuer without appeal. 3 5 4
The trade of the traders may well have been largely hereditary
3
255 ;
but their organisations do not seem to have attained the same development
as the craft-guilds. The reason seems to have been that the merchant
was necessarily a wanderer while industrial organisation in these olden
days depemled largely upon settled relations and ties of neighbourhood.
A Rausa League, for instance, can only grow in highly developed markets
and seaports. Nevertheless, there is some significant evidence of
corporate concerted action among the merchants. Thus the
Jataka
S256
mentions hundred or so merchants offering to buy up a newly
arrived ship's cargo. Five hundred traders were fellow-passengers on
board the ill-fated ships mentioned in the Valahasva S 25 7 and Pal).dara 3 U 8
Jatakas i seven hundred others were lucky enough to obtain the services
of Sup:lraga as their pilot,
3
59 thus showing co-operative chartering of the
same vessel. Again caravan traders had a common chief
3260
who was to

Nemi Jataka 541).
158) ; Nemi (No. 541) j Pea.lms of
sue
Ibid.
the Brethern, 25, 212.
38'9
Jataka (No.4).
Jataka. II. 287 ; III. 198.

allSa
Apal;lI)ake. (No.1) = Jataka I. 99.

No.4.
lHUl
(No.4) "" Jataka 1.
121 f.

No. 196.
ftt!,
No.1.
sue
No. 518.

Nand .. (No. 39) ; Dadijan9. (No. 64).

Suparaga Jataka (No. 463).
. I ..
TIIY)c1ulanali
(:\'0 5); Suhanu (No.
8HO
Y"haviivij Jataka (No. 498).
267
give ciirections as to halts, watcrings, precautions against robbers and in
many cases as to routes, fords etc. a 261
Further, several partnerships are mentioned, e. g., in the deal in birds
exported from India to BabylonS 2 6 2 and in horses imported from the
north to Benares.
3
2 6 3 We also notice the partnership of traders of
Sravasti who carried on joint business and set out with five hundred cart
loads of merchandise,3 2 6 4 of two other traders of Sravasti who started
joint business with five hundred cart-loads of merchandise,
8
2 6 5 of two
merchants of who took five hundred waggons of merchandise from
Benares to the country with an equal interest of both in the stock
in-trade and in the oxen and waggons.
3
2 66
A concerted commercial enterprise on a more extensive scale appears
in the Jarudap:tna Jataka
H
6 7 where some traders of Sravasti carried on
joint business and came upon rich finds of minerals of all sorts from iron to
lapislazuli which they stowed away to a common treasure-how:e, giving
food to the brotherhood on joint account.
Methods and media of exchange-Barter was not uncomillon in this
period. Its continuance was due to the ease with which ordinary people
could exchange their goods readily. Brahmins who were not allowed to
trade in articles of agricultural production were permitted to barter home
grown corn, food etc. S 2 68 Barter was also prescribed for the Sarpgha in
certain cases
3
6 I) to whom the use of money was forbidden.
8
9 7 0 Barter
also emerged in certai.n contingencies e. g., when a potter buys fuel for 16
kahiipaQ.as and a few pots, 3 7 1 when among humble folk a dog is bought
for a. kah'lpal)a and a cloak
3
2 7i or when a wanderer obtains a meal

aaea

Ap'l)l)aka (No.1); Val)l)upo.tba
(No .. Jl!.fudapaua. (No. 256).
Bavaru Jataka (No. 3Sg).
Su hanu Jataka (No. 158).
Mah!l.val)ij Jataka (No. 493).
Knta.viil)ija. Jiitaka (No. 98).
Ibid (Pra.tyutpannavaetu).
Jarndapana J5.taka (No. 256).
8 .. 8 II. 37-39; Ga.l1tama
VII. 16 f ; Apll.sthamva. I, 20. 9. 6.
Vinaya II. 174.
a070 Vinaya II. 294 f; III. 237; Patio
mokkba V. 18; V. 19.
8071 Jataka (No.4).
aan Suna.ka. Jiitaka. (No. 242).
1'\'11111 n woodlandor for 0. gold pin. at 18 From the 8iitraa of PAnini
Sl74
we
1t:1\ (' 1\ JILI'g'O lIumhel' 1)1' lV()rdH which proTe the existence of ba.rter in his
t illl<'. 'r!tll!! wo havo anything purchased. with BUrpa; calallam,
:Ill)'thillg purchasorl with ma"rjgika, anything purchased with the
l'xl'hal1g-o of mudga and 80 on.
ltico
U7
and cowry-shell (sippikl)st18 were still standards of value
whell the Jii.takas were composed. From PlQini 3177 we find that go-
pHchchha or bovine tail also acted as a medium of exchange. A. more
comlllon standard of value was, however, the cow. Thus in illustra.tion of
PJl;tini.'s sfltl'a "Tadd hif'Jrthol/(lrap<Jda-8amiihl,.e ca" JJ 78 we hll,e the
word paucagu which means anything bought in exchange for fiv-e cows.
Similarly in the Dharmasutras we find that all fines for murder are reckoned
In cows.
8
g 7 9
But for the ordinary mechanism of exchange the .alue of every
mal'ketable commodity was stated in figures of a certain metallic medium
.
of exchant;e. From the evidences furnished by the literature of this
period we find the use of the following metallic media of exchange:-
n i kTIkar.lika
SHO
(2) (3) (1.) quarter
(5) (6) (7) pad
a
St86 (8) paQaU87
''i:'' ,
JiHlIoka VI. 519.
;;:ilrpau anIp
V. 1. 26 ;
ra-vaeanadaJ;l-P1l.J;1in! V.I. 27;
Tena. KrJtam-PaJ;1ini V. 1. 27.
TaJ;1dulanUi J:!Itake. (No.5).
J1l.ta.ke. (No. 113).
A rllal.gopuohoh ha'Bal\lk hyA,plloriml1.
nAd 1. 19 j cf.
IV.4.6.
Il 1. 51.
Ap6Hthnwva I. 21. 1-3; BaudLa.
Y6l1f\ J. 10. 21-22.
Chollaka4re,thi Jdtaka (No. 40).
K a.ke.I)ika - ith (R. Sy1l.mo.
BIlR. 'l'raIl8. of Ko.utilye.'.
A rth",gastr .. , p. DB {II. 0).
a"l
alB

.....

Jit!l.i:a (So. l)4.6).
IU!sa Jitllo ',110 7::); atsYBd1na
JUaka 283); cf. SUVBrl)ll
in U dlloyabbadra (:-ro. 4:'>8)
and 5",nkhapala 524) Jitak!ls.
Gangimah Jataka 421) .
Ibid; Mahasvapna (Xo. 77) .
J1l.tska (No.4);
Knna (No. 29); Nanda (No. 39) ;
DurAjAna (No. 64.); 5ilamimaq18i
(No. 86) j (No. 139);
( No. 257) ;
Supartt.ga (No, 463) ;
(No. r>46) ; Ma.hil8wapoa ( No. 77 ) j
V. 1. 29.
V. 1. 340 j V. 2.119.
Ibid.
269
(9) (10) (11) suvarna3g1l0 (12)
(13) karpsa
3292
and (14) vista.
329S
Some of these were made of gold and silver, others of copper or base
metal. With the single exception of vista which is hardly mentioned in
later literature all of these were circulating media of exchange in later
periods as well. According to Dr. Goldstucker
S294
some of these even bore
stamped impressions on them; and in support of his contention he quotes
the following siitra of PaI,lini: BUjJadaha(a prasarpsal1
01
yap.3 2 9 5 Here
we get the rule for the addition of the suffix yap on the word rupa to
designate both a coin bearing impressions, and a man of fine appearance.
Ahata has been explained by the Kasika commentary, as bearing impression
by stamping: "Nigh'J.tillo-/'J.90Iladill'J.. 1'upam yadutpadyate
tadahatam14cyate." The Patimokkha
s
2 96 also refers to this practice of
stamping impressions on coins which therefore came to be known as riipyas
(or rupiyos in Prakrt dialects.)
It is worthy of note that most of the names of these n>:':la of
exchange refer to a certain weight of metal they contained. For example,
contained one kar$a in weight of the metal of which it was
composed and was, therefore, called On the of the
weight in metal the medium of exchange contained two systems of currency
arose. The older one reckoned the weight at 100 while the newer
one that arose in this period reckoned the weight at 80
Following Manus 297 we get the following table of weights on which the
newer standard was based :-
818> Ibid., V. 1. 27; Katyayana Srauta
SQtra XV. 181 and 182.
' 0
V. 1. 30 j Dynta
(No. 478) ; (No. 531) ;
tara (No. 547).
Vinaya III. 219 j Imsa Jlltlloka
(No. 78).
8.91 Vinaya III. 219 ; of. Patlin! V. 2.
65; V. 2. 55.
820 Ii Pm.ini V. 1. 25.
8t ga Ibid., V. 1. 31.
a ... N ami.mata Orientalia, p. 39, fn. 3.
U. 8 Pil.Qin! V. 2. 120
a ... V. 18; V. 19.
3J01 VIII. 134-37.
270
For gold :
5 krsnalas or
5 seeds or
5 ratis make
4 make
4 padas or
80 krsnalas i. c.,
.' .
80 gUfljaberry seeds i. e.,
80 ratis make
1 kaqa makes
4 suvarIfas make
11mla makes
For silver:
2 ratis make
1
1 Pacla
1 Karsa
1 Suvarl).a
1 Pala
1 Nii?ka
1
1
16 make
According to Kautilya
H9B
1 sHver was 88 white mustard seeds
in weiiht. Now 18 white mustanl seeds arc in weight
to one or guujaberry seod; so that a silver dhara1!a wlll be equal
to ,-= Hence a dharaI;la was equal ill weight
to one SllVli.l'P.:' Ol' 1 (80
For Copper:
Five ratis make
4 mai?akas make
,.I, padas or 80 ratis make
1
1 Pada
1
The older Satamana stamlarcl still continued in some localities. From
the Vinaya 2 \I 9 we learn that in in the time of
satru or Vimbisara. one pada was equal to five so that in that
locality the was equal in weight to 5 x 20 or 100 ratis (as against
4 x 20 or 80 ratis under the new standard). vVe have seen that according to
the new standard four suvarIfas make one niska but according to the
evidence of old Pali. literature
3
300 five make onC niska so that
. ..
IIDa
Bk. II. cb. 19.
III. 45.
3300
Cbilder8 - Pali Dictionary,
Nikkbo.
s. v.
271
like the pada of the Vinaya Pit aka the was also based on the older
Satam!Ina standard.
We have at present very little evidence at our disposal to enable us to
find out as to whether gold or silver was the accepted standard of currency.
Both the standards seem to have existed side by side. As to the relative
value of gold and silver in this period we are absolutely in the dark.
According to Dr. 30 1 "A careful study of the fines prescribed
in the Arthasastra of Kautalya may possibly afford a clue to the value
of gold and silver. In assessing fines the value of any stolen article
was taken into consideration. According to Kautalya the fine should
be ten times the value of the stolen article ...... Kautalya in section 76
assessed the fines payable for the theft of one of gold and silvcr
as 200 and 12 copper pary.as respectively. If these fines represent twelve
times the value of the stolen article, then the value of the gold and silver
pieces, each weighing 1 comes to 16.6 and 1 copper paQa respec-
tively." On thc basis of a very reliable evidence furnished by a second
century inscription Dr. D. R. has found out the ratio
between gold and silver as 14.1 to 1.
Instruments of credit :-Though as yet we have no evidence to prove
the existence of collective banking, instruments of credit were not altoge-
ther unknown, for, ill the .Jatakas we read of signet rings being used by
merchants as deposit or security (satyankara = Pali satyakara)330S and
of I. O. U. 's (iwapannanPS04 or likhita33 05).
Weights and measures :-The tula (scales) mentioned in the White
Yajurveda
8806
was in general use in this period as is eviuent from its use
in similes.
3S07
Besides udanka ( = Pitli ulunka )3308 a liquid measure
(f0r water) we find the usc of the following weights and measures in this
8801 A Study in the Economic condition of
Ancient India, pp. 86-81.
Ancient Indian Numismatics.
'.03 J:Haka (No.4)
as" Khadirangara (No. 4,rJ)i RUTu (No. 482).
88 0" XVI. 10.
580. XXX. 17.
8807 Kukkura Jitaka (No. 22); MaM-
Kil.!yapa. (No. 544.).
5808 KUl}dakapilpa Jatakil. (No. 109).
272
period
8309
:-(1) (2) nrrlik;t8S11 (3) (4) m:tna
3313
and (5) drof,la. S B 14-
Purchasing power of money-the Jittakas furnish us with the daily
earnings of some classes of labourers in money and with the purchasing power
of money. But unfortunately it is difficult to find out whether the unit
of money was of silver or copper. Moreover, the Jatakas contain not only
exaggerations but also imaginary colourings of facts and as such on their
evidence scientific calculations cannot be based. Nevertheless if we make
due allowance for all such exaggerations the evidences furnished by
them may throw a flood of light on the wealth and welfare of the people of
those days. Thus the fee paid to a barber was eight kaqapanas, presumably
of copper.
3SH
The fcc of a high class courtesan was 1000 per
night. S 316 One thousand were the usual tuition fee paid in
advance to the aCJrya.
3317
Poorer students must bave paid lower fees as
. they had to collect them by begging. In the Dyuta Jataka
S
318 a student
after completing his education managed to collect only seven which
however, he lost on the way by a boat-accident. He then resorted to
hunger-strike and obtained thereby from the king 11 which he
paid to his teacher. From the Gangamala J;rtaka
SSlll
we find that a male
180. An idea of these weights and
measures may be obbined from the
following tables b!lsed on later
authorities ,-
(a) According to Kautilya (Arthnatra
Bk. II. eh. XIX) ,-
lO seede of (PhraseoluB Rndilltus) or
guiljaberries make 1
16 make I
or
" make 1 Palo.
(b) Aceording to Sllrangadhara Ral\l-
bita (pp. 10 -13 ):-
:>)( 16 )( 4 - 320 guiijaberries make 1 Palo.
4 palas make 1 Ku<').ava
40 kUQavas ma.ke 1 Pr!lstha
1 prastha makee 1 N:i.lika
40 nllliklls make 1 Ai).haka
2 iig,hakas make
2 manas or
4 ag,b"kas make
3810 V. 1 53
1 Drol)a
88', Tlil)dnlana.li (No.5) ; Varul)i (No. 47);
Salittaka (No. 107).
88 i' Asampradaoa Jataka. ( No. 131);
PaJ;linJ V. 1. 53.
3818 As ... mpraiaoa Jataka (No. 131).
a3H Vikar1}aka J1taka (No. 232)
Snparaga Jataka (No. 463)
33 ,. (No. 318); Sulasa. (No. 419);
'l'arkarika (No. 481).
831, Susima ( No. 163); Til!iffiu'thi
(No. 252).
8818 No. 478.
8310 No. 421.
273
and a female used to earn half a each per day, while
from the Jataka
SHO
wc learn that It being reduced to
bankruptcy took to the work of a grass-cutter and earned two a
day out of which he intended to give away one keeping the other
for himself, whieh hc thought would fetch sufficient food for him and his
wifo for one day. In the Sutanu Jataka
3
3 21 a day labourer is described as
earning one-half to one a day with which he somehow maintained
himself an<1 his mother. Even if the referred to in the above three
Jatakas bo a silver ono it is apparent that the prices of necessaries of life
must have been very cheap so that one-half of silver was sufficient
for one man for one whole day.
In fact the purchasing power of money was high. A big Rohita fish
Was worth seven mlsakas. S H 2 Half a m'1saka of meat Was sufficient for
. .
one lizard. s:u S A small quantity of clarified butter or oil could be had for
a copper 33 U A cup of sura was worth one copper 3.3 B
Six ?) would buy coarse clothing for a monk and ten
for a nun. 3 3 2 6 In the BhikkhuQl Patimokkha two and a
half and four are set down rcspectiTely as the price of small and
big covering pieces for nuns. A pair of ox would cost 241 3 3 2 7
Eight coulrl buy a decent ass. 3 H S A young calf was sufficient
as house-rent (niv:rsa-vetana) for a certain period.
3329
Hire for an ox
used in carrying a cart across a shallow river was two S 3 S 0
from Benares city to the pattana (port) near by was eight
333 I The price of a slave was 100 presumably of
Bilver.3 3 S!l Tho price of slaves, however, varied with their accomplish-
.'SO
S1

....
SA
'.Ia
aaa.

No. 340.
No. 398.
Jataka (No. 288)
Mahannmarga. Jataka. (No. 546).
Vinaya IV. 248-50
IlJiea. Jil.ta.ka (No. 78)
PlLtimokkha.
Km11lo (No. 29) j
(No. 257).

3S
3880
Mahiinnmarga Jataka]No. 546).
Jatah (No. 29).
Ibid.
Jatah (No.4)
Nanda (No. 39) : Durajana (No 64) j
In th.e ViSwantara Jataka (No. 547)
Amitratapana was given in lieu of
100 kept as deposit
with her father who spent it away.
1'14.
ments, good birth or ( if a woman) beauty as is evident from the Saktu-
bhasta
3333
and Viswantara
3334
Jatakas.
Certain articles, however, were noted for their high price. Kapotika.
wine was very dear.
3
33 5 Strong drink was exchangec1 for gold and silver
pieces.
3
336 A gold neckbce worth a thousand pieces presumably of
Silvcr3337 and satakas worth a thousand pieces of copper
3338
are 1'eferrc(l to. Essence of sal1llalwood,3 3 3 9 woolen blankets
3
3 40 and
Benares fabrics each worth a lac piee0s pl'esumahly of copper
3
3 41 arc also
mentioned.
Progress of capitalism :-( a) Hoarding-With the growth of trade
and commerce an(l development of town-life luxury invaded society,
gambling and want of thrift reducel1 many families to poverty and much
of this wealth passed into other hands. Ordinary people hoarded their
wealth either uncler the ground
3
342 or deposited it with a friend. 33 " 3 Rich
people kept a register of the nature and amount of the wealth thus hoarded
on inscribed plates of gold or copper.
3
3" 4
(0) VSUly-Nevertheless money was lent on interest. There is a tolerant
tone concerning the moneylender in the Rohantalllrga .Til.taka.
33H
where
moneylending together with tillage, trade a.nd harvesting' are called four
honest callings. Gautama
3346
is equally tolerant; though and
Baudh::tyana
3H8
comlemn it. HypocritiC'll ascetics are accused of practising
it.3349 In Paq.ini's sutrns 3350 we fincl the words Dvaigu1)ika, Tl'aiglwika
and Dasaikadasika which go to prove the exhorbitant rates of interest cxacted
3838 No. 402.
a8B No. 547 (case of Prince
and his sister).
3S35 Surapana Jataka (No. 81).
s 3 3 6 Varu\li Jataka (No. 47).
a337 Kurudharma Jatll-ka (No. 276).
3888 Utsanga (No. 67); GU\la (No. 157 ) ;
Therigatha, oh. XIV.
8339 Kurudharma. (No. 276); of. Sandal-
wood worth 1 lac pieces in Maha.
svapna (No. 77).
'340 Viwantara Jataka (No. 547).
8341 Jataka (No. 302); Maha-
unmarga (No. 546).
s 3 4 2 Jat. I. 225, 235f., 42 U. 308; III.
24, 116.
33<3 Jat. VI. 521 ; Vin. III. 237.
334< Jat. IV. 7, 488; VI. 28 ; cf. IV. 2:37.
3345 No. 501.
33" X. 6 ; XI. 21.
3347 II. 41, 42.
S3iS I. 5.10.
3349 Jataka (No. 469)
8350
17.4.30; IV. 4.31; V. 1. 47.
275
by some of thQ moneylenders of those days. Debtors were often reduced to
slavery for ll011-payment of debts. Thus in the Thel'igatha Isidasi, a nun
narrates the story of her reduction to slavery in one of her previous births
on account of her father's debts.
3
351 Moreover, debtors were not
allowed to cnter the Bucldhist Orcler.335
2
On the other hand the usurers
secm to have organisccl themselves into guilds having customary laws
governing their transactions.
3
35 3 3354 and Gautama 3355 name
six different kinds of interest viz., compound, periodical, stipulated, corporal,
daily and the usc of pleige. The legal rate is fixed at five IDasas a
month
3356
for 20 which comes to abont 181-%. Anybody
who exacted more than this legal rate of interest is called
But according' to 335 7 two, three, four, five in the 100 is declared
in the Smrti to be the monthly rate of interest according to caste. Again
articles such as gold, grain, flavouring substance, flowel's, roots, fruits,
wool, beasts of burclcn without security could be lent at an enormous rate
of interest which could be increased six or eight-fold. The interest, however,
stopped with tho death of the king in whose reign the transaction took
place.
Loans were contractecl either on notes of hand 3 S 5 8 01' on the deposit
of pledgcs (:icthi), 3 359 It appears that the debtor got back his note
of hand when the loan Was repaid.
3
3 6 0
The State in relation to Economic life-The science of Va:rtta which
concerned itself with the varions branches of production as understood in
in those days formed a part of the curriculum of royal studies
3361
and the
king was repeatedly asked whether he was paying proper attention to the
prosperity of those who are engaged in cattle-rearing, agriculture and
8851 See also D. 1. 71.
3852 Vinaya 1 76.
IIU Gautama XI. 21.
asu II. 51
"61 XII. 34-35
n 6. Gautama. XII. 29. BaudhaYllna 1. 5.
10,22.
88 n II. 42-50.
3 H 8 II}I}apaI}I}ani in Khadirangara (No. 40)
and Rnru (No. 48) ; likMta in V
tba XVI. 10.
Jiitaka. VI. 521 ; TherigiitU, 404.
3360 Khadirangara (No. 40); Rnru (No. 48).
3361 RamayaQa, BaiakiiI}da.
trade. 3 3 6 Kings seem to have kept granaries for emergencies like war
and famine
3363
and to have provided persons with food and seed-corn to
enable them to start farming.
3
364 He was bound not only to protect the
property of infants
3
3 6 5 but also to maintain the srotriyas, the weak, the
aged, women without means and lunatics.
3366
Apastamva
SS67
calls
upon kings to builcl a hall open to guests of the first three varQas and to
see that no Brahmin sufi'erecl from hunger in his realm.
In exchange for these and other services rendered by him the king had
a right to a tithe on raw produce whose amount and method of assessment
we have already described. Moreover, all property left intestate or owner-
less reverted to the crown.
S36S
Gautama
3369
lays down that the property
of a Brahmin who leaves no issue (apparently, no successor) is divided
among the Brahmins, but the king appropriates in such cases the property
of men of other castes. According to Apastamva 3370 on failure of all
(relations) let the king take the inheritance. 371 and Baudha-
yana
3
3 72 arc also of the same opinien. however, excludes 8.
Brahmin's property from the operation of this law.
Further the king was to proclaim by criers lost property, and if the
owner be not found in a year, to keep it, giving tth to the finder. All
treasure-trove belongs to the king. An exception is made when a priest
is the finder and some say that anybody who finds it gets ith. 3 373 The
king could impose forced labour (rajakariya) on the people but this may
have been limited to the confines of his estates. Thus, the peasant
proprietors enclose a deer-reserve for their king so that they might not be
summoned to leave their tillage to beat up game for him.3 3 7'
Gautama
3
375 says that the king should force artisans to work for him for
3383 Ibid, Ayodhyak1i.'.lda, ch. 103.
3303 Ind. Ant. 1896, p. 261.
Ba .. D. 1. 135.
83 .. Gautama X. 25.
8316 XIX. 31i ; Gautama X. 9.12 ;
Ip3-stamva II. 10. 412.
u" II. 10.4-12.
II 61 Jltako.. III. 302; of. IV. 415. S. 1. 89
(Kindred Sayings 1. 115).
3309 XXVIII. 41.
8370 II. 14.5.
3;11 XVII. 8386 ; af. XVI. 19.
3813 I. 11. 14-16 ; af. 1. 18. 16.
Gautama X. 31.
Nyagrodhamrga Jataka. (No. 12);
Nandikamrga (No. 385) ; of. Mahii'
Bvapna (No. 77).
Ga.utama. X. 31.
277
one day in the month. If the stock is merchandise, says Gautama,3 S 16
the tax according to some is f6th, if it be gold or catttle hrth, while dth
is the ta,x on roots, fruits, flowers, mellicinal herbs, honey, meat, grass
and firewood.
It may be noted in this connection that srotriyas, ascetics forbidden
to hold property, students, artisans, those who life by exploiting river,
forest or hills, those earning' less than a slaves, servants, very
old men, blinlt, (lumb, deaf and diseasd persons, those without protectors,
children before puberty, women of all castes, wives of servants, widows
who have returned to their families, unmarried girls and pradatta's (pro-
bably those girls whose marriages have been proposed)-all these were
exempt from taxation.
8
S 77
Regulation of prices and profits by the state Came as a natural sequel
to the ideal of co-operation on which Indian society, though apparently
split up into castes, was based. Undue raising of prices Came to be
denounced 3 S 78 and, as we have already seen, for the royal household prices
came to be fixed by the court-valuer without appeal; and what was once
done in the interest of the king came to be done in the next epoch in the
interest of the public as well. The exactions of the came
to be denounced, his food WaS regarded as impure
3
379 and the rate
of interest, was fixed.
ssso
On the same principle asks the
king to guard against the falsification of weights and measures.
While exploitation of others by capitalists came to be denounced
great emphasis was laid on the performance of duties assigned to indivi-
duals and castes. We have already seen how the Dharmasutras not only
condemned those who did not perform their caste-duties
3382
but also
authorised the king to punish them.
3
383 We similarly lind in the
Dharmasutras rules for punishing herdsmen who left their work or persons
in tillage who abandoned their work and thereby caused loss to the
employer.
IHS
Ibid., 25-27.
5380
Ibid., 42-50 ; GI1.utama, XII. 29-3:>.

XIX. 23-27 ; Apastamva
3381
Ch. XIX.
II. 10. 10-17.
338i
Apastamva II. 11. 11.
.". V 11. 1)0.
138 S
Ibid., II. IO. 12-16;
cf. Ibid, II.
enu
Ibid., 40-42. 27. 18 i Gautama XI. 31.
278
Mendicancy and un(lue asceticism was regarded as a social evil except
in the Case of men in the decline of their lives. This appears not only
from tbe trend of the conversation between the Buddha and Ajatasatru
but also from the Dharmasutra
3
3 84 where begging Brahmins
have been denounced as thieves.
Thus, we sea that already in this period there were a general tendency
to state-interference in economic life which developed into an accredited
policy of the state in the next epoch.
The general economIC condition of the classes and the masses-
The hoarded wealth of the merchants, usually estimated in O1ores, their
magnificent donations to the various religious orders, the establishment
of almonaries, thc Cxc[1vation of tanks and other public benefactions of the
rich, the existence of the actor, dancer, singer, acrobat, magician, story-
teller, shampoosr and dress-maker-all point to the prosperity of the upper
classes. It is further proved by the rich festivities, large fees paid to
courtesans, the high pricJ of rich wines and the stories of betting with
big sums.
3
385 The luxury of the rich is equally evident from the
existence of palatial builclings and the use of hair-dye,
3
386 ointment
( vilepana ),3387 scent callcd sarvasaqlharaka, 3 38 B sandalwood oil,
3
3 8 9
essence of sanclaiwood 3390 aCl'uru 3391 gUO'Cl'ulu 3392 camphor 3393
, 0' ,
chaturjatiya gandha,3 3 9 4 kalka,
3
3 9 5 specially kalka (mustard
8384.
8886
saS6
8390
8891
Ch. II.
Bhiiridatta Jataka (No. 543).
Amracora Jataka (No. 344).
Apal)lJo.ko. Jataka (No.1).
Mahaunmarga Jataka (No. 546).
Jatako. (No. 531).
Kurudharmo. Jataka (No. 276).
Bhallatika Jataka ( No. 504 ) ;
Kba"(ldahala (No.
}.l:i.tanga Jataka (No. 497).
Andbabhuta Jataka (N o. 62).
According to the commentator
3896
kumkum (saffron),
(a scent from Turkey ..
myrrh ?), yavana (a scent- fro II
Yavana country)-these four mad{
up cbaturjaUya gandha roferred t<
in Mahasilavaja (No. 51) aue
Matanga (No. 497) Jatakas.
= Fali kakku in KuSa (No. 531)
According to the commentato:
powdered mustard, salt, earth
powdered sesamum and turmen
-these five made up kalka.
279
powder us eel as face powder),33
9
6 snanachilrQ.a
3397
and sandal powder as
toilette for the breasts. 3 3 9 8
Men of the middle-class were also happy and often above the reach
of want. They too lived a life of ease, indulged in charities, male gifts to
the Order, raised money by subscription for charity or for works of public
utility and joincd in merriment and festivities.
There were, however, poor and too poor people too in villages as also
in towns. In the Mahasara Jrrtaka (No. 92) an inhabitant of a janapada
says that he hns never seen (i. e., possessed) in his life a chair or a bedstead.
We have already seen that the lot of the wage-earner appears to have been
hard most of whom could with difficulty make their both ends meet. More-
over, the poorer labourers often suffered from the exactions of the money-
lenders which sometimes became so unhearable that a debtor would fly
to thc forest or even attempt to commit suicide to escape from the clutches
of his creditors. 3399 Forced labour also injuriously affected their position.
Oppressive taxation sometimes addcd to the misery of all classes.
The Mahasvaroha Jataka
3400
speaks of a king (of Benares) whe trebled
the taxes so that the people could not lift up their heads. Another king
(of Benares) oppresserl his subjects with taxes and fines (dal!clavali) and
crusherl them like sugarcane in a mill,3 401 The GaI).datimlu Jrrtaka
3
402
refers to a Panch;tla king whose subjects being oppressed by taxation fled to
the forest where they wandered like wild beasts.
3
403
Occasional famines also caused much distress among the people. The
Matsya Jrrtaka
3404
refers to the suffering caused by a famine in Kosala due
to the failure of rains. In another famine in Kalinga due to draught the
people suffered so terribly from want not only of food but also of drinking
water that epidemics broke out and leaving their homesteads people had
. 3 ~ 6
Mahanaradakasyapa Jataka (No. 544).
;}'01
UohohhurtJ. viya janam pilesi In
B8n
Vardhakisukara Jataka (No. 283). MahiipingaJa Jataka (No. 240).
3n
Kusa Jataka (No. 531) .
3 ' O ~
No. 520.
3399
Bhiiridatta (No. 543); Ruru (No. 482).
:ao3
Mahasvapna Jat9.ka (No. 77).
3400
No. 30:3.
3404:
No. 75.
280
to wander about the country with their children for food. 34 0 5 The Viraka
Jataka
3406
refers to a famine in the kingdom of Kasi which was so intense
in character than unable to find food all the crows left the kingdom.
Another famine which overtook a Kasl village was so terrible that the
villagers had to take from their headman a collective loan of an old ox on
whose flesh all of them had to subsist fur a day or two 34 0 7 Records of
such famine are also to be met with in the early canonical literature of the
Buddhists.
34oB
These evidences contradict the assertion of Megasthenes
that famines were unknown in India,
3
4 09 unless of course he meant a very
general amI protractecl famine.
Inspite of these visitations India was rich. Stories of her great
wealth and prosperity reached the ears of foreigners and roused their greed
and this made them invade India. In the fifth century B.C. the small Indian
satraphy of Darins was regarded the wealthiest proviuce of his empire,
yielding the vast annual tribute of 360 Eubolic talents of gold, worth fully
1,290,000.
3410
This supply of gold India obtained, not as did Europe
from America by conquest and rapine but by her mining industries and by
the more natural and peaceful method of commerce "by the exchange of
such of her productions as among the Indians were superfluities but at the
same time not only highly prized by the nations of western A.sia, Egypt
and Europe but also were obtainable from no other quarter except India or
from the farther East by means of the Indian trade." 3 4 II
8<08
1407
8UB
THE END OF VOL. I.
Kurndharma Jataka (No. 276).
No. 204.
G!,bapati Jataka (No. 199).
Vinaya I. 21, 23 ; III. 220, n. 1 ;
compare the five itt's in Sudh1l-
bhojana (No. 535). In the Mabii-
.,vApna (No. 77) a dream is inter-
preted as foreboding famine in
Ke.linge. caused by draught. 'rhe
3409
8411
Mall
ic
ora (No. 194) refers to the
--
popular belief that famines ara
caused by the sins of rulers.
McCrindle-Ancient India as Des-
cribed by Megasthenes, 32.
Ra wlinson's HOr:Jdotus, Vol. II
p. 487.
C. Daniell-Industrial Competition
oE Asia, p. 225.
Index I. Sources with the Subiects
[ references are to the pages of this work]
A
.Agni PnraJ.1a.-Translated into English
by M. N. Dutt. in two vola. on the
right ot collecting fuel and
flowers enjoyed by Brahmins 8Z.
Aitareya. AraJ;lyaka.-'fext with Eng. Trans.
by A. B. Keith on spade 132; gold
123; polished mirrors 135; wooden
sacrificial spade 136 j seat8 made of
udamvara wood 137; boats 138 ;
ropemaker 149 .n.; iivasatha ( abode
for guests) 168.
Aitareya BrahmaJ.1a-Text with Eng.
Trans. by M. Haug in two vole.
on the story of and his
fifty Bans who were expelled by him
82-83; sale of gunahsepba by his father
Ajigarta 83; ownership of land; story
of Manu dividing his land among his
.one 84; peculia.r function of
being eaten up by the priest and noble
man 85 ; law of inheritance 90; beef-
eating 111; rB.ce of chariots drawn by
donkeys 112; vasaa (cloth) 116; daa
(fringe or border of cloth) 161 ; (a
medium of exchange) 125. 165; neoklace
of 128 ; wooden sacrificial posts
137 ;' asandi (shining seat) made of
ndumvara wood 138; iisa.ndi square in
.hape 138; as&ndi in shape
138 ; asa.ndi having four legs 138; stret
ching of hides with pege 139; tiger-
skin 11./1 coverlet for asandl's 139-40;
preparation of Soma. sacrificial drink
141; pillar (metbi) 145;
(banker?) 152,157 ; 1051 of statu. of
V the ma.1 of the indnnri.!
population who became tributary to
another (anyalY& valikrt) and WhOM
function was to be devonreJ by th.
Fielt and nobleman 152; g...dnal
tnnsition from humRn .a.cri/lce '0
horse sacrifice during the p&storal lib!"
thence to the sacrifice of dome.tic ..
ted animals ending with the offering of
the fruit! of the earth in the agricnhn-
ral stage 154.; K&vasha, 80n of a low
caste woman 155-56 ; royal prie.ts !56 ;
KinO' Viwflntara s&.criticing without
"
the help of of priests 156; high-r06ch
( mahapatha. ) 1:;9; setu (rai86d bank
for crossi ng inund&ted land) 160 In-;
beef a& food for royal lind other di.tiD-
guished gueets 16:1; indehtednesl 177.
Alberun; under Enquiry ioto IDdia-
Albernni.
Altindiscben Leben-Zimmer on w.atber.
prophet 150; knita 142, 227 In. ;
gram& as a cllln .t&nding between t&.
family lind the tribe 2f1 (n.; yerbal
contest in the Vedic vill&ge council 23 ;
granlllol)i as president of th. .m ...
conncil 2f1-26 ; pal)i 7' ; 91 In;
prince 173-7'-
with the commentary of
sw1ml OD Alikotha (60wer &ne )

= Aukola of BhalHitika Jiitake.? 2M;
Asphota (= Aplrajita ) = AphCltaka of
Jataka? 207 fn.
Americ&n journal of Philology (Vol. VII)
Bloomfield on Sakadhl'imam ( weather-
prophet) :>0 fn.
Ancient Coins and Measures of Ceylon-
Hhys Davids on pada meaning a fourth
part of a certain gold weight and not a
metall ic standard 166.
.Ancient Egyptians-Wilkinson on early
trade between ancient India and Egypt
2l.
Ancient and Mediroval India-Mrs. Man-
ning on elephants nnknown to the
ancient Egyptians 21 ; preparation of
Soma drink 34 fn.
Ancient and Medireval Architecture-E.
B. Havel! on the high antiquity and
origin of townplanning in ancient India
1406.
Ancient History of the Near East-Hall
on the Mitanni and the Kassites of
Syria and Sumer worshipping some of
the oldest Vedic Gods 73.
Ancient India. liB Desoribed by 1I1cgasthenes
and Arrian-McCrindle on the rela-
tions of King Cyrus of Persia with the
tribes on .he right bank of the Indus
163; 58 rivers of India 200; gold
comiug from Derdro= Sans. Darada or
Darada '" modern Dardisthan in Kash-
mere 210; methou of captu ring ele-
phants, the precursor of modern kheda
system 212; stones Bweeter than figs or
honey (= sugarc:1ndy ?) 229; famines
unknown in India 280.
Anoient India as Described by Classical
Authorl-McCrindle : Berodotu. on
vegetable wool (raw cotton) 202; the
story of gold-digging II.nts 209-10;
export of ,tones and dogs from India to
Baby Ion 260, 262. .tiri,tobuluB ( Fr&g-
ment 3&) on the of over a thonsand
towns and villages in the Indus region
179 fn.; (Fragment 29) on rainfall in
Taxila 199 ; Bimbo (XV. C. 693) on the
ruins oE over a thousand towns and
villages in the Indus region 179 fu;
(XV. C. 691) (d. C. 697) on rainfall in
Taxila 199 ; (XVC. 689) on India, a land
of rivers 200; (XV. C. 706) on gold
coming from Derdre Dar&d& or Darad.
modern Dardisthan in Kashmere 210;
(XV. 1. 41-43, pp. 704-705) on method
of capturing elephants, the precursor
of the modern kheda system 212 fn. ;
(XV. C. 700) on the primitive nature
of Indian mining and metalindustri
214 ; (XV. C. 701) on Indians having no\
pnrsued accurate knowlege in any line
except Medicine 214; (XV. C. 703) on
stones sweeter than figs or honey (=
Bngarcandy ?) 229; TheophrastuB on
India famous for ivory and ebony 70 fn.
Neaf'chos (Fragments 9 and 10) on
leather oil ilasks and white leather
shoes 226; on earrings of ivory 228.
Ancient Indian Numismatios (Carmiohml
Lectures, 1921)-D. R. Bhandakar on
the relative valne of gold and silver
based on a second century inscription
271.
Annals ftnd Antiquities of R.jastban-
Col. Tofld (2 vols.) on the Hindu namel
of towns at the estuaries of the Gambi&
and Sengal rivers of the Tumb& Cun'la
and of another Cundas 19.
Anguttara Nikaya or the Book of the
Gradual Sayings-Translated by M.
Hare in three vole. on the nse of birds
to guide pilots ( In a cloudy day birds
were let loose and the direction to
which birds went, the mariners thonght
land lay that way) 26:2.
Antiquity of Hindu Medicine-Royle See
nnder Esssay on the .Antiquity of Hindu
Medicine-Roy Ie.
.Annkrama':lr to the J.?gvada on royal seere
who have composed hymns
155-56.
of Kantilya on:corporate nnder-
takings by villagers 1SD; kalra':lika - t
mi,aka 268 fn.; 1 silver 88
white mustard seeds in weight 270;
'abl6 of weights and measnres 272 In.
Artie Home in the Vedas-B. G. Tilak on
ihe seasons in the Vedic Age 91 fn.
,Uh .. rvaveda-Ted Edited by Roth and
Whitney and revised by Lindenau
on technical terms connected
with weaving like otn (woof), tanlu
(y .. rn) .. nd mayukha (pegs to stretch
the web on or shnttle) 115; vastra
(cloth) 116; sic (fringe or border of
cloth) 116; nivi (closely woven end of
'he cloth) 116; drapi (vest) 47-48, 118;
pratidhi (a pllrt of tbe bride's IIttire)
118 j (hsaddress) 118; kamvala
(blanket) 119 j samulya (undergarment
of wool P) 119; nUudll (sprung from
tnd& or mnlberry i. e., silken? ) 110;
(hemp) 119; metals: gold, ayas,
.ilver, tin, lelld and 122; extrac-
tion of gold froll1 earth (mines) 125;
(a. medium of exchange) 1Z5, 165;
ohips of gold ueed in saorifice 125; gold
on tho priest's finger 125; gold given as
feil to the priest 125 j golden ornament.
127:; ornaments of various kinds; tirita,
283
pa.rihash" prllvarta, ring, golden amnlat
necklace of ni,kae, kumba,
apa's etc. 127-28; silver amuM 130;
loha 131 ; syama 131 ; a pair of shears
witb sharp hlades 131; iron axe 132;
iron hook: 132; razor 132; iron net 132;
feUers made of iron 132; sacrificial
hatchet 132; sick-Ie to cut and trim the
sacred grllss 123; threads of iron n!ed
in amulet 132; IIrmour 132; iron forh
132; iron pillars 133; dhruva (wooden
sacrificial ladle hllving the largest
bowl) 136; juhu (wooden ladle) 136;
npabh rt (wooden ladle) 136; wooden
mace used in sacrifice 136; wooden
cover for sacrificial vessels 136; wooden
mortar and pestle for pounding rice 136;
169; wooden pegs (uled in stritching
out skin or woven cloth and for other
purposes) 126; wooden sacrificial posh
187; SVlSru (timber PO!!) 187; drapad
(timber post) 137; vanalpati (timber
post) 137; talpa (nuptial bedstead made
of wood) 137 ; (in proltbrda]'lS)
.ometbiug like a high and broad hench
137; vahya (light couch that could be
carried about when necessary) 137;
isandi (shining seat or occupier of a
.hining seat) 187; Vratya chief's aSllndi
d.scribed 138; rllthakara 128 i carriage
188; boat 138; black IIntelope.sk in 111
the dress of the religious student 139 ;
deerskin ae dress 139; deer.kin a.
coverings 130; black antelope-skin
used in pressing Boma and bruising and
hasking the rice used in oblatious 139,
174; decorated and inlaid bOwl.
like the starry night 142 and carvings
in relief of gods inside the bowl 142;
the ordinary type of 1\ dwelling hoUl.
148,168; various divisioos of the dwell-
ing house: storehoose of soma, agni-
patninim sadana, store-room for
carll, covered verandahs, sheds for cattle
etc. 143; f(!ha (either an actual Louse
erected over 01' beside the grave in
memory of the deceased or chambers
IIond vaults of subterranean or rock-cut
caves) 144; pillar on Veciic
grave 144-45; dvara. (door) 145 fn.;
duro\}\ (door) 145 fn.; sthuna (pillar)
145 fn.; svaru (pillar) 145 fn.; methi
with variants medLi, methi or methi
(pillar) 145 rn. ; husbandman 148;
(ca.rrenter) 149; sakadhuman (weather-
prophet) 10;); kusidin (usurer) 1;,2;
@!lIoves and their condition 153 ; femallj
iI,hour 153; 153 fn.; interchange of
of various localities 158 ;
lifo of the merchant described 159;
parirathyii (ro1d suitable for chariots)
and cart- roads 159; charm to ensure a
journey 159; parting tro.vel-
ler', a,ldreB to the honses of his village
1:>9, 1GB; referenoes lo sea and the use
of 89a by means of simile 160; existence
of tl'ree seu 160; evaporation of
water going to form the cloud8 160;
nivaprabhraID'anam (sliding down of
tbe sllip) IGI; pratip&na. (exchange of
merehl\udiw) 1640; avaSl.tho. (structuu
of lome lort for the reception of guests)
168 fo. ; nkha (cooking pot) 169 ; enrpa.
(lI'inD<>wing ba!ket) 169; wooden Itirring
prong 169; fork 169; brahmo.-ndaull.
169; wife joining her hosband in cere-
lIloniah and sa.crificas 171 j wife as
qneen of the hou8llhold 171 fn.
cooking I"ft to the wife 171; bride
w ... ing the garment whioh the hns-
I._lid il to wear on the first day of his
waddad lif" 172; girls as milkmaids
of tho family 172; liberality of princo.
harm,.. 174 j womon winnowill'
grain 174; women collecting the alka.-
line droppings of the cow 174; atten-
dauts 174; (lac) 176; rate of inter-
est 177; prayers to deities in connection
with debts 177; contraction of
with the intention of non-payment 177;
King realising the ideal of
material welfare of his subjects dnring
bis rule 178.
Atharvaveda-Eng. Trans. by M. Bloom-
field See under Hymns of the Atharva-
veda by 11-1. Bloomfield.
Atharvaveda-Eng_ Trans. by R. T. H.
Griffith in two volumes on
as cultivated rice 93; foresh
supplying materials for the construc-
tion of chariot$ 97; on tbe use of
udnmvara wood in making amulet.,
sacrificial posts and ladles 98; the
use of the timber of the bard-wooded
tree Aratu in making the axles of
chariots alld carts 99 ; Abarn as being
poisonous in its natural condition but
medicinal when cooked and properly
prepared 105 ; on the use of the Ikin
of the black antelope in Soma
and bruising and husking the rice used
in oblations 139 fn.
Atthu.salini commentary on
into Eng. by
Maung Tin in two vols. on the relative
position of tile apprentice and the
m!l.8ter craftsman 245.
ApMthamva into Eng.
by F_ Max Muller in the S.B.K series
vol. XXX. on t.he rnles and ritQI of
honse-building 235.
Apastbamva Uharmasulra-Trans. into
Eng. by George Bnhler in the S. B.
E. series vol. II. on forests al the
abode of hermits 203 fn.; rigidity
(If tbe calte system 244, 277; tbe
condemned professions 249; a
can become a Brahmin nnd vice V6rsa
according to good or bad deeds 248;
slaves could be exchanged for another
253; Brammins Fermitted to barter
homegrown corn, food, etc. 21i7; cow as
a standard of value 268; the king's duty
to maintain the weak, th9
aged, 'fI"omen without means !!.nd luna-
tiel 276; king's duty to build a hall
open to guests of the first three v!!.rl)llI
and to lee thai no Brahmin suffered
from hunger 276 ; property left owner-
lese reverting to the crOwn 276; those
uempted from taX!l.tion 277.
Silver Jubilee Volumes onIOri,n-
talia vol. III. (Article by Prof. K. M.
Gupt&) on the Land Sy.tem and Agri-
culture of the Vedic .Age 91-92.
Aival5.J&IIa G rbYIs!ltra-Trans. into Eng.
by H. Oldenburg in the S. B. E. seriu
vel. XXIX. on vrihi (rice) 200;
yavl' (ba.rley) 201; sesamum 203;
armonr 214; axe' 215 ; copper imple-
ments 216; copper r&zor 216; gold
'\IeBsel. 216; gold spoon 217; ornament
217; earring 218; chariot 222; wooden
poon 2113; juhu (spoon) 223; nprbhrt
(spoon) 223; sru va (small saorificial
ladle) 223; dhruva (big sacrificial ladla
223; agnihokaha.vani 2 patri 223;
prasitraharana 223; wooden dish 223;
wooden sacrificial cup 223; spbya
(wooden .&crificial sword) 224,;
224; winnowing bMket :125; earthen
veneIs 225; jug 225; jar 225; shoes
225; leather by which the arm is pro-
t.oted agll.inet the bow-vtring 226 ; rules
aDd rite8 on house-building 235;
285
method of examining the building site
235.
Srauta S!ltra with the com-
mentary of Giirgya Naraya"i on karpii,sllo
(cotton) 120, 202.
B
Baudhayana Dharmasiilra-Trans. into
English by George Buhler in the S. B.
E. series in Vol. XIV. on the articles
used in the prepration of the Soma.
drink 141 ; condemnation of the cus-
tom of N. Aryans participating in 8B&-
trade 163, 259, 260; condemnation of
town-life 186; ideal economic holding
190; law of inheritance and suocession
193-95 ; as the royal share of the
produce 196; forests as the habitation
of hermits 203; condemnation of actor.,
.tllge-players and teachers of acting,
singing and dancing 249; iipaddharma
250; cow as a standard of value 268;
condemnation of money-lending
five II month for twenty
J;las as the legal rate of interest 275;
property left ownerless reverting to tho
crown 276.
Beginnings of South Indian Hi.tory-S.
Krishn!tswami Iyenger on Babylonian
influence on Hindu Astronomy 73
Bibliography of Indian Geology (article on
gold by Lito Touche) on Neolithio gold
mining 4.
Biography of Words-F. Max Muller on
the common know ledge of the arh of the
weaver, the carpenter and the plaiter
of grass and reeds among the peopl ..
speaking the Indo-European group of
languages 45; loha originally meaning
Copper bu t later on denoting iron 49.
286
Black Yajnrveda S'B Taittiriya SaI!lhita.
Book of the Kindred Sayings, The-
Davids and F. H. Woodhard:See
nnder Kindred Sayings.
ll!hadaraJ;lyaka into Eng.
by F. Max Muller in the S. B. E.
Series Vol. XV. on the crops grown
940; gold 123; silver 123; goldsmith
1240; padas of gold 125 fn.; golden
vessel for called mahiman
126 fn. ; ladle of pure gold I26; silver
for called mahiman
130; metal vessels 131; razor 132;
sru va (small wooden sacrificial ladle)
136; cup made of udumvara wood 136 ;
169; waggons 138; carriage 138;
Kings Pravahana Jiiviila and
disputing with and instructing Brah-
mini in the lore of the Brahma 156 ;
gaQ!!. 157; description of borses and
salt as coming from the Inllu6 regions
151; setu (raised bank for crossing
inundated land) 160 fn.; pada as a
metallic standard 167 fn.; liberality
of princes 173; (lac) 176.
Commentary on Mahavagga
I. 30, 231.
Buddhist Birth Stories-Rbys Davids on
foma.le dancers and ainger3 256.
Buddhist India-T. W. Rhys Davids on
corporate vi lI80ge life 188; Su pparaka
city 183; 8018.811 mahajannpada. in the
Jata.h period 197; picture-gallery of
KinfT P"eenadi of KoSal<l. 237; articles

in which the merchants dea.1t 262;
Snppamka as B port of departure 262 ;
retailaud whole-ale trade: i18 arrange-
ments 205.
Buddhist Hocord! of the Western world-
Heal S .. under Si-Yu-Ki.
Buddhist SuUas-Trans. into Eng. by T.
W. Rbys Davids in the S. B. E. Series
Vol. XI. on Saketa. city 182; oattle
rearing (in Dhaniya Sutta.) 211;
detailed description of a flight of
stairs 234 ; open.air bathing tank des
cribed 234; 2000 years old baths at
.Anuradbapura in Ceylon still in a fair
of!preservation described 2S4 fn.
C
Calcutta Review (April, 1933) Prof. AmnJya
Gh. (in his article on
Social life in Ja.ina Literature) on 1000
pieces as the fee of a courtesan (Kama-
dwaja Vanijagrama) for one night 257 j
umbrella and yak-tail granted to a.
courtesan as a mark of royal favour
257.
Ca.mbridge History of India-Rapson, Vol.
I. on Dasa chief living in piiras 23;
monarchy as a well-establis hed insti-
tution in the Age 25; rejection
of Zimmer's view tha.t the grama. was
a clan standing between the family and
the tribe 25 fn. j puras as mea.ning
earthwork fortifications a.nd not towns
28; no mention of of the borse
in war in the 38; Vedio India.n
very little of a na.vigator 67, 68; origin
of the story of the Ramayal)a in the
later Brahmal)a period 81; the na.ture
of royal ownership of land 85.87 j no
see-borne commel'ce with Babylon in the
BrahmaJ;la'period 162 j relations of King
Cyrus of Persia with the tribes on the
right bank of the Iudus 163 ; India.n
tribes subject to Assyrian kings 163;
different districts having different la'l'l'8
of inberitance 193-94; caste was no
bar to mobility of labour both vertical
and hOl'izontal in the Jataka period 248 i
tbe large size of ships mentioned in the
JUaka9260.
Chiindogya into Eng.
by F. IIfllX Muller in the S. B. E.
Inles Vol. I. on the dearness of
sait owing to its importation from a
distant placo 34, 158 fn.; house and
fields nil of private wealth 82 j
85 ; transferrability of houses and fields
85 ; royal gift of a village to Haikka
89, 1;3; famine 96; vasanR (cloth) 116 ;
golt! 123; other metals: silver, lead, tin
lind 10ha 123; lava{la (borax) 123;
loftening of gold by mellns of born
124-2:; ; alaiikarn. 127 In.; necklace
12S-2D ; loha 131; softening of silver
by means of gol:!, of tin ily means of
silver, of lead by means of tin and of
loha by means leat! 131 ; hatchet 132;
pair of nail scissors (karshmiyasam) 132;
bell metal (ka'1l8ya) vessels 133; parigha
H5; fisherman 151 ; kings .Asw&p&ti and
Pravahanll. Javala disputing with and
instrudinl\' Brahmins in the lore of the
Bnhma. 156; a Brahmin imparting
knowledge to a S"nJra, accepting his pre-
sents and taking his daughter for his
wife 156; Satyakama Javal!!. of humble
origi n was accc pted by a priest as a
pupil and afterwards became founder
of & Ichool of the Yajurveda 156;
high-roads (mahapatha) 159; setu (rais-
ed bank for crossing inundaterl land)
160 fn.; avasatha (structure of somll
sort for the reception of guests) 168 fn. ;
perfumes 176; liberality of Janllruti
173.
Chips from 0. Germllll Workehop-F. Uu
Muller, Vol. I. Vedic idol-worship
(scnlpture) 37; ahsence of the caste
sylltem in the J;lgvedic Age 58.
2137
Cbullavagga-Trans. into Eng. by T. W.
Rhys Davids and HermanD Oldenburg
in the S. B. E. sQries vols. XVII and
XX. on the sale of laud 192; descrip-
tion of farmiug operlltions 198; monks
combing cotton and makiug the catton
np into pillows 219; cholaka (handker-
chief) 220; bolsters of five kinds 220 ;
mosquito curtain, etc. 220; palIanka
(high claes bedstead) 232; bench loug
enough to accommodate tbree persons
222; aeandi 222; asandaka 222;
sattango (sofa) 222; sofa with arms to
it 222; arm-chair 222; bhadda-pith&m
(state ohair) 222; vithika (cushioned
chair) 222; elaka-padaka-pitham
(ohair r!!.ised ou a pedestal)
amalp,kaval!tika-pitham I (chair with
mallY legs) 223; cocohham (olln8-
bottomed chair) 223; straw-bottomed
chair 223; supervision of building
construction as oue of the duties of the
Buddhist Order 281; five kinds of
abodes allowed to Buddhist monks 231 .
,
selection of build ins site 232; exbeu-
sively built houses described 232 i
period taken in building some of the
big houses 232; compound of housu
enclosed with ra.mports of three kinds
2.33; description of gatewllys 233, 8v.
kinds of roofing 233; floors of houses 233,
doors, 233-34. i windows 234 ; adjuetible
shu tters for windows 234; flight of
234 In. ; monks allowed to USi
a loom and all the apparatus belongillg
to a loom :i46; the de8pised callings
249.
Civic and National Ideals-Sister Nivedit:t
on civic oonsoio'lsness in the age of the
Ramayal!a 148.
Civilisation in Anoient India-R. C. Dntt
'n \_ den.ation of Arya from a root
,l") which ml&nl to coltivat. 28.
Co-npantit"e G'tImmar of \1:. D'tIvidian
Laarare-- Dr. raid 11',11 on Dravidian
wol1l, in th. J:,bnw tnt of tb, Dook
of ltioa- and Chronidel o[ the Old
THkmen' ,aIlKeltin!\, that the two
wol1l, DOne.ra.d formed the chief
.rilea.. of \'1'1<1. t .. tho early
laclluland the Jewl 91 ; t'tlde lx-hre.n
...., IDdau and the One'" 2GO.
COD'riMtiou to ti" lIi,tory of the 11in<lo
Be ...... S,.rtem-Or. U. N. Obol,,1 00
hir.vya moaning cub charge opon
.. min lpeeial dau .. of crO>1 88.
D
Aile lodien-Yon Dlhlen, Vol. I on
'1'1,. tr..d, het-.on India amI Arabia
71-12-
r Itilfyid_Lad'll'ij.( Vol. I. On the jodi-
e ,.1 faDCtion of th. villag. AbU in the
1-.c, .. lic Age 2G ; paJ;li. (murchante) 74;
.. ollila .. adverb .nd not .. an orn ..
IND' !II; hvlrl in I. 180. 3.
.... illl wood.n ,,_I and not a
.... or a tbi.' 10.
llhu .... pad. Tr&DI. iDto lDg. by F. M.I
1 .. '''''.. ,. \be S. B. E. Serle. Vol. X.
011 e .... _I. dllr for oo-ope'l'ltin ilTe-
01 "Id. too.
... _ .... C-_D'-'1 on cattlo rear-
... III i r.lDa" II", .... ilinr apoD
q ..... &ad pertor.j.., lDeb da\ie ...
be, ., !Iow.n for tbem 2:>1 j .Ddi.
.h pol .Ie.. cu""" IDl" iDto ,be
..... .-del' 2:13 i wo",aD
II u.. b. .. r 01 a fWd1 leW ud
........ 'M .... of no. 2M, __ "
.u" , .. h 'II eC _ ....
thon"h RO lire mentioned
womll.n working M Iln acrobat 256;
\,"omlln work in .. I\S a dancer IlnJ singer
"
256; cour\oslIns having their
ml\id. 257; taverne for the lale of
liquor 256.
DiRloc:ae8 of tile iato
Eng. by T. W. Rhys Davids in foal'
Vole. on Ukkattba city 183; Daddha
did not fiC(!8pt slave. from anybody
2:>3; nodi.charged not eligible
for the pavajjll ordination 253; female
dRncers and sinc:ers 256.
Die T ndogerm!\Den-Hermann Hort, Vol. I.
011 the original Aryan Btock bning
I\rquaintllnce with agriculture long
bofore their migration into differen'
Innds 22 .
Dig-eai of Hindu Law-Colebrooke on COli-
clitione of apprenticeshln as givon by
Gantftma 2.1; I\nd by KUy1yan' 2.:1.
Di!o(ha Nikiya on tbo cities of V:\rltlal',
180, Ch!\mpl 18), Ollntllpnra on the
KaliDga coa8t 180-81. 262, MihilSa\i
181, 182, Potana lSZ and
Horah, capitl\l of Sovlra 182, 262 i
delcrip\ion of an open-air bathing tank
2.H; voy.gel out of sight of land 258.
Dieqoisition on Ancient India-Robertson
on tho A'I'Ibian-1 ndil\lI brllon.b or
I'hronician trade 10.
Di,ylvad1na-Tdxt critically edited by B
n. Cowell &; Neil on ihe citi .. of
BnhmoUara 1 SO, N"ntlana 182, Ro-
manllh 182 and S .. dlml\\ta 182.
nwlp",afl.l4a nn gl\8' pinnaclo placed on
th .. top 01 \ho Roallwelle da,oba by
'u idllili a in 'he lecond eonhry n. C .
and 011 1(1 ... mirnl" ill the third
COl DM'1 B. C.
E
Early Hi8tory of India-V. A. Smith on
the origin of the city of Patalipu tra
184.
Early Hi8tory of Kadamvi-N. N. Ghosh
on the identification of Sahajati with
the ruins now existing at Dhita, about
eight miles from Allahabad 264 fn.
Ellorly History of ti,e Spread of Buddhism
and the Buddhist Schools-Dr. Nali-
Dntt on lands gifted away 192.
Enquiry into Indillo, An-Albcrnni (Eng.
Tr8ns. by Elnchau) on the identification
of Sn var1:la island with the of
the Malaya Archipelago 162 fn.
Epigraphica Indica (vol. I) on pada. as a
metallio standard 167 j (vol. II) on
foreets as olephant-preserves 204 fn.
Essay on the Antiquity of Hindu Medicine
-Royle on Myrrh - Egyptian bal ""
Sane. bola 21-22; Arabian-Indian
branch of tbe Phamician trade 70.
Explomtions in Sind-No G. Mazumdar
on Limbi in Kathiawar as an out-
post of Indus civilisation 16; wider
diffnsion of Indus civilisation III
Western Sind between the Indus and
the Khirthar range 11.
G
Gautamn-Trans. into Eng. by George
Buhler in the S. B. E. series vol.
II. on nnenclosed land nsed by all
for grazing cattle, obtaining firewood,
gathering flowers IIond getting fruits
190 j private ownership of land 191;
modes of aquisition of property 191;
acquiring property by usage 192-93 ;
law of anu snccession 194-
91> ; royal ahare of the produce 196 ;
289
forest as the habitation of hermits 203 j
all treasure-trovs beion0'9 to the kinO'
" "
210, 276; exception to this rnle 210-
11, 276; guild of berdsmen 242, of
money-lenders 242, 2i5, of cul\ivators
242 and of traders 24]; rigidity of the
caste system 244, 277 j la"isll>tive
functions of guilds 24 conditions of
apprenticeship 245; tbe condemlled
professions 249; Apaddharma 250;
Brahmins permitted to barter home-
grown coro, food eto., 267; toleration
of money-lending 274; six different
kinds of interest 275; five mu!ii.'s '"
month for twenty as the
legal rate of interest 275 ; king's duty to
protect the property of infants and also
to maintain tbe strotriyas, the weak,
the aged, women witbout means :lnd
lunatics 276; property of a Brahmin
who leaves no issue to be divided
among the Brahmins but tbe king
appropriates in sucb CBses the property
of men of other castes 276 j anybody
who finds a treasure-trove gets one-
sixth 276; artisans to work for the king
for one day in tbe month 276-77 j
scale of,royal taxation 277.
Geography- on the identification
of Yllvadw!pa with Java 162 fn,
Gopatha Briihmat;la (snd the Atharvaveda)
-Y. Bloomfield on beef-eating 111 j
KauSamveya, one belonging to the city
of Kosamvi 181 fn.
GoviJa GrhYaROtra-Trans. into Eng. by F.
Max Muller in the S. B. E. series
vol. XXX on the rotation of crops 91,
200; depicting life in the vil1&ge 186;
ceremonies connected with agriculture
199; rules on houae-buildiDg 235.
290
Growth and Vicissitudes of Commerce-
J. Yoats on the high antiquity of the
silk industry of China 162.
Guide to Taxila-Sir John Marsh!tll on
circumstances leading to the growth
of tho city of Taxila 184.
H
Horodotus-Rawlinson on 360 Eubolio
talente of gold-dust paid as tribute by
the Indian Eatrapy of Darius 280;
Indian army of Xerxes armed with
iron-headed arrows 214.
Hibbert Lectnres for 1887 on the Origin
and Growth of Religion among tho
Babylonians-Dr. Sayee on commerce
between India and Babylon as early as
800 B. C. 17.
GrhyaBiltra-Trans. into Eng.
byF. Max Muller in the S. B. E. Series
Vol. XXX. on rules and rites on
house-buildiug 215.
Historians' History of the World (Vol. I)
on trade and the articles of trade bet
ween India and the Western werld
(Assyria, Babylon etc.) ,163-64; (Vol.
II) on the Arabian-Indian branch of the
Phamiciau trade 70.
Historical Researches-Heeren on the deri-
vation of Abyssinia from Aboasin, a
classical name of the Indus trade
hetween ancient India and Egypt 20;
trade between ancient India and Arabia
71.
History of Ancient Sanskrit Litern-ture-
F. Max Muller on various kinds of
priests
History of Ancient Del Orient-Eng. Ed.
(Vol. II) on trade between ancient India
and Egypt via. Yemen 18, 7'!-; trade
between e.ncient India and Arabie.
7l-7Z.
History of Antiquity-MaxDuncker on
trade between early Indians and Sa.boons
on the coast of S. Arabia before the
tenth Century B. C. 72.
History of Aryan Rule in India-E. B.
Havel! on the antiquity and origin of
town-planning in ancient Indil!. 145-46 ;
growth of villages into towns 183-84.
History of Commerce-Dr. Dl!.y on Phooni-
cian commerce and its Arabian-Indian
brn-ncb 69.
History of Sanskrit Literature-A. Mac-
donn-Id on the absence of horse-riding in
the age 38; in the
sense of a man of the first occur.
ing only eight times in the
wh ila in the sense of sage or officiating
priest occnring forty-six times 59;
composition of the befort!
500 B. C. 81 ; date of Kat yay ana 245.
Hymns of the Atharvl!.veda-M. Bloom-
field on opasa liS a coverlet for women
51 fn.
I
Illustrated London News (Feb. 27 and
March 7, 1926; Jan. 7 and 14, 1928) on
Prehistoric Civilisation of the Indus
valley 12-16.
Imverial Gazeteer of India (Vol. II) on
Neolithia graves 6; Piprllwab stupa
(450 B. C.) 214, 236,
India in Greeae-Pococke on colonisation
of Ethiopia by Indians 18-19 ; on the
points of similarity between the sculpture
lind architecture of ancient Indil!. and
ancient Egypt 20.
India and the Western World-Rawlinson
on supposed Babylonian influence ou
Hindu Astronomy 73.
Indian Antiquary (Vol. VIII)-T. Foulkes
on tra1e between Ancient Indians snd
the Jews 71; trade between anoient India
and Egypt 21; of a sea-route
between India Bnd Persian COl!.sts in the
daye of the Buddha 261. (Vol. XI)
Prof. Ball 011 trade b3tween early
Indians and the Jews 70-71;
tion of t he story of tile gold-digging
ants 210. (Vol. XII I) on trade between
Aneient India and Egypt via Yemen 18.
(Vol. XXX) Mr. Fawcett on the sculp-
tures on the Cave, Wynaad 5 In.
(Voh. XXXIV and XXXVI) V. A.
Smith on no Bronze Age in India 7; on
the copper and prehistoric implements
of India 7; (Indilln Antiquary, 1896)
kings seem to have kept granaries for
emergencies like war and famine 276.
Indian Village Community-Bllden Powell
on Aryan lands beiug cultiv&ted by
'be oonquered aborigenes 64.
Indica-Ktesias on:dogs, onyxes and other
precious stones as articles of trade bet-
ween India and Baby Ion 162-63 ; des-
cription of the Indian Hik (cochine!\l)
164; karpion 260.
Indica-Arrian on fifty-eight rivers of
India 200; meth)d of capturing ele-
phants, the preeursor of tbe modern
'kbeda' system 212; oilflasks made of
leather 226; white leather-shoos 226;
earring made of ivory 228.
Indiscbe .Altcrthnmsknnde-C. Lassen
Book I. on early trade between
India and Arabi:1 71-72 i on the Sans-
291
krit name ibha rel!.ching Egypt through
Tyre and becoming Egyptian ehu 21 ;
elephants neither used nor tamed in
ancient Egypt 21.
Indisc he Studien-Weber on the absence
of caste in the Age 58; on
liberality of princes in the Brahmal)a
period 173; sadasyll (a priest) 239.
Industrial Competition of Asia-C. Daniell
on the nature of ancient Indian foreigo
trade 280.
Introduction to tho History of Religion-
Jevons on the cultivation of plants liS
oue of women's contributions to civili-
sation 154..
J
Jaiminiya Briihmal)a-text edited with
Eng. Traus. by H. Oertel 00 paryanka
138; metbi (pillar) 145 fo.; kiog
becoming a seer 15'3.
Jatakas, the (Fausball's edition) :-
Abhayantara,(No. 281) ()n iron nets 216 ;
restiog place for travellers 230.
Ahitul)dika (No. 365) on Bnake-eharmer
241 ; grain merchants 265.
Akalaravi (No. 119) on Udicca Brabmins
238.
Akirti Ja\aka (No 480) on Kaveripattansm
in the Draviq.a country 181; leaves
of Indravarcl)i tree 201.
Alamvusa (No. 523) on golden comb 218 j
gonako (blankets made of goat's hair)
222; paryanka 221 ; diee-board 223.
Alinachitta (No. 156) on village of carpen-
ters 187, 224,243 i forests supplying
292
fuel and timber 203; sataka 219:
221; angavic1y:i.p:i.thakas 239;
carpente r 240.
Ananusocaniya (No. 328) on It life-like
golden image of a girl 217, 237.
Anabhirati (No. 185) on pearls 212 ; liquor-
shops 227 j senior pupils acting as
assistant master 245.
AndhabMita 62) on camphor 203,
278 ; -camphor tree 204, j golden dice-
board 217; golden dice 217; royal bigh
priest 242; incense merchants 265.
Adipta (No. 424) on Roruka, capital of
Sovira 182; Raurava (= Roruka) us a
port d departure 262.
Amra (No. 124) on droI)a, drO\lT 223; U dicca
Brahmins 238; magician's tricks 239 ;
Chal)dala village 243, 248.
Amra (No. 474) on ChuI)dala village 186.
Amracora (No. 344) on hair-dye 278.
Ar3.madulaka (No.46) on watering of plants
by the gardener 213 ; wooden tubs or
buckots for watering plants 223; leather
made receptacle for sprinkling water on
plants 227.
(No. 27) on gates of 182.
ApaI)J.laka (No.1) on Var:i.l)asi 180; neck-
lace of gems 218; coverlet 219 ; cara-
vnn traders: their organisation, mode
and habits of life etc. 267 ;
dealer's sense of the wear and tear of
articles 266; selling at a price fixed by
his 266 ; ointment 278.
(No. 181) on adjl1stible sword 214;
gold plates worth a lac pieces 217 ;
Ba'11gUiti 219; kailchuka. (overcoat)
219; screon (S:1n i) 220; leather-case for
(keeping) sword 227 ; bows made from
tbe born of sheep 2:W ; coventionul 18
tilpa's 239.
Alampr&d:inll 131) on slaves being
[j!tell away 253; slaves helping their
ex-masters In distress 254;
(a kind of measure) 272 ; mana. (a kind
of measure 7272.
Asatarupa (N o. 100) on drainage of
Benares 180.
(No. 126) on a woman working
as an astrologer 256.
Asitabhu, Asikabhii, Asit:i.nublliita (No. 234)
on krakaca (saw) 215.
Asthisena (No. 40:)) on
230.
Asvaka (No. 207) Potali city in Kasi king-
dom and its gates 182.
Avarya (No. 376) on payment of tax in
cash 197; ferrryman 241; ferryman
advised to settle the fare by bargaining
2:)0-51.
Ayog!ha (No. 510) on tbe uncertainty of
human life compared tD the uncertainty
of the cloth of the drunkard 227; iron-
pillars used in the construction of a
house 230.
Baveru (No.\339) on India's trade with
Babylon earlier than 4()O B. C. 162;
golden cage 217; expert of peacock by
Indian merchants to Baby Ion 260,262 ;
the use of disakaka for the guidance of
pilots 262; partnership in the deal in
birds from India to Babylon 267.
Bhadras:i.la (No. 465) on town-planning of
Kosala capital 185; iron net 216; one
pillared palace 224 ; use of the wooden
pillar in the construction of houses 230;
saIl)sthiigara (town hall) 231 ; sons born
of a slave girl by a free man hardly
regarded as free 253.
BhalHitika (No. 504) all agurn (aloe) 203,
278, gala tree 204; flower trees and
plants like KarJ.likara 206, Ailkola 206 ;
Sattali, Navamallika, Mac1bavi 206,
Yuthiki'i 206, Kuruvaka 207, Patali 207;
Sindhuvara( 207.
BherrTlda (No. 59) on trumpet-blowers
241.
Bhimasena (No .. 80) on gates of Benares
180 ; Benare8 famous for scents 180;
Benaree b,mou! for textile fabrics 180,
220; town-planning of BenMes 185 j
weavers' ward in Benares 220, 244,
U dicca Brahmins inheriting B stricter
Itandard 231; oonventional 18
taught at Benares Bnd Tuil!!. 2?9;
boy-servant 241.
Bhojiljilneya (No. 23) all mords 214;
armour 214 i gold plate worth a lao
piece! 217; canopy decorated with
golden stan 220; screen made of
raktakamvala 221.
BhllridaHa (No. 543) on earring 218 j
219 j masiJrai<a, 81111t oovered
with gadi 220 In. ; ShOBI made of oloth
Woven with threacls 01 different colours
and deoorated with gold 221; prepara-
tion of salt by the evaporation of sea-
water 229 i (curer of
poi,onous bites) 239 j people not follow-
ing oaste professions 246 ; betting with
big sums 278; debtors flying to the
forest or attempting to commit suioide
to escape from the olutohel of their
oreditors 279.
Bisa (No. 488) on ltvasika. (caretaker of
honses) 231.
Brahmadatta (No. 323) on umbrella made
of leavos 225 j one-soled shoe 226 i
leather undergarment 226; leather
npper garment 226 ;
230.
Chakra.viika (No. 451) on Robita fish 212;
PlIthina fish 212; Vltluka (= Bele P)
fish 212; ('" fish
212 ; Munja (Mirgela P) fish 212.
Cbandraldnnare. (No. 485) on
(cloth with flowers embroidered on it)
200 ; flute or pipe 225.
Chaturdvara (No. 439) on crystal pailles
228 ; dangers of sea-voyages described
258; ship striking a. hidden rock in
mid-ocean 258,
Ohiimpeya (No 506) on tree 2U4;
Karl}ikara flower tree 206; Patali
flolVer tree 207 ; Imra tree 207 ; Jamvu
(blackberry) tree 208; earring set with
jewels 218; keyiira (bracelet on the
upper Ilrm) 218; dug-outs 27:] ; snake-
oharmer 2n i Brahmal}i\ as snlke-chllr
mel" 246.
Chedi (No. 4Z2) on Svativati oity in the
Obedi kingdom 183 j royul high
priest 242.
Chitrasambhilta (No 498) on Avanti city
183; Chal}dala. village 186, 243, 248;
OQverlet fQrohariot with designs au it
219; sight of II. forebodes
evil 249 ; even food seen by a Chal}dalll
is not to be taken 249.
(N 0_ 4) on linen flax 202;
ohivara. (dress of the Buddhist monks)
made by the monks tbemselves 219;
kiiyavII.ndbanllo 219 j tent 221; grass-
eu tter 240; a.ttendant 241; marriage
of a slllove witb 8 free woman hardly
improved his statns 253 i navigability
of tbe Gllonges by crafts of considerable
size right up to Benares 264 j cornering
in hay 266; dealing in futures 266;
oorporate purchase of a ship's cargo hy
many merchants 266; ollae of bartar
267 ; kakal;1ib (a medium o exchange)
268 j kiir:ipapa (a medium exchr>nge)
268 ; eignet rings as deposit or seourity
(satyafiHra) 271 j eight as
cart-hire from Benares the port
near by 273.
294.
ChullllnandikB (No. 222) on Brahmin
working as hunter 246.
Cbullapadma (No. 193) on gates of Benares
180.
Dadhivahana (No. 187) on (axe)
215 ; viiei-parasu 215 ; screen made of
eilk-cloth 'l21.
Durddada (No. 180) on corporate life in
Benares 186 i Karl)ikli.rll. Hower tree
206; Kal)takural)da flower tree 206;
cloth dyed in yellow with katvikara
flower 229; cloth dyed in blue with
kal)takuraJ.1da flower 229.
(495) on fruit trees: Amra
207, Jamvu 208, Vilva 208, Vadll.ri 208,
HlI.ritaki 208, Amalaki 208, Vibhitaka
208; Piyala 208, and Lakuoa 20'3; oon-
demnation of Brahmins engaged in
tillage and other callings 238, 24'3 ;
forest-guard 241; Brahmins working
as physioian, goatherd, merchant,
charioteer, agriculturist, meat-seller,
caravan-guard, hunter, dealer in fruits,
ornaments etc., ; Cll.rll.Vll.ns electing
their chief Il.nd appointing oaravan-
guard for sa.fety 263.
Da4aratha (No. 461) on sandals made of
graBs 225.
DaS1irl)a (No. 401) on famous for
her swords 215 ; magioian's tricks 239.
Devadharma (No.6) on V1iriiJ;laai city 180;
tent 221 ; paryanka 222.
Dhll.rmadhvaja (N D, 384) on sufferings of
mariners due to sbipwriok in midocean
258 ; tbe use of disakaka for the guid-
ance of pilots at Bell. 262.
Dhnrrkari (No. 413) on enclosed pasture
190; goatherd 240; Brahmin work-
ing as goatherd 246.
Dorajilna (No.64) on customary fixed price:
meek ae 0. 100 piece slave-girl 266;
268; 100 pr(l- .
"umably of silver ns the onstomary
price of a slll.vegirl 273.
Durmedha 12Z) on conventional 18
silpi\'s taught 230.
DurvllLtka,tho. (No. 105) on crowbar 215;
hand-puukha 225.
Dyilta (No. 260) on gold
golden bedstead 217;
vessels 216;
payment of
tuition fees after the completion of
studies obtained by begging 239; 14
as fee paid to the hac her 245;
272; (8 medium of exchange)
269.
Ekaparl)lJ. (No. 149) on city, 183;
U dicca 238; cowherd 240;
avapalaka 240 ; hastipalaka 2W.
Ekaraja (No. 303) on string loop (sikya.
225.
GaJ)datindu (No. 520) on rajakammika
(tax-collector) 117; for
(keeping) sword 227; Valipratigrabah
(tax-collector) 242 ; half a aft the
daily wage of a female water-carrier
272-73; oppressive taxation 279.
Gangamala (No. 421) on a. day labourer and
his l<\,dylove drinking wine together
227; wages of free labourers settled
by higgling and haggling 250; ihe
gay thongh frivolous life of the day
labourer described 251; day la.boureu
were sometimes paid in board and
lodging 251; slaves treated as men-
bers of the family and living virtuous
lives 254; woman working Q.3 wa.ter-
carrier 256 j quarter and half a
kana. as media of exchange 268.
Gargll. (No. 155) on omen readers 239;
V!l.lipratigrahaka 242; Brahmin as
hawker 246; small tra.ders carrying
their goods from village to villBgIJ on
their own beads
G:tndhllra (No. 4(6) on MithiHl 182; eara-
van trade 262-63.
Ghnta. (No. 454) on Asitailjana city 180 ;
Uttara. Mathura 183; hares made of
brass, silver and gold 216; hare maie
of stone 228; bare made of coral and
precious stones 229, 237; washerman
240; wrestler 241 j Dvara vati as a port
of departure 262.
Giridanta 184) on asvanivandhika
240.
GodH (N'o. 325) on !ldrah (ginger) 202;
jiraka (cumin.seed) 202; marica 202 ;
pippali (pepper) 202 j cloth dyed red
229.
Grdbra (No. 164) on walls surrounding
city 180.
Grhapati (No. 199) on the misconduct of 0.
village headman 188; corporate loan by
villagors 189 j sufferings caused by
famine in a KaSi village 280.
Grlimo1)icha1)da (No. 257) on pa.ryanka ;
mat 224; vastuvidyacarya. 230; nda-
kllra 240; 26'3 ; 24
68 the price of a pair of ox 273.
Gn1)a (No. 157) on nivasana 219 ; priivarlu}1!.
219; seats made of cloth 220 j pi\da-
pufiohhanam 220; Benarea cotton cloth
fetching a. 1000 pieces 220; monh dying
their ohlvara 229 ; oloth dyed in yellow
with karpiHra flower 229 j s!ltakas
worth 1000 pieces of copper 274.
Guptila (No. 243) on licilrya. 239; caravan
trade 262-63.
Harimata- Haritamat;ldnka. (No.
oatching fish in a cage-like structure of
cane or bamboo splints called kumina
212, 225.
Hastiplila (No. 509); on royal high priest
242.
Illlsa (No. 78) on Sarkal'li, a nigama near
Rlijagrha 182 i bbasta (oloth-made
295
to store np grains) 221; stool 222 ;
basket 224 ; changotaks (amal! basket)
225; liquor.cup 225, 227; dried fish
taken along with liquor 227; sura 227 ;
a glass of ordinary wiue was worth
only one 228; s8venetoryed houses
230; and euvarI;ll 1!.9 media of
exchange 268, 269 j a cup of suri! wag
worth only one 273.
Tndrasamanagotra. (No. 161) on 8ayyli.
phalaka 22 ; pitoher 225.
Indriya (No. 423) on Brahmin working as
hunter 246.
Jarudapan9. (No. 256) on metals: iron,
copper, lead, tin, silver and gold 209 ;
vaiduryamaJ;li 209 j pearls 212; guild
of caravan traders 242; concerted
commeroial enterprise by merchants of
vasti 267.
Jl\vanahar1}s\ (No. 476) on mat 224.
Jayaddvi,a (No. 513) on foundation of
Kbullakalruaga city by 8 king 183 j
inorease of royal by colonisation
191 ; forests as the habitation of Ate.
viyl!.9 203-04; forest.guard 2U.
Kakkara (No. 209) on tree 204;
Vibhnaka tree 208; catching birds in
traps with the belp of decoy birds 212 ;
traps made of wool for catching birds
2'.31.
Kalandllka (No. 127) on run away slaves
236.
Kalingil.vodhi (No. 479) on Dantapura oity
181, 262; city 182 j laiichhana.-
mudri! (seal) 216.
KaJ;ldagalaka (No. 210) on Khadira treo
204.
Kavavera (No. 318) on nagarapala. 242;
the serving maid9 of courtesans 257 ;
1000 per night as the fee of
courte Sllon 272.
296
Kapota (No. 42) on adrake. (ginger) 202;
jiraka (cumin seed) 2"-'2; colander 215 ;
cage-liko structure made of straw for
birds to live in 225; cook 241.
Karkata (No. 267) on fork 215.
Katahaka (No. 125) on wooden plank ueed
I\S a slate for writing 223; run away
slaves 256; wooden spoon 223; slaves
as valet or footman to his mast3r's son
or as store-keeper to his master 252;
elave-girl's son patted and permitted to
learn writing and handicrafts 254.;
slaves fed on a slave's fare and at the
fauH beaten, branded and
irn prisoned 254-55.
Kausamvi (No. 428) on (manufac-
turer of saIt) 229, 240.
Kaka (No. 14,) on gold vessels 216.
Kiilav!hu (No. 329) on golden cage 217 j
golden cup for a bird 217.
Kama (No. 466) on the extension of arable
land by fresh clearance of forests 190;
survey of the fields by royal officers
196; uparaJJam (viceroyalty) ]97;
valisadhaka (tax-collector) 197 ; irriga-
tion 200.
Kamanita (No. 228) on gold plate worth
a. lao pieces 217; bhiitavaidya. (oon-
jurer of evil spirits) 241.
KamaviHipa 297) on J'enares famou8
for textile fa bric8 189; Benares
famous for sataka.s 220.
(No. 221) on town-planning of
Benares city 185 ; corporate life of the
citizens of 186 ; decision of the
majority prevailed in the village council
189 fn.; ivory 203;
Bataka 219-20; ivory bangles 228;
ivory-workers' ward1 in Benares 228;
244; cloth in golden colour 229;
da.ntakara (ivory-worker) 240.
(No.1) on finger-ring 218.
(No. 346) on scented rice 211.
Klmdirangara (No. 40) on ga.tes of
city ISO; vessels 216; seven-
storeyed houses 23'') ; inn"pannani (= I.
o. IT.) 271; 275; the debtors getting
back the I. O. U. when the loan was
paid 275.
(No. 54) on Banares fam)us
for bel' textiles ISO, 220; agora 203;
18 ; K",rl)ikara flower plant 206; A1oka.
flower tree 207; Patali flower tree
207; Amra treo 207; sword 214;
golden trappings for borses 217; earring
218; keynra (bro.celet for the upper arm)
218; golden bangles set with pearls
and precious stones 218; bow made
from the lorn of sheep 229; snApaka
(bath.attendant) 242 ;
saka 2i2 ; vini9cayamatya (juige) 242.
Khararnvara (No. 79) on a border village in
Kosala 187; village appoin-
ted by the king 183 ; misconduct of the
village:beadman 188 ; revenue oollector
of a. frontier village 197.
Khuraputra (No. 386) on performer of spells
241.
Kbulladhanurgraha (No. 374.) on
sthali 216 ; sthi!.l! 225.
(No. 533) on villages in-
habited solely by hunters 183;
24') j villages inhabited solely by
fowlers 243.
Khullakalingg, (No. 301) on Dantapura
city on the Kalinga coast 181, 262 ;
Potali oity in the Aswaka kingdom
182.
Kbullnarada (No. 477) on simula or cottou-
silk 202 ; ::limula or cotton-silk tree 204;
oloth stiffened with starch 229-30;
karamara. a person oaptured by robbers
and raduced by them to slavery 252.
Khull"vodhi (No. 443) on chivara (dress
of the Buddhist monks) made by the
monks themselves 219.
KiI{lcbbando (No. 511) on Nipa
flower tree 206; kirTta (tilfa for the
head) 217; keyiira (bracelet for the
n pper arm) 218 j angada (bracelet for
the npper u.rm) 218; royal high priest
242.
(No. 248) on flower
tree 206.
Komayapntra (No. 299) on a two.storeyed
palace 230.
(No. 130) all copper vessels 216.
(No 29) on as u. medium
of e%change 268; 24 u.s the
price of a pair of ox 273; a young calf
sufficient for house rent for a certain
period 273 ; two as the hire
for an OJ: in carrying a cart aoross a
shallow riv0r 273.
on the leaves of Illdravarut;ll
tree 20l.
vaipllyana (No. 444) all the drainage
system of Kosambi oity 181; krakaca
(a saw) 215.
(No. 313) on lak1ii {lac) 203.
K'hnrapra (No. on forests as the
habitation at the Ataviya8 203-04;
caravans appointing fore,t-;uards for
safety 263.
Knddala (No. 70) on parllika (grower of
green vegetables) 201, 239; alii.vu
(gourd) 201; (pumpkin) 201 ;
cucumber 201 j saka (potberbs) 201 j
.pade ;;15 ; 230.
Kukku 396) on wooden pillars used in
tho coustruction of houses 230.
Kukkura (No. 22) on leather coverlet for
chariots 226; leather-made fittinO'B of
o
chariots 226; tula (scale) by way
of II. simile 271.
297
KuHiyaka. (No. 31) on the oorporate life of
villagers 188-89; tent 221; pho.lakii.-
sana (banch) 222; dharmasa.la 23:>;
persons reduced to slavery for their
crimes 252.
Kulmiilapit;lda (No. 415) on garlllnd-maker
241; guild of garlllnd-makers 242.
Kumbha (No. 512) on chiti (vat) 226.
Kumbbakiira (No. 408) on Dantapura city
bl, 261; Kiimpilya city 181; llfithili
city 182.
Kupdakaknk,i-saindhava (No. 254) on gold
stbali 216; siitaka. ::19; canopy deco
rated with golden stars 22); Bcraen
; sthll.vikii (purss) 220; (screen)
220 ; carpet. 221.
KU{lalll (No. 536) on rivers dammed for
purposes of irrigation 20); maluva (a
kind of sweet potatoes) 201; saudal
wood 203; trees: Tirlta, Kutaja, 8'alo.,
Tilake., Bbi'irjja, Muohilinda 204; Kura-
va.ka, Chetasa., Bajuga, Punniga,
Priyaka, lsana, SaralB, Karitgul9., P&d-
m9.ka, Devadaru, Kakuuha. =
Arjuna, Kacbchikara, TUDa, Kat;la-
vera, Kora{ldB, Kovidara, Anangana,
Anavajja, Surichir, Bbagini, Dhanu-
karika, 'ralisa, Kotta. 205 j Cacha 206 ;
flower tress: Kar{likara, Kio,lSuka,
Aiikola, Atimukta, Yodhi (= Yuthika),
Ketaki and Vakula. Champaka,
)\soka, N5garukha. ( .. NaJakesara),
VanamaIJika, Tagara, BhB!],}i (= GheJ;l
tu), and Sumana 207; Sandalwood,
l'riyanga and Usira (=Khaskhas) 209;
silver 209; baritab (yollow orpiment)
209; 209; hinguhka 209;
ma!]ikara 217, 240; (bench)
222; pupphchhaddak (sweaper) 241.
Kut;ldaka-pilpa (No. 109) on the corporate
life of *be citizens of SraVd!ti 185-86;
on free labourers living from hand to
298
month 251 j udanklt ( .. Pali Ulunka), It
measnre for liquids 271,
Kuranga.m!ga (No. 2I) on methods of
hunting 211.
Kuru (No. 213) on architect 240.
Knrndho.rma (No. 270) on Dantapnra city
on the KaJin"'a coast 181, 262; Indo,
"
pattha city 181; Brahmin village 187,
243 i land of ordinary 0,9
distinguished from royal domain 191 ;
royal share of the produce 196; survey
of fields hy royal officers 196 j public
granary 197 i essence of sandal wood
203; golden necklace worth 1000 pieces
218,274 j royal high priest 242 j rajjuka
(survoyer) 242 j measurer of corn 242;
essence of sandalwood worth a lac
piece I 274, 278 j suffering caused by
famine in Kalinga 279-80.
Rusa (No. 531) on Sakala city 182; sandal-
wood powder as a toilette for the breasts
203, 279 j sandal-wood oil ?03, 278 j
golden image of a girl 217, 2:37 j neck-
lace of coins 218 j mekhala 218;
cloth embroidered with gold 219;
earthen pots with female figures en
graved on them 226; earthen dolls for
children 226 j painted punkha 237 ;
karmara (smith) 240; nalakara 240 i
guild of emiths 242 j industrial appren
tice 245 j prince apprenticing himself
in succession 118 a potter, basket-maker,
florist etc., without any social de3ra-
dation 247; prince fashioning a
iml\:;O 247 ; ;Brahmin taking a8 bis wife
the childless wifo of a king without
losing his oaste 248; 239; kalka
278, 278 fD.
(No.121) ou an onepillared palace
'2U; use of the wooden pillar in the
conltruction of houses 230.
Ko.taval)ij (No. 218) on arthadharmlnu-
242; (judge)
242; of two traders of
267 and of two traders of
Benares 267.
(No. 11) on protection of the crops
199; method of hunting 211.
LanO'ulosii (No. 123) on 239.
o
(No. 144) on U dicca Brahmins
238.
Lola (No. 27-i) on cage-like structure made
of straw for birds to live in 225 ; cook
241.
(No. 41) on Gambhirapattana 181,
262; corporate life in the village 189 ;
kansara 216; a seven.storeyed crystal
palace 228 ; acarYIl being maintained by
the guardians of the children taugbt
239 distress of mariners when their
,
ship struck a rock in mid ocean 253.
Louhakumbhi (No. 314) on iron jar 215.
Madiy"ka (No. 39:)) on Benares famous for
her textile f.abrics 18), 220.
Mahaha1lJsa (No. 534) on Benares famous
for hoI' textile fabrics 180, 220; golden
5eat (Pali kochchha) 217; changotaka
(small basket) 225.
Ma.hajanaka (No. 539) on Champa city
surronnded by a wall pierced with gates
with towers over them lEO;
city 182 ; town-planning of Mitbilii 185 ;
description of the manufacture of arrows
214; illi (small sword) 215; bracelet
on tbe lower arm 218; Kautamvara
famous for her cloth 221; blankets
made of goat's hair 222 j description of
wooden sandals 224; winnowing basket
225; ship containing seven caravans
with their beasts 259 ; Bea-voyage to
SuvarJ;labhiimi (= Burma ?) 261 ; pearls,
gems and diamonds as exports from
Indi!!' to Burma. 262 i Mvigability of
tbe Ganges by orafts of considerable
size from Champa down to the sea.
264.
Mahakapi (No. 516) on Prahmin peasant
238,245.
Mahakapi (No. 467) on cha.itya 231.
1Ifahiiknl)a (No. 469) on Brahmins working
as robbers 246.
Mahiimangala (No. 453) on San.ltbiigiira.
(town ball) 231 ; omen-readers 239.
Mabllmayura (No. 491) nn petika (wo:)den
boxes) 223-24.
::'.Iahiipingala (No. 24( on hammer 215;
crushing the Bubjeots with taxation like
sugarcane in a mill 279.
Mahanaradak (No. 544) on women
working II.S water-()arriers 256; mer-
chantship going to the bottom of the
sea 258; tula (scale) nsed by way of a
simile :.l71 ; 278-79.
Mahiisara (No. [)2) on female sl&ves looking
after the jewels of the ladies in the
royal harem 252; a man who hRs never
eeen (i.e, used) in his life a ohair or a
bed-etead 279.
MahiiSIlavaja (No. 51) on gates of Benares
city] 80; sword 214 ; gold drinking-pot
216; gold vase 216; gold box for keep-
ing soentA 217; pillows 220; chatur.
jlltiya gand 11a 278, 278 fn.
MaMsudadana (No. 95) on Kusiniira city
surrounded by a wall 181.
Mahasutasoma (No. 537) on 1ndapattbit
181; Kammasadamma city growing out
of a village 183; king's right of increas'
ing the taxes at will and of remitting
them 196 ; senior pupil acting BS assIS-
tant master 245.
MaMswapna (No. 77) on the different
divisions of a kingdom 197 ;" vrlhi (rice)
200; yava (barley) 201; godhumll.
(wbeat) 201; mudga 201 i mas a 201;
299
sugarcane 201; alhu (gourd) 201;
Madhuka tree yielding Mabd flower
207; bell-metal vessels 216 j gold plate
wort h a lao pieces 217 ; stool 22Z; rope
225 j pitcher 225; manufacture of
molasses from sugarcane juice 229;
U dicca Brabmins inheriting a stricter
standard 238; royal higb priest 242;
1181 and kar1apalla as media of
exchange 268 j sandal-wood worth a lac
pieces 274 fn.; king's right to impose
forced labonr limited to the conti nes of
his estates 275 j oppresive taxation 279;
a dream interpreted as foreboding
famine in Kalinga 280 fn.
(No. 302) on Benares famous
for her textile fabrics 180, 220; a border
village in Ras! 187 j corporate life of
villagers 189; gold vessels 216 j g:>ld
vase 216 j Benares cotton cloth fetching
a lac pieces 220, 274 j oppressive tan.
tion 279.
Mabaullmarga (No. 546) on Bonares famous
for ber textile rubrics 180, 220; town
planning of Mitbili 185; foundation of
village for military purposes 188; cor-
porate life of villagers 189 j Patbrna
(Voyiila) fisb 212; armour 214; iron
helmet 214; sikiiya-eamaya (fA sword of
higb quality) 215; Benares cloth fetcb
ing a lao pieces 220; tanning and
Boftening leather by the application of
226 ; mason 230; 231 ;
underground palace 232; wooden roo f
in::; of the underground palace described
233; golden image of a girl made by tho
royal sculptor 237; woman working as fl
guard over a. coUon-field aDd spinning
threadfrcm clean cotton 256; lifeliko
paintings of elephants, horses, chariote
nnd various objects of natural Bcenery
237 i karmara (smith) 240 i carpenter
300
240 ; mason 2tO ; kandakara (sculptor)
2:16,240; carmnkiira 24(') ; painter 24J;
tunnav.ya (tailor) 241 ; conv(Jntional 18
guilds 242; guild of wood-workers, of
smiths, of leatherworkers and of paint.
ers 242; ornaments of prostItutes 257;
Dvaravati as a fiort of departure 262;
building of 300 ships 259 ; ardhama,aka
and as med ia of excbange 268;
half a of meat was sufficient food
for a lizard 273 ; eight HrapaJ;1:1s as the
price of a decent ass 273; Benares
fabrics worth a lac pieces 274; scent
called sarvasan,.lharaka 278_
(No. 493) on Benares famous
for her tex tile fabrics 180, 220;
blankets 221; woolen shawl 221-22;
uddiyane C3. kamvala (blankets made of
the hair of udbirala ?) 222 ; caravan
traders havi:lg- a CDmmon chief 266;
partnerhip of the traders of
267.
Mahavodhi (No. 528) on Udicca Brahmins
238.
Mahil:imukha (No, 26) on stha\I 225;
hastipalaka 240.
Mahotkro" (No. 436) on Kadamva flower
tree ; tortoises 212.
MakMdeva (No. q on Mithila city 182 ;
pllir of pincers made of gold 217;
barbor 240.
MalJicora (No. 1!)4) on the popuhr belief
that famines are cau ,ed by the sins
of TO lerR 280 fn
lfnng,,]a 87) on siitaka 219; peiika
(wooden boxes) 223-2t; Uuieca Brah.
min8 238 j omen re:lders :!39.
MSlJikal)tha (No. 253) on Alavi city 180;
2:30.
(No. 351) on earring eet with
jewell 218 ; paryanke.
Manoja (No. 397) on methods of hunting
211; Lunting lion from a machan 212;
gold phte worth a lac pieces 217;
golden sanda,]s 217.
Uarkata (No. 173) on Tala tree 208; ph ala.
Haana (bench) 222.
(No. 44) on a border village in
kingdom 187 ; tent 221.
}fa,tsya (No. 34) on catohing fish from
tanks and rivers ill nets 212 j k1!.ya.
vandhana 219 ; bathing cloth 219.
Mataya (No. 75) on box made of sandal
wood 224 fn.; suffering caused by
famine due to the failure of rains 279.
MatsyadaM (No. 288) on receptacleg made
out of the leaves of trees 225; ma,ak", as
a medium of exchange 2')8 j Beven
as the price of a big l{,ohita
fish 273; klltimvaka or knt\mvika
(private landowner) 191.
Mayilra (159) on villages inhabited solely
by huntera 186, 243 ; catching peacocks
in traps with the help of decoy birls
212 ; (hunter and butcher) 24G.
MiiD}sa (No. 315) on town planning of
!Sravaati 185, 244; hunters going to the
market with cart-loads of flesh to sell
211; carts 222 j cooks' quarter in
vasti 244.
(No. 455) on trees I !Sallaki,
Kiitaja and Visa 204, Kuru vinda
(= Mutha 01' Viidama tree) 208 ; keyllra
(bracelet on the upper arm) 218 j
made of stone 228; stons
image of Bodhisattva as elophant 237.
(No. 497) on ChaJ;1d:lla village 186,
243, 248; guggulu (bdellium) 203, 27:3 ;
gold vessels 216; gold pitcher 216;
gold stick 217; gold sandals 217;
sevenstoried house 230; sight of a
chaJ;1dala fore bo ii ng evil 249; par-
taking of his food even without know
ledge leads to social ostracism
ohaturjatiya gandha. 278, 278 fn.
249 .
I
Mitramitra (No. 197) on cloth-made
for keeping shoes 221.
Mitravinda (No. 82) on a crystal
228.
ba<Ys
o
pal'lce
(No. 1'6) on spade 215; s1ltaka
219; sayyliphalaka 222; wooden yoke
for carrying loa.ds (Pili Hoho or kiijo)
223; basket 224; large water jar 225 ;
drinking pot 225; thatched hOII8e:230.
Mupika (No. 30) 011 pig-culture 211.
(No. 49) on astrologers 239;
soothsayers 239; omen-reader (nimitta-
pathaka.) 239.
Nakula (No. 165) on
(quarrel among the guilds) 243.
Ne.linika (No. 526) on Sala, Tilaka. and
Bhllrjja trees 204; flower trees: KarI,li-
kara 206, Patctli 207; /ruz't trees: Amra
207; Jamvu (blackberry) 208; earring
Bet with jewels 218; necklace 218;
mekhala 218; U dicc'a Brahmins 238.
Nanda (No. 39) on spade 215 j ba9ket 224 ;
'IIstomary fixed price: meek as a 100
piece slave-girl 266; 266 ; on
slaves enjoying much confidence of their
masters: they were told where the
master's secret treasure was kept 254.
Nandikamrga (No. 885) on the corporate
life of the villagers 189 fn.; king's
right to impose forced labour confined
to tho limits of his est9.tes 276.
Nlirnasiddhika (No. 97) on slave-girls put
on hire to work for others 2;)2; and on
failure to oarn: any ,wages were beaton
255.
Nllnachhanda (No. 289) on e Irring sat
with ston09 218 j wooden postle and
mot'tar 223 j winnowing basket 225 j
angavidyapathakae 289; royal high-
priest 242 j slaves oonsulted as to tbe
101
natore 01 tho boon the m&Mitr .bollid
beg of tbe Iring 25'-
Nemi (:S-0.5n) on a pal_
adulteration of food slllll'l IdG j II ... , !
&18e weights 26'; ; for tb. ror" "''';0''
hold W91'8 filed b,. the
valuer without appeal 266.
Nyagrodha (No, 445) OD hnDlYlya (tailor)
241 j gl1ilds having a common cliNt
who ii aho tho royal treal1lrer
VaHYI\ t'lkin; part in admini.tration
2'6.
Nyagrodha.mrgl\ (No. 12) 00 the corpora"
life of the villl\gsrtl189 In. i lac 2)3; tail
of II yair 203 j method. of hanlillt til
fn. ; king's right b impac. foreed labaar
limited to the cou6ael of hi. uta",
276.
Padma 261) on town-plaDning of
Sravasti city 185, !1ori.h' qurter
of 244.
(No. 307) on Ir ... : 't,aUha ud
20'-
(Xo. 370) on Ir.": p.'afJ m and
Tind 208.
Pahiyi 2:!9) on gate, of Tuila 181.
Paibhandh" (No. 5!1) OD mall (radi.h)
201; chati (nt) 226 ;
239.
Pa.flOha0PIl8&th. (No. OD fo .... " .. the
babitati?D of .. in. 2;)3.
(No. t161 on rioJ t18.
performer of .polIl 2"1.
Parl)ika (So. (02) oD par\lih (po .. of
gt'98n ve;,table.) 2')1, 238; alhu
(goud) 201 i (pllmpkill) Ik)I i
(pot herb.) 'oreet. I1IPPI,iDI:
pot herb. 203; eb&n:o\aka (om.:l
ba.sket) 22:'.
Paruah ,. (No. 99) OD Udieoa BraJaC:IIII
; 38.
Padakuiala-minan on drinking
wiDe forming pent of festive ceremonies
2:?7 ; SDri 227.
.. rt\ (So. MS) on towo-planning 1S.J.-
-.;!>; !Dtr.ringl of mariners dDe to
wrede in ; Karamviko.-
pattana .. " port of departure 2GZ;
&f.l merehanh .. fellow.passenrere in II
.hip 26G.
Plnlya (So. 4J!l) on village beadmnn
powerlo before villagers 188.
l'icDm .. nda (So. 311) on PicumruH11I
( - Seem) tree
I'Gx\lapUri (So. :;'3) on finger-ring 21S.
Po,pa"kta (No.1") on cloth dyed with
u/Hower (kolDmbba) 229; custom of
wearioo{ cloth .lter it has been cllrled
into a tLoonnd fold. 230.
ro\&dllnh (No. 280) 00 receptacles made
ODt of leave. of tree! 22;> i gardener
i41.
ltalbalatthi (S'o. 332) on royal high-priest

Hobantamrltll (So. WI) on vi1lages inhllbit-
ed IOlely by 186, 243 ;
eel witb .tollll. 218 ; golden kinkil)i 21 S ;
Di,idl mODly-lending as ana of
,be foDr bODeI' calling. 274.
Bobi\)! (No. on female ,lave. pOIlDlling
rille
Boa. (No. 277) on jl"ka (comio seed)
a ; _rloa
alln (No. .a;!) on golden basket 217;
(-1. O. U.) 271, 27:;' ; tbo
debtor geuiooe back bis I. O. U. whon
"-loau wu paid back 27:;'; debtors
t,u. to tb. f_,- or aUempting to
.... i' nidd. \0 e_pe from the
... baa of bi. cnJi\o" 279.
'-' .... (So. :tal 00 alhll (goord) 201 ;
..... '1. ( ... pkiD) 201 i enlrllka (a
\:,1 01 nell.'..,. I : '1. Kadall troo
208; method of capturing elepbanb,
the precursor of the modern Kheda
system 212; (adze) 215; hammer
215 ; crowbar 215; spade 215; grass
cutter's knife :H5 ; auger 215 ; singhi!.-
taka 215 i leather-be a for elephant 226;
leather-sboe for elephant 226; leather
umbrella. for elephant 226; leather
strap to bind a dog 227; leather bag
for keeping wealth 227; seven storeyed
house 230.
(No. 503) on a village of 500
robbers 187,243; Madhuka tree yield-
ing Mahua flower 207; Tinduka tree
208; riyals. fruit tree 208; Kara, II
shrub 205; robbers looting the caravans
263.
Saktubhastra (No. 402) on fishermen cast-
ing their net in high seag 258 fn.;
prices of slaves varied according to
their accomplishments, good birth and
beauty 274.
(No. 36) on a border village in
187; successive stages of agri-
culture 198; thatched house 230.
vacara pro. 182) on the walls
surrounding tbe city of Benares 180;
watch-towers over the gates of Benaros
180.
Salllhipa (N o. 251) on tress: Avattha
204 and Madbuka 207; Nyagrodba
flower tree 207; U dll'1lVaro. fruit tree
208.
Sammodamana (:010. 33) on chumvataka (a
ring mude of strllw over which coolies
keep the load they are carrying Oll
their head) 225 .
S,mr,ldhi (No. 167) on nntarav:\saka 1219 ;
utbriisRIlg'a 219.
(No. 466.' on boats 222 ; wind
pro pared out of the juice of augaroano
228; carpenter 240; guild of "00,1
workers 242; miseries of ma.riners ship.
wrecked on an island 258; ship aocom
modating 1000 families of carpenters
259; navigabil ity of tbe Ganges by
crafts of considerable size from Benares
down to the sea 264.
Sandhibheda (No. 349) on as pas
tures 202-03.
Sankha (No. 442) on shipe 222; shoes fetch
ing 5CO and even 1000 pieces 226 ;
Brahmin as trader 247; sufferings of
mariners due to shipwreck in mid
ocean 258 ; a ship 1120 cuhits in length,
560 cubits in width and 140 cubits in
depth 259; ship having three masts
(kQpaka) 259.
Sankhapala (No. 524) on suvarJ;la
(a medium of exchange) 268.
Sankhadhma (No. 60) on blower of conch
shells 241.
Sarabhanga (No. 522) cn armour 214.;
Kanchuka (overcoat) 219; bow made
from the horn of sheep 2:W; Brahmins
as archers 246.
(No. 241) on performer of
spells 241-
SaSa (No. 316) on iron. rod used in roasting
meat 215 ; tent 221.
SatadharmA (No. 179) on Udicca Brahmins
238.
Satapatra (No. 279) on Kutimvaka or
(private landholders) 191.
(No. 73) on golden cage 217 ;
crystal cave for a mouse 228; U dicoa
Brahmins inheritiug a stricter standard
of life 238.
Savake. (No. 309) on mango tree yielding
fruits in all seasons 207-08; royal
high.priest 242.
Salittaka (No. 107) on nalika (a kind of
measure) 272.
Siilnka (No. 286) on pig-.ouItur. 211.
308
Silkata (Nos. 68 and 237j on S1k:eta city
182.
Salikedara. (No. 484) on large holdings (01
8000 acres) 190; royal domain 190-91 ;
land gifted awa.y 191 ; protection of the
crops 1:i9; catching birds in traps made
of the hair of horse's tail 212,222.
SerivatJij (No.3) on Andhapura city 180 ;
gold plate worth a lao pieces 217 j frea
labourers living from hand to mouth
251; maidservant 255; hawk.en
(kachchbaputo vatJijo) 265.
Silamima1:9-sa (No. ti6) on
( snakecharmer ) 241 ;
(cashier or officer of the treasury) 242 i
26S.
(No. 190) on sufferings of mario
due to shipwreck in midocean 258;
ship having three masts (kiipaka) 259 i
the navigability of the Ganges by crllfts
of considerable site right up to Denares
264.
Silavannaga (No. 72) ou town planning of
185; saw 215 ; blankets 2:H i
ivory.workers' ward in Benllres 228,
244 ; ivory-worker 240.
Sirphacharma (No. 189) on small tradelS
carrying their goods from one vi 1IIIge
to auother on the backB of IIsses 265.
Sivi (No. 499) au city in the
Sivi country ISO; fDur gates of
pura. 180 ; coverlet for Glepbanta inlaid
witb gold 219 ; clotb of the Sivi country
famous for its high quality 220.
(No. 211) on Brahmin peasant.
238, 246.
SCl)aka. (No. 229) on iIli (small sword) 215 ;
coverlet for elepbant inlaid with gold
219 ; bllo9ket 224 ; euJiaringe of marinara
due to shipwreck in midocean 258.
Sopananda (No. :)32):on Benares famous [or
ta s:tile 180, 220; II 219;
304
piloting a ship in an ocea.n (maharl}ava)
'257, 258.
Soumall9sya (No. 505) on aHi.vu (gourd)
201 j (pumpkin) 201.
Spandalla (No. 475) on a village of carpen-
ters 187, 243; Dhava tree 205 i chariots
222 i Brahmin working as a oartwright
246.
(Nos. 113 and on the drainage of
Banares 180; barber 240; co",ryshe11
as a standard of value 268.
5!gala (No. 148) on key (Pali aviipural}a)
2] 5-16.
5rikalakarl}i (No, 382) on slaves trea.ted as
members of the familv and leading vir-
tuous lives 254.
SOchi (No. 387) on a village of 100 families
of smHhs 187, 243; corporate life of
villagers 188; spear 214 i parasu (axe)
215; vasi (adze) 215 i fishing hook
made of iron 215 ; iron goad 215 j fine
needles with case 215 ; kiir11sya sthiiU
216 ; guild of smiths 242 i alderman of
9. guild 243.
Sudhabhoj!\na (No. 535) on vrihi (rice) 200 ;
chinaka (= Sans. vrihibheda) 201 fn.
tal,lUa Iii 201 fn. ; syamaka 201 fn. ;
harel,1uka 201 fn. ; maluvii (a kind of
sweet potatoes) 201 i Bhanga, Asvattha,
5ala, Tilaka, Soubhanjana (= Sajina),
V 9.rul}a. Bhilrjja" Vedisa, Vel}u a.nd
Muohakunda. tress :204 i Sthalapadma
and Karl}i kiira flo wer plants 206;
flower trees: Lodhra and Ketaki
206 i Madhuka. Nyagrodha, Piitali
9.nd Sinrlhu vara 207; fruit tree.:
J9.mvQ and ?=Kharjura,
Tinduh (Gavs. or Ebeny), Kadali and
Mooha. (= 208 i Kusa and
Uslra ( .. Khflo8khas) :2.09 i fishes: Rohita,
Pith ina (Voy11 .. ), 5,kula (Sol), 5rngi
Kikil}I)a (kaiikley?). Aligargar9.,
Sankl'a, Klikamatsya and gata;akra
212; coarse cloth made from the
threads spun ou t of the roots of trees;
dangers and risks of maritime trade
described 258 ; the five iti's 280 fn.
Suhanu (No. 158) on sarvarthachintaka
242; court-valuer 242 fixing prices of
articles for the royal household without
appeal 266 ; partnership in the deal in
horses imported:from Sind to Bellares
%67.
Sujata (No. 252) on kutimvaka or kutam-
vika (private landholders) 191 fn.;
gold plate 216-17 ; slaves ill treated
and even beaten by Anathapil)daka's
daughter-in-law 255.
(No. 153) on hand-punkba 225 ;
marble stair-case 228, 234.
Sukhwihari (No. 10) on Anupiya city in
"Malladea 180 ; mat
Sulasa (No, 419) on 1000 as the
fee of a courtesan for one night 2n.
Sunaka (No. 242) on leather strap to bind a
dog 227 j barter 267.
Supara
5
a (No. 463) on B!l!gukachchha
(=Broach) city 180; diamond 209;
fish ( = sword-fish? ) 212;
corals 212; jalaniyamaka (pilot) 241 ;
guild of pilots 243 ; distress of mariners
when their ship tossed aimlessly for
four months, attacked by a seagale 258 ;
ship accommodating 70J merchants
259 ; Bh!gukaohchha as a port of depar-
ture 262; 700 merchant3 combining to
obtain the services of one pilot 268 ;
eight as the fee of a barber
272.
Surapana (No. 81) on paryanka 222;
hasket 224; mythological origin of sura
and varul,1i wines 227 j evils of drinking
wine 227 j Drink Festival in India 227 ;
lura 227; varul}i wine 227 ; kapotika
wine 227; Udico!lJ Brlihmins 238;
gopi!.la (oowherd) 240; 240 ;
dearness of kapotika wine 274.
Susima (No. 163) on decision of the majo-
rity prevailing in the village oouncil
189 In.; corporate life of the citizens
of 186 ; sthavika (purse) 220;
1000 as the adva-nce tuition
fee paid to an acarya 239, 272 i royal
high-priest fees paid by a-ppren-
tices to teachers 245; safety of the
great N. route to Taxila 264.
Suslma (No. 411) on royal bigh-priest
242.
Sdro1}i (No. 360) on Bhrgukachchha city
180; sea-voyage from Bhrgukachchha
to Su varl).abhilmi ( Burma?) 261;
Bhrgukachchha as a port of departure
262.
Subnu (No. 398) on day-labourers being
sometimes paid in money wages 251;
day-labourers earning half a to
one a day 273.
Suvarl).aharpea (No. 186) on garlic 201;
woman working as II. maid-servant 256.
Suvarpakakkala (No. 389) on Brahmin
villages 187, 243 j large holdings (of
8000 acres) 190; Tala tree 203; Brahmin
peasant 238, 24'3.
Snvarpamrga (No. 359) on lac 203; methods
of hunting 211 rn. ; net of leather-straps
to catch deer 227; kammakara (free
labourers) 250.
S'vetaketu (No. 377) on wooden shields
224 j Udicca Brahmins 238; contact
with air that touches a oha1}dala's body
is pollution 249.
Syama (No. 540) on 240 j
village 243.
Tailapitra (No. 96) on Varapasi city 180 ;
(axe) 215 j multi-coloured cover-
let for beddings 219 ; Ol\nopy decorated
with golden stars 220.
TaJ,ldulanali (No, 5) on Variitlllsi city 180 ;
court-valuer 242, fi xing prices for tho
household without appeal 266:
rice as a standard of value 268 ; nalika
(a kind of measure) 272.
Takka (No. 63) on corporate life of viIIa-
gel's 189; aca.rya maintained by the
guardians of children they tlloght 239 ;
karamaras, persons captured by robbers
and reduced by them to slavery 252.
Takkala (No. 446) on bulbous roots of differ-
ent kinds 20102.
Tarkarika (No. 481) on the serving maids of
courtesans 257 j out of 1000 pieces as
fee for one night oharged by 1\ courte-
san (KaJi by mme) 500 went to cover
the price of clothes, perfumes and gar-
land used for the night 21i7, 272.
(No. 252) on umbrella made of
leaves 225 ; one-soled 8boe 226 ; iJ.oiirya
239 ; 1000 as the fee paid
in ad vanee to an iiciirya 239, 272 ; royal
high priest 242 j fees paid by appren-
tices to teaohers 245; se.!ety of the
great N. route to TaxiIa 264.
l'indnka (No. 177) on Tinduka tres (Gavil
or Ebony) 208.
Tittira (No. 37) on the cities of grlvasti
182, Rajagrha 182 and Ve.i9:i!i 183;
Tittira (No. 117) on IT dicea Brahmins
238.
Tittira (No. 319) on poultry-farmer 240 ;
catching birds witb the help of decoy
birds 242.
Tittira (No. 438) on acarya 239.
Tirtha (No. 251) on asvapalake. 24); e.rtha-
dbarmanusiisaka. 242.
Tripll.ryyastamrga (N'o. 16) on A.lavl city
180; broom-stick 225; privy (noh.
chhaHbana.) 231.
808
Tri'a.kunl\ (No. 521) on sthvik! (purse)
220.
(No. 388) on 0. cotton-field near
Benares 220; drinking wine forming
part of festive ceremonies 227; sura
227.
(No. 338) on gold plate worth a lao
pieces 217 ; acaryo. 239.
Tvaksara (No. 368) on Tvaksara (bamboo)
204.
(No. 139) on fishermen 240 ;
pal)1\ 2GB.
bhakta (No. 212) on actor 241.
Udollchani (No. 106) on bucket 215.
Udaya (No. 458) on Surandhana oity in the
Kai kingdom 182; iron vessels 215 ;
eil ver vessels 216 j gold vessels 216;
life-like golden image of a girl 237 ;
luvarI}a-ma,!1.ka (a modium of exchauge)
268.
(No. 298) on Yagdummura (a
kind of fig) 201.
Uacliilaka (No. 487) on tent 221.
U nrnadayantl (No. 527) on four gates of the
city of 180; earring set
with jewels 218.
Upanaha (No. 231) on shoes 226 ; 1\oarya
239.
Uraga (N..,.354) on Brahmin peasants 238,
246 ; no odium On a Brahmin following
\he oecu pation of a peasant 238 ; alder-
man of a. guild 243 ; quarrel among
guilds 243 ; slaves treated as members
of a family and leading virtuous lives
possessing knowledge of
highor philosophical truths 254.
Uteanga (No. 67) on satakas worth 10:)0
pieces of oopper 274.
Vabhru 137) on worker in stone
(pasat;lakuttaka) 228, 240 ; white crystal
cage for a mouse 228.
Vairl (No. 103) on paryyanka 222.
Vah (No. 38) on bill-hook 215: obtvara
(dress of the Buddhist monks) made by
the monks 219; cloth
stiffened with starch 229.
Valaha9va (No. 196) on forests supplying
rice 203; sufferings of mariners due
to shipwreck in mid-ocean 258 ; ship
accommodating 500 merchants 259 j
voyages to Ceylon 261.
(No. 120) on royal higb
priest 242.
Vandhanagara (No 201) on iron fetters
216 ; iron chairs for prisoners 216.
VaI}t;lupatha (No.2) on Varal)ael 180;
hammer 215 ; spade 215; ethalaniyamlloka
(land-pilot) 241 ; forest guard 241 ;
pilots who noted the direJtions by
marking the position of the Sun by
day and of stars by night 262;
caravan trade 263 ; caravans travelling
through deserts at nights only 263 j
organisation of oaravan9 263.
Vardhak!siikara (No. 283) on payment of
a tax in oash 197 ; winnowing basket
226 ; sniinachiirI}3. 279.
Vartaka (No. 35) on a vessel for
measurement 223 ; amnal].a., 8. vessal for
measurement 223.
Vartaka (No. 118) on poultry-farming 211 j
akunika (poultry-farmer) 240; Varbaka
-vyadha (hunter of birds) 240.
Varu1)8. (No. 71) on the right gathering
firewood by the learned 82; arbours of
tree in parks 213 ; chivara (dress of the
Buddhist monks) made by the monks
themselvs 219 ; acarya 239.
V[hya (No. 108) on woman serving as maid
-servant 256.
Valodaka (No. 183)
of fibre 202;
wrestler 211.
on ma kaci, a.
boy-servant
kind
241 ;
V!tamrga. (No. 14) on silver box for keep.
ing ornaments 216; litter or sedan
chair 223 ; pitcher 225 ; gardener 24 t ;
Varul}i (No. 47) on varu!}i wine 2'27;
dearness of wine of su perior
228, 274; monks dying their chivara.
229 ; wine distiller 240 ; nalika (a kind
of measure) 272.
Vedavbha (No. 48) on performer of spells
24l.
VidurapaQ.dita .(No. 545) on lac 203; trees
Tilaka 204, Muchakunda. 204, Bhagini.
mala 205, Saptapar!}i 205, U paribhadra.
205, 205 fn.; flower trees: Karl)ikara.
206, Ketaki 206, Champaka 207;
Nagamallika 207, Sindhuvara
207; fruit trees: Amra. 207,
Jamvu 208; Saha (= Sahakara, scented
mango) 208; fishes: Rohita,
Qnd Patbina 212; Mal;likara. 217, 240 ;
magician 239 ; washerman 240; garland.
maker 241; cook 241; musician 241 ;
Qctor 241; wrestler or boxer (muHhika)
241 fn.; clown (sobhiya or soubhika)
241; kamma.kara (free labourer) 250;
four kinds of slaves 252 ; shipwrecked
pilot taking shelter in an island 258;
c loth merchant 265.
Vika.rl)aka. (No. 233) on dro!}a., drOl)i 223,
272.
VinilakB (No. 160) on Tala tree 203.
Viea (No. 488) on the unenviable lot of the
village headman ]89 fn.; Benares
famous for cotton cloth 220.
(No. 69) on (curer of
poisonouB bites) 239.
(No. 340) on grass-cutter's knife
215 ; grass-cutter 240 ; a grass-cutter
earning two a day 273.
ViSwantara (No. 547) on Benares famous
for her textile fabrics 180, 220 i Jatu.
ttara oity in the Sivi country 181;
807
Jetuttara surrounded by wall pierced
with gates 181; town-planning of
Benares 185; valibha (pumpkin) 201 ;
garlic 201; maluvii (a. kind of sweet
potato) 2:)1; karoti (= Bang. vl\rvati)
201; kaJamvi 201; bulbous roots of
different kinds 201-02; mustard 202 ;
Nili 202 fo.; forests supplying (wild) rice
1i03; wild rice of two kinds 20,) In.;
aguru 203; guggulu 203; nallLdr 203 i
oamphor 203; liqnorice 203 i kn
(costus) 203 ; ivory 203 ; trefl8:
ClLmphor, Kbdira, Asvakar",a, ASvat.
tha, Paliisa, Kutaja. and SiillL 204;
(- SlLjina) 20i fn. ; Soviiijana
(- Sajini) 204 fn.; Karer! (Varo",a) 2J4
fn. Punniiga, Ajukar",a, SlLro.la,
Padmaka, Kalmdha, Ka.ra\ldaka, Kovi
dara, 'l'alisa, Saptapo.r",i, Karaiija,
Dhava, Dhatri, Putraiijiva, KOBamVII,
and Parljura. 205; Ma.b1.
nama 205-06; Svetaparl'a, Jatamaqlei
Svetaviiri and Kateruha 206 ;
Asitaru 2(6, 206 fn.; Katamala and
206; V sllika 205, 205 fn ;
Tulasi plant 206 ; flower tree.: KarQi.
kara, KaraJ.1daka, Killylnka, Kimsoka-
latika, Nipa (=Kadamva),Ankola, Yodbi
( .. Yodhika = Y nthika) Sthalapo.dma,
Ketakl and Vakula 206; Asoka, Nage.-
kesara, Tagara, Nagavalli, Patali, Nir.
gUl)di (=0 BhaJ.1di (=0 Ghel'tu),
Jati, lIIadhugandhika, Swetachchha,
Raktamii.la, SiIjlsaplt, Aspbotaka, Sury.
yavalli, Auoja, Vasllnii, Kil!lSnk<latika,
Padmottara, snd EHimvara 207 ;
( = G hantu) fn.; fruit tree, : Amra,
Jamvu, Vadari, Kapittha, Kbarjjura,
Tala, Vibhedaka (= Tala) ; Cocoanut,
Haritaki Vibhitakll, Panas a, Lavujll,
Timvaru and 208 ; ,!rub, arid
llanl, yi.lding fUllt,: Turmeric,
808
Aguru, (costus), Nalada. (spike.
nard), Guggnla and Liquorice 208;
Sandalwood, Priyanga, Gandhasna.,
Satapu Jhamaka,
Hrivera,Choraka, Kalinga,
U nnaka and Lolupa 209; grass and
,seds: Kua, Potakila, Pavajja,
Mui,ja and Uaira (=Khaskhas) 209;
Rohita fish 212 ; silver pot for milchiug
cows 216 ; ornament for the neck set
with jewels 218; ornaments: mnkha-
phulla 216-17, unnata, keytlra
angada, mekhala, gingamaka, pa.lipada
and udghaHana 218; Kautamvara famous
for her cloth specially linen 221 ; Gan-
dhara famous for her blankets some
fetching a lac pieces 222 ; wooden spoon
223 ; earthen dolls for children which
were representations of the images of
elephants, horses, bulls, deer, hare,
monkey, peacock, swan, birds etc., 226 ;
meraya (= maireya) wine 227; seven-
storeyed house 230; magician 239;
confectioner 241 ; musician 241; man-
draka-blower 241; weavers' ward in
Benares 244 ; enelavement of a prince
and a princess not shocking to the social
ideas of those days 252 ; slaves freeing
themselves by payment 253 ; sacrifice of
cocks (panthaSakuna) for the safety of
the caravan263 ; 26!.1; Amitrata-
pana's enslavement due to her father's
debt 273 fn.; price or slaves varied witb
their good birth,
beauty 273, 274; woolen blankets
wort h a lao 274.
(No. 93) on f')reste as
pastures 20203.
Vlraka (No. 204) on the sufferings caused
by b.minoe iu the KMi kiugdom 280.
(No. 336) on leather bag
for keeping wealth 227 j performer of
spells 241-
Journal Asiatique-(Vol. IV): Renaud on
the identification of Yavad vipa. and
SuvarJ;1advipa with Java. and Sumatra
162 fn.
Journal of the Bihar and Orissa Res9arch
Sooiety-(1920) : on prehistoric symbols
on punch-marked coins 10.
Journal of Literature and Science, Madras
-(1858): !lIr.Elliot on the punch-marked
coins in the graves of Coimbatore 10.
Journal of the Oriental Society of Germany
-(VoI.XXII): Dr. Ballensen on referen
ces in the Vedas to images of gods 57.
Journal of the Royal Anthropological
Institute-(Vol. XVIII): Gowland on
Neolithic gold-mining centres in the
Deccan 4; (Vol. LIV) , E. H. Hunt on
Copper Age remains in graves discovered
in the Nizam's dominions 9; E. H.
Hunt on Hyderabad pottery of the
Copper Age resembling early forms of
the "Ka" mark pottery of Egypt 18 ;
Richard on some iron graves in North
Arcot district 9 fn.
Journal of the Royal Asiatic Sooiety-
(Vol. VII) : N. G. Walhouse on Copper
Age remains in Coimbatore 8; (1888):
Hewitt on the export of teak from the
.Malabal" coast to Baby Ion 72, 163 i
(1889) : John Cockburn on the cave
paintings in the Kymore ranges 5;
(1898): Kennedy on trade between India
and Babylon in the seventh and sixth
cenhuies B. C. 163; (1925): E. Mackay
in his article on Sumerian connections
with Ancient India. on points of
similarity between ancient Indian and
Sumerian civilisation 17.
Journal of the Royal Economic Society-
(1910) : Mrs. Rhys. Davids on all
exohange in the Vedic Age as done
by bartor 75.
San.1hita on metals: gold, ayas,
lead, tin, yama and loha 123 ; washing
for gold 125 i 131; ointments
176.
Kadib Siltra of Atharvaveda with
extraots from the commentaries of
Darila and edited with valuable
notes by M. Bloomfield on charms to
avert ino ndation 96 i Trshtag ha tree
100 i yamaka 107; p!lrih!lsta nsed
as a bracelet 127 fn.; weather-
prophet 150 fn.
Kausika S!l.tra on canal irrigation and the
practical part of the ceremony of letting
in the water 93.
(and
into Eng.
Aitareya
by A. B.
Keith on a dooble crop 91 i wooden
eaorificial post 137 i ritual shoes made
of bore skin 140; 152, 157.
gambling as one of the caoses of
indebtedness 177.
SQtr!l on paUla (straw) 143 fn. ;
the necessity of proving one's desoent
from three generations of nie before one
oan serve as a priest 155.
Kau,itakr into Eng. by
F. Max Muller in the S. B. E. series
Vol. I. on vasana (cloth) 116;
132 j razor oase 132; asandi hlwing
four legs 138; paryyanka (bed-stead)
138 i 152, 157; King .Ajata-
satru disputing with and instrocting
Brahmins in the lore of the Brahmii.
156 i perfumes 176.
into English by
F. Max Muller in the S. B. E. series
Vol. XV. on gold 123; srinka, an orna
ment 128; razor 1311; sword 132;
309
p,)lished mirrors 135; pictures (light
and shade) 142 ; painter's brush 142.
(commentary on Pa,!ini's SntTIlS)
by Vamana and Jayadityaoiirya
Edited by PaI}ditas Gangiidhara Sastri
and Ratnagopala Bhattachiirya I P:itlini's
Sotra IV. 2. 68 tena nirvrittam
referring to the foundation of vi
by prince Kusamva 181 fn.
Kathaka Sat!,1hita-Edited by L. Schrlllder
in four vole. cn well.irrigation
93; tautu (yarn) 115 ; veman
(loom) 115 ; nivi (closely woven end of
tbe cloth) 116; prllgbatll (long and
loose unWoven fringe with swaying
tas88Is),116 i (shorter fringe of the
cloth corresponding to tbe modern
chilka) 116 ; vatllpa (lengthwise border
of the cloth which kept the web
together from becoming tb relldbare
by fluttering in the wind) 116 ;
(spotty patterns embroidered all over
the cloth) 116-17 ; (II head dress)
118; threads of wool 118; bllrasi (Il
barken BtOff) 119; metals: gold, ayas,
lead, tin, Byiima and lob a 123 ; washing
for gold 125; 131 j mathi
(pillar) 145; know ledge not descent
makil)g a BriibmaQa. 155; setu (raised
bank for crossing innndated land)
160fn. i (a medium of excba.ngEl)
165; hira:(lya. kH\1ala (a medium of
exchange) 125, 167; ointment 176 j
salali (annointing instrument used by
males) 176.
Katy ayana. tasDtra 00 118;
tiirpya (silk or linen garment) 119;
preparation of soma drink 141 j black
and pointed shoes of the V riityll8 226 j
Satamana (a medium of exchange) 269.
Kevaddba Sutta on tbe use of birds to
guide pilote 262.
310
Khadira. into Eng. by
H. Oldenburg in the S. B. E. series
vol. XXIX. on rotation of crops
91, 200; darvi (a spoon) 2:23; razor of
udumvara wood 224; basket 224;
rules and rites on house-building 235;
soeamum 202; razor made of metal
215 ; brazen vessels 216 ; brazen bowls
216 j ornaments 217 ; golden ornaments
217 ; wreath of gold 218; rope 225;
pitoher 225; shoes 226.
Kindred Sayings (- Sanyutta Nikaya)-
Translated into Eng. by Mrs. RhJs
Davida and Mr. F. H. Woodward in
three parts on all property 10 It
intestate or ownerless reverting to the
crown 276.
La Doctrine du Sacrifice-Sylvain Levi on
the story of Manu dividing his property
among his sons 84 fn.
Land system in South India between 800
A. D. and 1200 A. D.-Dr_ K. M. Gurta
(Punjab Oriental series, Vol. No. XX_)
on two-field a.nd three-field systems of
cultivation l2-93.
Latyayana Srautasutra with tl:e com-
menta.ry of Agni Swami on the
necessity of proving one's descent
from three generations of His before
one clln serve liS a preist 155.
Literary History of India-R. W. Frazer
on the hymn 61 ;
sea not unknown to the early lndo-
Aryans 67.
Manchester Memoirs Vol. LX. Part 1.
(1915) on Neolithic graves 6.
of Patanjali critically by
edited by Kielhorn: the t'bmmonta.-
tor Nagojibba.tta's wrong interpreta-
tion of the Mauryas as idol-manufao-
\ urers 165-66.
M aMniddesa on T1l.mraparJ;l1 dwipa 261 fn.;
(commentary) on the difficulties of
caravans figuratively described 263.
MalJaparinibhana Suttanta-Trans. into
Eng. by T. W. lihya Davids in the
Ii B. E. series vol. XI. on the aix grellt
oities and the small city of KUSinagara
179-80; foundation of a fortress in
Pi!.taligrama which along with the
fortress grew up into the town of
Pataliputra 184.
Mahl!.sudassana Snttanta-Trans. into Eng.
by T. W. Rhys Davids in the S. B. E.
series vol. XI. On town-planning of
Kusavatl 155; detailed description of
a flight of stairs 234.
Mahavagga-Trans. into Eng. by T. W.
Rhys Davids and Hermann OIdenbnrg
in the S. B. E. seriES in vols. XIII. &
XVII. on eu Itivlltion of lands by
tenants 198; use of scare-crows to
protect the crops ]99 ; channel dug fol'
",o-operative irrigation likened to a
patchwork robe of the monks 200;
Simula cotton nsed in quilts 202; forests
as elephant-preserves 204; coverlets
dyea with figures of animals 220 fn.;
high quality of the cloth of the
country 22) ; various kinds of woolens
221; pallotnka (high class bed-stead)
222 ; asandi 222; litter or sedan ohllir
223; apassena phalakam (board to
lean against) 223 ; five kinds of abodes
allowed to Buddhist monks 231; ex-
tensively built houses of the richer
classes described 232; ogumpbeti
- skins P) 233 in. ; adjustible shutters
for windows 234 ; relation between the
antevasika and the acarya 245; un-
disoharged slaves not eligible for the
pavajja. ordination 253; one hundred
pieces for ono night as fee of a courtesan
by name) 257.
Mahiivan.da-Edited by W. Geiger on
frontier villages in Vanga country 187
and 187 rn.
Maitrayana Brahmatta
ed into English by F. Max in the
S. B. E. series in Vol. XV. on plantain
iree 105 fn.; the work of the black
smith described 131 ; bell 132; vessels
made of brass 133 ; painted wall 142;
lcarmara (blacksmith) 149; mrtpaca
(potter) 150 i public dancer 151; actor
151 fn.; magician 151 fn.; prize-
fighter 151; catching fish with a net
170-71.
MBitrayatti by L. 8chr93'
der, on vemana (loom) 115 ; 118 ;
threads of wool 118; tarpya (silk or
linen garment) 119; (linen)
119; metals: gold, ayas, lead, tin,
ay!lma and loho. 123 j washing for gold
125; hira9yakn9ala (II< medium of
exchange) 125 ; 129 ; 131 j
pravepa (according to Geldner looking
glass); potter 140, 150; knowledge
and not descent making a
155 ; ointment 176; (annointing
instrument used by males) 176.
Majjhima Nikaya (the first 50 discourss)
-Translated into English by Bhikkhu
Silacara in two parts on the city of
AHaka in Anga 180: .Assapura, a
nigama in Anga 180 j
a nigama in the Koliya country 181 ;
Kitagiri, a. nigama in tbe Kiisi kingdom
181 ; forests as elephant.pre,erves 204 ;
thatd'hed house 230 j slaves forming
part of n, householder's property
53; beating a female slave (KaJi by
name) 255 ; female dancers and singers
256; voyages out of sigbt of land 258.
311
Manobester Memoirs (Vol.
Smith -on the canses that led to the
establishment of Neolithic settlements
in parHcular localities 6.
Manusmrti with the commentory of
1YIedbatithi-Translated into English
by Dr. Gangiinath8. Jhii complete in
ten vols. on the sharing of lands
by the conquering persons 24; lines
on pieroiug fine gems like diamonds
and rubies lind for boring pearls or
inferior gems impuperly 133 fn.;
liS a metallic standard 167,
167 fn.; Vena caste 248; FuklraBa
caste 248 fn. ; Dhvajahrta class of slaves
252; Dal}dadasa class of slaves 252 ;
table of weigbts and measures on whioh
the standard of exchange was based 269.
Manual of Indian Buddhism-Kern on tho
sale of land to Aniithapil'dada 192 fn.
MaYllmatam on the growth of villages into
towns 183 fn.
lIfanavlI Grhyaslltra au temple 236.
Myth, Ritual and Religion-Andrew Lang
on the similarity in the primitive mode
of aocounting for creation from the
sacrifice of II fabulou8 mOD3terman,
a 61.
Natural History-Pliny on Indian glan as
eu perior to all others from the oircums-
tances of its being made of pounded
orystal 135; fifty-eight rivers of
India 200.
Neu und Vollmondsopfer-Hildebrandt OD
prasitrahara{la fn.
Nirukta-Yii,ka on Devapi ss royal
priest 156.
Notes on the Age and Distribution of tho
Foote oollection of Indisn Prehistoric
and Protohistorio Antiquities (Madras,
1916)-Bruoe Foote on Neolithio pottery
3-4; Neolithio iron industry 'In.;
312
painted figures on rocks in the Neolithic
site of Kapgallu in the Bellary
district 5.
Numismata Oricntalia-Goldstucker on
stamped impressions on the media of
exchange 269.
Omina et Portenta-Weher
avert inundation 96;
(weather-prcphet) 150 fn.
on charms to
Sakadhumam
Origin of the Brahmi Alphabet-Buhler
on references to navigation in the
67.
Origin and Growth of Religion among the
Babylonians-Dr. Sayee See under
Hibbert Lectures.
Original Sanskrit Texts-Muir on kulya
in the ngveda meaning artificial water.
ways 29 ; on the probable use of cotton
cloth in early Vedic Age 49 ; leathe r
work in the Age 54 ; absence
of caste system in the Age 58.
Oxford History of India-V. A. Smith on
tho nonexistence of the golden age of
poets in the primitive times 1 ;
BuRta bymn 61; voyage of Sky lax
down the Indus into the Indian Ocean
261.
P:lli Dictionary-Ohilders on kutimvaka
or kutamvika (private landowners) 191
fn. ; Nikkho = five suvarl,las 270.
Pali Diotionary-Rhys Davids on kntim.
vakil. or kutamvika (private land.
owners) 191 fn.
Brllhmlll,la-Tra.ns. into Eng.
by Dr. Caland on mal,li being work
on the neck by means of a thread 52 j
goat's skin M clothing 112 j (a
shorter fringe of cloth corresponding
to the modern chilka) 116 ; 118;
bariel (barkon stuff) 116; opaa 1:28;
necklace of silver 128, 130, 165;
prikUa (aocording to Goldner looking
glass) 134; bags for holding milk,
wine and other liquids made from
cow hide 110, 140, 169; methi (pillar)
145 fn.; vayitri (female weaver) 149 fn.
153 j royal seers 155 ; royal priest 156 j
bad van (causeways) 160 ; goat's skin as
clothing 112; gambling as one of the
oauses of indebtedness 177.
Pal,lini See under Sutras of Pal,lini.
Paraskara. into Eng. by
H. Oldengnrg in the S. B. E. series
vol. XXIX. on kilala (a variety of sura)
142; parisrnt (a drink from flowers)
142 ; position of women in relation to
agriculture 153 ; mudga 201 ; sesamum
202; mustard 202 j tortois9s 202;
spear 214 ; axe 215 ; coppar razor 216 j
brazen vessels 216; an instrnment of
gold used in giving honey and olarified
butte1' to the newborn child in the
medhajanana ceremony 217 ; ornaments
217; kUl,ldala (earring) 218; cbariots
222 j akarsa pbalakam (dice. board) 223
fn. j darvl (spoon) 223; sruva (small
sacrificial ladle) 223 ; mat 224 j basket
224; sboes 226; wine of sn perior
strength 228 ; rules and rites on bouse
bnilding 235.
Pltimokkha-T1'ans. into Eng. by T. W.
Rbys Davids and Hermann Oldenburg
in the S. B. E. series vol. XIII. on
employment of weavers to weave cloth
for monks 219; silk fabrics 22I; use
of money forbidden to the Saqlgba 267 ;
practice of stamping impressions on
madia of e xehange 269; a
(= enough fo1' buying coarse
clothing for a monk and ten for
a nnn 273.
Pliny's Natural History See under Natural
History-Pliny.
Peripllls of the Erythrean Sea (Sohoff's
Eng. Trans.) on the discovery of the
monsoon 74 ; the export of ebony from
Baryga.za. 70 n.
Prehistorio Antiquities-Sohrreder on ayas
11.1 pure dark copper 49 ; loha as origi.
n&11y meaning oopper but le.ter denotiug
iron 49, 131.
Prehistoric India-Dr. Panoh1inana Mitra
(Second edition, 1927) on Neolithic
pottery 4 ; rookoarving in Manbhandar
village of Siughbhum 5-6 ; prehistoric
rock-pa.inting near Singanpur in the
Raigarh district of C. P. 4-5.
Proceedings of the Asiatic Society of Bengal
(1867) : Mr. H. E. Blanford on the
existence of man in India. at a much
earlier period than in Europe 1.
Psalm,. of the Brethern on channels dug
for co-operative irrigation likened to a
patchwork robe of the Buddhist monk
200; conrt-valuer 242, 266; slaves
having no freedom except that given
by their masters 253; manumission
of slaves 253; courtesans 257; fish-
monger's village at a. gate of Sr:ivasti
265 ;
Pealms of the Sisters-See under Therj.
gAtU.
Ptolemy's Geography-See under Geo-
graphy- ptolemy.
RAmaya\la-Vilmiki (with the three com-
mentaries of Tilaka, SiromaJ;li and
complete in seven vols.
on crops grown 94-95; importance
of agrioulture 95; famine 96.97;
forests supplying resin, aloe, musk,
sandalwood, lac, hides, honey and fuel
and the materials for the construction
of houses and sacrificial implements 97 ;
different kinds of trees 98-105; beauti
ful avenues of gAla trees in the city of
313
Ayodhytl 101 fn.; maogo.g&rden. 01
Kosala 105 'fn.; groves of cocoanut
trees along S. coast of the Deccan
105 En,; groves of plantain trees 105 fn. ;
art of gardening 103; dung of bnJi"loes
used as fnel 113; Kamvoja, Babl/ih and
Sind famous for their horses 112, 158;
flesh of sheep as food 112 ; cloth made
of sheep's wool 113; large size and
great strength of the elephants of the
Himalayan and Viudhyan regioDs 113,
158; hides of elephants 113 ; hunting
the deer and the antelope with the bolV
and the arrow 114; weaving industry
120-22: linen 120-21, woolen 121,
silk 121-22; metals 123-24; mineral
products like gairika, lime, mica,
crystal and diamonds 124 i goldsmith
124, 149 fn,; mining gold, gems and
precions stones ; silver mines 124;
metal industries 126-133 I various
articles made of gold 126-127, various
ornaments 129-30, various articles
made of silver 130, metal vessels 131 ;
spade 132; hoe 132; bill-hook 132 i
iron axe 132 , iron box or trunk 132;
169; oollyri urn pots 132; blade of an
arrow 132; sword 132; armour 132;
armour for elephants lind horsss 132 ;
ornaments made of iron 133; images of
tiger mllda of various metals 133 ; bell
metal milk.pots 133 i brass 133 i al
chemy 133 i jeweller 134, 149 ; jewellery
134; polished mirror 135; wooden
sacrificial post 137; specialised carpen
ters 139; manufacturer of boxas 139,
169; woodeu sandal! 139 j artificial
hills made of wood 139 ; dear-skin u86d
as seatspreads 139 ; tiger.skin as covel'-
let for chllriots 139-40; lionskin a.
coverlet for chariots 140 ; leather-worker
140, 149 ; pots like kambhi, karambbI
814
and stbali 140, 169; liquor-pots 140
169 ; altars alld seats milde of ivory and
gold 140; pillars illld windows ma<1e ;)
ivory 140; images of ivory pheed in
chariots 140; sura that oozes spanta
neously from trees (= tadi ?) 142; vii.rul)i
and maireya wines 142; painters 142 ;
rooms adorned with pictures made by
skilful artists 142; images of horses,
birds, serpents and of with her
elephants carved on a chariot 142; town-
planning of the city of Lanka 146-47 ;
town-plannin
6
of the city of Ayodhya.
147 ; civic consciousness of the citizens
in keeping with town. planning 148;
weaver of rugs 149 ; scent maker 149 j
potter 150; astrologer 150 ; physician
150; cook 150, 174; servant 150;
washerman 150; musician 151 ; public
dancer 151; actor 151; artist 151;
pa.)nte-r 1\)\; me-rcba.nt 151-; maSDn
151 ; a brahmin earning livelihood by
ploughing 15:3; Valmiki, a Siidra was
the composer of the Ramayal)a and a
156 ; recognition of the position held
by trades and crafts in society 158;
references to seavoyages 161-62 ; refer-
ence to preparations for a naval fight
162; India's trade in silk with China
162 ; flesh of goat, sheep and of hunted
animals like black antelope and wild
boar as food 170; dried meat as food
170; flesh of buffalo, cock, peacock,
hare and various kinds of krkala as food
in Ruva1)a's kitchen 170 ; asava and its
preparation 171; luxury and the im-
provoment of art in the age of the
Rllmayal)a 174-76; gambling as one of
the causes of 177 ; duty of
the state to prolDote the material weI
fare of the subjects 178; foundation of
Kausamvi by prince KuS1imv!l. 111 fn. j
inclusion of VArtt! (whioh eoneerned
itself with the various branches of pro-
duction) in the rOyll1 curriculum of
studies 275; king advised to pay proper
attentiou to the property of traders,
cultivators snd the cattlofarmers 275-
275.
Reallexicon der Indogermaniscben Alter-
tumskunde-OHo Scbrooder on tbe ori-
ginal Aryan stock having acquaintance
with agriculture long before their migra-
tion into different lands 22; on the
common knowledge of the arts oE the
weaver, the carpenter and the plaiter of
grass and reeds among the people speak-
ing the Indo-European group of lan-
guages 45.
Records of the Geological Survey (Vol. I) :
Dr. Oldham on the Godavari flake being
II formed from a compact light.coloured
agate" 2; (Vol. XXXVII): Dr.
Keith on the Burma find containing
implements showing distinct of
having been worked by man 1.
Report of the Archoological Survey of
India, Madras (1914.15): Longhurst ou
Copper Age remains in Kurnool burial
sites 8; the western (Egyption) influ.
ence on the Copper Age pottery of S.
and W. India 9.
Report of the Archlllological survey of
India, Southern Circle (1902-03) 1fr.
A. Rea on Copper Age remains in the
burial sites at Adichanallur in Tinns-
velly 8.
SaI!.lhita with the commentary of
Sayanacarya critically edited by F. Max
Muller in 4 vols. on cow as the medium
of exchange 9-10; growth of land
ownership and agricultural life 22-24 ;
Aryans sharing among themselves the
conquered land of the Dasyus 24 j no
royal ownership of land 24-25 j cor-
porate village life 25-26; growth of
towns 26-28; clearance of forests for
purposes of agriculture 28; origin of
the art of sowing seeds and of the use
of the plough 28-29 j agricultur.ll
operations 28-29, 31-32 j use of
manure 29; irrigation by wells
29-30, 93; ceremonies conuected
with agricnlture 30-31 ; nature of the
grains grown 32; food of the people
32-35 ; domesticated animals 35-41;
various kinds of trees 42, grass 43 and
plants 43 j economic importance of
forests 41 ; hunting and fishing 43-44;
weaving industry 45-49; dress 47-
48 ; metal industry 49-52; various
kinds of ornaments 51-52; carpentry
52-53 ; pottery 53; leather-work
54 ; manufacture of liquor 54; house-
building 54-57; painting and sculp-
ture 57-58; caste system in relation
to mobility of labour 5tl-62; different
occupations 62-64 j domestio labour
64-65; internal or domestic trade
65-66 ; means of communica.tion : roads
and rest houses for travellers 66, 159,
beasts of burden etc., 66-67; naviga-
tion 67-69; combination between
merchants 74-75 ; methods and media
of exchange 75-'17; general economic
condition of the masses and the classes
77 -80 ; indebtedness 'i 9; rate of
interest 79, 177 fn. j famine 80; hos-
pitality and liberality 80; law of in-
heritance 89; (in pro,tha-
aya). something like a high and broad
bench 137 fn. ; asecana, vessel to hold
liquids such as meat.juice 140, 169 j
ayasthiil)[ (pillar made of ayas) 145 fn. ;
aD]a or anji meaning orDaments 127
fn.; g!ha, either an actual house
31&
erected over or beside till gran i.
memory 01 the or ehmbe"
and vaults cf or rockoal
caVB9 144.; pill.\r on Vodie
grave 14-'-45 j (WOlllall
omployed in grinding com) HS fa. i
vapt! (bi\rber) 151 fn. ; knlMin (OI1lNr)
152 fn. ; high sta.tn, 01 the rathaklrw
152; slavery 6 '. 15l ; dl .. d,oo'ing ..
non-sacriflcer, a boterodol and no'
alwa.ys a slav8 153, \:13 fa.; aritr
(rower of a bOBt) 161 i bumya 17J-H i
137-74; praye"
for freedom from debt 177 fn.; p",teo-
tiOD of crops from birds b, making din
and 199.
into English b, R. T.
H. Griffith in two vols. aD [ihm-
vara, some u m brageoo. tree 42;
uses of Valvaja (Eleoeine Indio&)
Pata or a climbing pl&ni huing
medicinal properties 43; bonling IiOD
from a plMe where men lie in wait 10
captnre him or wbere a pitfall hu bJIID
prepared to entrap him""; Jkted&
IV. 24. 10 and VIII. 1. :i referring 10
images of gods 57 ; IV. lIZ. 33
to carved imagH of girt. OD
wooden 57-58, 142; IV.
24. 9 suggesting baggliag Oyer price.
65-66.
tbe oldest litentare of tbe India.
by A. Kaegi-Trsll8lated into EDifli.b
by R. Arrowamitb on nee of cbariot.
drawn by horoel a. "tbe pe&eefal pre-
par&tiDn for the deoi.in draggle OIl
the battle-6eld" 39 ; lowell .tare of
developmollt of and onft. ill "-
Age
Trani. by H. H. Wil-. 011
pOn8 a9 cities 26, a7-iB; ,.t...-
to weaving in the 40;
816
IV. 24. 2 snggesting a contract for sale
65 ; III. 31. 12 snggesting law
of inheritance and Sayana'B interpreta.
tion on it 89 fn.
Culture-A. C. Das on oultiva
of rice in the Age 32 fn.
Sarangadbara (NirJ;laya Sagara
Press) on table of weights and mea
sures 272 fn.
S'atapatha BrabmaJ;la (Ajmere edition)
on sacrifice described figuratively 1108
ploughing, sowing and reaping 31;
garment of kua grass used by t be
wife of the sscrificer 43 fn.; alankiira
used for the first time in the, 51 n., 127,
rukma being worn on the brea.st by
means of a chain 52, 128
talpa 53; nature and construction of
g!ha (a memoria! structure) 56 fn.;
cities of Asandbivat and Parivakra 81.
82; feeling against land-transfer 85;
gifts of lands to Brahmins 85;
clansmen apportioning. la.nd given to
them by a. king with the mutual con'
sent of 11011 85; everyone being fit to
be eaten up by the king 85 j grant
of (public) la.nd :by the king with the
consent of the clan 86; agricultural
operations raid of cattle 109;
va.rious articles of food prepared from
ClOW'S milk 110, 171; beef-llating III ;
growing feeling against cow.slaught,er
111; goat's skin as clothing 112;
origin of boar, its fat and the Bi\ndals
made of its skin 113; tortoise 114;
annch:lda (forwarJ. stretched web) 115 ;
lie (border or fringe of aloth)1l6 ;
(border or fringe of cloth) 116 fn.; nivi
(c108cly woven enJ. of the cloth) 116 ;
(lcng and loose unwoven
fringe of tassels) 116; aroHI)
(lpoUT paUern8 em broidered all over the
cloth) 116.17; (garment to oover
the npper part of the body) 117 i
118; tarpya (silk or linen garment)
119; metals: gold, ayas, lead, tin,
syama and loha. 123 ; washing for gold
125; suvarJ;la. 125 fn.; plldas of gold
125 fn. ; satamana 125 fn.; gold on the
priest's finger 125 fn.;
128 ; silver plates 130; lohamaya 131 ;
lohayasa 131; prakaa (according to
Geldner looking glass) 134; asandi
(shining seat) made of Udumvara wood
138 ; llsandi made of Khadira wD:Jd 13, i
asandi square in shap3 138 j a. span
high asandi 138 j knee high asandI
138; navel high iisandi 138; nau
mat;lda (rudder of a. boat) 139; goat-
skin as the ritual dress of the priest
139; goat-skin, tiger. skin and black
antelope skin as coverlet for asandi's
139-40 j ritual shoes made o boar
skin 113 i 140; burnt (pakva) brU:s
mentioned for the first time in, 143 fn.;
smasana (funeral and memorial struc-
ture) and its three varieties-vastu, grha
and prajiianam 114; stone and timber
pillars on smaana 145, 145 fn.; d val'
(door) 145 fn. ; sthlm.a (pillar) 145 fn.;
sthiiJ;l1l.-raja. 145 fn.; methi (pillar)
145 in. j smelting of ores (asman) 148
fn. ; female weaver 142 fn., 153 ; stone-
carving 149 fn.; position of women
in relation to agriculture 153-54:
royal seers 156; kings J anaka. and
disputing with and instructing
brahmal).fls in the lore of the Brahmii.
156 ; horses imported from the Indus
regions 158; setu (raised bank for
crossing inundated land) 160 fn.;
reference to sea and eea.-navigation by
Manu, the Indian Noah 161 ; manoraVa-
sarpanam (sliding down of the ship) 161
rn.; ship having two rudders 161;
nAviijll. (pilot) 161; tilla (balance) 164;
(0. medium of exchange) 165-
66 ; 0. was v!tta (i.e., round) in
shape 166; (a medium of
exchange) 166 j pada (II. medium of
exchange) 166; avasatba. (structure
of some sort for the reception of
guests) 168 fn.; Yajfiavalkya's fond-
ness for beef 170; liberality of princes
173; ointment 176; gambling as one
of the of indebtedness 177;
0. reed stalk with 0. tuft as
8nnointing' instrument 176;
vey&, oue belonging to the oity of
181 fn.
SatapBtha into Eng.
by J. Eggeling in five vols. (in
the S. B. E. series) on Prof
Egge ling's I\oeepta nee of Sliyana's inter-
pretation of a as baving been
100 manas or gunja-berries in weight
166.
Samavoda-Eng. Tr8.ns. by Stevenson
on the prep8.ration of Soma sacrificial
drink 141.
hyllyana Ara\1yak8. U
into Eng. by A. B. Keith on p8.ryyanka
(bed.st3ad) 138; bandr baving four
legs 138;
SlI.nkhyayana Grhyaeiltra-Trans. into
English hy H. Oldenburg 1D the
S. B. E. series vol. XXIX. on
kiIlla (a va.riety of snr:!) 142, 2Z7;
(a drink from flowers) 142;
vrlhi (rice) 200; Java 201; mndge.
201; sesamnm 202; mustard 202;
indigo 202; &n& (Crotalaria Junica)
202; consecration ceremony of 8.
garden 213; 8word 214; axe 215;
copper razor 216; gold vesseh 216;
gold spoon 217 ; golden ornaments 217 ;
317
earring 218 ; chariot 222; srne (ladle)
223; srn va. (sma.1l se.cri6cia.1 ladle) 223 ;
pitcher 225; pot for keeping cards
225-26 ; shoes 226; women ,hinking
wine lit marriage 227; sara
227 ; rnles and rites on house-build-
ing 235 ; temples 236.
Sanyutta.-Nikaye.-See under Kindred Say-
ings.
Sliya\1a's commentary on the
the fowler's wife cutting a bird evident-
ly for food (in 1. 92. 10) 33;
tridhatu and tri varntha (in
VI 45. 9) 56; III. 31. 1-2
rafeITing to customs or laws of sucoes-
sion to property 89.
Si-yu-ki (Buddbist Records of the
Western World) by Hillen TS8.ng-
Trans. into English by S. Beal on the
story of the maritime adventures of the
lion-prince Sirphala 261 i kingdom of
women 261 j red sandal-wood image of
the Buddha caused to be made by the
minister of king UdaYllon", 8. contem-
porary of the Buddha 236,
Sociale Glieder9.ng Indien-Fiok on Udicoll
Brahminsinheriting 8. stricter stllnde.rd
of life 238.
Some Aspects of the Earliest Social
History of India-S. C. Sarkar, London,
1928 on as a style of bair-
dressing 51 n.; kurlra 119 a style of
hair-dressing 52 in. ; building activities
developing tbrough the needs of social
8.nd corporate life of tbe Vedic Aryans
[as in the case of Vedic (club)
vidatba (roy9.1 andience ball), 88.bbi
and the like] 57 ; uttnda (sprung from
hda or mn lberry tree i. e., silken) 119 ;
knmva and karira as 8. kind of hol'll-
sh&ped ooiffure 127 fn., 128 fD.
318
St. Petersbnrg Dictionary-on dama 55 fn.;
pastyasad 55 fn.; pal}.i 74; anuka as
an adverb only (and not as an ornament)
51 ; as hair-tape or hairnet 51 ;
khadi as an ornament of three kinds
52; name of various plants
107 fn.
Study in the Economic Conditions in
Ancient India, A-Dr. PratIaniitha on
the relative value of gold and silver in
Kautalya's time 271.
SQtras of on iikhana (= a pit artifi-
cially made where the bunter CQuld lie
in wait at a convenient distance for
shooting) 114 fn.; pada as a metallic
standard 167; SiiJatura city 182;
1S3 j Sana (Crotalaria Junica)
202 j gramal:t silpini (craftsmen attached
to a village) 213 j gramakautabbyam
en. (carpenters attached to a
,-il!age) 213; bellmetal 216 j krmtha
220 ; cloth 221; carpats
221 fn. j Kapib famous for grapes out
of which wine was prepared 228 j
temple of the gods 236 j actor 241;
Ohakravarman, a was a
grammarian 218; vaitanika (wage.
oarner) 251; dvaipyo val)ika (merchants
tl'8ding with islanders) 259; salt
me rc hants 265 j spice merchants 265 ;
!l1nrpa., vlsanam !lnd maudgikB proving
the existence of barter 268; bovine tale
&8 a standard of value 268 ; cow tiS a
standard or value 268; 268,
268, I'R\la 238, htamana 269,
ni,ks 26), bira\lya. 269, 269 and
vista 26!) as media of exchsnge;
.tnmpcd impressiuns 011 medilL of
exchange 269; (9.9 a kind of
weigbt8) 272; ,.,bah (11 kind of
measore) 272; dvaigUQih, traiguQika
and proving tbe exbor-
bita.nt rates of interest 274-75.
Sutta.nip:i.b-Translated into English by
V. Fausboll in the S. B. E. series
Vol. X. on cattle-rea.ring by K5.i
Bharadwaja, a Brahmin 211 ; Brahmin
peasant Bharadwaja 238, 24t3 fn.;
bbiitaka (day-labourer) 251 fn.; ronte
from to Patitthana. described
264 ; (commentary) on Sirima, a. courte'
san whose mother was also a courtesan
257.
Suttavibhanga. On (weaver) 240 ;
rathakara 240; low castes and trades
248-49.
Taittiriya AraJ;lya!;:a with the commentary
of Bhiiskara-Edited by Mahadeva
in throe vok on the slaughter
of the cow as an invariable accompani
ment of the Rajastlya, Vajapeyll and
the oeremonies !.1O.
Taittiriya Brahmal,la with the commentary
of SayatIaoarya in three vole. on aura
as a drink of ordinary life 35 fn., 54 ;
talpa. (son born on the nuptial bed-
stead i. e., logitimate Bon) 53; Jana-
teya as a nagarin 82 ; two kinde of
rice: asu and mahavrihi 94; 180
domestic animals to be sacrificed in
Asvamedha 110; beef-eating 110, 111;
sacrifice of buffaloes 111; vem:laa
(loom) 115; (a shorter fringe of
the cloth corresponding to the modern
chilka) 116; tarpya (silk or linen gar-
mont) 119; hiral;lYllkrgl9.la 125 ;
prakasa. (according to Goldner looking
glass) 134; kacha (glass or jewellery)
133, 135 ; talpa (nuptial bedstead) made
of U dumvara wood 137 i (some-
tbing like a high and broad bench)
137; mantras for the preparation of
Soma drink 142; 152, 157 fn. j
lOIS of the former high statu8 of the
thron.::h devotion to a
mechanical art 152, 1540 j position of
women with regard to agriculture
153-54; val}ij (merchant) 158; setu
bank tor orossing inunda.ted
land) 160 fn.; (as B medium of
excha.nge) 167; cattle driven out to
graze thrice a day 167; ava.satha.
(structure of some sort for the reeep-
tion of gnests) 168 fn.; liberality of
princes 173.
Taittirlya Sa'1lhitil. (_ Black Yajurveda)
with the commentary of Sayal}acarYB
on separate ownership of land 82 j
ownership of land j story of
Manu dividing his property among his
lC'ns 84 ; rise of hmded aristocracy 88;
law of inheritance 90; use of six or
twelve oxen to drive the plough 90-
91; plough-share 90-91 j seasons
bearing on agriculture 91 j well-irriga.
tion 93; crops grown 94; different
kinds of trees 99 103, plants 107 and
grass 109; cow as a medium of ex
change 111; use of bullocks in ploughing
land and in drawing wag-gons and carri.
ages 111 ; camel 8.S an object of sacrifice
112; goat's milk as the highest form of
dranght 112, 112 fn.; bad effects of
accepting the gift of a sheep 113; sheep
nsed in drawing the plongh 113; ass
BS "the Lest burden.gatherer of animals"
113 ; pits artificially made where the
hnnler eonD lie in wait 114; tortoise
114 ;pracimitana (forward stretcbed web)
115 j vasas (cloth) 116; nivi (closely
woven end of the cloth) 116; pragbata
(long and 1008e unwoven fringe with
swaying tassels) 116; (a. shorter
fringe of the cloth corresponding to the
modern ohilkii) 116; vatapaDB (length.
819
wise border of the cloth which ksep the
web t'Jgether from becoming tbread-
bare by tl.uttering in the wind) 116;
111 j tarpya (silk or linen gar-
ment) 119 j (l1oeo)119 j metall :
gold, ayae, lead, tin, lind 101111
123 ; origin of silver 123 j washing for
gold 125 j 125; Mil.
mana 125 j 125 i various
kinds of ornaments like opllill, srllj,
and bhoga 128; silver
pla.tes 130; loha 131; 131;
sickle to cut and trim the sacred graB9
132 j dhruva (wooden sacrificial ladle
having the largest bowl) 136; juba
(wooden ladle) 136; upabhrt (w(loden
ladle) 136 ; wooden mace used in Sllcri.
fice 136 i wooden Soma reservoir 136,
169; wooden instrument called ephYIL
136; wooden saorificial posts 137;
vllnaspati (timber post) 137 j piths (in
pitbasarpin), a wooden seat 137; asandi
(shining seat) whose use in ritual by II
priest ensures samrajya for his client
138 j waggon 138; boat 138; hide
dresser 139 ; dry skin.bag as sacriticial
fee 140, 169 Cn. j ritual sboes made of
black antelope skin 140 j mantras for
repetition at every stage of the manu-
facture of Somll sacrificial drink 141;
intoxicating effects of Soma drink; the
story of Viswarlipa 141 ; various kinds
of altar-brioks 143-4J; durya (door)
145 fn.; methi (pillltr) 145 fn. j
(pbysician) 150 fn. ; pbysicians alrelldy
clime to be disliked 152, 152 En., 154-
55 j knowledge not descent making II
brabmal}a 155; setu (raised blink for
crOBsing inundated land) 160 In. ;
mana (as II medium of exchange) 165;
milo bing cows thrioe II day 167 ;
akbil (cooking pot) 169; brahma-udallll
320
169 j cooking left to the wife 171;
ointment 176; isika (o.nnointing ins-
trument) 176 ; origin of collyrium 176 ;
[\s one of tho canses of in-
dobtedness 171.
Taittiriya Eng. Trans. on
separate ownership of land 82; father
making common property with the
eon 83.
TiilJdya YaM with the commen-
tary of SaYlllJaCarya. critically edited hy
PaJ.lditll A. Chinnaswami 5astri 1935. on
beef-eating 110 ; golden sraj (an orna-
ment) 128.
Theogony of the Hindus-Count Bjorns-
tjirna on the points of similarity
between the religious systems of Ancient
India and Egypt 19-20.
Thorlgatha on Benares cloth fetching 1000
pieces 220; Benaras famous for her
silk fabrics 221; manumission of sliwe9
253 ; Vimalii, a conrtesan whose mother
was also one 257; satak38 worth 1000
pieces of copper 274; Isidasi reduced
to slavery in one of her previous births
on account of her father's debts 275;
ildhi (deposit of pledges on which loan
was granted) 257.
Therigatha commentary on PUJ.llJa's admis-
8ion into the Buddhist saf!lgha only
after she was emancipated by her
master 254 ; woman workiug as keeper
of burning ground though no wages are
mentioned 256.
Times of India IlJustrated Weekly (7th
March, 1926) on tho prehistorio
civilisation of the Indns valley 12-16.
Tod'. W'Ijt\8tMna-See under Annale and
Antiquities of IUjasthana-Col. Tad.
Travels of l.Iarco Polo-Sir Henry Yole
n9ised by Cordier on Indian doge 164.
UVli.sagadasao-Eng. Trans. by A. F. R.
Hoernle on the cities of Alavi 180
,
Varallasi 180, Ohampa 180, Indapattba
181, Kampilya 181, Kosamvi 181,
Kusinara 181, Mithila. 112, PoHisapura
182, Pataliputtaka 182, Rajagiha 182,
Sanka.sya 182, Saketa 182, Seta. vya 182,
Sagula 182, SUI1lsuma.ra 183,
183, UkkaHha 183 and Vaia!i 18:3;
Vaisali was known as Vaniyagama with
Kulluga and Kundagama as its suburbs
183 ; town-planning of Vesii.1i 185, 244 ;
village of potters near Polasapura 187,
225.
Vaijayanti-Yadavaprakasa on the growth
of villages into towns 183 fn.
Dharmasiitra.-Trans. into Eng. by
George Buhler in the S. B. E. series
vol. XIV. on the imposition of fines on
village as a whole 190; village elders
administering justice 190; distinction
of royal domain from land of the
ordinary landholder9 191; mode of
acquisition of property 191; proofs of
title to property 192; provisions on
the right of way and evidence in dis-
putes regarding immovable property
192 ; acquiring property by usage 192
-93 ; state management of the property
of widows and ruinora 193; laws of
inheritance and succession 193-95;
one-sixth as the royal share of the
wealth of the subjects 1!J6; exemption
from taxation 196; objects made of
loather 226; objects made of bone and
eonchshell 229 ; actors condemned 249 ;
the other condemned professions 249 fn.;
iipaddharma 250 j slaves exempted from
taxation owing to 103s of perSOna 253 j
Brahmins permitted to barter home-
grown corn, food etc., 267; likhita
(ZI I. O. U.) 271, 275; money-lending
condemned 274; six different kindB of
interest 275, 277 j two, three, four and
five in tbe llUndred is the monthly rate
of interest according to caste 275,
277; interest on articles like gold,
grll.in, bell.sts of burden etc., without
security conld be IDcmased sig or eight.
fold 275, 277; interest stopped with
the deatb of t!Je king in whose reign the
trllonsaction took place 275 ; king's duty
to maintllin 9rotriyas, the weak, the
aged, women without means and lnna.
tics 275 j property other than a Brah.
min's left ownerless reverts to the
crown 193, 276 ; undue raising of prices
condemned 277; those exempted from
taxes 277; food of the money-lender
who exe.cted more than the legal rate
of interest was impure 277; king's duty
to gnard the falsification of
weights aud measures 277; begging
Brahmins denounced as thieves 278.
Vijasaneyi Sarohitii-8ee. under White
Yajurveda.
Veda of tbe Black Yajur Scbool-Keith
888 under Taittirlya Safllhitii-Keith's
Eng. Trans.
Vedio Index-Macdonell and Keith on
Aryans having acquaintance with agri.
culture in the Indo-Iranian period 22 ;
dlls& chiefs ruling over puras 23;
priva.te ownership of land 24, 82 fD. ;
vi a.nd j'ma monarchy as a well
established institution in the
Age 25; rejection of Zimmer's view
tha.t the grii.maJ;li was the president of
the village council 25-26 ; use of sakrt
(manure) in the Age:; well
irrigation in the Age 29.30;
Yava meaning any kind of grain and
not barley 82 ; cow, though its flesh was
taken was gradually acquiring 'Bnctitl
321
even in the Age 33; salt in tI,e
Age 34 j sura (as opposod
to Soma) beiDg a drink of ordinary liro
05 fD., 54; no mentiOD of horso-ridin"
o
in war in the 38 ; high socid
status of the rathakara aDd the tak!an
45 ; vaya (weaver) 63; loha originally
meaning copper later denoted iron 49 j
Agni aDd the sages as (path-
makers) 66; otu 46 fD.; existence of
longer vessels with maDY oars for sea
voyages in the Age 68-69;
pa!}i 74; as a sort of currency
76 ; story of Manu dividing property
among hig sons fn.; the epithet
devourer of the subjects applied to the
king king's political superior.
ity and not his oWDersip of the soil 85,
85 fn.; king's right to apportion the
land with the cousent of the d&n 8.8
containing the germ of the later state
ownership of the soil 86 In.; vali (king's
revenue) 87.88, 88 fn; only /ive seasons
in the year 91 fn.; drapi as a coat of mail
117 fn.; gold obtained from the bed of
rivers 125 and from mines 125; vAya
(weaver) 149; urdara (a wooden vessel of
definite size used in measuring grain)
164; mala tlnd other grains
used liS standards of weight in measur-
ing precious metals 164 ; Vedic village
167 ; klatt!: his functions 174;
Vedic Indill-RagoziD on early cultivation
of the cotton plnnt or tree by the Indo-
Aryans 49; navigation unknown to the
Aryans 67.
Vedic Mythology-Macdonell on the cure of
skin-disease 63 ; well-irrigation
in the Age 29.3.); story of
Manu dividing property among his 10_.
84 fo.
322
Vedisohe Mythologie-A. Hillebra.ndt, revis-
ed I\nd enll\rged in two vole. 1927-29.
on the preparation of Soma. drink 34 in.
Vedisclle Studien-Geldner on anilka as an
ornament 51 ; the existence of the cl\ste
system in the Age 58; pravepa
(-looking glass) 135;
prince 173-4.
Vedische Studien-Pischel (Vol. II.) on
patsyasl\d [patsy a (u) meaning a house]
55.
VimanaVl\ttu commentary on the oities of
Ayojjha 180, Var51}asi 180, Kampilya
181. Koamvi 181, Madhura 181, Mithila
18'2, Sagala 182, Saketa 182 and Vaisali
183 ; female sbves fetohing wllter 252 ;
a slave-girl beaten to death 255; story
of a slave-girl flying to the forest to
commit suicide, unable to bear rude
treatment 255-56; trade-route from
Ka.usamvi through Sind to Sovira 264.
Vinaya. Teds-Tra.nslated into English by
'1'. W. Rhys Davids and Hermann
Oldenburg in the S. B. E. series vols.
XIII., XVII. lind XX. on large holdings
(of 8000 IIcres) 190; channels dug for
co-operative irrigation likened to patch-
work robe of the monks 200; hot-air
baths 234; da.gobiis or topes 236;
fresco-painting 237 i physician's fee
of 16,000 pieces for curing !L merchant-
prince's wife 239; a thief not to be
ordained I\S a. nun without the sanction
of tho guilds 244; guilds as arbitra.-
tors 241; parcnts discussing tho best
profession for their wards without a
reference to the father's trade 246;
Lw castes and low trades 248; fifty
for one night as the fee of a
cOllrtesa.n (;\ mvapa1i) 257; il Hindu
merchant's feventh tr(lding voyage on
high saa.B nilviga.bility by sea-
going ships of the Ganges a.nd the
Yamuna 264; taverns for the sale of
liquor 265; hotels for the sale of
cooked meat alld rice 265; barter
prescribed for the Buddhist
in certain cases 207; su and
hiral}ya as media of exchange 269;
one pada was equl11 to five in
Rajag!hl1 in time 270;
the purchasing power of a copper
273 i debtors unfit for
admission into the Buddhist
275 ; famine 280.
Wages Question, The-Walker on Indians
abiding in their lot with oriental
stoicism and fatalism 247.
Western Origin of Chinese Civilisation-
La. Couperia on maritime intercourse
between,India and China from about 680
B. C. 162; foandation of an Indian
colony about the present Gulf of
Kiao-tchoa called Langga (after the
Indian na.me of Lanka or Ceylon) 162.
White Yajllrveda (together with the Kanva
recension) on crops grown 93-94;
forests supplying wild rice (nivara)
bdellium 97, animals 97 and honey 97 ;
different kinds of trees 99, 100, 103,
104, 106, 107, 108 ; 609 animals brought
for the Horse-sacrifice 109-10; bullocks
carrying loads 111 i sacrifice of hnffaloes
111 ; horses given as sacrificial fee 112 ;
camel as an object of sacrifice 112;
asses drawing the cal' of the Aswins
113; bon r as an object of sacrifice
to Indra 113; elephant-keepers 113;
fishing in rivers and lakes 114; fish-
venJor 114 ; technical terms connected
with weaving like otu (woof), veman
(loom) and mayukha (lVooden pegs to
stretch the web on or shnttle) 115;
(cloth) 116; threads of wool
118 ; metal.: gold, 'ylma, loba,
lead, tin and silver 122-23 ; goldsmith
124, 128 fn.; gold pieces 125 Cn.; a
circular gold ui,c or plate with 21
knobs ueed in sacrifice 125; gold
needles Dsed in sacrifice 125 ; hiraJ;lya.
garblm 125; sa.crificial cauldron with
golden handles 126; golden ornaments
127,128 ; varioDs "roaments like neck
chain, opaa, gold worn as IImulet
128 j golden trappings for hor@ea
128; silver needles used in sllcrifice
130 ; loha. 131; sJama 131; iron-
smelter 131 ; blacksmith 131 ;
receptacle hammered or formed
with a tool of aya8 131 i metal jug
131 ; sickle to cut the ripened grain
131 ; knife 131; iron axe 132; razor
132; fetters m!\de of iron 132 j lead
needles used in sa.crifice 132; armour
132; iron castles (Dsed figuratively)
132 ; sruva. (sma.1l wooden Blicrificia.1
ladle) 136; srllc (large woo:!en ladle)
136 j wooden sacrificial spilde 136 j
wooden Soma reservoir 136, 169 j fOllr.
cornered EMrifical cups of Khadira wood
136 ; mortarshaped CIlP of PalMa wood
136 i wooden SOWf\ CIl ps 136, 169;
wooden mortar and pestle for extracting
Soma juice 136, 169 i wooden needles
used in stitching together the folding
doors of the cart-shed 136; fire shovel
or poker nade of PaLlsf\ wood 136, 169 ;
wooden instrument called Bphy .. 136;
wooden sacrificial posts 137 i drapad
(timber p06t) 137; t1Jrones Wilde of
Kh[1dira wood 137 j pith .. tin pitbullr-
pin), a wooden 137; asandl (shin-
ing seat) 137, 138 j rajil5&ndl (shining
seat for king.) 138; war-chariots 138;

.... 118, ctm.,. W, ..... a_i
lII!'\UUya .kltl (.... , ..
169; dr., (door) ; ...,. (_I
; dUrD\l& (door) 1M ; palw's II _.
p,tiolll 01 " ..... 1 .. 1 ...... 1.
IH; WOIIIO .... ,.., ..... ..tllt Ia
thorn .. doiDg ."'0".". wwtr. bli.
in 10'" eh.,.,. .. hi .... .,..,
cloth. Ind Illlki,. _u ...... ...
ment. 1:'3 i Pf& 1M ........ 11 I
"\lij (merehallt) US j"" .... "-
lea 161i lri"_ :oar) 181;..., ... ...
by 100 OIN 181; lila (h .... ) ... In I
WOIDIID felehiDg ..... 171, ..... "
iada.trioa. WOlDt ... hh ' ...... ...
HOl"801lerifioe wiD ... .. ...
king 172; oiDtm'" __ (.=,.,
female) 176, ))3; ddt fI ........
protect tbe lit.... ...,.., " ...
.abject. u a1Io ....... ...
matsri.1 ,..,lfart 1"-77; ..... "
happi .... whiell ... ,..,. II ...
gods for hit 00IUdI7 III ..... 171.
White yaj.rna-.... r-. ., a. T.
If. Grimu. oadi'l'" ..... " ... N
o
the alII of the tbaber 011' , -rya
tree (Gmelu. Arbon) i. _t.,.m.
fici.1 lad... 100 i 1!IaD- ... ..
furni.biDg kiDllJiat ......... ,til ..
pQrJICII" 100 i pa& .... ..... "
.eriSa. to VI,. lU.
Yljl'lnalkhya &."111 _ ....... ..
ooUedillJ rue. Ini' ........... ,.,.
ed bl Bra" .... "
Ztitbrilt" ........ I .. .
obea G..a ...... C ... 1%.)1 ... ...
ca U. cI;6 .... Iw.' If 1M
ia U. Orlt,.. .. ,.. lit fa. ; ( .... U )
0 ...... "'_ .... ,1 1 I" ..... ....
.,..ia ........... ...
II. Subject Index.
[ r.:qe references are fo fhe pages of fhis work]
A
Agriculture, clearance of forests for pur-
POSIlS of, 28; implements for, 28-29;
application of manure for, 29, 92-93;
irrigation for, 12, 29-30, 93, 260;
rainfall a necessity for, 11, 30, 199-20J ;
and cbarms for rainfall 30, 96;
charms to avert inundation 93, 96;
prayer for a humper harvest 93;
trouhles the agriculturist had to
contend with 9596 ; agricultural opera-
tions 31-32, 9293, 19899; successive
stages of, 198-99 ; rotation of crops
91 ; khila system of, 91-22; ClfItivation
of land by peasant-proprietors 197-98 ;
cultil'ation of hnds belonging to
198; measures for the protection of
the crops 199; ceremonies connected
with, 30-31, 96, 199; products of, 32,
93-9,1" 9:>, 200-02; position of wom6n
in relation to, 1:>3-:14.
Agriculture, not known to the Palreolithic
Indil\ns 1; in the N60litbic Age 3 ;
in the Indus Va.lley in the ChabolHhic
1\-12 i knoll'n to the Aryans in
t he I ndc-Irani'ln period 28 i in the
Age 2:l24, 28-3J ; In the
Brahmal)l\ period 90-96; in tb6 Age
of Gautama Buddha 197-20:!.
Agriculturlll products, in the
; in tho Bn\hmc.l)a PJriod 93-94 ; in
the A!-:B of the Rtl.mayall\ 95 ; in the
Age of Gautama Buddha
Agricillturist, status of the, in the
-Age 6'4 ; change for the worse in the
BrahmalJA. period 152, cf. 85.
Alchemy r (in the Age of the HamayaJ;la)
133.
- See under Gardening,
art of.
Architecture, in tie Neolt'thic Age: thatched
hu ts 3 ; pr<Jhistoric cemetries 6 ; in the
Copper Age: megalithic monuments of
Coilllbatore and Hyderaba.d Cairn
burials 8-9; in the ChalcoWhia Age:
dwellin17 houses of Mohenzo Dar,:, with
"
brick-filliog bath rooms Rnd paved
washing places near wells 1415; a.
temple with a bath at Mohenzo Daro
15-16 i the dwelling houses of Harappa,
one of which had narrow walls and
corridors 16; brick-structures like
Hindu Samadhi's 16; in the J}gvedic
Age: grha. (a memoria.l structure erected
over or besiue the graVd) 56 ; the
ha.l'mya. 56, 173-74; the vidatha (royal
audience hail) etc. 57 ; in the BrahmarY:J
period: the ordilluy dwolling house
in which b:1mboo-work predornimted"
143; smasana (memorial of
three kinds viz" vasta, grba aIEl prag-
iJanam usually made of bricks or stoLles
144 ; timber architec tura 14;) '; avasatha.
(a temporary structure for the reception
of guests) 168; in the Age of tke
Ramayal}a.: K'likeyi's Mahala with its
krodbagara, citragrha., etc.
174; Yuva.raja. Rama's Mahala. 174-75 ;
Rava.!la's pala.oe with its krodbiigara,
kama.grha, diviivihiiragrha., citra.gr
ha
,
18tagrha, a.rtificial mountains made of
wood eto. 175 ; in the Age of Gautama
Buddll4 : thatched houses 230 ;
118ven-storied building. 230 ;
j asantrSrul (resting plsce for
travellers) 230; s8q;Jsthagara (town.
hall) 230-31 j cbaitya 231 j kr4.ii9ala,
of which a portion was reserved for the
race ption of guests, a portion for the
poor and tbe helpless and a portion for the
delivery of helples8 women 231 ; a privy
with doors in which a lamp was kept
burning 'he whole night 231 ; buildings
of live kinds in which monks were
permitted hy the Buddha to live viz.,
vibba, ardhayoga, prabada, harmya
and giihii 231-32; hot-air baths 234;
open flir bathing tanks with
fligbts of stepe 234; temples 236 ;
Vaitbaka of Jaraeandba Dnd tbe walls
of Rajagrha 236; Khsl}dagiri and
U dayagiri cavee 236; Dagobas or Topes
236; Piprawa Stnpa 236.
Ark and orafts, in tbe PalmoWhic Age:
work in stone ; work in bone 2; in the
Age: work in stone 3 ; pottery
3-4 ; gold-mining 4.; pearl and oon-
cbs bell industry 6; architeoture : hute
3 and cemetries 7 ; painting 4-5; sculp-
lure r.-6 j in the Copper Age: work
in bronze 7, 8; work in silver 7 ; work
in iron 8, 9 ; work in gold 8 j pottery
8, 9 ; architecture : tombs of Cyclopean
style in Tinnevelly, KUfnool, Coimbatore
and Anantapur districts 8-9 ; Hydera-
bad oairn burialB 9; in the Ohalcolithic
Age: weaving 12; work in shell and
HrraQotta 13 j work in eilver 13 j work
in gold 13 j work in precious stones
325
13; work in ivory 13; work in copper
13 ; work in bronze 13 ; pottery 1:3-14 ;
architecture 14-16; towll-planning iu
Mohenzo Dara 14 and in Hsrappa 16 i
in the Age: weaving of
45-48 and or cotton 49 i work ill aylu
49-50 ; work in gJld 00-52; carpentry
52-53; pottery 53; leather.work 54;
manufacture of liquor 54; architecture
54-57; painting 57; sculptUre 57;
in the Brahmalla : weaving 115-
22; mining 122-24; work in gold
1!?4-30; work iu silver 1.10 i worlc in
ayas and loha 130-33; work in bell-
metal 133 ; work in brass 133i alchemy P
133; art of the jeweller 133-34;
gla,ss work P 134--35 ; carpentry 136-
39 ; leather-work 130-40 i pottery
140; work in ivory 140; manufacture
of liquor 141-42 ; painting 142; soulp-
ture 143-45 ; town-planniug 145-48 j
arhorionltnre 103-04; in the AgG 0/
Gautama Buddha: work in iron 214-
16 ; work in copper 216 i work in silver
216; work in bell-metal 216 j work
in brass 216; worle in gold 216-17;
art of the jeweller 217-18, 214;
wellving 218-22; carpentry i
worle to grass lind reads 224-25;
pottery 225-26; 2!6-
27 j wina distilling 227-28; worle in
stone 228; work in ivory 228 j work
in bone, concbsbell alld ooral 229;
preparatiou of salt 229 and of mollase8
229 ; dyeing 229; stiffening doth witb
starch and polishing it witb ooncb
229-30 ; cnrling clotb into a thoQalnd
folds before wearing it 230 j architec-
ture 230-36 j scnlpture 236-37 ;
painting 237.
Articles of foreign trade, in prehisto. b
times 17-18; 2()'21, 72; in the
326
Age 71 i in the Brahma!}!). period 163.
64 i in the Age of the 162;
in the Age of Gautama Buddha 260,
262.
Artioles of domestic trade in the
Age 65 i in the Brahmalla period 158 ;
in the Age of the 158 i in the
Age of Gautama Buddha. 265.
Aryans acquainted with agriculture in the
Indo-Iranian period 22-23.
Asava 171.
Aye.s. in the 1)gvedic Age 49-50 i III the
BrahmalJa period 130-3I.
B
Barter, in the Age 75 ; in the
Brahmalla period 164 i in the Age of
Gautama Buddha 267-68.
Beef-eating, in the Chalcolithic Age 12 ;
in the Rgvedic Age 33; in the Brah-
mlLl}a period 110-11.
Bell-metal industry, in the Age of the
RlimayalJa 133 ; in the Age of Gautama
Buddha 216.
Borax 123, 125.
Brass industry, III the Brahma!}a period
133 j in the Age of the RamayalJa. 133;
in the Age of Gautama Buddha. 216.
Bronze industry in the Copper Age 78 ; in
the Cbalcolithio Age 13.
Burma find 1. 2.
c
Canal irrigation, in the Age 29;
in the Br1thma.lJa. period 93.
Carpentry, in the Age 5'2-53; in
the BrahmalJa period 136-39; in the
Ago of the RamayaJ}& 139 i in the Age
of Buddha 222-24.
Caste system in relation to mobility of
labour, in the Age 58.62;
in the BriihmalJa poriod 154-56 i in the
.Age of Gautann. Buddha 244, 246-50.
Cattlorearing, in the Ohalcolithio Age 12 ;
in the Bgvedic Age 35-41; in the
Brahmal)a period 109-13; in the Age
of Gautama Buddha 211.
Ceremonies conneoten with agriculture, in
the 1)gvedic Age 30-31 j in the Brah-
period 96 j in the Age of Gautama
Buddha 199.
Chalcolithic civilisation of the Indus Val-
ley, its affinity with Sumerian culture
11, 16-17 j prosperous agl'ioulture ou
a fiat plain subject to floods 11 ; ampler
rainfall than today: evidences for it 11
-12 ; criJPS grown: wheat and cotton
12; hunting, fishing and weaving
industries 12 ; dress and ornaments, of
the people 12-13; work in shell and
terracotta., in silver, in gold, in preoious
stones, in bronze and copper 13 ; pottery
13-14; dwelling houses at Mohenzo Daro
14-15 and at Harappa 16 j a. temple and
a public bath at Mohenzo Daro 15.16 j
town-planning at Mohenzo Daro and
Harappa 110, 16 ; internal trade 16-21.
Character of foreign trade 10 Ancient
India 280.
Civic consciousness in the Age of the Rama
ya\la 148.
Civilisation of the Copper Age: work in
copper 7, 9; in bronze 7, 8 ; in silver 7 j
in iron 8; in gold 8; pottery 8, 9 ;
architecture: Cyclopean style of cons-
truction of the tombs 8-9; probable
Egyptian influence on the pottery and
on the construction of the tombs of this
age 89 j methods and media of
exohange 9-10.
Classification of villages 186-87.
Combination between merchants, In the
Age 74-75 ; in the Age of
Gautnm!!. Buddh!!. 242, 263, 21)7.
Competition determining prices, in the
Age 65-66; in the Age of
Gautam!!. Baddh!!. 265-66.
Conchehell industry, in the Neolithic Age
6; in the Chaloolithio Age 13, 16;
in the Age of Gautama Buddha 229.
Copper Age antiquities 7-9.
Copper industry, in the Copper Age 7, 8,
9 ; in the Chalcolithic Age 13; ia the
Age 49-:;0; in the
period 130-31 ; in the Age of Gaut!!.mB
BuddhB 216.
Coral, work in, in the Age of the Ramayal)a
124, 134; in the Age of Gaatama
Buddha 212, 229.
Cornering 266.
Corporate life in the towns (in the Age of
Gautama Buddha) 185-86.
Corporate life in the villages, in the
Age 25-25; in the Age of
Gautama Uoddh 188-90.
Cotton, caltivation of, in the
12; in the Age 49; in
the Briihmal)a period 11920; in the
Age of Gautama BoddhtJ. 220.
Cotton industry, in the ehalcolithia Age
12 ; in the Age 49; in the
Brilhmat;ta. period 119-20; in the Age
of Gaut!!.ma Baddha 21920.
Cow as !!. standard of valae, in the
Age 9.10, 75; in the Age of Pal)ini
268 ; in the Satra period 268.
327
Cowryehell 88 II etl\ndard of valae (ia tbe
period) 268.
Craftgailds-See under Gnild&.
Currency, in prehistoric times 910 ; in the
Age 75-77 ; in tbe
period 164-67 ; in the Age of Gantllma
Buddha 268-71. For details Set ander
Methods and ?fedia of exchange.
Custom influencing prices 266.
D
Dealing in futures 266.
Dignity of Ia.bour, ia tbe ?g\"ooic Age
61-62; loss of this dignity in the
period 152, 154-55 lind in the
Age of Gaatama Buddha 249-49.
Domestic furniture, in the Age
53 ; in the period 168; in
the Age of the 169 j in the
Age of Gao tam:\ Buddha 217, 22Z-23.
Domestic economy, in the Agu
64-65 j in the Briihmal,lll period 153-54,
171-72.
Domestic trade, in tbe Cblllcolitbic Age
16 ; In the Age 65-67 j in the
Brahmo.l)a period 158-60; in the A.ge
of Gautama Buddha 262-67.
Domestic atensils, in the Neolithic Age 3 ;
in the Coppar Age 8; in tile Chalco
lithic Age 13; in the Age 50,
53, 54 j in the period 168-69;
iD the Age of Gllulama. lluddha. 21517.
Domesticated IInimals-See nnder Cattle-
rearibg.
Drainllge system, (ill the towos of !lfohellto
Daro lind Harappa in the Chalcolit&io
Age) 11 and in Bemires in the Age of
Glilltaml\ Bllddh ISO.
328
Drees of the people, in the Chalcolitbic
Age 12-13 ; in the Age 47-
48; in the period 117-18;
in the Age of Gantama. Buduh .. :l19,
229-30.
Dried fish as food 227.
Do tiee levied by the king 277.
Dyeing induatry 229.
E
Economic condition of the classes and the
masses-See nnder General economic
condition of the classes and the masses.
Exeavationa lit Mobenlo Dara and Harappa
11-16.
Ihemption from taxation 277.
Extent of Aryan expansion in the
Age 22 ; in the Brahmal}1I period 81.
F
Falsification of weights and measures con-
demned 277.
Famine; in the Bgvedic Age 80; in the
Briobmal}a period 96-97; in the Age
of GantBoma Buddha 279-80.
Famine relief 276.
Female labour, in the Bgvedio Age 640-
611 ; in tbe Brabmal}1l period 153-54
171-72; in the Age of Gautama
Blldd ha 256-67.
Fishing, in the Chaleolithic Age 12; in
the Age 33, 44; in tho
Briobmul}1l period 114, 17071; in the
Age or Gautamll Buddha 212.
Food of the people, in the Palmolithic Age
2; in thA Neolithic Age 3; in the
Copper Age 8 ; in the Ch,lcolithic Age
l!; in tho Al!e 3'l-3j ; in the
BrAhm. period 169-71.
Forced Ia.bour 276-77. 279.
Foreign trade of Indi&, in the Chalcolithic
Age 16-21 ; in the Age 69-14;
in ,the Brahm&l}a period 162-64; in
the Age of Gautams Buddha 26:-63,
280. For deta.ils S,e under Trade of
India., Articles of foreign trade and
Maritime trade-routes.
Forests and their economic importance, in
the Bgvedic Age 41-43; in the
period 97-109 j in the Age
of Gautama Buddha 202-09.
Free labourers, their dignified status in
the Age 61.62; loss of their
former status in the Brahmwa period
152, 154-55 and in the Age of Gantama
Buddha 248-49 ; their frivolous though
gay life 251; their general economic
condition 251.
Frnits, in the Age 33 ; in the
period 105; in tbe of
Gautama Buddha 207-08.
G
Gardening, art of, 10 the Age of the
Ramayal}a 103-04; in the Jat&lra
period 213 ; in the Siitra period 213.
General economic oondition of the cl&sses
and the masses, in the Age
77-80; in the Br:ihmal}8. perioi!
167 -77; in the Age of Ga.ntsllli1
Buddha 278-80.
Geographici\l mobility of labour 247.
GI&8s iniustry P (in the Brahmal}8. period)
134-3:>.
Godavari flake 1, 2.
Gold industry, in the Palmolithic and Neoli-
thio Agee 4. ; in the Chalcolithic Age
13 j in the Bgvedio Age 50-52 i in the
Brl!.llmal)a period 124-29; in the Age
of the 129-30; in the Ago
of Gautama Buddha 216-17.
Grass: its different varieties, in tho
Rgvedic .Age 43; in the Brahma!)a
period 108; in the Age of Gautama
Buddha 209.
Grass, work i,n, 224-25.
Guilds, in the Age 74-75 ; in the
Br.1hmal)a 156-58 ; iu the Age
of the Raml!.yal)a 258 j in the Age of
Gautama Buddha 242-43 : their organi-
sation 157, 243, 245 ; their three princi-
pal characteristics: (1) an Alderman
at the head 243, (2) IlOredity of profes-
sion 244 (3) localisation of industry
243-44; their legislative, judicial and
execntive functiODs 244.
Oungeria hoard 7.
H
Haggling over prices 265.
Herbs, in the Age 403; in the
Brahmal)a period 105-07; in the Age
of Gautama Buddha. 208-09.
Hoarding of wealth 274.
Horse-racing (in the Age) 39.
Horae-riding (in the Age) 38-39,
Horticulture-S'e under Gardening, art of.
House-building: thatched huts in the
'Neolithic Age 3; in the Chaloolithie
.Age a-15, 16; ill the Age
54-57 ; 173-74; in the Brl!.hmapa period
H3-45, 167 -68, 174-7:>; in the Age of
the Ramayal}8 174-i5; in the Age of
Gautama Buddha 2 :0-3', 235. For
details 866 under Architectore.
Hunting', in the P.JAlOlithic Age 1 j in tbe
Neolithio Age 3; in 'he ChrJcoli&bi'

Ujis ........ tU6,.
the BrA.a(IIa .... Ill-II; .. ""
of 0.. .... aw."SIl-ll
I
lodobtednm 01 &III ,fI,h ,. ....
Loau.
Indian trsde or flase I ....
.. Dab, ....... c., ..
Ch,lda, Cis., Ic1JiI, M F t '4
Persia ,ocl ,,1IeN__ S. ,. r ....
of IDdia.
Inberitan::. s.. 1._ IA. ell h\ ", ....
Inland uade-roa.... is ... Ohbli'l!
Age 16 j in tI. Aft .. ; is ...
period UNJ; is ....
of Gao tama Bdd. III IL
Int.erual tradt-S. II_ 0 a .. ,,, ......
IDstrameol.t of orecIi' t7l, 171
Iron, io tb, Neolidlie IUI2" lit'"
Bellary di .. ricl , Ita. ; ..cae", .... tf
iron {ooad ill U. berial ... II
Adicbanall.r Ie TiumU, '; Ia'"
Agt P ill..... ..
period' 131; in ,_ All .. ...
1Um1,a{!a i lit ... "'" ..
Outama 8DddM 116-lf,
Irrigati01l, Ie \hi Chhlie... '" U
iu ,be Aft tHO,1e ...
pDrioII II I is ... Aft ..
GaohlDa BtICW" ..
hory, workia, is &III Ap" &III " , ..
140; iu ... Jitab .... 1M.
J ... IJ.r:T, il u.. PlMWIlor:' !:,..a ..
!die"""'r bI n ... If II
U. A#f 11. I. ...
Btl.... .... IJI, ... ,Ito d
... p' 'J 1 uaae; ,:. A,.. rl
330
Gautama Buddha 2\7-18 ;in the
Pipraw;l. stupa 214.
K
Khila system of cultivation
KiHila, a variety ot SUIa 142, 227.
L
Labour-See under FreG labourers and
Slavery.
Land-ownership-See under Land system.
Land revenue, the amount of the royal
share in the BrahmaJ;l:1 period 88 and
in the Age of Gautama Buddha
195-96; payable either in cash or in
kind 88, 197; land survey 196; land
revenue administration 193-97.
Land system: division of land into vastu,
arable land, pasture and forests; vastu
and arable land in individual ownership
and pasture and forests in communal
ownership 23-24, 82, 191-93; land
belonged to the membars oE the joint
family in common 82-84; transfer of
land 84; feeling agaill5t land-transfer
in tbe Satapatba BrahmaJ;la 85; no
state-landlordism in the Bgvedic Aga
24-25, in the Brahmal}a period 85-87
and in the Age of Gautuma Buddha
190-91; royal domain 190-91; land
revenue in the Age 25, in the
Brahmul)a period 87-88 and in tile
Age of Gautama Buddha 195-97 ; hnd
tenure 1)7-98; rise of landed uristo-
crats and its causes 88-8(), 17;1; an
ideal economic holding according to
li,\udhayana. 190.
Land tenure: peasant-proprietorship 197-98;
198; Zamindari system
88S(), 173.
IJanded a.ristocro.cy. ca.uses favouring the
growth of, (in the Ihahmal}1Io period)
8889, 173.
Law of inheritance in the Age 89 ;
in the Brahmal}:\ period 8)-90 ; in the
Age of Gautama iluddhll. 193-95.
Lell.ther-work, in the 54 ; in
the Brahmal}1Io perhd 139-40; in the
A"e of Gautamo. Buddha 22G-27.
"
TJinen industry, in the ilrahmlll',l:l. period
119 ; in the Age of the Ramaysl)a
120-21 ; in the-Age of GJuhma. lladdh
220-21.
Loans, in the Age 79-80; in the
llrahm!ll}tt. period 177; in the Ago of
Gautama. Buddha. 274-7:>, 279.
Localisation of urts and crafts 243-14, cf.
184, 185.
Low cll.stes and low trades 24S-49.
M
Manufacture of liquor, in the Bgvedic Age
3,1-35, 04; in the llrahmal}u period
141-42; in the Age of the
142; in the Age of Gautam!lo Buddha
227-29.
Manure in the Age 29 j in the
Bdi.hmal}a period 92-93.
Maritime trade-See under trade.
Maritime in the Rgvedic A"e
..0
70, 73-74; in the Brahma1)a. perilld
163; in the Age of Gautama. Buddha
261.
Meut-eating, in the PalalJlithic Age 2; in
the Neolithic Age 3 ; in the Chalcolithic
Age 12 ; in the Bgvedic Age 33 ; in the
Brahrual,lu period 110-13, 170.
Mendicancy, condemnation of, 278.
Merchants' guild-See under Guilds.
ethcds and Media. of exchange, in
prehistoric time.: during the pastoral
stage eow as the medium of exchange
9-10 ; in the ugricultllra.l stage when
commQrce developod itself garments
f\nd coverlets served measures of
value 10; punch-marked coins with
prehistoric symbols on tbem 10 j finds
of coi ns of the Ohalcol ithic Age at
Daro and Harpppa 11 j in the
Age: cOw as a medium of
exchange 75; 75-77, mana 77
and hirat;!yapiJ;lda. I\S meti111ic media of
exchancie j was the a coin? 76 j
in tLo Brahm':lf]a period: barter 164;
ni) ka 164-65, 165-66,
suvart;la 166, padll 166-67 ; 167
as motallic media of exchange; in the
Age of Gauta1n1J Buddha: 267-
G8 j dee, cowry-shlJll and the cow as
medill of exchange 268;
quartor
half kar:a, J.ar;apat;!a. pada. pat;!a.,
atamana, suvarJ;la, hirat;!ya, ka'llsa
and vista as metallic media of exchange
269-70; stamped impressions on some
of the media. of sxehange 269.
Milk and preparations from milk, in the
Age 31, in the BrahmlltIlIo
period 110, 171.
Mining and metal ind ustries, in the Copper
Age 7-9 ; in the Chalcolithic Age 12-
13; in the J}gvedic Aga 49-52; in the
Bral.m:ltIa 122-35; the Age of
G.autama Buddha 209-10, 214-18.
Mixed metal industries: bell-metal: in
the Brahmat;!a period 133; in the Age
of the 133; in the .Age of
Gautama Buddha 216; braSil, in the
BrahmatIa period 133; in the Age of
331
the Uiimayal" in the Age cf
Gllutama Buddha 216; bron'B, in the
Chalcolithio Age 13.
Mobility of labour-See uuder Casle system
in relation to mobility of labour.
preparatiou of, 229.
Uoneylending-See uuder Loans.
Monsoons, discovery of, 74.
N
Navigation in the Rgvedic Age 67-74; in
the Ilrahmat;!a period 160-63; in the
.Aga of Gautama Buddha 256-59,
262.
NeclitLio civilisation: knowledge of agri-
culture: its evidellc8s 3; for
domestic use betraying ascinMion for
colou r 3; work in etone 3 j
pottery 3-4 j gold-mining 4; rock-
paintings neaf Singapur in O. P.
in KapgaUu in Bellary district 5 lind thl
clive-paintings in the Kymora ranges S j
soulpture in the Edakal cave, Wynaad
5-6 ; know ledge of thatched huts 3 j
use of cemetries and graves 6; pearl-
fishery and conch-shell industry 6.
No Bronze Age in India 7.
No Oopper Age in South India 7.
No Golden. Age in prehistoric times I.
No state-landlordism in the Ag$
24-75 ; in the Brahmal)a period S!i-
87; in the Age 01 Gautama Buddha
190-91.
o
Occupations of the people, in the IJgvedic
.Age 62-64; in the Bra,bmlltIlIo period
148-52; in the Age of Gautama
Buddha 237-42.
332
Origin of villages, in the Age 2:;' ;
in the Age of Buddha 186
-88.
Ornaments, in the Copper Age 7, 8 ; in the
Chalcolitbic Age 12-13 ; in the
Age 51-52 ; in the Brahma!)&. period
127-29 ; in the Age of the Ramaya!)a
129-30, 133, 133-3,i; in the Age of
Gautama Buddha 217-118.
p
Pllinting in the Age 4-5; in
the J}gvedio Age 57 ; In the Brahmal)a
period 142 ; in the Age of tIle R1i.maya!)a
142 ; in the Age of Gautama Buddha
237.
Palreolitbic civilisation: Palreolithic settle-
ments not only near rooks suitable for
fashioning tools but alBa near rivers and
lakes 2 ; no private property in land,
no division of labour, no knowledge of
metals or of pottery 1 ; stone tools and
weapons 1; hone weapons and imple.
in the Billa Surgam caves of
Karnaul 2 ; smo ked flesh as food 2.
Patna, an intoxicating drink 35, 54.
Parisrut, 142.
Partnership 267.
Pearlfishing in tbe Neolithic Age 6 ; in the
Age 44; in the Brahma\la
period 114-15; in the Age of the
Ramliyat;la 124, 129, 134.; in the Age
of Gautama Buddha 21'3,217,218.
Pigculture 211.
: excellenoe of its c<*lstruc.
tion and of the jewellery it contains
214.
Plants in the J;1gvedic Age 43; in the
Brlbma1)1lo period 10ij-OS ; in the Age
of Gautama Buddha 206-07; 208
-00.
Ports of departure from India 262.
Poultry.farming 211.
Precious stones, in the Chalcolithic Age
13, 16 j in t be Rgvedic.Age 71, in
the Brahmal)a period '; in the
Age of the Ramayal)a 124, U9, 134 i
in the Age of Gautama Buddha 2H,
218, 262.
Prices, influence of competition on, 65-
56, 265-66 j influence of castom OD,
266 ; state control of, 277.
Pri vate ownership of land, in the Bgvedio
Age 23-24; in the Brahmal)a period
82-85 ; in the Age of Gautama Buddha
191-93.
Protec'ion of the crops 199.
Purchasing power of money (in the J1i.taka
period) 272-74.
SiUda hymn, dealing with a theory
of creation, not of caste 60-51.
R
Raising of prices, condemnation of, 277.
Rate of interest, in the Age 79 j
in the Brahma,1)a, period 177; in the
Sutra period 274-75.
Reeds, in the Bgvedic Age 43; in th __
13rabmal}a period 108-09 ; in the. Ag.
o[ GautiJ,ma 13uddha 209.
Regulation of prices 266, 277.
Relative value of plJ and silver 271.
. Rice as a,.standard of vn.}u"!"_ (in the Jataka
period) 268.
Rotation of crops 91, 91 fp.
Royal revenue, in the Brahmnl]a period 87-
88; in tho Age of Gautama Buddha
195 --97, 276-77, 279.
s
Salt indnstry, in the Age 33-34;
in th,a period .14; in the
Age oi Gantama 13Llddba 229.
Sculpture, in tho Neolithio Age 5-6; in
the 57-58; in the
13dhml\).la reriod 142; in tbe Age of
the 142; in the Ag<l of
Gau ta ma lJu d J ha 236-37.
See.-borue trade, ill the Age 67-
74 ; in the Brahmal]a period 160-64;
in the Age of Gautama Buddhft 257-
62.
Seasons in the Vedic Age 91 rn.
Ship-building industry, in the Jygvedic Age
(a. vessel with 100 oars) 68; in the
period (vessels having two
rudders) 139, 161 j in the Jatll.ka period
259-60.
Silk industry, in the Briihmal]a period 119;
in the Age of the RamayA.l]a 121-22;
in the Age of Gautama Buddha 221.
Silver, work in, in the Copper Age 7; in
the Briihmul]a period 130 ; in the Age
of the Wlmayal]a 130 j in the Age of
Gautama Buddha 216.
Slavery, in the J:lgvedio Age 64, 153; in
the Bri\hmal]a period 153) in the Age
of Gautama Buddha 252-56, .
-Slaves, the cbssifioation of, 252; causes of
slavery 252, 79 j status of, 252-54, 153,
64 ; usnal duties of, 153, 252 j manu-
of, 253 ;. their lot ,r better
than that of the Greek or RomaD slaves
254-56; no .slave.market 153; slavery
333
did not become tho basis of husblndry
64, 152.
Soma drink, in the Rgvedic Age 34-3j, 54 ;
in the Brahmara period 14142.
State control over prices 277.
State protection to the the weak,
the aged, women without mean, and
tho lunatios 276.
State protection of the property of infants
276.
Stone, work in, in the Palooolithic Age 1, 2 i
in the Neolitbic Age 3; in tbe Age of
Gautama Buddha 228.
Successive stages of agriculture 198-99.
Sura, in the I}gvedic Age 35, 54 i in tbo
Age of the Ramayal]:\ 142, 171 i in th9
Age of Gantamll Buddha 227.
State help to the faminestrioken 276.
State in relation to economic life, ill the
Briihmara period 17778; in the Age of
the 178; in the Age of Gau
bma Buddha 275-78.
T
Tin, in the Chalcolithic Age 13 j in the
period 122, 123; in tbe Age
of the Riimaya(lll 123.
Tools and weapons, in tho Palwolitbic Age
12; in the Neolithic Age 3; in the
Copper Age 7 i in the Chalcolithic Age
13 i in the Rgvedic .age 50 i in the
Brahma\la period 131-32; in tbelAge of
Gautama Buddha 215.
Towns, origin of, 183-84 j division iDto
wards 185; parks in, 183; IIvellnoS of
trees in, 101 fn , 147 ; arbours of tree,
in, 213, 147; town hall 230-31 ; main
buildings in, 147 i town-pllDning 16.
334
145-47, 184-85; corpor!tte life in,
185-86.
Towns in the Chnlcolithic Age 14-16 ; in
the Age 26-28; in the Brah-
mal)a period j in tIle Age of Gau-
tElmEl Buddha 179-86.
Town-planning, in the Chalcolithio Age
(at Harappa, specially at Mohenzo Daro)
16 j in the Brabmal)o. period 145-47 ;
in the Age of tho Hll.mayal)a. 147 j in
the Age of Gautama Buldha 184-85.
Trade of India, with Arabia in prehistoric
times 72, in the Age of the Riimayal)EI
161; with Assyria in the Briihmal)o.
period 163, in the Age of Gau ta.ma.
Buddha 260; with Babylon in prehis.
torio times 16.17, 72-73, in the Brah.
ma.l)a period 162-63, in the Age of
Go.utama Buddha 260 j with Burma
(SuvElrJ;labhiimi) 261 ; with Oeylon 261 j
with Ohaldmll 72; with Ohina 16162 ;
with Egypt in prehistoric times 17-21,
7Q.71 ; with Mesopotamia in prehistoric
times 16-17, 70-71; with Persia in pre-
historic times 16-17, 6970, in the Brah-
ma.l)a period 163, in the Age of Gau-
tamo. Buddha 26l; with Phrenioia in
prehistoric times 69-70.
Trade-routes in the Cha.loolithio Age 16 ;
in the Age 66, 70, 73-74; in
the IlrahmQa period 159-60, 163 ; in the
Age of Gautama Buddha 261, 263-64.
Troos, ill tho Age 42; in the
Brl!.hmal}!\ poriod 98-105; in the Age of
Gautama Buddha 204-08.
u
Use of the horse in war in the
Age 38-39.
Usury, 2i5 ; UBurers organised into guilds
275 ; their exactions condemned 277.
v
Villages, origin of, 25, 183 -S8 ; classi
fioation of, 186-87 j administra.tive
machinery of, 25-26; corporate activity
in, 25-26, 188--90.
w
Weaving industry, in the Cbalcolithic Age
12 j in the Age 45--49 , in the
BrahmaJ;la period 115--20; in the Age of
the RamayaJ;la ; in the Age of
Gautama. lluddha 218-22. For details
See under cotton, linen, silk and woolen
industries.
Weights and measure" in the Age
77 ; in tho Brahmal)a. period 164, 27l j
in the Age of Gauta.ma Bllddha. 271-72.
,-
Wine.distilling-See under Manufaoture of
liquor.
Woolen industry, in the Age 48;
in the BramaJ;la period 118--19 ; in the
Age of the Riimay80J;la 121 j in the Age
of Ga.uta.ma. Buddha 221-22.
Work in bones, in the Palooolithic Age 2 ;
in the Age of Gautama Buddha. 229.
Work in cora.ls-See nnder Coral, work
Work in grass a.nd reeds-See under Grass,.
work in.
Work in horn 229.
Work in stone-See under Stone, work til!
Index III. Proper Names.
[ re!erenell tire fo fhe pages 01 fhls 'work]
A
Aboasin (= tho Indns) 19.
Abys,iuia Hl.
AbyssiniAns 20.
Aci .... vaU river 182.
Aden 7.
AdichaDlIllnr 8, 18.
Adityas SO.
Elian 210.
Ag'astya 105 fn., 111.
Agni 26, 37, 66, 83, 125, 153 rD., 1rI9, 177.
Agra 27. 33, 135.
Ahina 8acrifices 239.
Ajanl:1 caves 232.
Ajll.l.datrn, King 156, 1840, 278.
82.
AlthD rlLja 199.
Akkad 72, 73.
Akkadian 77.
A\-Uhaid 17.
A\uaDder 77, 236.
AleJ:&Ddria 73.
Allahabad 181.
AlavI180.
Amara (sin.1ha) 206, 207 fn.
Amenophis 19.
Ame,rica 280.
AmitraU.paD:1 273 fD.
Amnlya Ch. SeD 257 fn.
AJU"pll.\i 192,257.
Anantapuf& 4, 8, 18.
AniithapitJdakllo 192, 254, 255.
Andhapol'a ISO.' ,
Andhras 81.
ADdrew Lang 61.
Anga 95, 97, 180.
ADgirasas, the 168.
Angha 199.
Angul 2.
Annpiya city 180.
Annradhapura 234 In.
AnandBknmara 259.
Apala 24.
Apastbllmvil 186, 192 fn., 193 fD., 194, 195,
203 fn., 244, 24:1 fn., 249 fD" 250, 267fD.,
268 fD., 276, 276 D., 277 In.
Aptllryiimll 141.
Ars bia 70, 72, 74, 163.
ArabiaD Sea 69, 70.
Arada 199.
Arlldns, isle 70.
Aramic script 73.
Arati 47.
Arcot 9 fn.
city 180.
Aristobulus 199.
Armenia 73.
200 f 212 n., 226 fn.,
Arrian 77, 163, n.,
228 fn.
AsitiifijaDi(city 180.
Asmodeus 106.
forest 103, 122, 147.
Assakenoi, tbe 163.
Assapnra 180.
Assyria 72, 133.
AssyriaD 163, 260.
Astakenoi, the 163.
110, Ill, 126.
336
King 156.
28, 40, 96, 112, 113, 154.
Asanga 78.
Asandhivat 81.
Atithigva 78.
Atiratra rita 141.
Atri 24.
Attaka city 180.
Attock 19.
Ato.vi 180.
Avanti 183.
Ayodhya kingdom 95, 120, 124, 142.
Ayodhya city 95, 101 fn., 105 fn., 121,
122, 133, 146, 147, 148, 180, 182.
Ayojjha city =Ayodhya 180.
Ayomukha mountain 124.
B
Baby Ion 17, 21, 70, 71 fn., 146, 163, 260,
262,267.
Babylonians 164.
Baccan!llia 227.
Bactrian 163.
Baden Powell 64.
llahllika 112, 158.
S. H. 49.
74.
Ball, V. 70, 210, 210 fn.
Ballonsen, Dr. 57.
Barker 19 fn.
Barley island 162 fn.
Baroda 4.
Barygaza 164.
Baudhayana 141, 163, 186, 190, 193 n.,
194, 195, 196, 203 fn., 21.8, 250, 250 fn.
260,268 fn., 274,275 fn., 276.
U,.\l124.
Heal 236 fn.
Hellary 3, 4, 4 fn., 5.
Heluchisthan 4, 11, 14, 17.
Denarea 27, 179, ISO, lSI, 185, 186,187,
220, 221, 224, 228, 238, 239, 251, 264.,
26:1, 267,273 fll., 274, 279.
Bengal 231.
Basara 183.
Bhadravatika 180.
Bhaga 137, 157 fn., 199.
264.
D. R. 9.
Bharut Topes 233 fn.
Bhar[l.dwaja 33,56,121.
Bhar[l.ta 95,121, 122, 124, 133, 158,178.
Bhava 79.
Bhujya 6S.
Bihar 81.
Bijnai rive r 2.
Billa Sangam 2.
Birs Nimrod 163.
Bjornstjirna, Count 20 fn.
Blanford H. F. 1 fn.
Bloomfield 51 fn., 150 fn.
Biue river 19.
Bodhisattva 231, 237.
Bohlen Von 71.
Bohtlingh 166.
Book of Genesis 20.
Brahma 147.
Brahmi alphabet 260.
Brhadratha. 153 fn.
Brahmottara city 180.
30, 172.
Broaoh 16, 164, 260, 261.
Bruce Foote 3 fn, 4)n., 5 In.
B!vu 79.
Buddha, the 179, 181, 192, 200, 219, 231,
236, 239, 245, 251, 254, 2::5, 261, 278.
231 fn., 233 fn.
Buhler 67, 260.
lIurma 26l, 262.
Burma find 1.
Byzantine 76.
c
Calcutta 27.
Caldwell, Dr. 71, 71 fn., 260.
Ca.mbay 16.
Cary 21. fn.
Cal pian Soa 73.
Catbedral Cave of lli\\&"Sargalll 2.
Ceylon 162, 261, 264.
Ceylonese 135.
Chd:ravarrnan 248.
Cbakradharpar 2.
Chald_ 72, 230.
city 179, ISO, 261, 261..
CbaDdragupta Maurya 82.
Cbavadipalciyl\lIl 10.
Cbedi 78, 183.
Cbik MulaDgi lake 2.
Childers 191 fD., 270 fu.
ChiDa 162, 163.
Cbitra, kiag 79.
CbitrakDta bill 123.
ChuDda 244.
210.
CockburD J. 5,6.
Coimbatore 8.
Cole brooke 245 lD.
CretaD 16.
Ctesi ... S .. ander KtesillS.
Cllddapab 2, 4.
CUDDingballl 181, 183, 23G.
Cutch 11.
Cllvior 19.
CyavliDa 43 lD., 63.
Cyrns, kiDg 163.
D
95.
Da'.ldaka forest 120, 121.
Daniell C. 280 fa,
Dautapura city 180-81, 262-
Darada 210.
Dar:tda 210.
Dardi,thaa 210.
Darila 108.
Darius 74, 163, 209, 210, 261, 280.
DarSa 141.
120, 121, 122, 129, 133.
David 70.
Day, Dr. 69.
Dayiiriima Sahni 11.
D' Anville 73-
337
Deccan, the 71, 99 fn. 104 fn. 105 fn. 114.
Dedan 70.
Deir-el-Ilahllri 17, 72.
Delhi 27.
De9akll city 181.
Davadatta 181.
Devapi 156.
Dhsnapiili 255.
Dhanwantarl "2.
Dhenkenal 2.
Digha Karayana 185.
Dionysia 227.
DioBcoridos 114.
Divodasa 27, 78.
Dirgha Carayallll 185.
D. R. llhandarkar 76, 271.
Draviga country 95, 181, 207 Eo.
Dravidians 163.
river 81.
Durgacarya 5l.
Dutugaimuna 135.
Dvliravati, port 262.
Eabani 17.
East End 185.
Edakai cave 5.
Edda 40.
E
Eggeiing, Profossor 166.
Egypt D, 14, 17, 18, 1:1,20, 21, 61, 71, 72,
74, 280.
Egyptians 20, 21, 69, U5.
Elam 17.
Elliot 10.
Elliot Smith 6.
Erythral 210.
Esubius 18, 19.
338
Esokari 237.
39.
Ethiopia 18.
Ethiopians 19.
Euphrates 72, 73 fn., 77.
Ezion-Geber 70.
F
Faizabad district 18J.
Farakkabl1.d District 182.
Fatepur Sikri 2J4.
Faus boll 256 fn.
Fawcett, F. 5 fn.
Fergusson 10.
Fick, Dr. 228, 257.
Finidis (- Phoonicin) 69.
Foulkes, T. Rev. 21, 71, 26 t.
Frazer 3.
Frazer, H. W. 61, 67.
G
Gambia, river 19.
GambhirapaUfma, port 181, 262.
Gamlha,kutirn monastery 228, 2':4.
Gnnga 22.
canal 10.
G'mtama Buddha 253.
Gautama, law-giver 191, 192, 194, 195 fn.,
196,203 fn., 210, 244, 249 fn., 250, 250
fu., 267 fn. 274,275,275 fn, 276, 276 fn.,
277, 277 fn.
Gayl!. 264.
Glindhara 48, 261, 265.
Glndbarans 40.
Godr08ia 74.
26, 51, 13;), 156.
Gb:!.t mountains 164.
Gbltjll12.
Gbo,lI. 63.
ObOfila 236.
c 'ilead 20.
';irivr.i_ 149 fn., lSt
Godavari, river 105 fn.
Godavllri flake 1.
Golden Forest 121.
Golden Chersonese 261 fn.
Goldstucker 119, 269.
Gomal river 22.
Gomati, river 22.
Gonaddha 264.
Gonda District 182.
Gorakhpur 131.
Gotama (- the Buddha) 253.
Gowland 4 fn.
Greece 9, 21, 61, 153.
Greeks 199, 210.
Griffith 42 fn., 43 fn., 57, 57 fn., 58 fn., 65,
66 fn., 68 fn., 93, 93 fn., 94 n., 98 fn.,
99 {n., 105 fn., 109, 112 fn., 139 fn.
Guntur 2.
Hakra, river 11.
Hall 73 fn.
H
nigama 181. ..
Hanumana 121, 122, 124, 148, 175;
Hansa. League 266.
Harappa 11,.13, 16. 28, 73 {n.
Hatasu 18, 72.
Hattigf.ma 264.
Haug 34 fn., 141 fn.
Ravell, E. n. 145, 145 fn., 146, 183.
Hazra, mountain 184.
Hiijipura 183.
Hebrew 21, 71.
Hecre. lake 2.
Heeren 19 fn., 20, 71.
Herodotus 179, 202, 209, 209 fn:; 210, 210
fn., 214, 214 n., 260, 262 n., 289 fn.
Hewitt 72, 163.
Hibbort Lectures 17, 72.
Hillebrandt 34 fn., 22411,
IIimalayan regions 113.
Hindukush mountain 73.
Hippalu9 H.
70, 71.
Hirt, Hermann 22 lll.
Hillen Tsang
Hoornle A. F. R. 180 In., 182 (II., 183 Cn.
Homer 229.
Hopkins 67, 85 fn., 157.
Horace 70 fn.
Hllmboldt 163 fn.
llunt E. II. 9, 9 fn., 18.
I
Iarchos 19.
Idomeans 70.
CIliad 229.
Illosil 155.
IndApattha city 181.
Indian Ocean 261.
Indra 9, 10,21.23,24, 26, 27. 30, :-n, 34,
:>6, ;)9, 40, 47, 49, 53, 65, ;,0,57, 62, 69,
75, 77, 80, 82, 87, 113, 147, 153 In., 159,
176, 179.
IJ8 fn.
IroqUois, the 61.
lsa 19.
Iahmelitea 20.
lsi dAs! 275.
Iais 19.
Jacob 21.
J ahnos, the 156.
J
Janaka, 120. 121, 156, 166, 167, 173-
rllti 89, 173.
82.
,Jaumenjaya 82.
Jaruandha 236.
Javl!. 152 In.
Jilv:lIa Pro.vahana l:Ju.
Javl!.la Satyakarno. I ;iii.
Jobosphant 71. -
Jotavana 213.
Jetuttura city 181.
J evons 154, 154 fn.
Jivaka 192.
Joseph 20.
Jubbalpur 2.
Judea 163.
Julius Africanu8 18.
Jomna, river 2.3, 181, 264.
J 141.
Kabul, river 22.
Kaikeyi 174.
Kaegi 26, 44.
Kaira 2.
Kajangala, city 181.
Kiihibagh 19.
x
Kalinga 18, 232, 270, 280 fn.
Kamboja 112, 158, 265.
Kammasadamma., city 183.
Kanita 19.
Kapilavastu 181, 200, 264.
KapgaJl u 3, 5.
Karayandra 74.
Kamaol 2, 4.
Katbiawar 4, 11. 16.
Kasbmere 213. _
Kassites, the 13 fn . 146.
Kasu 78.
Ka.urama, King 173.
Kllusalya 32, 120, 121.
Kauamveya 82.
Kau:imv[ 179. "236.
Kllutlllya 271.
Kllutamvara 221,265.
189. 268 n., 270. 272 in.
Kavasha 155.
78.
Kali, river 182.
KaJi, slavegirl 255, 257.
Kampila 81.
Kampilya 81, 181.

340
KaSi Bhar!\.l1waja 198, 211.
KMi kingdom 95, 156, 181, 182, 18'7, 197
243,280.
Kasia 1S1.
Kasyapa Buddha 181, 255.
Katyayaua 141, 245.
Kaveri, river 99 fn., 124.
Kaveripattana 181.
Keith, A. B. 1 fn.
Kekaya kingdom
Kekayas, the 156.
Kennedy 163, 163 fn.
Kern 192 fn.
Kha1,1dagiri 236.
Khara 133.
Kborasan 13, 17.
Khujjuttara 254.
city 183.
Sen Gupta 92 fn.
kingdom 95.
Kitagiri, nigama 181.
Klkata (= },Iagadba) 22.
Knox, H. 5.
KoE city 181.
Kaliya conntry 181.
Koliya city 200.
Koliyans 200.
Kosala 8, 95, 105 fn., 185, 187, 192, 237,
243, 253, 255; 263, 279.
181.
Kosamvi 181, 264.
Kosiyagotta 121, 192.
Kruffill, (= Kurrum) river 22.
Ktosias 163, 164, 260, 260 fn.
Kuhha, river
Kukuuilhas, the 139.
KukOrabhas, the 13D.
Kulli (fabrics) 16.
Kulluga 183.
KIIlIIlJlllLkarl)\ H7.
1\ Illulag:l.lllLL 183
city ISl.
Kuroool 8.
Kurram, river 22.
Kurunga 78.
Kurupallcbala country 166.
Kurus, the 81.
Kusa, prince 237.
Kusanagara 181.
180, 181.
Kusinara 181, 264.
Kuvera 147.
Kymore (cave paintings) 5.
La Cuperie 162.
Ladak 210.
Ladders, tbe 73.
Laksmi 142.
Lang-pa 162.
L
Lanka, city 103, 121, 146, 148, 162.
Larkana, district 11.
Lassen, C. 21, 21 fn. 71.
!jeormant 18, 72.
Levant 69.
Licbchhavis, the 252, 257.
Limbi 16.
Lomapada, King 97.
London 115, 214 in.
Longhurst 8 fn., 9 fn.
Ludwig 26, 51, 52 in. 74.
Lydekker, R. 210.
M
Mackay, E. 17 fn.
Macdonoll 22 fn., 23 fn., 25 fn., 26, 29, 32,'
33 fn., 34, 34 fn., 35 fn., 38, 38 fn., 44, 45
in, 46 in., 49, 49 0., 54 fn., 59, 63 fn., 66
n.,67, 68, 74 fn., 81,84 fn., 91 fa., 88
91 in., 12;l, 15'1,164 fn., 166 fn., 174 fn., ,
fn., 245 fll.
Al,atlhura city 181.
81.
Madras, tho 182.
Magadha 81, 95. 181, 184, 190, 191, 192,
238.
MahllnAma 198, 253,
M"Mpllrsva 147.
Mahidh"ra 107, 132.
Mahllgovinda 184.
M 76.
Mahllvlra 76.
Mahendl'l\ 264.
Malab"r Coast 72, 163.
MalayachBla bill 124.
Malaya Archipelago 162 fD.
180,
MalliH 253.
Manes, King 19.
Manlhar3 121.
Manu, 191, 147.
Manu, tho Great 28.
Manu as Adam of tho raco 84 fn., 89, 90.
Mann, law-giver 133, 248 Cn. 269.
Mann, the Indian Noah 1'51.
Marco Polo 164.
Margall& spur 184.
Marshall, Sir JOhD 11 fD., 184 {n.
Maski 4.
Mathnril. city 181.
Matsya 95,
(rock carvings) 5-6."
MauryaD 145, 166.
Mauryas the 165, 166.
Max Dunckel' 72.
Max Mullor 45, 57, 58, fn., 119, 135 fD.,
2 24 fn., 239 fD.
Maya 121, 147.
MAdnrA 56 fn.
MAgadhl, river 95.
Mllhissati city 181, 264.
MArnls 30, 18, 75.
:'Irc Crindle 70 fn., 163 fn., 202 fn.,210 fn.,
262 fn , 280 fn.
MedhYBtithi 78.,
Medbajanana ceremony 217.
Mediantish 21.
Mediterranean Sea 69.
341
Megasthenes 200, 210, 210 fn., 229, 280,
280 fn.
Mehi 16.
Mesha inscriptions 260.
Mesopotami 11, 14, 17.
Mihran, river 11.
M irzapur 6.
Mithila city 182, 185.
Mitra (god) 24.
Mohenzo Daro 11, 12, 14, 15, 16, 17, 18, 28,
73 fn., 120.
Montgomery 11.
Morbana Pahar 2.
Mrs. Manning 21 fn., 34 fD.
Mrs. Rhys Davids 74 fD, 193,360.
Muir 29, 49, 49 fn., 54 fn., 58.
Mujavant mountain 34.
Murree ridge 184.
Mutibas 81.
Mysore 4.
N
N. Dutt 192 In.
N. G. Mazamdar 11.
N. N. Ghosh 264 fn.
Nachiketas 121.
Naisadas 81.
NandaDaUnana 147.
Nandllua, city 182.
Nara canal, Eastern 11.
Navagvas SO.
Navavastva 153 fD.
94. 40.
Nagamul)da 253.
NagojibhaHa 165.
NalaDda 264.
Nearohos 74, 210, 226 fu., 228.
Nebonidus 17, 72, 163;
Nebuchllduezzar 17,72,163.
Nellore 2,
Nepal 214, 236.
Nerbudll fiDd 1.
Nilab, river 19.
Nilgiri .i,
Sister US {Il.
No,h, IDdi1l1l 1Gl.
Norlb America (j 1.
Naagarh 2.
o
Obermaier 1.
OldeDbnrg :iI, 8:;, 231, 233 fn.
Oldham 2 fD.
Opbir 71.
Ori .. 205, 216.
O.born 1 fa.
Oudb 81.
On. 73.
Paippallda 107 {D.
PaitblD lS2.
Pajra 78.
Palmyra H.
Pamp&. river 9:;.
p
P.ticban\-l Foree' 105 {D., 122.
P.tichaUradlya ceremony 110.
PafIohlnaDa Mitra' fn, 5, 5 f II., G Cu.
Parhn 63.
'. Hinkra oi'y b'2.
. ,rjaDya (pi) 31,79, 178, 1!Y.l.
178.
"nu 78.
UDj i.
'. Itilll 18:1, 237, 25:1
". eity 182, 26-11.
'1I8um 7.
""aD K!\!l r\ ylo 78.
, S I, .: . '81, 27
,h. h
l'al)iui 114 fn., 167, 202, 213, 216, 221,228,
236, 248, 251, 259, 265, 263, 268 Cn,
269, 269 fn., 274.
cou ntry 40, 48,
Pataligrama 184.
Patllliputra 184, 264.
r ataliputtaka. 182.
Percy Brown 5 fn.
Persia 17, 73, 163.
Persian Glllf 69, 70, 7'2, 73, 260, 261.
Pal)is, the 74, 79,
Persians 114, 135, 200 fn, 210.
Philostratus 18, 19.
Phronicia 69.
Phronicirms 69, 70.
Pijavana 78.
Pipru 26.
Piprawnh Stapa 214, 218, 229.
Pischel 26, 65.
Pliny 114, 135, 200 fn., 210.
Pooocke 19 fn., 20.
Polasllpura 182, 187, 225.
Potali city in kingdom 182.
Poto.li city in Asmaka kingdom 182.
Potana city 182.
Prajapo.ti 114, 125.
Pro.Sl\sts 147.
Prastoka 78.
Dr. 271.
Pr:ikrta dialects 269.
Prthusravas 79.
ptolemy 162 en
PnliDdas 81.
Pun 72.
Pnnna 263.
258.
PUl)dras 81.
Pnnt 18.
PIlrl)a 259.
Pnrnkutn. 151.
PDr\laru1si rite 141.
rn,han (god) 3:;, 36, H2.
R
R. 268 fD.
Ragozin 49, 49 fn., 67.
4, 5, 5 {D.
Raikka 89, 129, 173.
Rajjum:l.lii 255.
RamaJ;laka, city 182.
Ramea Dutt 28 fD.
Ramses 19.
RapsOD 23 fn., 25 fn., 38 fn., 67 fn., 68 fn.
81, 87 fn., 193 fn., 248 fD., Z66 fn.
17, 72, 163.
Rathavimoenniya oblations 165.
Raurava (= Roruka), cit,y 262.
Rflwalpindi 264.
RawlinsOD 73 {D., 209 fn., 210 fn., 280 fn.
182.
RajRgiha 18:2.
170, 180. 182, 186, 191, 192,
236, 256, 263.
Rajasiiya 110, 165, 174.
RakMIMliisfl Banerji 11.
Rama 19, 95, 105 fn., 120, 121, 122, 124,
125, 133,142,159, 174, 178.
commentnlor 223 fn.
Ripti, river 182.
RiivsJ;la 120, 121, 122, 124, 130,140, 14.'3,
170, 171, 17:1.
Rea 7, S fD.
Red Sea 69, '14,162.
ReiDand 162 fn.
RhiDocoln ra 70.
Rbys Davids 166, 182 fn., 183 fn., 188,
191 fn., 197 fn; 231, 233 fn., 234 fn.,
236 (D., 237 fn., 253, '256 fn, 262, 262n.,
263, 265 fn.
Ribbu824.
Richard, F. J. 9 fn.
Ridgeway, Prof. 9.
Rij 24, 63.
Robertson 70 fJ)1f
t
Rohil)i, river 181, 200.
Roman 66, 2:>4.
Rome 21, 153.
Rorub, city 182, 262.
Roth, Von 4'), 51, 52, 55, 12g, 156, 166.
Royla, Dr. 20, 70.
RuanweJle Dagoba 135.
Rudra (god) 36, 75, 76, 84.
Ru!amas 78, 173.
s
S. Krishnaswami Iyengar 73.
Sabaras 81.
Sabeans 72.
Sadamatta city 182.
Sagllla, city 182.
Sabajiiti 264.
Sahara, desert 19.
Sahri-Sokhta 16.
gRkuia 187.
Salt Range 34.
Samarrll 17.
Sambalpur 2.
Sambara, an !lsura 26, 27.
SalJlkissa. city 182.
182.
Sangai, river 2.
Santal Parganas 205.
Saptagu, a sage 55.
garkarii, nigama 182.
Saraju, river 22, 182.
Saraswati, river 22, 38, 81.
Saraswati 27.
80.
Satvllts
SannakB, a. slige 177 fn.
Sautramiil)[, rite 141.
Savitllr, (god) 161.
Saxony 122.
Sayce, Dr. 17, 72.
Sagllia,ocity 182, 264.
Slikale. C" Sialkot) 182.
34i
Sakata, city 179, 182, 264.
200, 236, 253.
Salavati 257.
Siilatura, city 182.
Salindiya, village 191.
city 182.
Siinchi Topes 233 fn.
156.
244.
Sayana 28 fn., 33, 46, 56, 79, 84, 89, 89 fn.,
90,100, 114, 128, 165, 166.
Schiern, Dr. 210.
Schoff 70 fn., 74 fn.
Schrader, Otto 22 fn., 24, ' 45, 49, 49 fn., 50,
130, 131.
Scotland 10.
Senegal, river 19,
Setavya, city 182.
Seth Mahetha 182.
Shalmanesar 163.
Sheftovitch 146.
Sialkot 182.
SidoD 69, 74.
Simrock 98 fn.
King 187.
SiI!lhala. lion-prince 261.
Sind 11, 12, 48, 66, 95. 112, 120, 153, 264,
265.
Sindan 11, 120.
Sindhu, river 38.
Singanpur 4.
Singhbbum :/.
Sirima 257.
Sistan 14, 17.
Siva 20.
Sivi, country 180, 181. 220. 265.
Sita 105, 120.122,123,124,1'61, 17r,.
SWi. (goddess of Furrow) 199.
Skylax 74,261.
Smith, Elliot 8.
Smith, V. A. 1 fn., 7, 7 fn., 61" 184 Cn.
2::16, 261 fn.
Soma, King 118.
Sou 95.
Sou vira, 95.
Sovira kingdom 183, 264.
Sravasti, city 179, 180, 182, 185, 180,
213, 237, 243, .244, 251, 259,263. 264,
265. 267.
Sru kta, an asu fa 27,
St. Paul 236.
Stein, Au riel Sir 11. 14.
Stevenson 34, 111 fn.
Strabo 70 fn., 199 fn., 200 fn., 212 In,
214 fn.
Subimal SarkaI' 51 fn.. 52. 57 fn., 119,
127 fn., 128.
Sudas 78, 156.
Sudadana hill 124.
Suez 14.
Sugrlvo. 161.
Suidaitissa 135.
Suma.tra 162 fn.
Sumer 13, 17, 72,73,260.
SUqlBUmara city 1B2-Sa.
Sumva kingdom 181.
83.
Sundas 19.
Supal'a, city 260.
Su piiraga, a pi lot 266.
Suppiiraka, city 183, 260, 262, 263.
Su rasenas, the 181.
Surundbana, city 182.
Suso. H. 17.
Suvarl)!\bhiimi (=13'uma) 261. 201 fll. 264..
Su varl)adwipa 162, 162 fn.
Suvarl)arekha, river 2.
SUV2.stu ( Swa.t), river 22.
SOrya 39.
Suryarika (= Sahara desert) 17.
Svanadratha 78.
Svanaya 78.
Sviitivati 183.
Swat, river 22.
Sylvain Levi, 84 fn.
Syncelllls 19.
Syria 73, 260.
183.
Talchir 2.
Tall hI!. Snnda 19.
Tf\njore 56 fn.
Tarshis 71.
T
Taxila 60, 82, 183, lS4, 199, 239,264.
Tamralipti 264.
Tilmraparl}i, river 6, 16.
Tamraparl)idwipa ( - Ceylon) 261, 261 fn.
Telavaha river 180.
Tennet 135 fn.
Tepeh Mnsyan 17.
Thebes 17.
Theobald 10.
Thorr 40.
Tigris, river 72, 73 fn.
Tilak, B. G. 91 fn.
Tinnevelly cemetries 6, 8.
Tinnevelly 4, 16,18.
Tirhnt 81.
Tirlndra 78.
Tirthi kas 186.
Tobit 106.
Touche La 4 fn.
Trasadasye. 78, 15:1.
133.
'I'rita. 30.
Tugra 68.
Turvase.s 153 fn.
Tvatr 62.
141.
Ty 108, isle 70.
Tyre 74.
u
U. N. Ghoaal 88, 88 fn.
I;. S. A. 165.
U dayagiri 236.
U dayana, King 181, 236.
U dicea Brahmins 238.
U grajit 177.
U grampaeya 177.
U jjain 183, 187 264
, .
UkkaHba, city 183.
Uktbya, rite 141.
U r 13, 17, 72, 163.
U einaras, th(81.
Uttarakosala 182.
Uttaraknrne 8l.
Uttara Madras 81.
Uttara Matbnra 183 .
Uttara Panchiila 243,265.
Vaidarva 82.
Vajjie, the 184.
v
Vala (Asura chief) 69.
Valaramapur 182.
Vanga 95, 187.
Val)ijagama 183, 257.
VaraQiiva.ti, river 158.
VaruQa (god) 24, 56, 67, 79.
Vasae, the 81.
68, H2, 191, 191 fn., 192, 193,
193 fn., 194, 195, 196, 226, 229, 249,
249 fn., 250, 250 fn., 267 fn., 271 fD.,
274,275,276,276 fD., 277, 277 fn.
VatsYll, country 236.
Vajapeya, ceremony 110, 141.
Valmikl 105 fo., 156.
Vali 129.
V!iriiJ}.aei '80.
Viisll.vllkhattiya 253.
Vayn (god) 34, 112.
Vedisa 264.
Veodidad 23.
Veiill 188, 185, 192, 24r40, 26
147.
Videha :'.; 166.
Vidnra 258.
Vimala 257.
Vincent, Dr. 20.
Vindhya.n regions 113, 158.
Virgil 70 fn.
30.
182, 217.
ViSpaUi 63.
King 156.
Viwantara, prince 274 n.
Viswiimitra 61, 64, 82, 156.
Viwllkarmlln 147.
ViswarDpa, a sage 141.
Vivindu 78.
Vratyas 130,137, 138, 165, 226.
Vrisa.Mgir 24.
Vrtra, asul'!l. cbief 30,69,96, 176.
V!tras 26.
w
Wnhindab 11.
Walhome, N. J. 8 fn.
Walker 247.
Wa'liristhan 14.
We ber 58, 98 fn., 150 fn., 172, 173 fn.
West End 185.
Wilkinson 21.
W'lson 27, 27 fn., 28 fn., 65, 77, 79, 89 fn.,
2lO.
VV lnCKler. 1.11' .l.\}-]'
Woolney 13, 17.
Wynalld 4, 5.
Xerxes, King 214.
Yama .. 128, 174.
Yamuna 22.
x
y
Yasodharfi 131.
Yavadwipa 162, 162 fn.
Yiidava 66.
Yadavas, tho 78, 153 fn.
183 fn.
Yajnabalkya Ill, 170.
Yaska 89 fn., 156.
Yeats, J. 162.
Yemen 18, 72.
Yimir, giant 61. .
Y ndhajit, Kekf\yaraja. 120, 121.
Zagros Range 73.
Ziggarats 230.
z
Zimmer 25, 25 fn., 52, 58, 74, 91 fn., 127,
142 fn., 150 fn., 227 fn.