ULEA 3519

STUDY GUIDE

COORDINATORS: J. N. IZAKS T.C. SMIT

COMPILORS

T. C. Smit J. Izaks A. Simataa L. Willemse B. Kaurivi A. Kanyimba K. Nampala C. Olivier S. Nyathi O. Iipinge B. Rickerts C. Masule N. Kaukuata A. Muteka

ADMINISTRATIVE STAFF

D. Nathinge

M. Eises G. Tjikundurura 2

CONTENTS

Unit 1: Unit 2: Unit 3: Unit 4: Unit 5: Unit 6: Unit 7: Unit 8: Unit 9: Unit 10: Unit 11: Unit 12:

Academic Listening, Comprehension and Note taking Basic Academic Skills Reading Academic Vocabulary Mechanics in Academic Writing Writing Academic Proposals Functional situations in academic writing Selecting and synthesising Applied Writing The APA reference style Editing and Revising Academic Speaking

Addendum 1: Writing with a computer Addendum 2: Marking grids

UNIT 1: ACADEMIC LISTENING COMPREHENSION AND NOTETAKING

Introduction Listening is not only an auditive activity; it also involves mental processes in order to organise the words and ideas which were heard according to their various relationships. Listening further calls for evaluation, acceptance or rejection, as well as internalisation and appreciation of those ideas expressed by the speaker. It also includes the understanding of meaning-bearing words, phrases, clauses and sentences in long stretches of connected talk (discourse). The listeners first responsibility is towards him or herself. One owes it to oneself to listen so that one can evaluate the information in terms of ones own background knowledge and attitudes (Viviers & Van Schalkwyk, 1996). Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to: Explain what is meant by academic listening comprehension; Identify the difficulties students experience in listening comprehension in academic lectures; Demonstrate the ability to take effective notes in academic lectures.

Activity 1 Each student in the class will be asked to give a short introduction of him/herself. Listen for the following information and write it down. Remember, you cannot ask for repetition if you have not heard what was said! 1. What is the students name? 2. Where did the student complete his/her school career? 3. What course does the student intend to follow this year?

1.1. Listening in the Academic Lecture Situation Listening in the academic lecture situation is not measured by correct responses to questions asked. The communication in the lecture is usually one-sided and the listener often does not have the opportunity to ask for repetition when something was not clearly heard or to ask a question when s/he did not understand what was said. Furthermore, the listener must understand discourse in a subject of which s/he requires a fair amount of pre-knowledge.

In an academic lecture, the listener must be able to distinguish between what is relevant and what is less important to the main purpose. According to Jordan (1997) the listener must also be able to: identify the purpose and scope of the lecture; identify the topic and follow the topic development throughout the lecture; identify the relationships among units within the lecture such as the major ideas, generalisations, hypotheses, supporting ideas, opinions, as well as examples; identify and interpret discourse markers; infer relationships such as cause and effect; draw conclusions of what has been said; recognise irrelevant matter such as when the lecturer makes a joke, drifts away from and returns to the main topic; interpret the non-verbal cues such as gestures and intonation as markers of emphasis and attitude (p. 180).

Activity 2 Write down some of the difficulties that you experience when listening to academic lectures.

1.2. Difficulties Students Experience in Academic Listening Comprehension Most people are bad listeners and are distracted by physical factors such as their status and prestige, as well as the people around them and their attitudes. Psychological factors such as needs, desires, prejudices, background, beliefs and intelligence also influence a persons listening skills. Most people, furthermore, carry on internal dialogues which shut out their surroundings completely. Laziness, apathy and lack of background knowledge also affect listening comprehension negatively (Viviers & Van Schalkwyk, 1996). Samovar & Mills (1976, as cited in Viviers & Van Schalkwyk, 1996) name the following bad habits as barriers to successful listening: pretending to listen; focusing on facts and ignoring the rest; ignoring what the listener finds uninteresting; criticising the delivery and ignoring the content; allowing him/herself to be distracted (p. 56). 5

In the academic lecture situation, students often encounter additional barriers to successful listening comprehension. For example, students may know words in their written form, but it may be difficult for them to understand specific English words in their spoken form in the lecture. The differing English accents of lecturers and the speed at which the lecture is delivered may cause further difficulties for English Second Language (ESL) students. Students may also be inexperienced at listening to English discourse about a specific topic; they may also have insufficient knowledge of the topic to understand the lecture. Moreover, students are often expected to combine listening with input from other sources such as hand-outs, notes and graphs on the black board or overhead projector. In such instances students attention is divided between the listening process and the visual input from the other data used by the lecturer, and it becomes harder to employ effective listening skills. 1.3. Improving Listening Skills According to Viviers and Van Schalkwyk (1996) listening skills can be improved by: being prepared and willing to listen; being interested in what is being said; being open-minded and receptive; being objective; listening critically and analytically; noting ideas, facts and reasoning; practising listening; deliberately providing feedback (verbally and non-verbally) (p. 56).

Activity 3 Write a few lines on your own way of taking notes while listening to a lecture. .. 1.4. Note-Taking in Academic Lectures Taking notes during the lecture may cause problems as it involves several processes, such as: the ability to distinguish between important and less important information; deciding when to record points so that other important points are not missed; the ability to write clearly and cohesively in a kind of personal shorthand; the ability to decipher ones own handwritten notes afterwards (Jordan, 1997, p. 179).

Taking effective notes in an academic lecture is extremely important to ensure a students success in his/her tertiary studies. According to Jordan (1997), there are several different types of note-taking such as: 1.4.1. Topic-relation notes: writing down a word or phrase to represent a section of the text; writing down a word in the students first language (hereafter L1) to explain a new English word; writing down verbatim what the lecturer has written on the board; writing down verbatim what the lecturer has said; inserting graphics.

1.4.2. Concept-ordering notes: listing topics in order, numbering; labeling points as main points; left-to-right indenting, using arrows, dashes, semi-circles to indicate relation among topics/points. 1.4.3. Focusing notes: highlighting; de-highlighting (writing in smaller letters). 1.4.4. Revising notes: inserting and drawing arrows back to earlier notes; erasing or crossing out older notes (p. 181). Brooks et al. (1995) regard the following rules for effective note-taking as important: Listen carefully; do not panic if a few points are missed just leave a space and inquire about them later. Include the important facts but omit less important details aim at summarising conclusions or arguments, but there is no need to include the arguments that lead to those conclusions. Leave unnecessary words and examples out of the summary. The language should be simple and, as far as possible, in the style of the lecture. Do not change the order of the original lecture (unless the original is confused and illogical) (p. 1).

Furthermore, in order to take effective notes the skills of understanding and discrimination are vital as the note-taker should be able to distinguish between main and secondary ideas;
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 interpret the relationships between ideas correctly; hear when it is a fact or the opinion of the speaker that is expressed and whether it is an idea or an example to illustrate the idea that is expressed; understand the use of conventional abbreviations, colloquialisms and contractions that may be used by the speaker; recognise and interpret discourse markers which help to structure the spoken text; interpret different registers used in the different lecturing styles, such as formal, conversational, reading, interactive styles, correctly (Brooks et al., p.1). 1.4.1. Discourse Markers in Note-Taking Hansen (1994) defines a discourse marker as an organizational signal that appears at the beginning and/or end of a unit of talk and is used by the speaker to indicate how what is being said is related to what has already been said (p. 143). In other words, discourse markers are those words which indicate to a listener that the speaker is going to break up the lecture into smaller units (segmentation), indicate a specific time frame (temporal), indicate a reason (causal), contrast (contrast) or even emphasise a point (emphasis). Examples of such discourse markers are: MicroSegmentation Markers Well OK Now And Right All right Temporal At that time And After this For the moment Eventually Causal So Then Because Contrast Both But Only On the other hand Emphasis O f course You can see You see Actually Obviously Unbelievably As you know In fact Naturally

Macro-Markers
What I'm going to talk about today is You probably know something about this already Another interesting development was You probably know that As you may have heard This is how it came about Here was a big problem It's really very interesting that You can imagine what happened next What we've come to by now was that What [bad] happened Then/after that was To begin with The surprising thing is Now where are we The problem [here] was that Thislthat was how The next thing was We'll see that That/this is why

One of the problems was This meant that This is not the end of the story In this way Our story doesn't finish there And that's all we'll talk about today _________________________________________________________________
Note: Charts taken and adapted from English for Academic Purposes: A Guide and Resource Book for Teachers, by R. R. Jordan, 1997, p. 184.

1.4.2. Common Symbols and Signs used in Note-Taking: When taking notes, it is necessary to write down a large amount of information very quickly. In order to simplify the task of taking notes, a note-taker will often make use of various symbols and signs. Some of the more commonly used symbols and signs are shown below. a. numbers and letters, e.g. 1, 2, 3; (i), (ii), (iii); A, B, C; (a), (b), (c); b. underlining, to draw attention to something or to emphasis something; c. common symbols and signs, e.g. .. - therefore; . - because - statement/answer is correct x - answer is wrong ? - question; is the statement correct / - or (this/that = this or that) &/+ - and/plus - a dash is often used to join ditto - means the same as the words ideas/replace words or immediately above the ditto marks punctuation marks = - is/are have/has/equals - does not equal -leads to/results in/causes __________________________________________________________________ _____
Note: Taken and adapted from English for Academic Purposes: A Guide and Resource Book for Teachers, by R. R. Jordan, 1997, p. 184.

1.4.3.Abbreviations Abbreviations are also often used when making notes to ensure efficiency and ease during the note-taking process. Many of these are to be found in an appendix in a dictionary; others are commonly used by English students. Some commonly used ones are shown below:
e.g. - for example i.e. - that is etc. - et cetera,: and so cf. - compare viz - namely 1st - first 2 - second 3rd - third etc. G.B. - Great Britain U.K. - United Kingdom
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c. - (or ca.) about/approximately N.B. - note C19 - nineteenth century similarly C20 etc. 1920s - i.e. 1920 -1929; similarly 1970s etc. approx. - approximately dept. - department diff.(s) - difficult(y)(-ies) excl. - excluding govt. - government imp. - important/importance incl. - including info. - information lang.- language ltd. - limited max. - maximum min. minimum

Eng. - English Brit. - British Q - question A - answer no. number p./pp. - page/pages poss. - possible/possibly prob. - probable/probably probs. problems re -with reference to/concerning ref. reference sts. students tho' though thro' through v - very

Note: English students often shorten words ending in `-ion' by writing `n' instead of these letters, e.g. `attent' instead of `attention'. Similarly words ending in `-ment' are often shortened e.g. `develop for `development'. ______________________________________________________________________
Note: Taken and adapted from Engliosh for Academic Purposes: A Guide and Resource Book for Teachers, by R. R. Jordan, 1997, p. 314.

1.5. Exercises and Self-Test Complete the following tasks without referring to the study guide. If you have taken notes during the lecture you make use of them when completing the tasks.

1.5.1. Write down FIVE problems that students encounter when listening to academic lectures.
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 1.5.2. Write down the FOUR different purposes for note-taking. 1.5.2. Write down THREE skills necessary for effective note-taking. References Brooks, B. H., Thurman, A. G., Wylde, D. B., Dymant, F., Cunningham, M. A., Stear, N. J. & Gosher, S. P. (1995). Insights: English First Language. Cape Town: Juta & Co, Ltd. Carter, R. & Nunan, D. (2001). The Cambridge Guide to teaching English to Speakers of Other Languages. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Hansen, C. (1994). Topic identification in lecture discourse. In J. Flowerdew (Ed.), Academic Listening. New York: Cambridge University Press. Jordan, R. R. (1997). English for Academic Purposes: A guide and resource book for teachers. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

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Viviers, D. & van Schalkwyk, H. (1996). Success with English Language and Communication Skills. Cape Town: Maskew Miller Longman (Pty) Ltd.

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UNIT 2: BASIC ACADEMIC STUDY SKILLS

INTRODUCTION

In academic institutions, lecturers and tutors emphasise the need to read efficiently and critically. Both undergraduate as well as postgraduate students are expected to become critical readers and develop a comprehensive approach to reading. If you want to be an achiever as a student, it is necessary to become a competent reader. There is no doubt that reading competence is closely linked to academic success (Du Toit, Heese & Orr, 199, p.3). Many authors of books or articles dealing with reading for academic purposes have drawn attention to the fact that reading for academic purposes differs from leisure reading. It is, therefore, vital for all university, college or technikon students to develop and improve their reading skills so that they can become efficient and effective readers. Effective reading requires certain skills and strategies. In this unit you will be introduced to various reading techniques, and you will learn how to interact with different texts and articles.

OBJECTIVES

At the end of this unit students should be able to: Examine or analyse a text or a manual; Examine or analyse a chapter or article using the first and the last paragraph; Use the strategy of skimming a text to get its gist or its general impression; Use the strategy of scanning to locate specifically required information;

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 Apply various reading strategies to read through a text quickly.

Reading techniques Surveying through a text or a manual (Text-mapping)

University or college students are required to read academic textbooks, journal articles and other academic texts. They are required to read this material closely and carefully in order to understand specific information. However, it is not possible to read every word in every book in the library. As a result, it is useful to learn reading techniques that can assist in assessing new material without wasting time in order to decide if a text is useful and which parts need to be read more carefully. It is also better to read a text in more detail when one has a general idea of what a text is about. When reading a text, it is very useful to look at it quickly to get an idea of the layout of the text and what is included. Firstly, skim through the text to see what is included and how it is organised. When skimming, look for the types of information listed below and on the following page. Not all texts will contain all of these items, but you can expect to find many of them in any given text. Title and subtitles

The titles and subtitles of a text can assist you in making important decisions about them. You need to ask yourself whether a text is relevant for your purpose,

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based on its title and subtitle, and what sort of information you expect to get from it. Details about the author

Knowing about the author of a text can be helpful- more specifically the authors academic position and his or her experience. Details about the author can be useful to verify whether the author has the required experience and expertise in a given field.

Date of publication and edition

Recent editions of texts have more updated information than older editions. Check the date of a texts publication. It is worth checking if there is a more recent publication.

Abstract

An abstract is usually a single paragraph at the beginning of a text. It normally summarises the different sections of a text and draws attention to the main conclusions. Reading the abstract will help you to decide whether or not a text is relevant for your purpose.

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 Preface, foreword or introduction

In the preface, foreword or introduction the author explains the purpose, organisation, method of presentation, and particular features which you should especially take note of. Read it carefully. The author is explaining how to get the most out of the book. Table of contents

The table of contents will give you an overall view of the material in the book. Looking at this is a quick and easy way to survey the book to see if it includes the information you need. Text

The layout of the text can assist you in deciding if a text contains the information you require. Text books are organised according to chapters, and chapters have titles and section headings. Very often, each chapter will start with an introduction of what is in the chapter and a summary at the end. Index

One of the most important sections of any textbook is the index at the end. This is a fairly detailed alphabetical listing of all major people, places, ideas, facts, or topics that a book contains, with page references. It is very useful to the reader as it assists in obtaining the required information much faster. The index can give

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you information about the topics covered in a book and the amount of attention paid to them.

Blurb The blurb is the publishers description of what a book is about, usually on the back cover of the book.. But remember the main purpose is to sell the book, so one must read the blurb critically and with caution. Reviewers comments

These are usually on the back of the cover, but remember they are chosen by the publisher and therefore will probably be also good. And again it is wise to read them with caution. Surveying a chapter or an article using first and last paragraphs

Usually the first and the last paragraphs of any text contain important information that can assist the reader to decide whether or not a text contains the required information. The former informs the reader of what is to come in a given text, and the latter is where the writer sums up the main points in a text. Read the opening paragraph The first paragraph is the writers opportunity to greet the reader. He or she may give an introduction on what is to come in a text. Some writers announce what
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they hope to discuss in the text. Some writers may explain why they are writing. Some writers just try to get the readers attention-they may ask a provocative question.

Read the closing paragraph The closing paragraph is the writers last chance to talk to the reader. He or she may have something important to say at the end. Some writers repeat the main idea once more. Some writers draw a conclusion stating that this is what they have been leading up to. Some writers summarise their thoughts; they tie all facts together.

Reading strategies

There are different reading techniques that can be applied when reading a text. Your purpose in reading determines which strategy to use. (Brown, 1994) argues that efficient reading comprise of clearly identifying the purpose of reading a book chapter or article. By so doing, you know what you are looking for and can take out potential distracting information.

Skimming

Skimming is a particular way of reading. It is a way of gathering as much information as possible from a text in the shortest amount of time possible. It is used for getting the gist or impression of a chapter or section of a text. You do not need to read the whole text. You simply look at the outstanding features of the text such as: headings, subheadings, pictures, graphs and font size. (Brown, 1994)
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observed that the advantage of skimming is that it enables the reader to predict the purpose of a text, the main message and some of the developing or supporting ideas. Furthermore it assists in activating students background knowledge on the issue at hand.

Activity 1 In 3 minutes skim through the article entitled The rise and fall of smoking and answer the questions that follow.

The rise and fall of smoking

It appears that the incident of smoking is decreasing in some Western countries but increasing in the developing countries. Davies reports:

In Britain there is a drop of 27 per cent in the number of cigarettes consumed. But many developing countries have seen a significant growth in the past decade. (Davies, 1986, p. 9). In China, for example, tobacco use has doubled in the past twenty years and there are now 200 million smokers smoking over two billion cigarettes a year (Davies, 1986, p.9). The major reason why cigarette smoking is decreasing in the West is that people have become aware of the danger that smoking causes to health. The World Watch Institute in the USA describes tobacco as being the cause of more deaths and suffering among adults than any other toxic material in the environment (Davies, 1986 p. 9).

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The reason that people in the West have become aware of these dangers is that they have been informed of them. For example, in Britain all cigarette packets and advertisements must contain the following warning: The Surgeon General has determined that smoking can be hazardous to your health (Upbeat, 1984, p.15). As a result, six out of ten British people want to stop smoking (Upbeat, 1983, pp. 28-9). Because of this decrease in smoking, tobacco companies are finding it difficult to sell their products in the West, and have begun to direct advertising towards developing countries. In these countries, there is less control on advertising and people are less aware of the dangers of smoking to health. Kriel (1979, p.16) also suggests that this advertising is more effective in the Third World because people aspire to the Western lifestyle it presents. The direction of marketing towards developing countries has caused an increase in smoking. Doctors and anti-smoking campaigners in developing countries want to make people aware of the dangers of smoking. However, the tobacco companies are very wealthy and powerful. For example, in South Africa they prevented the government-controlled television service from showing a programme on the dangers of smoking (Upbeat, 1984, p.15). It is not only the tobacco companies but also governments that make money from tobacco. They do so by means of taxes and duties. In South Africa in 1983, for example, the government received revenue of R467 190 000 from this source (Upbeat, 1984, p.15). In Mexico and Zimbabwe tobacco represents nearly a quarter of agricultural production and is, therefore, a major source of revenue to the government. In some countries, for example China and Korea, the companies are actually controlled by the state, thus increasing their profitability to the government. For these reasons the government has an interest in supporting the tobacco industry rather than informing the people of the dangers of smoking to health.
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In conclusion, it would seem that the major reason why the incidence of smoking is decreasing in some Western countries is that the people are well informed of the dangers of smoking. In the developing countries, the incidence of smoking is still increasing because it seems that the tobacco industry and governments prevent this information from reaching the people. Note: Taken and adapted from New Successful English Grade 12, by Blunt, R., Paizee, D., Parkin, G., & Peires, M. 2002, pp.212-213.

QUESTIONS

A)

Who is the author of this article?

________________________________________________________________ _____ B) What is the purpose of this article?

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ __________ C) What is the main topic or message of the article?

________________________________________________________________ ____ D) Write down everything else you learned from the article.

________________________________________________________________ ________________________________________________________________ __________

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 Scanning

Scanning is another style of reading. This is most useful when you are searching for specific information in a text, like a word or a phrase. An example of for scanning for information is when you are looking in a telephone directory for a particular persons name or when you look in the index of a book to see which page contains the information you want. Scanning helps one to look for names or dates, to find a definition of a key concept, or to list a certain number of supporting ideas. When you scan, you omit everything, in fact, except the one item you are looking for. When you scan you are looking for something specific. Scanning saves time. A competent reader is one who can among other things complete a reading task efficiently, without wasting time or effort.

Activity 2

In the following extract, quickly find the reference to the author whose approach is quoted. You have five seconds.

Premises on which community programmes for the prevention of crime are based

Naude & Stevens, 1988 (as cited in Du Toit, Heese & Orr, 1999) argues that to be really effective, a community programme for the prevention of crime must rest on certain basic premises. When these are formulated, they must not be confused with prescriptions for successful programme content: these indicate the content of the programme while premises reflect the value of the philosophical basis of the programme. For the sake of an orderly classification, we shall follow Amirs
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(1966, p.38-41) approach, dividing the premises into three categories, community aspects and programme aspects

Activity 3

In the extract below, find out what percentage of forgeries are forged cheques. You have five seconds.

Since then, fraud has become a flourishing business, which ranges from the forging of Doctors prescriptions and wills to cheques. About 70% of all forgeries are forged cheques. In America the total annual loss due to cheque forgeries is about 1.5 billion dollars which works out about 4 million dollars a day or 2 660 dollars a minute (Naude & Stevens, as cited in Du Toit, Heese & Orr, 1999, p. 43).

Speed reading

One way of enhancing efficient and effective reading is increasing your reading speed. Slow reading does not necessarily help one to understand difficult concepts and texts instead it can impair your understanding. If you succeed in increasing your reading speed on suitable material, reading may suddenly become less a burden. Once you find yourself reading with greater speed and ease, you are likely to gain confidence-an important characteristic of a good reader (Du Toit, Heese & Orr, 1999, p.15).

Activity 4

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Step 1: You have ten minutes to read the following extract. Then move on to step 2 and 3.

Step 2: How many words have you read in this time?

Step 3: Divide your total by ten.

Your answer will tell you how many words per minute you can read comfortably. If it is less than 200 words per minute, you need to work on this skill.

Martin Luther King: the legacy lives on By Tamryn Smith

THE RESOUNDING GUNSHOT that ended the life of leader Martin Luther King, Jr couldnt stop the fight for racial equality that he had set in motion. One of the great heroes of the 20th century, King took on the dragon of racism in the southern states of America, a dragon that would ultimately take his life. Kings supreme sacrifice followed a life dedicated to African-American equality. He learned early that things in the southern states were not as they should be. Segregation laws meant blacks and whites had to be kept apart in schools, houses, trains and buses, restaurants-even in jails, hospitals and homes for the blind. He grew up amid the horrors of the Ku Klux Klan, a white-only group that stages strange ceremonies and vicious lynchings wearing white hoods to conceal their identities. They had a goal: to scare black people into submission. If King learned anything from his family it was that he was just as good as anyone else. Born to Alberta and Martin Luther King, Sr in Atlanta, Georgia on 15
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January, 1929, Martin, his sister Christine and Brother Alfred Daniel grew up in a home dominated by Christian beliefs and religious music. When King was eight, his father took him out to buy a pair of shoes. An assistant told them hed be happy to serve them if they just moved to the seats at the back of the shop. These seats are for whites only, he said. They left the store. It was probably the first time I had seen daddy so furious, King remembered. I remember him muttering I dont care how long I have to live with this system, I am never going to accept it. Im going to oppose it until I die. At high school King was very popular. He was also a hardworking student, but that didnt save him from racial intolerance. Representing his school in Georgia at a public speaking competition, he won second place, but his trip was marred when their bus driver cursed and threatened them because they would not sit at the rear of the bus, separate from the whites. Finally, their teacher told them to give up their seats to white students. Besides a plethora of such racist incidents, high school was a good time for King, although he was disturbed by discrimination. It was hard to understand why I could ride wherever I pleased on the train from New York to Washington, and then had to change to a Jim Crow car to travel to Atlanta, he later explained. Kings real passion was religion. He was ordained to the Baptist ministry in February 1948 and was accepted at the Crozer Theological Seminary in April. It was here that he was introduced to the teachings and non-violent protest strategies of Mahatma Gandhi, with non-violence becoming central to his beliefs. At 23 King met Coretta Scott, a student at the New England Seminary of music. Her father became a role model for King because he never became bitter after his house and sawmill were burnt down by whites. A powerful romance began between Correta Scott and King, leading to their marriage on June 18, 1953. They had their first child, Yolanda, in 1955. By the end of that year King was thoroughly immersed in political activities and the National Association for the
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Advancement of Coloured People (NAACP). He was also involved in the NAACPs attempts to end discriminatory practices at the local public transport company. In Montgomery and many other southern cities at the time, black passengers were legally forced to sit in the back of the bus- even though they made up 70 percent of bus passengers. Things came to a head when a black woman, Rosa Parks, was arrested after refusing to give up her seat for a white passenger. The NAACP used the incident to rally the entire black community and Parks resistance set the stage for the rise to national leadership of the charismatic 26 year old pastor of Dexter Avenue Baptist Church. A one-day protest on Monday December 5, 1955 continued until May the next year, when the US Supreme Court ruled that the bus segregation law was unconstitutional. People always say that I didnt give up my seat because I was tired, Parks says inn her autobiography. I was not tired physically. No, the only tired I was, was tired of giving in. By 1963, the Kings had three more children. The family had endured threats to their lives and bombings, and King had been arrested for his involvement in protest activities. It was at a march in Washington in August 1963 that King gave his most famous speech, I have a dream, one that drew national attention to one hundred years of unfulfilled social and political promises. When King arrived in Washington, the draft for his speech wasnt finishedhe finally completed it after midnight, when it was typed by his staff, copied and then later distributed to reporters. He started out reading the speech, but was so overwhelmed by the audiences response that he started speaking off the cuff, beginning, I have a dream that one day on the red hills of Georgia, the sons of former slaves and the sons of former slave-owners will be able to sit down together at the table of brotherhood. This speech became one of the best-known speeches of the twentieth century, and it continues to inspire oppressed people throughout the world.
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The summer of 1964 was an exhausting time for King. After he returned from a trip to Germany, Coretta encouraged King to check into hospital and get a few days rest. So it was she also received the news that her husband had been awarded the Nobel Peace Price for 1964. I realised that this was exactly the sort of lift that Martin desperately needed, said Coretta, and in that moment I was filled with joy. Kings Memphis march was his last. He had been previously criticised in Memphis for staying at the Holiday Inn, which was considered too fancy. His staff felt that it was the safest place for him, but, sensitive to criticism, he reserved rooms in the black owned and operated Lorraine Motel close to the area where such marches were usually started. The day after giving his Ive been to the mountaintop speech, King dressed to go out to dinner. Then he went out on the little balcony facing the street. Ben Branch, who was to play at the meeting later that night, was standing below the balcony. King called down to him, be sure to sing Precious Lord, Take My Hand for me tonight, Ben. Sing it real pretty. Solomon Jones, who was to drive the car that evening, called up. Its getting really chilly, Dr King. Better take an overcoat. King said, okay, I will. Then several shotguns rang out. King was struck in the face and the right jaw by a bullet from the gun of James Earl Ray, who was eventually convicted of his murder. When the news of Kings assassination was broadcast, rioting and violence erupted in 110 cities in the United States. Kings funeral took place on Tuesday April 9, 1968 in Atlanta, and its estimated that as many as 80 000 people surrounded the church. On the day of his burial, the senates version of the Civil Rights Bill was passed. It outlawed discriminatory practises that Prevented African-Americans and
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other minorities from obtaining housing in neighbourhoods of their choice. Martin Luther Kings sacrifice was not in vain. _____________________________________________________________ _____ Note: taken and adapted from New Successful English Grade 12, by Blunt, R., Paizee, D., Parkin, G., & Peires, M. 2002, pp.69-71.

Activity 5

Answer the following questions based on the reading

1. What were the two dominant beliefs King learned from his parents? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________ 2. Kings father said of the racist system in America, Im going to oppose it until I die. Why could his sons life and death be considered ironic in the light of this statement? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ____________ 3. In what way was Mahatma Ghandis philosophy towards resistance evident in Kings life? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ____________
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4. What is ironic about Kings life and death, considering that Ghandi was one of his role models? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ____________ 5. What indication had there been earlier in Kings life that he would be a powerful public speaker? __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ ____________

REFERENCE LIST

Blunt, R., Paizee, D., Parkin, G., & Peires, M. (2002). New successful English grade 12. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Brown, H.D. (1994). Teaching by principles: an interactive approach to language pedagogy. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.

Du Toit, P., Heese, M., & Orr, M. (1999). Practical guide to reading, thinking and writing skills. Cape Town: Oxford University Press.

Reading academically. (2003). Retrieved January 19, 2007, from University of Southampton web site: http://www.study

skills.soton.ac./uk/studytips/readingskills.htm

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UNIT 3 ACADEMIC READING Introduction It is of vital importance to understand that reading is not a passive process i. e., where the reader moves his or her eyes from left to right in order to construct meaning from a text (decoding). In order for true comprehension of a text to occur, reading should actively involve cognition as well as the recognition and comprehension of vocabulary in a text (comprehension). Reading is, therefore, actually a highly complex process of interaction between reader and text (Haarman, Leech, Murray and Murray, 1988, p.8); hence, the interactive process of reading. Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to: Explain what academic reading entails; Describe the processes involved in reading; Predict the contents of an academic text; Distinguish between main ideas and supporting ideas in academic texts; Demonstrate the ability to take notes while reading; Analyse academic texts to infer meaning; Examine relations within texts by looking for anaphora and cataphora; Prepare written summaries of academic texts by outlining main ideas; Analyse academic texts critically; Distinguish between fact and opinion in academic texts. How well a reader constructs meaning of a text depends mainly on: Background knowledge; Linguistic competence; Motivation for reading; Purpose for reading; Expectations ; Reading strategies applied; Text structure.
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Activity 1

1.1. In your own words, describe what you think is meant by each of the terms that determine effective reading that were mentioned in the section above.

1.2.

Test yourself

The section that follows is a test of some reading aspects that are important in order to fully comprehend academic texts. Do the test in order to determine your reading ability at this stage.

31

Section A Look at the following example carefully:

Male domain refers to the mistaken idea that some school subjects are exclusively for males and that females should not take them. This has led to many females shunning these subjects, and consequently careers in which these subjects are a pre -requisite in favour of those they believe are appropriate for females. It has also been extended to employment where some jobs, especially those that require manual work, are regarded as
Now, read through the following paragraphs and:

masculine and not for any respectable lady to do. p p21).

1 Underline the words to which the words in bold refer to. (12) 2 Note: Taken andarrows from Reading forthese words are linked. Draw adapted to show how the Social Sciences, by L Haarman,1988, p. 21.

In March 1898 representatives of several illegal Marxist groups met in Minsk to establish the Russian Social Democratic Workers Party. Its leaders, however, were almost immediately arrested by the police, and the Social Democratic Movement took political shape among Russian exiles in Western Europe. At its second congress in 1903 there appeared a rift between the followers of Lenin and the rest. Lenin maintained that the party should be confined to full time professional revolutionaries, while others preferred a mass working class party as their aim. Lenin took for his faction the name Bolshevik (derived from bolshistvo, majority), because it had won a majority in the election of the partys key bodies. His opponents became known as Mensheviks (derived from menshinstvo, minority). In fact, in the following decade the factions within the movement were extremely adaptable, and no single group for any length of time had clear majority support among the party membership. The different Populist illegal groups in Russia also made efforts to unite, and at a conference held in 1902 in Switzerland they formed a Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (S.R.s). This partys leadership came principally from the intelligentsia. Its aim was to appeal above to all the peasants, whereas the Social Democrats laid the main emphasis on the industrial working class. In practice it was hard to establish contact with peasants, because of their scattered distribution and the ease with which the police could observe the entry of strangers into villages. Consequently, the S. Rs, no less than the Social Democrats, found their mass support in

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the cities.
(Note:Taken and adapted from Reading for the Social Sciences, by L Haarman,1988, p. 91.

Section B
Now, please answer the following questions about the text above: 1 In your own words, explain why the Bolshevik and the Mensheviks were formed.

______________________________________________________ 2

(4)

Complete the following sentence by deleting the wrong word in brackets: The Party of Socialist Revolutionaries was formed (before/after) the Russian Social Democratic Workers was established. The Party of Socialist Revolutionaries (and/ but not) the Russian Social Democratic Workers have most of their supporters based in cities. (2)

Section C
1 Read each of the paragraphs below. In each case, a sentence has been omitted (left out) from the paragraph. The omitted sentence is given at the bottom of each paragraph. Indicate in the paragraphs by means of an arrow like this , where in the paragraph you would insert the omitted sentence. N.B. The sentence can be inserted at the beginning, anywhere in the body, or at the end of the paragraph. For example: Economics is concerned with the production of goods and services. It deals with such factors as the flow of money and the relationship of prices to supply and demand. Neither do they study business enterprises as social organizations. Omitted sentence: Few economists, however, pay much attention to an individuals actual behavior or attitude toward his or her job or toward money. Now, do the same with the following paragraphs: a. Although we often assume that old age brings with it the curse of poor health, a 1981 Harris survey tells us that only 21 percent of the respondents over 65 claimed poor health to be a serious problem. So although health problems are more common, they are not nearly as widespread or devastating as we may think. It should also be noted that poor health among the elderly is very much related to income and educational levels. Omitted sentence: That compares to 8 percent in the 18 to 54 age range and 18 percent in the 55 to 65 age range.

b.

In one case study (Kalish and Reynolds, 1976), adults over 60 did more frequently think and talk about

33

death than did younger adults surveyed. However, of all the adults in the study, the oldest group expressed the least fear of death, some even saying they were eager for it. Omitted sentence: Although elderly people may have to deal with dying and death, they are generally less morbid about it than are adolescents (Lanetto, 1980). c. As the middle years of adulthood approach, many aspects of life become settled. They have chosen their life-style and have grown accustomed to it. They have a family. They have chosen what it is to be their major life work or career.

Omitted sentence: By the time most people reach the age of 40, their place in the framework of society is fairly well set. (3) 2 The sentences below all belong in the same paragraph, but unfortunately their order has been scrambled (mixed up). You must try to make sense of each paragraph by re-arranging the sentences into their correct order. Write down the correct order of the sentences, as indicated below. (N.B. Do not write out the sentences, just the order in which they should follow each other.) (i) a. b. c. d.

These changes can give you a clue as to the possibility of drug abuse. For example, a change in behaviour which can be sudden or gradual. For a person who is a regular user of drugs, there will be noticeable changes in his/her life. Furthermore, school performance changes. This paragraph should be arranged in the following way : 1._______2___________3_________________4____________

(ii) a. b. c. d.

These may come from the home, the community, peers or from academic demands. This compounds their difficulties further. Today, the school-going youth are experiencing a lot of pressures. At the same time they are in a stage of development which is characterized by diverse personal problems which often interferes with all the others. This paragraph should be re-ordered in the following way : 1_________2________________3_____________4____________ (8)

Total = 29 marks
(Note: Taken and adapted from The Effects of Promoting Reading Comprehension Skills among University Students, by L Willemse, 2006,p. 250.)

34

Interpretation of reading scores:

Independent level- at least 90% comprehension.

Able to access information from texts without information and be able to learn from it.

Instructional level- at least 75% comprehension.

Assumed to benefit from reading instruction.

Borderline level- at least 55- 74% comprehension.

Borderline cases that should receive intensive reading instruction.

Frustration level- 50% or less comprehension.

Very weak readers. Only way to overcome reading difficulties is with intensive instruction.

1 Academic texts have the following features: Have a very specific structure;
1.1 Contain condensed information; Contain new information; Make more complex linguistic and academic demands on students. Academic texts require students to:

35

Apply various cognitive strategies. For example, o Enumerate; o Perceive order; o Compare and contrast; o Comprehend cause and effect; o Solve problems; o Make decisions; o Relate new information to previous knowledge; Read at a fast pace; Read for main ideas; Have advanced knowledge of the language of instruction; Know the high-frequency words; Have an extensive academic vocabulary.

Various phases involved in academic reading

2.1 Pre-reading phase

During this stage, you should think about : Your purpose for reading i.e., why you are reading a specific passage; The topic you are going to read about.

This stage of reading is important in order to: activate background knowledge; establish how much or little you know about the topic; establish how much you want to know about the topic; determine main and supporting ideas.

In order to pre-read, the reader should read the: Title; Name of author; Headings, subheadings; All words in bold; Visuals; Introduction; Last paragraph.

In addition, the reader should also do the following:

When there are main headings, turn headings into questions; 36

When there are no main headings, turn first sentence of paragraphs into questions (Becker and Skiddel, 1996).

Activity 2 You are about to read an article entitled Smoking. Without reading it closely, look at it and answer the following questions: 1 2 3 4 5 What do you think the text will be about? Do you know anything about the author? If yes, what exactly? How much do you already know about the topic? What would you like to know about the topic? What topics will be covered in the passage?

Smoking
1. In 1964, the Surgeon General of the United States issued a famous report concluding that cigarette smoke is a direct cause of lung cancer. And since 1966, every pack of cigarettes in the Unites States has carried a health warning. More recently, the major role of smoking in causing heart disease has been firmly established. Smoking has been conclusively linked to many other diseases as well, including bronchitis, emphysema, larynx cancer and pancreatic cancer. There is also mounting evidence that simply being exposed to other peoples smoke increases the risk of lung disease, especially in children.

2.

Statistics about smoking and its ill effects

Despite these deadly effects, however, about 35 percent of adult men and 25 percent of adult women in the United States smoke cigarettes, averaging one and a half packets a day for a national grand total of some 600 billion packs a year (U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1981). Because cigarette smoking is generally viewed as the most important behavioral risk to health, it has become a central concern of health psychologists. Given the general knowledge of the health risks of smoking, it is no wonder that the majority of smokers have tried at some time in their lives to quit. But in most cases, their attempts have been unsuccessful. People begin smoking, often when they are adolescents, for various reasons, including the examples of parents and pressure from peers. If others in ones group of friends are starting to smoke, it can be hard to resist going along with the crowd. Once people start smoking, they are likely to get hooked. The addiction to smoking is partly physiological; smokers become used to the effects of nicotine and experience painful withdrawal symptoms when they give it up. In addition, people become psychologically dependent on smoking as a way of reducing anxiety and coping with particular situations. Because of these physiological and psychological forces, quitting is difficult and the relapse rate is high. 37

3.

4.

5.

Psychologists have developed a variety of behavioral modification techniques to help people smoking. In the rapid smoking technique, smokers in a clinic or lab are asked to smoke continually, puffing every six to eight seconds, until they cant tolerate it any longer. This technique is an example of a form of classical conditioning called aversive conditioning. Making smoking a painful (or aversive) rather than pleasant experience can create a conditioned aversion in the smoker, motivating him/her to avoid smoking even when he/she leaves the clinic. Methods used to prevent people from smoking Smoking cessation programmes also commonly teach people techniques of stimulus control, in which smokers learn first to become aware of the stimuli and situations that commonly lead to smoking, and then to avoid these situations or to develop alternative behaviors. If you find, for example that you usually smoke while drinking an afterdinner cup of coffee, you might do well to give up coffee and take an invigorating, smokeless after-dinner walk instead. Reasons why people start and continue to smoke 7 Programmes that include such techniques often help people stop smoking for a period of weeks or months. The problem is that within six months to a year 80 to 85 percent of the quitters return to their smoky ways (Licthenstein, 1982). One factor that often seems to help a reformed smoker stay off cigarettes is the encouragement and support of a spouse or other close family members or friends (Ockene et al., 1982). There is reason to believe that a large proportion of smokers can quit for good if they are strongly motivated to do so (Schacter, 1982). But the fact remains that so far there is no programme that can consistently enable people to stay of the weed. (Note: Taken and adapted from: Academic Encounters. Seal, 1997, p. 154) 2 While reading phase The while reading phase of reading: Allows the reader to connect with and understand the authors ideas, as well as the authors purpose in writing a particular text. During the while reading phase of reading the reader is actively: Examining text structure; Examining relations within a text through anaphoric resolution and semantic clues; Taking notes while reading; Identifying main ideas and controlling ideas in each paragraph in a text; Identifying important details; Inferring main ideas not explicitly stated in a text; Guessing the meaning of words in context.

6.

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2.2.1 Anaphoric resolution Anaphoric resolution is important because it:

Enables readers to link new information in texts with previous information; Allows readers to see how words and phrases are related; Uses to avoid repetition; Examples: pronouns, repetition of nouns, determiners, paraphrasing.

Activity 3 In the following passage all of the italicized words refer to something mentioned before or after, in the text. Read it carefully, and then complete the table that follows.
The idea of evolution (which is gradual change) was not a new one. The Greeks had thought of it, so had Erasmus Darwin, the grandfather of Charles, and also the Frenchman, Lamarck. It is one thing to have an idea; we can all guess and sometimes make a lucky guess. It is quite another thing to produce a proof of the correctness of that idea. Darwin though he had that proof in his note books. He saw that all animals had a struggle to survive. Those which were best at surviving their environment passed on the good qualities which had helped them to their descendants. This was called survival of the fittest. For example, in a cold climate, those who have the warmest fur will live. Darwin believed that this necessity for an animal to deal with its environment explained the immense variety of creatures.

(Note: Taken and adapted from Developing reading skills by Grellet, 1999, p. 46)

Word

Refers to:

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2.2.2 Semantic relations in a text

Semantic relations in texts have the following functions. They: Indicate text organistion; Show how ideas in texts relate to each other; Show cohesion.

There are five main types of semantic relations:

Additive Temporal Causal Adversative Concession

Willemse (2006) defines these types of semantic relations as follows:

Additive

These are words used to add to existing information that are expressed in a sentence or a clause. Linking words, for example, also, besides, as well as are examples of such words. The conjunctions that signal the additive semantic relations are underlined in the following sentence: Besides being the youngest, I am also the tallest.

Temporal

40

These are words used to show a time sequence or listing. Linking words such as firstly,

secondly, finally, meanwhile are examples of such words. The conjunctions that signal
temporal semantic relations are underlined in the following sentence: After such a long engagement, they have finally decided to tie the knot.

Causal

These are words showing the underlying reason or premise or cause of why something stated in a phrase, sentence or paragraph happened. For example, since, because, for this

reason, in that case, on account of this. The conjunction that signal causal semantic
relation is underlined in the following sentence: I have not had a holiday in years. It is for this reason that I decided to accept her invitation to visit her in Mauritius.

Adversative

These are words showing opposing or contrasting views stated in a phrase, sentence or paragraph. For example, nevertheless, even so, despite, however, on the other hand. The conjunction that signals adversative semantic relation is underlined in the following sentence: Despite several warnings, my sister still walks around alone at night.

Concession

These are words that indicate an allowance or compromise. For example, although,( even)

though, granted, of course,

The conjunction that signals the semantic relation that indicate concession is underlined in the following sentence: I have invited him to attend my birthday party even though he is not my friend.
Activity 4 41

Read the following text, and select the word that expresses the most appropriate semantic relation from the list given below. Circle the correct response. A colour consultant from Toronto explained about an ingenious scheme which a company had conceived for increasing the sale of potato peelers. He began by pointing out a puzzling fact. _____________(1)____________ potato peelers never wear out, enough are sold in two years to put one in every home. What happens to them? He gave this answer. Investigation reveals that they get thrown away with the potato peelings. One of his colleagues, he added, had then come up with a dazzling plan for helping along this throw-away process. He proposed that their company paint peelers as much like a potato peeling as possible. _______________(2)__________________ a potato coloured peeler wouldnt have much eye- appeal on the sales counter. They decided to solve that by displaying the peeler on a clolourful card. Once the housewife got the peeler home and removed the bright card, the chances that she would loose the peeler were excellent. In some cases the consumers have no choice but to be waste makers ___(3)__________the way products are sold to them. Many a paste pots come with brushes built into cover, and the brushes fail by a half-inch to reach the bottom. __________(4)_____________________ millions of empty jars are throw away with a few spoonfuls of paste still in them. _____(5)______________, millions of used tubes of lipstick are thrown away with a half-inch of lipstick remaining in the tube.
(Note: Taken and adapted from Developing reading skills by Grellet,1999,p.49)

a) because b) although c) for example d) since a) in addition b) on the contrary c) in this way d) however a) in spite of b) because of c) as d) in addition to a) similarly b) for example c) however 42

d) thus (= in this way) 5 a) likewise (= similarly) b) on the contrary c) yet d) for instance Locating main ideas

2.2.2

The main idea of a text is the central point of a text. In order to find the main idea, a reader needs to identify: The topic i.e., what the text is mainly about. (This can already take place during the pre reading phase.) The main ideas i.e., what the writer is saying about the topic. This is located in the topic sentence of each paragraph.

Activity 5 In each of the paragraphs below, Find the topic, Underline the topic sentence, Write the main idea in your own words.

Example: Social Scientists are interested in how people live. They are interested in what is happening to cities today. Some new cities have been planned with the help of social scientists. It is possible that social scientists will have much to do with the planning of new cities in the future. Topic: Main Idea: Social Scientists Social Scientists might help plan future cities.

1 People like the convenience of packed foods, but they are sometimes doubtful about the nutritional value. They are especially concerned about the additives, with little or no food value, which many processed foods contain. Examples of additives are caramel color, artificial flavors, propionate, citrate, and nitrate. Additives improve the flavor, appearance, color, or texture of a food product, or they help keep the product from spoiling. Topic: Main idea: 2 A substantial breakfast helps balance your daily diet. Experiments at the University of Iowa showed that students who ate adequate breakfasts were more alert, did better work, and maintained better health generally. Those who went to class without breakfast tended to get overly hungry, and they made up the missing calories by nibbling and overeating the rest of the day.

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Topic: Main idea:

(Note: Taken and adapted from The main idea: Reading to learn by Becker and Skiddel, 1996, p. 68)

2.2.3.1 Locating unstated main ideas in a text. When the main idea is not explicitly stated in a text, the reader has to infer it based on other information given in a paragraph. Readers infer meaning based on previous information. Inferencing takes place on a daily basis in all walks of life. For example, if you were going on a blind date and were told that your date has a good sense of humour, you would expect to have fun. You would have made that inference based on the knowledge that your date has a good sense of humour.

Activity 6 Read the following paragraphs. Find: the topic; the unstated main idea of each paragraph.

Example: I once heard an engineer who spoke to all sorts of community groups about his corporations engineering projects. Unfortunately, he spoke the same way to graduate engineering students as he did to retirees who had no previous experience in the field. You can imagine how well his highly technical speeches when over the retirees. Topic: Main idea: Explanation: to infer that retirees. An engineers speech The speech was inappropriate for his audience. The writer does not state the main idea, but gives examples that lead the reader the engineer should not give the same speech to graduate students as he does to

1 People used to feel safe and comfortable in their own homes. Family activities, going out with friends, or dining in a restaurant used to provide entertainment. Things are different now. These days, people read about violence in the newspaper or see it on television, they just hope that is\t doesnt come into their own lives either inside or outside their homes. Topic: Main Idea:
(Note: Taken and adapted from The main idea: Reading to learn by Becker and Skiddel,

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1996 ,p. 72)

2.2.3.2 Finding supporting ideas in a text Writers support their main ideas by giving: Facts; Examples; Proof and/or; Explanations.

Activity 7 In the following paragraphs, find: The topic, Main idea, Supporting idea(s).

1 There is evidence that grades are often the only recognition female students receive in the math classroom. Several studies document that in high school and college, boys get significantly more attention from both male and female math teachers. Boys are spoken to more, called on more and receive more corrective feedback, social interaction, individual instruction, praise and encouragement. There is one form of attention bestowed more frequently on girls. In one study of ten geometry classes, girls received 84 percent of the discouraging comments. 2 A fundamental reason for both the historic and contemporary success of snappers is that they are among the most reproductively vigorous of turtles. Mating occurs from April through November. When ready to lay, which she may do once a year in northern areas, sometimes twice a year in warm climates, a female leaves the water and scoops out a depression. In it she may deposit 90 or more eggs, though more typically there are 20 to 40 in each clutch. The eggs have thin, somewhat flexible shells. They are spherical and about an inch in diameter. After laying them, the female covers and smooths over the nest, to roughly camouflage or protect it, and then she leaves the site. With the sun providing incubating heat, hatchlings usually begin to emerge from the shells 55 to 90 days later. (Note: Taken and adapted from The main idea: Reading to learn by Becker and Skiddel, 1996 ,p. 78)

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2.3

Post - reading phase

During this phase of reading, the reader needs to apply strategies in order to organise information identified during the pre- and while- reading phases in a meaningful way. In academic reading, this stage is vital if students want to perform well on tests, write meaningful assignments or participate in class discussions. Summarising What is meant by summarising? Short/ condensed version of original information; Review of authors controlling, main and supporting ideas.

How does one summarise? Preview, mark and annonate text; Find controlling, main and supporting ideas.

Activity 8: As you read the following text, Identify the controlling idea, Take notes of the main ideas, Write a summary. Giftedness The Terman Study How can we describe intellectually gifted individuals? Most of what we know about the mentally gifted comes directly or indirectly from a classic study begun by L. M. Terman in the early 1920s. This is the same Terman who revised Binets IQ test in 1916. Terman supervised the testing of more that a quarter of a million children throughout California. Termans research group at StanfordUniversity focused its
46

attention on those children who earned the highest scores- about 1500 in all, each with an IQ of over 135. Lewis Terman died in 1956, but the study of those mentally gifted individualswho were between the ages of 8 and 12 in 1922- still continues. Ever since their inclusion in the original study, and at regular intervals, they have been retested,surveyed, interviewed and polled by psychologists still at Stanford. The Terman study has its drawbacks- choosing a very narrow definition of gifted in terms of IQ alone is an obvious one. Failing to control for factors such as socioeconomic level or parents educational level is another. Nonetheless, the study is an impressive one for having been continued for more that 60 years, if nothing else. What can this longitudinal analysis tell us about people with very high IQs? Most of Termans results fly in the face of the common stereotype of the bright child as being skinny, anxious, and clumsy, of poor health and almost certainly wearing thick glasses. The data just do not support the stereotype. In fact, if there is any overall conclusion that might be drawn from this study, it is that, in general, gifted children experience advantages in virtually everything. They are taller, faster, better coordinated, have better eyesight, fewer emotional problems, and tend to stay married longer than average. These findings have been confirmed by others. All sorts of obvious things are also true of this sample of bright children, now oldsters. They received much more education, found better, higher-paying jobs, and had more intelligent children than did children of average intelligence, By now, we certainly know better that to overgeneralize. Every one of Termans children (sometimes referred to as Termites) did not grow up to be rich and famousand live happily ever after. They truth is that many did, but not all.
(Note: Taken and adapted from Academic Encounters, Seal, 1997, p 152)

Critical reading What does the term mean? It is a process that helps us interpret information so that we can make intelligent decisions about what we have read (Grellet,1999, p. 185). 2.3.3 Text evaluation In order to evaluate a text, ask yourself:
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Who wrote this text? Who was it written for? What is the main topic? What is the main idea? What is the writers viewpoint? Is the evidence logical, truthful and supportive of the information? Did the writer leave out any information? Can you accept or reject the argument presented based on the information given?

Why should one read critically? If one fails to read critically, one can misunderstand the text even though all the words are understood. Furthermore, we need to read a text critically to decide for ourselves whether we should accept or reject an authors argument.

Activity 10 Re-read the text entitled Smoking that you read for the Activity 2. Then, answer the questions that follow: 1 After reading this passage, can you tell whether it is: 2 a letter to the editor a passage from a novel a passage from a science fiction story a passage from a horror story.

What is the authors intention in this passage? (There may be more than one answer)

to amuse the reader to predict what the future will be like to shock the reader to reassure the reader about the future to criticise society
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 to teach us something about life in the future 3 In this passage you can feel the authors attitude towards human beings. His attitude is one of: 4 indifference; sympathy; pity; admiration; anxiety; detachment hiding concern; criticism.

The tone of the article is: matter of fact; humorous; ironic.

2.3.4 Fact vs opinion Facts can be Observed, Proven, Verified. For example: Namibia gained independence on 21 March 1990. After the recent storm, the Avis dam was 6 metres deep. Sydney got an A for his Psychology assignment. The name of this course is English For Academic Purposes.

All the above statements are Facts because they can be verified.
Opinions are Statements that cannot be proven 49

 Based on a persons feelings or beliefs

Read the following opinions based on the facts above: Namibia gained its independene on 21 March 1990 because that was a date most Namibians preferred. The dogs enjoyed swimming in the 6 metre deep Avis Dam after the recent storm. I think that Sydney is the most intelligent person in his class. This course, English For Academic Purposes, will improve your ability to read in English.

In order to determine whether statements are facts or opinions, ask the following questions: Can the statement be proven or verified? Can the statement be disputed? Activity 11 Group work Activity: Re-read the text entitled Smoking. Break up into seven groups. Each group is given a paragraph to analyse. See how many facts and opinions are stated in each paragraph. Give reasons for your answers. Then report your findings to the class afterwards. 2.3.5 Making inferences Writers do not spell out everything. Instead they supply information and expect readers to make inferences or educated guesses, conclusions or judgements based on what they have read. When inferencing, readers interpret and understand information. It is also called reading between the lines.

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For example, when your lecturer returns your test in which you scored an A, smiles and says: Well done!, you would infer he or she is pleased with your work. On the other hand, if you scored an F symbol, and the lecturer still says: Well done!, you would infer that he or she is being sarcastic. How to make inferences from written information: Read the information; Look for hidden meanings and analyse the writers language, purpose, attitudes and feelings; Make sure your inferences are supported by information provided in the text.

Activity 12 Read the following paragraphs taken from newspapers. Then list all the inferences you can make by using the following as guidelines: Background information; Writers opinion; Writers language; Hidden meaning (read between the lines). NB: Do not make foolish guesses or mistinterpret what the writer wants to say!

1 It is against the law to beg in public places. Now those who persist can face up to 15 days in jail. But what happens on day 16? Last year, more than 300 000 summonses were issued for panhandling. Hint: The problem did not evaporate. 2 Under current Food and Drug Administration regulations, cigarettes would not be accepted for marketing if they were introduced today. But cigarettes have never been classified as either food or drug, which would require them to be safe and effective; they are classified as device of pleasure. Tobacco has always had friends in high places.
(Note: Taken and adapted from The main idea: Reading to learn by Becker and Skiddel, 1996, p. 216)

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Activity 13 This is the final activity in this unit and is assessing all aspects of Academic Reading that are covered throughout the unit. The title of the passage you are about to read is : Developing Intercultural Competence as Part of Professional Qualifications. A Training Experiment. Please do the activities below:
(Note: Taken and adapted from UCA Second Opportunity Examination, June 2007)

Pre-reading activities: 1. How much do you know about the topic? 2. What do you think the text will be about? 3. Preview the text. Write down 3 questions that you think will be answered in the text. Now read the text.

While you read 1. Underline or highlight the main ideas, supporting ideas and signal words. 2. Note unfamiliar vocabulary.

Developing Intercultural Competence as Part of Professional Qualifications. A Training Experiment.

by

Kaisu Korhonen, PhD

The 10th NIC Symposium on Intercultural Communication

20-22 November 2003, Department of Linguistics, Gteborg University, Sweden

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Abstract

The internationalisation and globalisation of working life sets specific requirements on professional education ,including professionally integrated foreign language education, the overall goal of which should be intercultural competence. The paper discusses a training experiment in intercultural communication, especially the effectiveness of training in developing the various components of intercultural competence. The training experiment included both a face-to-face tuition period and a self-study period with a multimedia- and Web-based Culture-General Assimilator consisting of a number of critical incidents. The participants of the experiment were 117 Bachelor of Engineering students at Kajaani Polytechnic, Finland .Besides assessing the effectiveness of intercultural training, the experiment aimed at mapping out what kind of communicators the students are and would like to be, whether they are motivated to develop their intercultural competence, and what they think about intercultural competence as part of their professional qualifications.
INTRODUCTION

1. Economic integration and advances in transportation and telecommunication have broken down geographical isolation: The world is more global and mobile than ever before. Globalisation is linked by new technology; communication is, for example, intensified via electronic media facilitating trade contacts and international projects. 2. When companies expand their operations abroad, it means balancing between prospects of growth and the risk associated with operating in unfamiliar markets. Successful companies and employees are those who see cultural diversity as an opportunity, as something that can be learned, managed, and made use of, and who are willing to develop their intercultural competence as part of their social and communication competences. The components of intercultural competence contain cognition, i.e. knowledge, affect, i.e. attitudes and emotions, and behaviour and skills. 3. In increasingly more Finnish companies the official working language is the so- called International Business English, sometimes called Euro English or Global English. Holden (2002,p.222; 228-229; 317) introduces the term interactive translation to describe work in which members of multicultural teams negotiate common meanings and understandings. According to Holden, interactive translation requires participative competence, in other words, willingness to discuss in a productive way not only in ones native language but in foreign languages as well. Members of multicultural teams often have a varying knowledge of English and use different kinds of accents. 4. Mobility from and to Finland has been increasing. There are thousands of Finnish sojourners and expatriates working abroad especially in technical expert, business management, and marketing functions. There are also thousands of immigrants who have moved to Finland. A fact is that most Finns have negative attitudes toward immigrants.
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Immigrants jobless rate is high: There is not yet confidence required to consider immigrants a resource in working life. It is, however, possible that any Finn one day has a foreign co-worker. 5. Even if there is evidence based on scientific research that todays employees need intercultural competence in their jobs, the term cannot be found in job ads recruiting employees. It seems that employers are not familiar with the term. When requiring behaviour and skills important in international and multicultural working life, employers usually refer to knowledge of one or more foreign languages. Occasionally they apply expressions such as communication skills, interpersonal skills, presentation skills, negotiation skills, the ability to work on international projects, and willingness to travel abroad. 6. Increased mobility, both real and virtual, has intensified Finns need for successful cultural adaptation and fluent and efficient communication. When compared with many other cultures, Finns communication style contains some differences. These differences include Finns tendency to speak only when having something important to say, high tolerance of silence in conversations, and avoidance-based politeness. Depending on the context, Finns communication style can be strength or weakness. On international assignments, the lack of social and communication skills at home and in the working place seems to be the main reason for failures. 7. When developing intercultural competence, early challenges and diversified experiences are of major importance. The knowledge management perspective presents culture, not as a source of difference and antagonism, but as a form of organizational, companyspecific knowledge. This knowledge can be converted into tacit knowledge, which both adds value to company activities and is difficult for rivals to copy. (Holden 2002,p. 71; 7576) 8. Developing intercultural competence is a slow, gradual transformative learning process (Taylor 1994,p.22) consisting of foreign language studies, intercultural training, and hands-on experiences of other cultures and their people. Even if nothing can entirely replace face-to-face tuition and learning, information technology should also be made use of when providing training. 9. A Culture Assimilator (Cushner & Brislin,1996) is a programmed learning package consisting of critical incidents. Critical incidents are short descriptions of situations where there is a problem of cultural adaptation, or where there is a problem rising from cultural differences between the interacting parties. In a Culture Assimilator the incidents are equipped with alternative explanations and feedback. Trainees are expected to choose the "best" explanation considering the context. The idea of implementing a Culture Assimilator with computer technology was introduced as early as in the 1960s (Triandis 1995,p. 183-184; Cushner & Landis 1996,p. 198).
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NEW LEARNING ENVIRONMENTS

10. New learning environments are being developed to support and supplement the traditional ones. The term new learning environment refers to new pedagogical and educational approaches together with opportunities provided by information technology. A new learning environment aims to promote learning that is continuous, individual, autonomous, and self-directed. It is also independent of the time and place of study. In a new learning environment, trainees are to be able to take responsibility for their own learning, while trainers are facilitators supporting the learning process. Many of the elements of the new learning environments are still under experiment. 11.One of the new learning environments is multimedia. The exact meaning of the term multimedia is vague. Besides referring to a computer-based presentation, the term multimedia may refer to a media mix, i.e. text, buttons, bitmap images, photos, animation sequences, video, sound, and special effects. Often when speaking about multimedia, people actually talk about hypermedia. The term hypermedia refers to computer-based materials linked by non-linear structures of information. By making use of association, a characteristic of human thinking, it is to make data management less difficult. 12.Part of hypermedia is hypertext. Hypertext is a method to write and read non-linear text, i.e. text with a built-in reference system, or links, in which the user can navigate. Data management can be split into several levels. It is possible to hide hotwords, i.e. elements of the media mix, in the text or graphics of the program. When the hotwords and picture elements are clicked, the program moves to another level containing further information about the topic. 13.In many fields of training and learning it is possible to create real-world problems to be simulated, in other words, practiced and solved with a computer program or application. This holds true to intercultural training, too. As part of the training experiment discussed below, the present author designed and implemented in cooperation with programming experts first a multimedia-based program, and later on a Web-based application, a Culture-General Assimilator, called The Same but Different. The Assimilator is called Culture-General because it discusses culture-general issues such as cultural differences in communication and cultural adaptation in a variety of cultures.
EFFECTIVENESS OF THE CULTURE ASSIMILATOR IN INTERCULTURAL TRAINING

14. Of all the approaches developed in intercultural training, the Culture Assimilator method has been exposed to the most intense scrutiny and analysis. According to Albert (1995,p.157-158; 164-165), the method is research-based (both the development of the instrument and the evaluation of its effectiveness) has its theoretical foundation on attribution theory, and utilizes psychological principles to increase learning, e.g. trainee involvement, continuous feedback, and self-paced learning.
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15. Referring to research (e.g. Albert 1995,p. 165; Cushner & Brislin 1996,p.14; 20; 25; 51; Cushner & Landis 1996,p.188; 191-194), the Culture Assimilator is supposed to: develop complex thinking and the ability to make isomorphic attributions, i.e. similar meanings based on perceptions impart knowledge of the subjective culture of the target group improve knowledge and application of concepts relevant to intercultural communication develop the ability to analyse and solve intercultural problems reduce ethnocentrism help to develop more accurate expectations in intercultural interactions decrease the use of negative stereotypes increase intercultural sensitivity to cultural diversity help to understand host nationals as judged by the hosts themselves help to interact more effectively with people from the target culture increase enjoyment in interaction with host nationals enhance intercultural adjustment increase tolerance for everyday stress improve task performance on international assignments, and decrease the rate of premature returns from international assignments 16. Because there is controversy in the results of research discussing the effectiveness of the Culture Assimilator method, more empirical research is required. This is what the training experiment discussed below aimed at; in other words, it tested the effectiveness of the Culture-General Assimilator method in developing the intercultural competence of Bachelor of Engineering, or BEng, students as part of their professional qualifications.
CONCLUSIONS

17.Most students thought that when communicating in Finnish, they have no communication problems the main factor preventing them from communicating with foreigners is their insufficient knowledge of foreign languages, especially that of English interpreting foreigners emotions is difficult they are unable to solve potential communication with foreigners an ideal communicator is clear and fluent, able to communicate with different kinds of people interactively they are self-directed adult learners able to take responsibility for their own learning (but were not in practice, i.e. they did prepare for the face-to-face tuition and they did not reflect on their learning afterwards) intercultural training is useful and interesting. 18.Most students were interested in working and studying abroad to develop their nontechnical competence, in other words, language and intercultural skills. In spite of this, the 10-year-old history of Kajaani Polytechnic only knows a few engineering students
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who have actually made use of the international trainee and student exchange programs provided by the Polytechnic. The main reason for this is likely the good job situation in Finnish industry since the mid 1990s. 19.Even if intercultural competence is needed at all levels of organizations and even if there is research-based evidence about the benefits of intercultural training, too many companies do not invest in it. The reasons for not investing in intercultural training include the assumptions competent international employees are born, not made, a top performer in the home country will be a top performer in another culture as well, training is not effective, there is no time, temporary assignments do not warrant training, trainees past experiences may have more influence than training, and the foreign work environment is the main determinant of success (Mendenhall & Oddou 1995,p.343; Kealey & Protheroe 1996p.142-144). 20. Developing intercultural competence is about developing the ability to be effective in life and career in general. In other words, the potential effects of intercultural training include creating more interculturally trained citizens to society. The function of intercultural training is not to attempt to transform trainees fundamental personalities or basic character, but to add on knowledge and coping techniques, and consequently, to enhance professional skills as well. (Kealey & Protheroe 1996,p.147) 21. Thus, the present author argues that intercultural training develops intercultural competence and provides perspective transformation, but the process of transformation is slow and gradual. When developing intercultural competence, a number of training methods should be applied including new technology. 22. To develop intercultural competence, hands-on experiences of other cultures are of major importance. If it is not possible to acquire these experiences on site, the importance of intercultural training, including simulations such as Culture Assimilators with critical incidents, as part of professional education is even more emphasized. This can be called internationalisation at home.
References
Albert, R. D. 1995. The Intercultural Sensitizer/Culture Assimilator as a Cross-Cultural Training Method. In Fowler, S. M. & Mumford, M. G. (Eds.) Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methods, Vol. 1. Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, 157-167. Baxter, J. & Ramsey, S. 1996. Improvising Critical Incidents. In Seelye, N. H. (Ed.) Experiential Activities for Intercultural Learning, Vol. 1. Yarmouth Maine: Intercultural Press, 211-218. Bennett, M. J. 1995. Critical Incidents in an Intercultural Conflict-Resolution Exercise. In Fowler, S. M. & Mumford, M. G. (Eds.) Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methods, Vol. 1 Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, 147-156. Blake, B. F., Heslin, R. & Curtis, S. C. 1996.Measuring Impacts of Cross-Cultural Training. In Landis, D. & Bhakat, R. (Eds.) Handbook of Intercultural Training. (2nd ed.) Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 165-182. Byram, M. 1997. Language Teachers, Politics and Cultures. Clevedon: Multilingual Matters. Cushner, K. & Brislin, R. W. 1996. Intercultural Interactions. A Practical Guide. (2nd ed.) Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.

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Cushner, K. & Landis, D. 1996. The Intercultural Sensitizer. In Landis, D. & Bhakat, R. S. (Eds.) Handbook of Intercultural Training. (2nd ed.) Thousands Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 185-202. Holden, N. J. 2002. Cross-Cultural Management. A Knowledge Management Perspective. Prentice Hall. Kealey, D. J. & Protheroe, D. R. 1996. The Effectiveness of Cross-Cultural Training for Expatriates: An Assessment of the Literature of the Issue. In International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Vol. 20, No. 2. Elsevier Science, 141-165. Kolb, D. A. 1984. Experiential Learning. Experience as the Source of Learning and Development. New Jersey: Prentise Hall. Korhonen, K. 2002. Intercultural Competence as Part of Professional Qualifications. A Training Experiment with Bachelor of Engineering Students. University of Jyvskyl. Department of Communication. Jyvskyl Studies in Communication 17. Academic Dissertation. Mendenhall, M. & Oddou, G. 1995. The dimensions of expatriate acculturation: a review. In Jackson, T. (Ed.) Cross-Cultural Management. Oxford: Butterworth-Heineman, 342-354. Taylor, E. W. 1994. A Learning Model for Becoming Interculturally Competent. In International Journal of Intercultural Relations, Vol. 18, No. 3. Elsevier Science, 389-408. Triandis, H. C. 1995. Culture-Specific Assimilators. In Fowler, S. M. & Mumford, M. G. (Eds.) Intercultural Sourcebook: CrossCultural Training Methods, Vol. 1. Yarmouth, Maine; Intercultural Press, 179-86. Wight, A. R. 1995. The Critical Incident as a Training Tool. In Fowler, S. M. & Mumford, M. G. (Eds.) Intercultural Sourcebook: Cross-Cultural Training Methods, Vol. 1. Yarmouth, Maine: Intercultural Press, 127-140. Article sourced from : Journal of Intercultural Communication, ISSN 1404-1634, 2004, issue 7. Editor: Prof. Jens Allwood ,URL: http://www.immi.se/intercultural/.

Post reading activities: 1. What is the topic of the text? 2. State the main idea in your own words. 3. List three or four major details that support or explain the main idea. 4. Make notes of the main ideas in the text. 5. Write a summary of the text using your notes.

Reading for information 1 Referring to the text, briefly indicate and substantiate whether the following statements from the article are the authors OPINION or whether they are FACT. 1.1 Successful companies and employees are those who see cultural diversity as an opportunity, as something that can be learned. ( para. 2)

1.2. The knowledge management perspective presents culture, not as a source of difference and antagonism, but as a form of organizational, company-specific knowledge. (para. 7),
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1.3. The idea of implementing a Culture Assimilator with computer technology was introduced as early as in the 1960s. ( para.9) 2 With reference to the text, select and circle the most appropriate answer: 2.1 According to the knowledge management perspective, cultural diversity i. ii. iii. 2.2 is a source of antagonism determines government policies based on nepotism provides business with a competitive advantage

Diverse cultures i. ii. should be seen as an important business opportunity should be ignored by dominant cultures can be ignored since English is an International business

iii. language 2.3

Intercultural competence i. ii. iii. is a professional skill that needs to be learned and nurtured is not needed by leaders who promote the values of minorities. is in conflict with the concept of nation building.

Answer the following questions in your own words:

3.1. What do you think is meant when Kaisu Korhonen uses the words: critical incidents (para. 9)

3.2.

What do you understand under the following? self-paced learning (para. 14)

References Becker, S., Skiddel, M. (1996). The main idea: Reading to learn. Needham Heights: Allyn & Bacon.
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Flemming, L. (2003). Reading for thinking. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company. Grellet , F. (1999). Developing reading skills. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Haarman, L., P. Leech, P Murray and J. Murray (1988). Reading for the social sciences.Oxford: Oxford University Press. Seal, B (1997). Academic Encounters. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Willemse, L. (2006). Effects of promoting reading comprehension skills among first year university students. Unpublished Masters Thesis. University of South Africa, Pretoria, South Africa.

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UNIT 4: ACADEMIC VOCABULARY

Introduction Academic vocabulary is central in language used for academic purposes and is not frequently encountered outside academic meaning systems. Vocabulary knowledge is the single most important area of second language competence in relation to academic achievement (Saville-Troike, 1984).Vocabulary learning relates to both reading, with its receptive understanding of language, and writing, with its productive use. For a student to know a word means he or she has the ability to: Recognize it in its spoken or written form; Recall it at will; Relate it to an appropriate grammatical form; Pronounce it in a recognizable way; Spell it correctly; Use it at the appropriate level of formality; Be aware of its connotations and associations (Wallace, 1982).

Academic vocabulary is common in a wide range of academic texts and accounts for a substantial number of words in academic texts. Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to: Apply vocabulary learning strategies such as guessing in context and word part analysis; Use the word part strategy; Identify academic vocabulary; Define and use academic vocabulary. Activity 1 Complete the following Vocabulary Levels Test, based on the Academic Word List.
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This is a vocabulary test. You must choose the right word to go with each meaning. Write the number of that word next to its meaning. Here is an example:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

business clock horse pencil shoe wall

______ part of a house ______ animal with four legs ______ something used for writing

Answer in the following way:

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

business clock horse pencil shoe wall

___6___ part of a house ___3___ animal with four legs ___4___ something used for writing

Academic Vocabulary 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. area contract definition evidence method role construction feature impact institute region security

______ written agreement ______ ways of doing something ______ reason for believing something is or is not true

______ safety ______ noticeable part of something ______ organisation which has a special purpose

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1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

debate exposure integration option scheme stability access gender implementation license orientation psychology accumulation edition guarantee media motivation phenomenon adult exploitation infrastructure schedule termination vehicle alter coincide deny devote release specify convert design exclude facilitate indicate

______ plan ______ choice ______ joining something into a whole

______ male or female ______ study of the mind ______ entrance or way in

______ collecting things over time ______ promise to repair a broken product ______ feeling a strong reason or need to do something

______ end ______ machine used to move people or goods ______ list of things to do at certain times

______ change ______ say something is not true ______ describe clearly and exactly

______ keep out ______ stay alive ______ change from one thing into another
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6. survive 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. bond channel estimate identify mediate minimize

______ make smaller ______ guess the number or size of something ______ recognizing and naming a person or thing

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6.

explicit final negative professional rigid sole analogous objective potential predominant reluctant subsequent

______ last ______ stiff ______ meaning no or not

______ happening after ______ most important ______ not influenced by personal opinions

1. abstract 2. adjacent ______ next to 3. controversial ______ added to 4. global ______ concerning the whole world 5. neutral 6. supplementary __________________________________________________________________ ______
(Note: Taken and adapted from Developing and Exploring the Behaviour of Two New Versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test, by N. Schmitt, D. Schmitt, and C. Clapham, in press, Language Testing)

1. Vocabulary learning strategies 1.1. Guessing from context

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Comprehension of vocabulary relies on strategies that permit one to understand words and store them in order to commit them to memory (Nattinger, 1988). One of the strategies that is most effective in enhancing understanding is using context clues. This is a technique used to discover meaning. There are three ways of using context clues for discovering meaning: 1. Guesses are guided by the topic and in reading, may be signalled by an abstract or outline. (Refer to the abstract in Unit 3) 2. Guesses are guided by the other words in the discourse. Discourse is full of redundancy and anaphora. Redundancy is the degree to which a message contains more information than is needed for it to be understood (Richards and Schmidt, 2002, p. 449). A variety of different, an added bonus, to over-exaggerate, and plus, and etc., end result, free gift, unconfirmed rumour, past history, safe haven, potentially dangerous, completely surrounded, false pretense Anaphora is a process where a word or phrase (anaphor) refers back to another word or phrase which was used earlier in a text or conversation (Richards and Schmidt, 2002, p. 25). For example, in: Basil likes the milkshake, but Ben cant drink it. The word it refers back to milkshake. It is a substitute for milkshake. 3. Grammatical structure, as well as intonation in speech, and punctuation in writing, contain further clues. Clarke and Silberstein (1977) emphasise, in the following examples, the redundancy of language by demonstrating the types of contexts which can provide the meaning of an unfamiliar word: Synonym in apposition: Our uncle was a nomad, an incurable wanderer who never could stay in one place. Antonym: While the aunt loved Alex deeply, she absolutely despised his twin brother Andrew. Cause and effect: By surrounding the protesters with armed policemen, and by arresting the leaders of the movement, the rebellion was successfully quashed.
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 Association between an object and its purpose or use: The scientist removed the treatise from the shelf and began to read. Description: Tom received a new roadster for his birthday. It is a sports model. Red and white interior and bucket seats, capable of reaching speeds of more than 300 km/h. Example: Mary can be quite gauche; yesterday she blew her nose on the new linen tablecloth. Activity 2 Guess the meaning of the underlined words from the context in which they are used. 1. Indefinite border areas exist, however music and other sound phenomena such as speech, and the cultures of the world differ in their opinion of the musicality of various sounds. _____________________________________________________________ _____ 2. Somewhat analogous to having a language, each society may be said to have music that is, a self-contained system within which musical communication takes place and that, like a language, must be learned to be understood. _____________________________________________________________ _____ 3. Within music, various strata may exist, distinguished by degree of learning (professional versus untrained musicians), level of society (the music of the elite versus that of the masses), patronage (court or church or public establishments), and the manner of dissemination (oral, notated, or through mass media). _____________________________________________________________ _____ 4. The minimal unit of musical organisation is the note that is, a sound with a specific pitch and duration.
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_____________________________________________________________ _____ 5. This structure may be explicit (as in the beating of the bass drum in popular music and marching bands), or it may be implied (often in symphonic or instrumental music). _____________________________________________________________ _____ 6. Timbre, or sound quality, is the musical instrument that accounts for the differences in the characteristic sounds of musical instruments. _____________________________________________________________ _____ Guessing vocabulary from context is the most frequent way we discover the meaning of unfamiliar words. This strategy can be particularly useful when reading texts in tests and examinations as using a dictionary is prohibited. 1.2. Word part analysis Academic vocabulary is largely of Latin or Greek origin. Therefore, word part analysis can assist in learning vocabulary. Most of the content words in English can change their form by adding prefixes and suffixes. These affixes are typically divided into two types: inflectional and derivational. The inflectional affixes in English are all suffixes (Nation, 2001). They include: s (plural) ed, -ing, -s (3rd person singular) s (possessive) er (comparative) est (superlative) Unlike most derivational suffixes, inflections do not change the part of speech of the word or word group they are attached to and are added after a derivational suffix, if the word has one. Derivational affixes in English include prefixes and suffixes. Most of the derivational suffixes and a few prefixes change the part of speech of the word they are added to (happy (adjective) / happiness (noun); able (adjective) / enable (verb). Some of the affixes, especially prefixes,
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also alter the meaning of the word in a substantial way (judge/prejudge; happy/unhappy; care/careless) (Nation, 2001, p. 263). Knowledge of derivational affixes can help in determining the meaning of an unknown word. White, Powers, and Whites (1989) study of the four prefixes un-, re-, in-, dis- showed that approximately 60% of words with those prefixes could be understood from knowing the most common meaning of the base word.

Activity 3 The following list of academic vocabulary consists of well-formed and ill-formed items. Indicate which of the items are correct (well-formed) by writing a YES on the line provided; write a NO to indicate an incorrect (ill-formed) item. abandonment adequateness administratively aspectful coincidental uncompromising exploitation presumeful optionable postiveness __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________ __________

Activity 4 Rewrite the items that you marked NO correctly. ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________ ______________________

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1.3. The word part strategy The word part strategy for learning new complex words involves two steps: 1. Break the unknown word into parts. e.g. predominantly pre-dominant-ly Relate the meaning of the word parts to the meaning of the word. pre- means before dominant- means most important, powerful or prominent ly- used very widely with adjectives to form adverbs

2.

The word predominantly can be construed to mean for the most part. Step 2 also requires students to be able to re-express the dictionary definition of a word to include the meaning of its prefix and, if possible, its stem and suffix (Nation, 2001). Below are some examples. The italicised words represent the meaning of the affix. Note how the dictionary definition does not usually give the meaning of the affixes.
Word unaccountable reshuffle community Dictionary definition does not seem to have any sensible explanation reorganisation of people or things, esp. jobs people who live in a particular place or area Scatter Reworded definition not able to be explained Change people or jobs again

people who live together in a place Disperse go away in many different directions Exhaust drain the energy make the energy go out incessant Continual not stopping (Note: Taken from Learning Vocabulary in Another Language, by Nation, I.S.P. 2001)

Activity 5 The following table is a list of prefixes and their meanings. In pairs, provide example words for each. The first one has been done for you.
Prefix Meaning Example word

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forebefore forename bitwo enforms a verb exformer miswrongly proin favour of semihalf counteragainst hyperabove, over interbetween, among archchief midmiddle neonew postlater, after antiagainst unreversal of action subunder (Note: Table taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Studying in Higher Education: Academic Writing Website by Gillett, A., n.d., [Retrieved in January 18, 2007], [http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm])

Adding affixes to existing words (the base or root) to form new words is common in academic English. Prefixes are added to the front of the base (likedislike), whereas suffixes are added to the end of the base (activeactivate). Prefixes usually do not change the class of the base word, but suffixes do change the class of the word. The most common prefixes used to form new verbs in academic English are: re-, dis-, over-, un-, mis-, out-. The most common suffixes are: -ise, -en, -ate, (i)fy. By far the most common affix in academic English is ise (Gillett, 2007). The following table provides examples of the most commonly used prefixes.
Prefix reMeaning again or back Examples restructure, revisit, reappear, rebuild, refinance disappear, disallow, disarm, disconnect, discontinue overbook, oversleep, overwork unbend, uncouple, unfasten mislead, misinform, misidentify

dis-

reverses the meaning of the verb too much reverses the meaning of the verb badly or wrongly

overunmis-

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outbeco-

befriend, belittle co-exist, co-operate, coown dedo the opposite devalue, deselect foreearlier, before foreclose, foresee interbetween interact, interact, interface subunder / below subcontract, subdivide transacross, over transform, transcribe, transplant undernot enough underfund, undersell, undervalue, underdevelop prebefore pre-expose, prejudge, pretest (Note: Table taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Studying in Higher Education: Academic Writing Website by Gillett, A., n.d., [Retrieved in January 18, 2007], [http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm])

more or better than others make or cause together

outperform, outbid

Activity 6 Complete the following sentences by adding an appropriate prefix to the word in brackets. You may have to change the word in brackets in order for it to be in the correct verb tense. 1. A mans useless tuxedo could be __________ into a womans smart suit. (form) 2. President Hifikipunye Pohamba, Namibias president, today said that he would __________ the Namibian dollar as he prepared to unveil a highrisk plan to end the countrys turmoil. (value) 3. The Maya priests discovered, however, that they had slightly __________ the average synodic period of Venus. (estimate) 4. He became a porter, was __________, often not paid at all, but did not complain. (pay) 5. The concept of entities that appear for only an instant and then __________ was used by Buddhists to prove that all is merely appearance. (appear) 6. Nevertheless, this peculiar combination had a long life and was destined to __________ in the Middle Ages. (appear) 7. In essence, the systems involve diffusing chemicals that __________ with one another. (act)
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8. In Garners case the formal elements often go unnoticed because they are __________ and made almost invisible by the emotional power and urgency of the story. (merge)
______________________________________________________________________________ (Note: Exercises taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Studying in Higher Education: Academic Writing Website by Gillett, A., n.d., [Retrieved in January 18, 2007], [http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm])

The following table provides examples of the suffix used to form verbs with the meaning cause to be.
Suffix -ise Example stabilise, characterise, symbolise, visualise, specialize -ate differentiate, liquidate, pollinate, duplicate, fabricate -ify classify, exemplify, simplify, justify -en awaken, fasten, shorten, moisten (Note: Taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Studying in Higher Education: Academic Writing Website by Gillett, A., n.d., [Retrieved in January 18, 2007], [http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm])

Activity 7

Complete the following sentences by adding the appropriate suffix to the word in brackets. You may have to change the word in brackets in order for it to be in the correct verb tense.
1. Some more theologically articulate members of the provisional management movement __________ violence on traditional Roman Catholic ethical grounds, the theory of the just war against the unjust oppressor. (just) 2. In the black leather notebook __________ with a metal clasp, he wrote: Cape of Good Hope July 18th 1829 (fast) 3. Newtonss ideas were __________ early. (formula) 4. There remained a distinctive philosophy of liberalism which could __________ the Liberals from other political parties. (differ) 5. The society may be __________ by dealings, and experienced through them. (symbol) 6. The conversion of sound symbols in time to __________ symbols in space was the greatest single step in the quest for permanence. (visual) 7. In the second draft of this letter Marx says: the archaic formation of society reveals a number of different types which __________ different and successive epochs. (character) 8. It seems probable that some doctors carry out mercy killings by administering large doses of pain-killing drugs which __________ life significantly, and the law may well protect them from liability. (short) 72

9. Fredericks reforms, however, __________ a major flaw in the progressive infatuation with scientific management. (example) 10. To __________ all reckless killings as murder might be too broad, but the point remains that some reckless killings may be thought no less heinous than intentional killings. (class) ________________________________________________________________________
(Note: Example sentences taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Studying in Higher Education: Academic Writing Website by Gillett, A., n.d., [Retrieved in January 18, 2007], [http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm])

The most common prefixes used to form new nouns in academic English are co- and sub. The most common suffixes are tion, -ity, -er, -ness, -ism, -ment, -ant, -ship, -age, -ery. By the far the most common noun affix in academic English is tion (Gillett, 2007).

The following table provides examples of nouns formed from a prefix and a noun.
Prefix antiautobicocounterdisexhyperinininterkilomalmegamisminimononeooutpolypseudoreMeaning against self two joint against the converse of former extreme the converse of inside between thousand bad million wrong small one new separate many false again Examples anticlimax, antidote, antithesis autobiography, automobile bilingualism, biculturalism, bimetalism co-founder, co-owner, codescendant counter-argument, counterexamples, counter-proposal discomfort, dislike ex-chairman, ex-hunter hyperinflation, hypersurface inattention, incoherence, incompatibility Inpatient interaction, inter-change, interference Kilobyte malfunction, maltreatment, malnutrition Megabyte misconduct, misdeed, mismanagement mini-publication, mini-theory monosyllable, monograph, monogamy neo-colonialism, neoimpressionism Outbuilding Polysyllable pseudo-expert re-organisation, re-assessment,

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re-examination semicircle, semi-darkness subset, subdivision superset, superimposition, superpowers surover and above surpass, surtax teledistant Telecommunications trithree Tripartism ultrabeyond Ultrasound underbelow, too little underpayment, underdevelopment, undergraduate vicedeputy vice-president (Note: Table taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Studying in Higher Education: Academic Writing Website by Gillett, A., n.d., [Retrieved in January 18, 2007], [http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm]) semisubsuperhalf below more than, above

Activity 8 Complete the following sentences by adding a prefix to the word in brackets. 1. Others, however, will develop a chronic and progressive __________ of the liver that may lead to total liver failure. (function) 2. Drugs which are rapidly inactivated have advantages, because the risk of _________ is minimized, and there are no cumulative effects. (dosage) 3. The audience at the National Theatre of Namibia shouted down the play for its __________, and conservative critics and the public found the dance-hall episode in particular to be repugnant in its poor taste. (realism) 4. Early in the nineteenth century, additional judges, called __________ were appointed. (Chancellor) 5. Sections of the population have also combined their popular nationalism and religion with aspects of the clerical interpretation already invested in the law, particularly in the __________ movement of the early 1980s. (abortion) 6. We need to examine, therefore, whether procedures known to influence associative strength in orthodox conditioning will also influence the acquisition of __________ during stimulus exposure. (attention) 7. So much detail is now accumulating on so wide a range of taxonomic groups that a __________ can be erected for virtually every one of them. (theory) 8. They release the parties from the duty of living together on grounds of cruelty or __________. (conduct)
___________________________________________________________________________ (Note: Example sentences taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Studying in Higher Education: Academic Writing Website by Gillett, A., n.d., [Retrieved in January 18, 2007], [http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm])

2. Word formation Formal written English uses nouns more than verbs. For example, judgement rather than judge; development rather than develop; admiration rather than admire (Gillett, n.d.). 74

The following examples from Gillett (n.d.) illustrate the use of nouns in formal written English: There appeared to be evidence of differential treatment of children. This is reflected in our admiration for people who have made something of their lives, sometimes against great odds, and in our somewhat disappointed judgement of those who merely drift through life. All airfields in the country would be nationalised, and the government would continue with the development of new aircraft as recommended by the National Defence Force.

The most common suffix to be used in this way is tion: alteration resignation

Other suffixes that are often added to a root or base to create a noun are: -ity ability, similarity, complexity; -ness blindness, darkness, preparedness; -ment development, encouragement; -ship friendship; -age mileage; -ery robbery, bribery; -al arrival; -ance assistance, resemblance (Gillett, n.d.). Activity 9 Read the following text, and then underline or highlight all the academic vocabulary words. Use the Academic Word List by Coxhead (1998) in the Short Loan Section in the library. Music
Music is the organised movement of sounds through a continuum of time. Music plays a role in all societies, and it exists in a large number of styles, each characteristic of a geographical region or a historical era.

Cultural Definitions
All known societies have music, but only a few languages have a specific word for it. In Western culture, dictionaries usually define music as an art that is concerned with combining sounds - particularly pitches to produce an artefact that has beauty or attractiveness, that follows some kind of internal logic and exhibits intelligible structure, and that requires special skill on the part of its creator. Clearly, music is not easy to define, and yet historically most people have recognised the concept of music and generally agreed on whether or not a given sound is musical. Indefinite border areas exist, however, between music and other sound phenomena such as speech, and the cultures of the world differ in their opinion of the musicality of various sounds. Thus, simple tribal chants, a half-spoken style of singing, or a composition created by a computer program may or may not be accepted as music by members of a given society or subgroup. Muslims, for example, do not consider the chanting of the Koran to be a kind of music, although the structure of the chant is similar to that of secular singing. The social context of sounds may determine whether or not they are regarded as music. Industrial noises, for instance, are not usually regarded as music except when presented as part of a

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composition controlled by a creative individual. In the last 50 years, however, new aesthetic approaches in Western music have challenged this view. Composers such as John Cage have produced works in which the listener is invited to hear music in the ambient sounds of the environment. Opinions also differ as to the origins and spiritual value of music. In some African cultures music is seen as something uniquely human; among some Native Americans it is thought to have originated as a way for spirits to communicate. In Western culture music is regarded as inherently good, and sounds that are welcome are said to be "music to the ears". In some other cultures - for example, Islamic culture - it is of low value, associated with sin and evil, and attempts have been made to outlaw its practice.

Music as a Cultural System

Music has many uses, and in all societies certain events are inconceivable without it. A proper consideration of music should involve the musical sound itself; but it should also deal with the concepts leading to its existence, with its particular forms and functions in each culture, and with the human behaviour that produces the sound. Somewhat analogous to having a language, each society may be said to have a music - that is, a selfcontained system within which musical communication takes place and that, like a language, must be learned to be understood. Members of some societies participate in several musics; thus, modern Native Americans take part in both traditional Native American music and mainstream Western music. Within each music, various strata may exist, distinguished by degree of learning (professional versus untrained musicians), level of society (the music of the elite versus that of the masses), patronage (court or church or public commercial establishments), and manner of dissemination (oral, notated, or through mass media). In the West and in the high cultures of Asia, it is possible to distinguish three basic strata: first, art or classical music, composed and performed by trained professionals originally under the patronage of courts and religious establishments; second, folk music, shared by the population at large particularly its rural component - and transmitted orally; and, third, popular music, performed by professionals, disseminated through radio, television, records, film, and print, and consumed by the urban mass public.

The Sounds of Music

In the simplest terms music can be described as the juxtaposition of two elements: pitch and duration, usually called melody and rhythm. The minimal unit of musical organisation is the note - that is, a sound with specific pitch and duration. Music thus consists of combinations of individual notes that appear successively (melody) or simultaneously (harmony) or, as in most Western music, both.

Melody
In any musical system, the creation of melody involves selecting notes from a prescribed set called a scale, which is actually a group of pitches separated by specific intervals (the distances in pitch between notes). Thus, the scale of 18th- and 19th-century Western music is the chromatic scale, represented by the piano keyboard with its 12 equidistant notes per octave; composers selected from these notes to produce all their music. Much Western music is also based on diatonic scales - those with seven notes per octave, as illustrated by the white keys on the piano keyboard. In the diatonic scales and in the pentatonic scales those with five notes per octave, most often corresponding to the black keys on the piano - that are common in folk music, the notes are not equidistant.

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Intervals can be measured in units called cents, 1,200 per octave. The typical intervals of Western music are multiples of 100 cents (semitones), but in other musical cultures intervals of about 50, 150, and 240 cents, for example, are also found. The human ear can distinguish intervals as small as 14 cents, but no interval that small seems to play a significant role in any musical system.

Rhythm
The handling of time in music is expressed through concepts such as the lengths of notes and the interrelationships among them; relative degrees of emphasis on different notes; and, in particular, metre. Most Western music is built on a structure of regularly recurring beats - that is, a metrical structure. This structure may be explicit (as in the beating of the bass drum in popular music and marching bands), or it may be implied (often in symphonic or instrumental music). The three most common metres in Western music are units of four beats (with main stress on the first beat, secondary stress on the third beat); of three beats (stress on the first); and of six beats (primary stress on the first, secondary on the fourth). Conventionally, these metres are called o, k, and u. Far greater complexity is found, however, in 20thcentury Western art music, Indian classical music, and West African drum ensembles. Furthermore, much music is structured without regular metre, as in some genres in India and the Middle East, and in Christian, Jewish, Islamic, and Buddhist liturgical chant.

Other Elements
The organisation given to simultaneously produced pitches is also of great importance. Two or more voices or instruments performing together may be perceived as producing independent but related melodies (counterpoint); or the emphasis may be on how the groups of simultaneous notes (chords) are related to one another, as well as on the progression of such groups through time (harmony). Timbre, or sound quality, is the musical element that accounts for the differences in the characteristic sounds of musical instruments. Singers have a variety of timbres as well, each affected by such features as vocal tension, nasality, amount of accentuation, and slurring of pitch from one note to the next. One major characteristic of music everywhere is its transposability. A tune can be performed at various pitch levels and will be recognised as long as the interval relationships among the notes remain constant. Analogously, rhythmic patterns can almost always be identified as identical, whether executed quickly or slowly. These elements of music are used to organise pieces extending from simple melodies using a scale of three notes and lasting only ten seconds (as in the simplest tribal musics) to highly complex works such as operas and symphonies. The organisation of music normally involves the presentation of basic material that may then be repeated precisely or with changes (variations), may alternate with other materials, or may proceed continually to present new material. Composers in all societies, often unconsciously, strike a balance between unity and variety, and almost all pieces of music contain a certain amount of repetition - whether of individual notes, short groups of notes (motives), or longer units such as melodies or chord sequences (often called themes).

Instruments
All societies have vocal music; and with few exceptions, all have instruments. Among the simplest instruments are sticks that are struck together; notched sticks that are scraped; rattles; and body parts used to produce sound, as in slapping the thighs and clapping. Such simple instruments are found in many tribal cultures; elsewhere, they may be used as toys or in archaic rituals. Certain highly complex instruments exhibit flexibility not only in pitch but also in timbre. The piano produces the chromatic scale from the lowest to the highest pitch used in the Western system and responds, in quality of sound, to wide

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variation in touch. On the organ, each keyboard can be connected at will to a large number and combination of pipes, thereby making available a variety of tone colours. On the Indian sitar, one plucked string is used for melody, other plucked strings serve as drones, while still others produce fainter sounds through sympathetic vibration. Modern technology has utilised electronic principles to create a number of instruments that have almost infinite flexibility.

The Creation of Music

Music is created by individuals, using a traditional vocabulary of musical elements. In composition - the principal creative act in music - something that is considered new is produced by combining the musical elements that a given society recognises as a system. Innovation as a criterion of good composing is important in Western culture, less so in certain other societies. In Western music, composition is normally carried out with the help of notation; but in much popular music, and particularly in folk, tribal, and most non-Western cultures, composition is done in the mind of the composer, who may sing or use an instrument as an aid, and is transmitted orally and memorised. Creative acts in music also include improvisation, or the creation of new music in the course of performance. Improvisation usually takes place on the basis of some previously determined structure, such as a note or a group of chords; or it occurs within a set of traditional rules, as in the ragas of India or the maqams of the Middle East, which use certain modes. Performance, which involves a musician's personal interpretation of a previously composed piece, has smaller scope for innovation. It may, however, be viewed as part of a continuum with composing and improvising. The normal method of retaining music and transmitting it is oral or, more properly, aural - most of the world's music is learned by hearing. The complex system of musical notation used in Western music is in effect a graph, indicating principally movement in pitch and time, with only limited capability to regulate more subtle elements such as timbre. Both Western and Asian cultures possess other notation systems, giving letter names to notes, indicating hand positions, or charting the approximate contour of melodic movement.

The Social Role of Music

Music everywhere is used to accompany other activities. It is, for example, universally associated with dance. Although words are not found in singing everywhere, the association of music and poetry is so close that language and music are widely believed to have had a common origin in early human history.

The Function of Music

Music is a major component in religious services, secular rituals, theatre, and entertainment of all sorts. In many societies it is also an activity carried on for its own sake. In Western society in the late 20th century, for example, one main use of music involves listening at concerts or to radio or recordings (music for its own sake); another involves the provision of music as a suitable background for unrelated activities such as study or shopping (music as an adjunct to something else). In many societies music serves as the chief entertainment at royal courts. Everywhere, musicians sometimes perform for their own diversion; in some societies, however, this private use of music has been formalised - in southern Africa, for example, special genres and styles are reserved for musicians' performances for their personal entertainment. The most ubiquitous use of music, however, is as a part of religious ritual. In some tribal societies, music appears to serve as a special form of communication with supernatural beings, and its prominent use in modern Christian and Jewish services may be a remnant of just such an original purpose. Another, less obvious, function of music is social integration. For most social groups, music can serve as a powerful symbol. Members of most societies share keen feelings as to what kind of music belongs. Indeed, some

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minorities (for instance in the United States, black Americans and Euro-American ethnic groups) use music as a major symbol of group identity. Music may serve as a symbol in other ways, as well. It can represent extramusical ideas or events (as in the symphonic poems of the German composer Richard Strauss), and it can underscore ideas that are verbally presented in operas (notably those of the German composer Richard Wagner), in film and television drama, and often in songs. It also symbolises military, patriotic, and funerary moods and events. In a more general sense, music may express the central social values of a society. Thus, the hierarchical caste system of India is symbolised in the hierarchy of performers in an ensemble. The avoidance of voice blending in a North American Plains peoples singing group reflects the value placed on individualism. In Western music the interrelationship of conductor and orchestra symbolises the need, in a modern industrial society, for strongly coordinated cooperation among various kinds of specialists.

The Musician
In most of the world's societies, musicianship requires talent, special knowledge or training, and effort, and the view is widespread that a successful musical work or performance is difficult to achieve. There is no evidence that superior musical abilities arise in one society or race as opposed to another; rather, variations in achievement are the result of differences in technology, in the degree of specialisation of musicians, and in the value placed on music. Individual talent, however, is recognised among most peoples, and the musical specialist exists everywhere: as a true professional in the West, India, the Far East, and Africa; as an informal leader and singer in folk cultures; and as someone who also has supernatural power in tribal societies. But if music is regarded as indispensable everywhere, the musician has rarely enjoyed great prestige. In certain early societies in Europe and America, for example, musicians were regarded as undesirable social deviants; this remains the case in the present-day Middle East. In many societies music is relegated to outsiders - foreigners or members of religious and ethnic minorities. Many modern social systems, including those in the West, inordinately reward the outstanding star performer but pay little attention to the average musician. Nevertheless, musicianship in most parts of the world requires long periods of concentrated study, extending in the case of European and Indian virtuosos to some 20 years.

Musical Regions
Each culture has its own music, and the classical, folk, and popular traditions of a region are usually closely related and easily recognised as part of one system. The peoples of the world can be grouped musically into several large areas, each with its characteristic musical dialect. These areas include Europe and the West; the Middle East with North Africa; Central Asia and the Indian subcontinent; South-East Asia and Indonesia; Oceania; China, Korea, and Japan; and the indigenous cultures of the Americas. All coincide roughly with areas determined by cultural and historical relationship, but, surprisingly, they do not correspond well with areas determined by language relationships. The history of Western music - the one most easily documented because of Western musical notation - is conveniently divided into eras of relative stability separated by short periods of more dramatic change. The periods conventionally accepted are the Middle Ages (to c. 1450), the Renaissance (1450-1600), the Baroque era (1600-1750), the Classical era (1750-1820), the Romantic era (1820-1920), and the modern period. Other cultures, less well documented, likewise have experienced change and development (not necessarily always in the direction of greater complexity), so that the simplest tribal musics also have their histories. In the 20th century, however, rapid travel and mass communication have led to a great decrease in the musical diversity of the world.

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______________________________________________________________________________ (Note: Text taken from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Studying in Higher Education: Academic Writing Website by Gillett, A., n.d., [Retrieved in January 18, 2007], [http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm])

Activity 10 List the first 20 academic vocabulary words you underlined or highlighted in the table below. In the second column, write down what you think the meaning of the word is in the context that you encounter it. In the third column, write down the actual dictionary definition of the word, which you will have to look up. The last column is for the title of the dictionary you have used to look up the meaning.
Word e.g. prohibit Guessed meaning not possible Dictionary definition 1 to forbid formally by law or rule, etc. 2 to prevent Dictionary Concise Oxford (COD), 10th edition

(Note: Activity taken and adapted from Academic Literacy: Prepare to learn, by Weideman, A., 2004, pp. 96 97).

In order to increase your knowledge of academic vocabulary make similar vocabulary building lists whenever you read academic texts. Many good learners make their own vocabulary building lists. Good language learners not only keep such lists, but also set aside time to review them (Weideman, 2004, p. 98). References

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Clarke, M. and Silberstein, S. (1977). Toward a realization of psycholinguistic principles in the ESL reading class. In Language Learning, 27, pp. 135 154. Gillett, A. (2007). Using English for Academic Purposes: Vocabulary. UK: University of Hertfordshire Hatfield. Retrieved January 2007, from UEfAP.com database. Nation, I. S. P. (2001). Learning Vocabulary in Another Language. UK: Cambridge University Press. Nattinger, J. (1988). Some current trends in vocabulary teaching. In R. Carter & M. McCarthy (Eds.), Vocabulary and language teaching. London: Longman, pp. 6282. Richards, J. C. and Schmidt, R. (2002). Longman Dictionary of Language Teaching and Applied Linguistics. London: Pearson Education Limited. Saville-Troike, M. (1984). What really matters in second language learning for achievement. In TESOL Quarterly, 18, pp. 199219. academic

Schmitt, N., Schmitt, D. & Clapham, C. (in press) Developing and exploring the behaviour of two new versions of the Vocabulary Levels Test. Language Testing Wallace, M. J. (1982). Teaching Vocabulary. Heinemann. Weideman, A. (2004). Academic Literacy Prepare to learn. Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers. White, T. G., Powers, M. A. & White, S. (1989). Morphological analysis: Implications for teaching and understanding vocabulary growth. Reading Research Quarterly, 24, 283-304

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UNIT 10: EDITING AND REVISING

Introduction: In this unit, you will learn how to edit and revise academic essays. In previous units you learnt how to prepare for writing, analysing essay titles, note-taking and planning for essays, as well as the types and styles of writing. All these steps are part of what is normally called the writing process, and so are editing and revising. As part of editing and revising, academic mechanics, i.e. basic grammatical items and academic conventions also need to be fully understood and correctly applied. In this unit, you will be expected to edit and revise sample essays or essay extracts by identifying language errors and correcting them in accordance with a marking key on pages ( ) in the unit. You will also be given activities on cohesive devices and on the passive voice. Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to: identify and correct language errors in an essay Identify informal writing in an academic essay Revise an essay draft, as well as to Write a coherent and formal academic essay Use cohesive devices in context Use the passive voice appropriately

1. Academic mechanics and conventions Academic mechanics will cover the basic grammatical items of language such as sentence structure, tenses, punctuation, reporting verbs and full forms of words. In addition, coherence/cohesion is an important academic feature that ensures that sentences and paragraphs are linked appropriately together and operate as a unit. Different cohesive devices will be included in a table and the function and use of these devices will be made clear. Academic conventions entail all those features/items of an academic text/article such as objectivity, tentativeness, accuracy, the use of the passive voice, formal/academic register that make a text academic.

1.2 Cohesive devices The following cohesive devices placed in different categories will help you when writing paragraphs for various academic texts. CATEGORIES LINKING WORD ADDITION as well as, in addition to, besides, not onlybut, also, and CAUSE (REASON) RESULT as, because, since, given seeing that, so, owing to due to, such/sothat, as a result of

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CONDITION COMPARING & CONTRASalthough, much as, as TING PURPOSE TIME as soon as,

if, provided that, providing, unless, as/so long as, in case while, whereas, but, and, like, asas, instead of, much as, even though, despite, in spite of (and) yet so as (not) to, so that, (in order), to as, while, after, but not before, before, at the moment, when until, since, once, no sooner, hardly. Immediately

(Note: Taken and adapted from A Practical English Grammar (New Edition): A Book by A.V Martinet and A.J Thompson(1982). Activity 1 Read the text below and fill in a suitable linking word from the table. Increasing visibility as a tourism destination _______ gaining independence from South Africa in 1990, the Republic of Namibia has become one of Sub-Saharan Africas fastest growing and most competitive economies. It is ______ becoming increasingly visible as a tourism destination. The country has been boosted by the recent decision of the high-profile actress, Angelina Jolie, and her partner Bratt Pitt to choose Namibia as the birthplace of their much-publicized baby. As the sector gains in importance, it is _________ increasingly complementing the countrys economic sectors agriculture, fishing and mining. Yet, ___________ the clear potential for tourism growth and the opportunities it offers to diversify and enrich the economy, the sector has seen low levels of government investment. ______________, some significant moves have been made over the past decade to provide a political and legislative framework that is conducive to the growth of the industry. The White Paper on Tourism was approved by Cabinet in 1994 and the Namibia Tourism Board was signed in 2000. __________ its subsequent establishment in 2001, the Namibia Tourism Board has undertaken a series of measures to improve marketing of the countrys tourism attractions, as well as putting systems in place to organize the industry. (Note: Taken and adapted from a tourism guide entitled Namibias Travel & Tourism magazine by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism in 2004] 1.3 The passive voice In many process paragraphs, especially academic paragraphs that are scientific, the passive voice is used to give the paragraph more objectivity. In other words, the researcher or the doer of the action remains less important than his/her work. The work or the action is more important than the researcher. Instead of saying I did this, the author writes the work was done. In the active voice, the subject as the doer of the action will always be at the beginning of the sentence. The subject performs the action. (Discuss/explain also the passive voice style before examples) For example 83

Active: I conducted an experiment. (I = doer) I carried out the research. (I = doer) Passive: An experiment was conducted. (An experiment = object/receiver of the action) The research was carried out. (The research = object/receiver of the action) Therefore, when using the passive voice, personal pronouns such as I are avoided. This will enable your writing to be formal and objective. Activity 2 Change the following statements to the passive voice 1. They completely outclassed the opponent. _________________________________________ 2. We are repairing the bridge. _________________________________________ 3. They threw away the old newspapers. _________________________________________ 4. He looked well after the children. _________________________________________ 5. She will address a very important audience tomorrow. _________________________________________ 2. Characteristics of formal academic writing OBJECTIVITY as opposed to SUBJECTIVITY (Lecturers explanation and students using the two texts as an example) OBJECTIVE SUBJECTIVE The academic writer tries not to let His personality intrude too much into the writing, in order to allow the facts and the evidence speak for themselves. 1. Personal pronouns, especially I Feelings are generally avoided. Pronouns like it one and there are used instead. The non-academic writer usually writes from a very personal point of view.

1. Personal pronouns are often used and personal and views expressed.

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TENTATIVENESS The academic writer is cautious about making very definite or categorical statements, or arriving at conclusions too hastily. The truth is complex and new facets of it are being uncovered all the time. There are few things we can be completely sure of, but we can say what seems to be true, judging from evidence at present available. 1. Verbs such as seems to, appears to, Is likely to tends to, may or might, could, would, indicate tentativeness 2. Adverbial and adjectival qualifiers such as apparently, seemingly, probably, maybe, perhaps, generally, often, on the whole, indicate tentativeness. ACCURATE Accuracy is of paramount importance in academic writing. Objectivity and tentativeness (above) both can accurate tribute to accuracy. Precise evidence is given for facts which are presented. Facts are carefully distinguished from opinions. 2. Sources are carefully used and acknowledged. A generally accepted system of quoting and referencing is used. 3. What is written is relevant to the topic and not repetitive.

ASSERTIVENESS The non-academic writer, speaking from a personal viewpoint, is often very sure of himself/herself, and may make wild generalizations or draw conclusions from insufficient evidence.

OFTEN IMPRECISE A personal viewpoint is presented which is not necessarily accurate. 1.. Feelings, facts and opinions are not clearly distinct from one another. Personal opinion may be presented as fact. This is totally unacceptable in an academic text. 2. Sources may be carelessly used, plagiarism may occur. This is totally unacceptable in academic writing. 3. There may be irrelevancy and repetition 4. Words are used loosely; their meaning is not always precise. 5. Sentences may be shorter, and not so carefully constructed. They may be long and rambling, wandering from one idea to another without much direction or purpose. Verbose and elaborate phraseology, which says little, may be used. 6. Dramatic punctuation marks, such as 85

4. Words are used with precision.

5. Sentences are clear and constructed carefully to show precise relationships between ideas. This means careful use of linking words. Ideas are expressed concisely and not in verbose and elaborate phraseology designed only to impress. 6. Punctuation marks such as commas and

full-stops, and sometimes colons and semicolons are accurately used.

exclamation marks, are probably more common than colons and semicolons which express precise logical relationships. Punctuation may be careless.

FORMAL A formal style is used in academic writing. 1. Full forms are preferred to short forms.

INFORMAL A less formal style is used Short forms and contractions are often used, e.g Id, wont 2. Shorter, less formal, more concrete words are often used. These include phrasal verbs and compound words, e.g carry out, find out, look into. Non-academic writing often contrains idioms, images, slang and colloquialiasms.

More formal, abstract words with Latin or Greek origins are often preferred, e.g conduct, discover, investigate. In bad academic writing, such words can be used merely to impress or bewilder the reader, rather than to express precisely what is meant.

3. Language items Sentence structure, punctuation, reporting verbs, full forms. Because it is an advanced course, UCA rests on the premise that the student has already mastered the basic items of language. Even though grammar will always form part of any language course, intensive study of these basic aspects is not part of UCA. These aspects will be dealt with in a limited way in passing and interactively as the theme of the lecture requires through activities that will enhance the existing knowledge gained from studying UCG and UCE. In this regard, a very useful book will be highly recommended for self-study for this purpose. The book is written by Michael Swan and is entitled PRACTICAL ENGLISH USAGE (New Edition). It is a reference book that can be found in the self-access area. Sections 453 to 459 that deal with punctuation on pages 466-472 are extremely important.

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The following two essays are similar in content in many ways, but one is academic and the other is non-academic. Read the two essays and make a note of their stylistic differences with a partner. ESSAY 1 The dangers of smoking to health Since 1939, numerous research projects have investigated the health hazards of smoking. Results have consistently indicated that smoking is a serious health risk. It may be argued that many smokers do not contact cancer and emphysema, and there are certainly other factors such as air pollution and nervous stress which play their part in causing such diseases. However, recent research seems to have made it clear that tobacco smoking, particularly cigarette smoking, is associated with a shortened life expectancy (Mosback and Mosback 1976: 17). An examination of what smoking does to the body would seem to prove the point, even without statistics. A smoker inhales at least 4000 poisonous chemicals together with ash and other solids, which settle on the membranes of the mouth, throat and lungs in the form of black tar. These poisons paralyse and eventually destroy small hairs called cilia, which remove mucus and pollutants from their passage of the lungs. They also cause the lining of the bronchi to swell and thus constrict the air tubes. The heart and blood vessels are also affected, the smaller veins becoming narrower and the blood becoming thicker. The US National Institute on Alcohol Abuse has found that all these effects are intensified in the case of a heavy smoker who is also a heavy drinker. It appears that tar deposits on the lungs and throat and particularly at the point where the bronchi divide, are an important factor in the development of cancer of the throat and lungs. Cancer of the bladder and oral cavity seem also to be related to smoking. Hugh Davies (1981: 18) reports Worldwatch as saying that unless there is a sudden drop in smoking the worlds deaths from lung cancer will almost certainly increase by 50% by the year 2000. The effect of smoking on the heart and blood vessels also increases the incidence of heart disease, which is higher among smokers than non-smokers, particularly men. Perhaps the most obvious effects of smoking can be seen in sufferers from chronic respiratory diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema. In the case of bronchitis, tar from cigarettes paralyses the cilia, which are then unable to remove phlegm from the lungs. Constant coughing eventually leads to a breakdown of the thin walls of the bronchial passages. This can lead, in turn, to pulmonary emphysema, in which the walls of the air sacs of the lung (alveoli) break down, causing the lungs to lose their elasticity and eventually rupture. Sufferers from emphysema gradually lose the use of large parts of their lungs, until they die from lack of air. The adverse effects of smoking on health can also be felt by non-smokers. Research indicates that the children of mothers who smoke are twice as likely to contract bronchitis and pneumonia as other children. Smoking during pregnancy can cause low birth weight, which, in turn, is related to infant mortality. It is estimated that three million infants per year are exposed to harmful chemicals through bloodstreams of mothers who smoke. It is also believed that a man who smokes heavily may produce irregular shaped sperm cells, which could reduce his chances of fathering healthy children. People who live or work in close contact with smokers also have greater vulnerability to the diseases discussed above. Research in Japan, Greece, West Germany and the United States suggest that spouses of smokers are two or three times more likely to get lung cancer than those of non-smokers (Davies 1981: 18).

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In general, it could be said that smoking slows down natural growth process and retards many of the health-maintaining functions of the body. It reduces birth weight, slows down sexual maturation, impedes effective oxygen and food supply to the body, and reduces the bodys ability to eliminate pollutants. It is difficult then to escape the conclusion that smoking is a very serious health risk. ESSAY 2 Smoking is a health hazard! One of the most silent killers though frequently ignored is cigarette smoking. By normal standards it is not fair to expect any extremes from any person. It cannot be expected that people should have solomonic wisdom, headlong taste, chameleonic caution or the reflexes of a trained racing driver. But it expected that everyone should tread along lifes pathway with reasonable and prudent commonsense. The common sense is to be aware, at least of the surreptitiously creeping monster called smoking. It is, in my own submission, an inherently fatal activity and a heresy. Its extremely dangerous to a persons health. When you smoke, you may feel good, but you should bear in mind that youre digging your own grave. The poisonous chemicals which you inhale will definitely paralyse your lungs and cause blood vessels to become narrow and your blood to become thick. All these things are well-known to be causes of cancer, heart disease and chronic respiratory disease, which, I can assure you, will be worse if youre also a heavy drinker. You may even become like the 54 year old man in Cape Town, who lives in premature retirement, stands in the garden of his suburban home, watering-can in his hand. Slowly he makes his way to the tap, five metres away. Four steps and he stops, gasping for breath. Another three steps and a severe fit of coughing forces him to rest. It takes five minutes to get to the tap and fill the watering can, and he has to rest for ten minutes before he is able to shuffle towards the plants he intends to water. He is a victim of pulmonary emphysema. Thus from this speculation, we can infer that when the effects of these diseases reach a climax, the victim might find himself even biting the dust. Most of the smokers are women. They do smoke if they are expectant. This really causes danger to the embryo. New scientists say thirty-nine percent of women in India chew tobacco. Because low birth weight is a key factor in infant mortality, tobacco use seriously endangers infant lives. Non-female smokers are always healthy and they do not easily become ill unlike heavy female smokers. This again causes a decrease of females in the community. I shall next discuss a smoking man or father. It is very sad especially with men regarding topics as this one. Men normally think the wife/mother is solely responsible for the production of the child. An expectant father will tell an expectant mother to stop smoking, meanwhile he is a moving chimney. Men, both black and white, start smoking for acceptance by their peer group, and to be treated as a man. Although the amount of damage caused by smoking is not clearly defined, it is, however, believed that smoking is a factor in irregularly shaped sperm cells. (Readers Digest 1985). How do we get men together in a clinic to teach them these discoveries? I have no answers to this question. What I know, however, is that men need to be aware of these dangers as well as women. Lastly, I would say that we hope that the world will give a hearing to the scientists for what they are saying. I they dont want to have hazardous health, then it is time they stop smoking. Because even the poor souls suffer, if you puff smoke, or if a pregnant woman smokes. Avoiding lung cancer can be done. Tobacco the deadly weed!

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REFERENCES Martinet, A.V and Thompson, A.J. (1982). A Practical English Grammar (New Edition) Oxford: University Press Ministry of Environment and Tourism.(2004) The Impact of Travel and Tourism on Jobs and the Economy. Windhoek: World Travel and Tourism Council Swan, M. (1995). Practical English Usage ( New Edition ) Oxford: Oxford University Press

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UNIT 5: MECHANICS IN ACADEMIC WRITING Introduction In this unit, you will be introduced to the mechanics and conventions of academic writing. Academic mechanics, i.e. basic grammatical items and academic conventions need to be fully understood and correctly applied. Different activities will enable you to use these mechanics in context in order to understand them better. You will also be given activities on cohesive devices and on the passive voice. Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to: identify the correct mechanics and conventions Use cohesive devices in context Use the passive voice appropriately Use language items such as punctuation and sentence structure appropriately in context.

1. Academic mechanics and conventions Academic mechanics entail the basic grammatical items of language such as sentence structure, tenses, punctuation, reporting verbs and full forms of words. In addition, coherence/cohesion is an important academic feature that ensures that sentences and paragraphs are linked appropriately together and operate as a unit. Academic conventions entail all those features/items of an academic text/article such as objectivity, tentativeness, accuracy, the use of the passive voice, formal/academic register that make a text academic. 1.1. Cohesive devices Consult Unit 5 on p. 9 and use appropriate linking words for Activity 1. Activity 1 Read the text below and fill in suitable linking in the spaces provided. Increasing visibility as a tourism destination _______ gaining independence from South Africa in 1990, the Republic of Namibia has become one of Sub-Saharan Africas fastest growing and most competitive economies. It is ______ becoming increasingly visible as a tourism destination. The country has been boosted by the recent decision of the high-profile actress, Angelina Jolie, and her partner Bratt Pitt to choose Namibia as the birthplace of their much-publicised baby. As the sector gains in importance, it is _________ increasingly complementing the countrys economic sector agriculture, fishing and mining. Yet, ___________ the clear potential for tourism growth and the opportunities it offers to diversify and enrich the economy, the sector has seen low levels of government investment. ______________, some significant moves have been made over the past decade to provide a political and legislative framework that is conducive to the growth of the industry. The White Paper on Tourism was approved by Cabinet in 1994 and the Namibia Tourism Board was signed in 2000. __________ its subsequent establishment in 2001, the Namibia Tourism Board has undertaken a series of measures to improve marketing of the countrys tourism attractions, as well as putting systems in place to organize the industry. (Note: Taken and adapted from a tourism guide entitled Namibias Travel & Tourism magazine by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism 2004) 1.2 The passive voice 90

In many process paragraphs, especially academic paragraphs that are scientific, the passive voice is used to give the paragraph more objectivity. In other words, the researcher or the doer of the action remains less important than his/her work. The work or the action is more important than the researcher. Instead of saying I did this, the author writes the work was done. In the active voice, the subject as the doer of the action will always be at the beginning of the sentence. The subject performs the action. For example Active: I conducted an experiment. (I = doer) I carried out the research. (I = doer) Passive: An experiment was conducted. (An experiment = object/receiver of the action) The research was carried out. (The research = object/receiver of the action) Therefore, when using the passive voice, personal pronouns such as I are avoided. This will enable your writing to be formal and objective. Activity 2 The following sentences are in the Active voice. Change them to the Passive voice 6. They completely outclassed the opponent. _________________________________________. 7. We are repairing the bridge. __________________________. 8. They threw away the old newspapers. ____________________________________. 9. He looked well after the children. ________________________________. 10. She will address a very important audience tomorrow. ______________________________________________. 1.3 Sentences Types of sentences Sentences are made up of one or more clauses which are the basic units of grammar. Sentences are either simple, compound or complex. A simple sentence has one subject and one finite verb. It may also have a direct object, a complement, an indirect object and a direct object, or a direct object and a complement, according to the kind of verb. For example A. Simple sentence 1. She walks. 2. I am just going over. 3. I might be useful. 91

4. I am still a doctor in the eyes of God. B Complex sentence A complex sentence has one main clause and one or more subclauses. These are frequently introduced by a subordinator like because, if, when and who. For example 1. I didnt know what to do. 2. If he were drowning, I would watch. 3. I opened the bedroom door which was unlocked. C Compound sentence A compound sentence has two or more clauses which are equally important and are usually joined by a coordinating conjunction like and, but, or. (Note: Taken and adapted from Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced Student, by Broughton G. (1990, p.278). For example 1. I have never been myself or lived my own life at all. 2. I like football but I love cricket more as a sport. Activity 3 Identify the sentence by writing simple, complex or compound in the space provided. 1. She is following him desperately __________. 2. After studying, he took a walk in the park __________. 3. John is very tired but he went to the school to attend the meeting __________. 4. I will study medicine or civil engineering depending on the scholarship that I will get __________. 5. Emi likes singing _________. 6. Peter wants to study law because of the dire shortage of legal experts in his district __________. 2. Characteristics of formal academic writing OBJECTIVE The academic writer tries not to let His personality intrude too much into the writing, in order to allow the facts and the evidence speak for themselves. 1. Personal pronouns, especially I Feelings are generally avoided. Pronouns like it one and there are used instead. SUBJECTIVE The non-academic writer usually writes from a very personal point of view.

1. Personal pronouns are often used and personal and views expressed.

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TENTATIVENESS The academic writer is cautious about making very definite or categorical statements, or arriving at conclusions too hastily. The truth is complex and new facets of it are being uncovered all the time. There are few things we can be completely sure of, but we can say what seems to be true, judging from evidence at present available. 1. Verbs such as seems to, appears to, Is likely to tends to, may or might, could, would, indicate tentativeness 2. Adverbial and adjectival qualifiers such as apparently, seemingly, probably, maybe, perhaps, generally, often, on the whole, indicate tentativeness. ACCURATE Accuracy is of paramount importance in academic writing. Objectivity and tentativeness (above) both can accurate tribute to accuracy. Precise evidence is given for facts which are presented. Facts are carefully distinguished from opinions. 2. Sources are carefully used and acknowledged. A generally accepted system of quoting and referencing is used. 3. What is written is relevant to the topic and not repetitive.

ASSERTIVENESS The non-academic writer, speaking from a personal viewpoint, is often very sure of himself/herself, and may make wild generalizations or draw conclusions from insufficient evidence.

OFTEN IMPRECISE A personal viewpoint is presented which is not necessarily accurate. 1.. Feelings, facts and opinions are not clearly distinct from one another. Personal opinion may be presented as fact. This is totally unacceptable in an academic text. 2. Sources may be carelessly used, plagiarism may occur. This is totally unacceptable in academic writing. 3. There may be irrelevancy and repetition 4. Words are used loosely; their meaning is not always precise. 5. Sentences may be shorter, and not so carefully constructed. They may be long and rambling, wandering from one idea to another without much direction or purpose. Verbose and elaborate phraseology, which says little, may be used.

4. Words are used with precision.

5. Sentences are clear and constructed carefully to show precise relationships between ideas. This means careful use of linking words. Ideas are expressed concisely and not in verbose and elaborate phraseology designed only to impress.

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6. Punctuation marks such as commas and full-stops, and sometimes colons and semicolons are accurately used.

6. Dramatic punctuation marks, such as exclamation marks, are probably more common than colons and semicolons which express precise logical relationships. Punctuation may be careless.

FORMAL A formal style is used in academic writing. 1. Full forms are preferred to short forms.

INFORMAL A less formal style is used Short forms and contractions are often used, e.g Id, wont 2. Shorter, less formal, more concrete words are often used. These include phrasal verbs and compound words, e.g carry out, find out, look into. Non-academic writing often contrains idioms, images, slang and colloquialiasms.

More formal, abstract words with Latin or Greek origins are often preferred, e.g conduct, discover, investigate. In bad academic writing, such words can be used merely to impress or bewilder the reader, rather than to express precisely what is meant.

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(Note: Taken and adapted from A Practical English Grammar (New edition), by Martinet, A.V. and Thompson, A.J.(1982) The following two essays are similar in content in many ways, but one is academic and the other is non-academic. Read the two essays and do activity 4. ESSAY 1 The dangers of smoking to health Since 1939, numerous research projects have investigated the health hazards of smoking. Results have consistently indicated that smoking is a serious health risk. It may be argued that many smokers do not contact cancer and emphysema, and there are certainly other factors such as air pollution and nervous stress which play their part in causing such diseases. However, recent research seems to have made it clear that tobacco smoking, particularly cigarette smoking, is associated with a shortened life expectancy (Mosback & Mosback, 1976, p. 17). An examination of what smoking does to the body would seem to prove the point, even without statistics. A smoker inhales at least 4000 poisonous chemicals together with ash and other solids, which settle on the membranes of the mouth, throat and lungs in the form of black tar. These poisons paralyse and eventually destroy small hairs called cilia, which remove mucus and pollutants from their passage of the lungs. They also cause the lining of the bronchi to swell and thus constrict the air tubes. The heart and blood vessels are also affected, the smaller veins becoming narrower and the blood becoming thicker. The US National Institute on Alcohol Abuse has found that all these effects are intensified in the case of a heavy smoker who is also a heavy drinker. It appears that tar deposits on the lungs and throat and particularly at the point where the bronchi divide, are an important factor in the development of cancer of the throat and lungs. Cancer of the bladder and oral cavity seem also to be related to smoking. Davies (1981, p. 18) reports Worldwatch as saying that unless there is a sudden drop in smoking the worlds deaths from lung cancer will almost certainly increase by 50% by the year 2000. The effect of smoking on the heart and blood vessels also increases the incidence of heart disease, which is higher among smokers than non-smokers, particularly men. Perhaps the most obvious effects of smoking can be seen in sufferers from chronic respiratory diseases such as chronic bronchitis and emphysema. In the case of bronchitis, tar from cigarettes paralyses the cilia, which are then unable to remove phlegm from the lungs.Constant coughing eventually leads to a breakdown of the thin walls of the bronchial passages. This can lead, in turn, to pulmonary emphysema, in which the walls of the air sacs of the lung (alveoli) break down, causing the lungs to lose their elasticity and eventually rupture. Sufferers from emphysema gradually lose the use of large parts of their lungs, until they die from lack of air. The adverse effects of smoking on health can also be felt by non-smokers. Research indicates that the children of mothers who smoke are twice as likely to contract bronchitis and pneumonia as other children. Smoking during pregnancy can cause low birth weight, which, in turn, is related to infant mortality. It is estimated that three million infants per year are exposed to harmful chemicals through bloodstreams of mothers who smoke. It is also believed that a man who smokes heavily may produce irregular shaped sperm cells, which could reduce his chances 95

of fathering healthy children. People who live or work in close contact with smokers also have greater vulnerability to the diseases discussed above. Research in Japan, Greece, West Germany and the United States suggest that spouses of smokers are two or three times more likely to get lung cancer than those of non-smokers (Davies, H. 1981, p.18). In general, it could be said that smoking slows down natural growth process and retards many of the health-maintaining functions of the body. It reduces birth weight, slows down sexual maturation, impedes effective oxygen and food supply to the body, and reduces the bodys ability to eliminate pollutants. It is difficult then to escape the conclusion that smoking is a very serious health risk. ESSAY 2 Smoking is a health hazard! One of the most silent killers though frequently ignored is cigarette smoking. By normal standards it is not fair to expect any extremes from any person. It cannot be expected that people should have solomonic wisdom, headlong taste, chameleonic caution or the reflexes of a trained racing driver. But it is expected that everyone should tread along lifes pathway with reasonable and prudent commonsense. The common sense is to be aware, at least of the surreptitiously creeping monster called smoking. It is, in my own submission, an inherently fatal activity and a heresy. Its extremely dangerous to a persons health. When you smoke, you may feel good, but you should bear in mind that youre digging your own grave. The poisonous chemicals which you inhale will definitely paralyse your lungs and cause blood vessels to become narrow and your blood to become thick. All these things are well-known to be causes of cancer, heart disease and chronic respiratory disease, which, I can assure you, will be worse if youre also a heavy drinker. You may even become like the 54 year old man in Cape Town, who lives in premature retirement, stands in the garden of his suburban home, watering-can in his hand. Slowly he makes his way to the tap, five metres awy. Four steps and he stops, gasping for breath. Another three steps and a severe fit of coughing forces him to rest. It takes five minutes to get to the tap and fill the watering can, and he has to rest for ten minutes before he is able to shuffle towards the plants he intends to water. He is a victim of pulmonary emphysema. Thus from this speculation, we can infer that when the effects of these diseases reach a climax, the victim might find himself even biting the dust. Most of the smokers are women. They do smoke if they are expectant. This really causes danger to the embryo. New scientists say thirty-nine percent of women in India chew tobacco. Because low birth weight is a key factor in infant mortality, tobacco use seriously endangers infant lives. Non-female smokers are always healthy and they do not easily become ill unlike heavy female smokers. This again causes a decrease of females in the community.

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I shall next discuss a smoking man or father. It is very sad especially with men regarding topics as this one. Men normally think the wife/mother is solely responsible for the production of the child. An expectant father will tell an expectant mother to stop smoking, meanwhile he is a moving chimney. Men, both black and white, start smoking for acceptance by their peer group, and to be treated as a man. Although the amount of damage cause dby smoking is not clearly defined, it is, however, believed that smoking is a factor in irregularly shaped sperm cells. (Readers Digest 1985). How do we get men together in a clinic to teach them these discoveries? I have no answers to this question. What I know, however, is that men need to be aware of these dangers as well as women. Lastly, I would say that we hope that the world will give a hearing to the scientists for what they are saying. I they dont want to have hazardous health, then it is time they stop smoking. Because even the poor souls suffer, if you puff smoke, or if a pregnant woman smokes. Avoiding lung cancer can be done. Tobacco the deadly weed! Activity 4 Which essay is academic and which one is non-academic? 1. ___________ ____________ 2. Write down five examples of features that distinguish the academic essay from the nonacademic one. a________________________________________ ____________________________________ ________________________________________ ____________________________________ b________________________________________ ____________________________________ ________________________________________ ____________________________________ c________________________________________ ____________________________________ ________________________________________ ____________________________________ d________________________________________ ____________________________________ ________________________________________ ____________________________________

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e _______________________________________ ____________________________________ _______________________________________ ____________________________________ References Broughton, G. (1990). Penguin English Grammar A-Z for Advanced Students. England: Penguin Books Ltd. Martinet, A.V. and Thompson, A. J. (1982). A Practical English Grammar (New Edition). Oxford University Press Ministry of Environment and Tourism.(2004). The Impact of Travel and Tourism on Jobs and the Economy. Windhoek: World Travel and Tourism Council Swan, M. (1995). Practical English Usage ( New Edition ) Oxford: Oxford University Press

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UNIT 6: WRITING ACADEMIC PARAGRAPHS Introduction

writing, students are required to divide their essays into several types of paragraphs: introductory paragraph, main paragraphs and a concluding paragraph. If an academic essay is one continuous piece of a text, it is difficult for any reader to follow the argument. Therefore, academic essays need paragraphs. A paragraph is a group of sentences that develop one topic or idea. The topic of one paragraph should follow logically from the topic of the previous paragraph and should lead on to the next paragraph. The paragraphs in an academic essay have different topics, but they all develop a main idea, i.e they add information, explain, and provide examples and illustrations until the main theme is fully explained to the reader. This unit will help you understand the mechanics of good paragraphs. Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to: Construct an introductory paragraph, main paragraphs and a concluding paragraph; Identify the components of a main paragraph; Identify topic sentences in a main paragraph; Identify supporting sentences and linking words in a paragraph; Construct written paragraphs that have topic sentences, supporting sentences and linking words.
In academic

1. Paragraph writing 1. 1. The introductory paragraph

The introductory paragraph serves as the beginning of an essay. It usually begins with a general statement about the topic, or in other words, it introduces the topic. It also gives the reader limited information about the essay to orient the reader with the contents of the essay. It also states the thesis i.e., purpose of the essay along with the controlling ideas which direct the essay.

Thesis statement
When readers read your essay, they expect it to be controlled by a main idea or a thesis. In most cases, when writing the drafts, writers convert this main idea into what is called a thesis sentence (or sentences).

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What are the functions of a thesis sentence? It reduces the topic to one central idea that a writer wants the readers to gain from. All the paragraphs that are developed in the essay are then designed to support this idea. In most cases, it precisely previews how you arrange the entire contents of the essay. It is the most important sentence in the essay. It acts as an umbrella over the essay. All ideas in the essay are then made to fit in this umbrella. It is the strongest and most clear sentence of all. It usually comes at the beginning of the essay and at the end of the introductory paragraph. It must not be stated in the form of a question, as a question carries no intent. Instead, the answer to such a question would be the actual thesis statement. It contains controlling ideas that control the content of the essay and guide the reader.

There are usually two types of thesis statements. The first type is one in which an intent is stated without evaluative words. For example, a thesis statement could read as follows: A college lecturer must have four qualities.
Note: The words in bold are controlling ideas. These are the ideas on which the entire essay would be based. Deviating from these ideas would mean that the student is waffling. Waffling is a word used to describe a student who moves away from the topic and starts beating about the bush.

The second type of thesis statement is one in which an opinion is stated. This is called a thesis statement of opinion. Such thesis statements of opinion usually contain the purpose of the essay, and they have evaluative words such as best, worst, valuable, unpleasant and boring Look at the following example: Our campus has four public toilets; these toilets present a serious health hazard to students. The evaluative words that are underlined would, therefore, need answers. A good and successful thesis statement is not vague and allows for qualification and
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specificity. An example drawn from Reid (1999) below demonstrates how a vague thesis statement is narrowed down to a better one. The Koran is wonderful. [The evaluative opinion wonderful is too vague to be supported in the essay.] The Koran is the perfect book for everyone. [Everyone is still too vague and perfect is difficult to support.] The Koran is one of the best books in the world. [Somewhat qualified, but brings a bigger topic, other religious books.] The Koran is an important religious book. [Important is more qualified, more objective but the sentence needs an additional idea to help direct the essay.] The Koran is the basis of the lifestyle of millions of Muslims. [Reasonable, specific, supportable opinion and clear intent for the essay.]
It is very important to remember that the thesis statement is placed at the end of the introductory paragraph. It is also crucial to understand that all other paragraphs that follow must develop from this thesis sentence. 1. 2. Main paragraph A main paragraph in an essay consists of a topic sentence and supporting sentences. A topic sentence is the main idea of a paragraph that is usually expressed in one sentence (the main idea or topic sentence). This sentence is usually found at the beginning of a paragraph but may come in the middle of a paragraph or at the end of a paragraph. The rest of the paragraph generally expands on the main sentence. All the sentences that expand on the topic (main) sentence are known as the supporting sentences. (Compare with section 1.3) Study the following paragraphs. The topic sentences are highlighted and in italics. Notice the sentences surrounding the topic sentences. The population as a whole was unevenly distributed. The north was particularly thinly settled and the east densely populated, but even in counties like Warwickshire where there were substantial populations, some woodland areas were sparsely peopled. There was already 101

relatively dense settlement in the prime arable areas of the country like Norfolk, Suffolk and Leicestershire. Modern estimates of England's total population, extrapolated from Domesday patterns, vary between 1 and 3 million. Atoms of all elements consist of a central nucleus surrounded by a "cloud" containing one or more electrons. The electrons can be thought of as occupying a series of welldefined shells. The behaviour of a particular element depends largely on the number of electrons in its outermost shells. Other factors, such as the total number of electron shells, also play a part in determining behaviour but it is the dominance of the outer electron configuration that underlies the periodic law and justifies the grouping of the elements into groups or families.

In general, Victorian families were big. In 1851 their average size was 4.7, roughly the same as it had been in the seventeenth century, but the 1 million couples who married during the 1860s, which the historian G. M. Young described as the best decade in English history to have been brought up in, raised the figure to 6.2. Only one out of eight families had one or two children, while one in six had ten or more, so that the counsel 'little children should be seen and not heard' was prudent rather than simply authoritarian advice. The spoken word (whether conversation or oratory or the coy mixture of the two which is now familiar to us on television) is a very different thing from the written word. What is effective or allowable or desirable in the one may be quite the reverse in the other, and the extempore speaker cannot correct himself by revision as the writer can and should. It is therefore not fair to take a report of a speech or of an oral statement and criticise it as if it were a piece of considered writing. This is a period when education faces many disturbing circumstances originating outside itself. Budgets have been drastically cut throughout the country affecting every type of education. Enrolments are dropping rapidly, because the children of the post-World War II "baby boom" have now completed their schooling, and we are feeling the full effect of the falling birth rate. So there are fewer opportunities for new teachers, and the average age of teachers is increasing.
(Note. Example paragraphs taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Students in Higher Education: Academic Writing Web site (Writing Paragraphs, Topic), by A. Gillett, n.d., Retrieved January 27, 2007, from http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm)

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Activity 1: Identify topic sentences in the following paragraphs:

Paragraph 1

The maintenance of order in prestate societies is rooted in a commonality of material interests. The greater the amount of common interests, the less need there is for law-and-order specialists. Among band-level cultures law and order stem directly from the relations between people and the natural habitat from which subsistence is derived. All adults usually have open access to this habitat: the rivers, lakes, beaches, oceans; all the plants and animals; the soil and the subsoil. In so far as these are basic to the extraction of life-sustaining energy and materials they are communal "property."
Paragraph 2

Though the United States has spent billions of dollars on foreign aid programs, it has captured neither the affection nor esteem of the rest of the world. In many countries today Americans are cordially disliked; in others merely tolerated. The reasons for this sad state of affairs are many and varied, and some of them are beyond the control of anything this country might do to try to correct them. But harsh as it may seem to the ordinary citizen, filled as he is with good intentions and natural generosity, much of the foreigners' animosity has been generated by the way Americans behave.
Paragraph 3 Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the biological species to which we human beings belong. It is the study of how our species evolved from more primitive organisms; it is also the study of how our species developed a mode of communication known as language and a mode of social life known as culture. It is the study of how culture evolved and diversified. And finally, it is the study of how culture, people, and nature interact wherever human beings are found.
(Note. Example paragraphs taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Students in Higher Education: Academic Writing Web site (Exercises, Paragraph, Identify topic sentence), by A. Gillett, n.d., Retrieved January 27, 2007, from http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm)

1.3. Supporting sentences 103

When writing a paragraph, one has to organise sentences in a meaningful way. According to McCarthy (as cited in Gillet, n. d.) most sentences in English have two parts, the theme and the rheme. The theme is what you are writing about in a paragraph. The theme may be the topic sentence in a paragraph. It is information that you need to share with you reader. The rheme is what you are saying about the theme. This may be the supporting sentence in a paragraph. The function of the rheme is to support the theme.

For more clarity of the above, look at the following examples from Gillett (n.d.): 1. The M1 goes from London to Leeds. 2. The motorway from London to Leeds is called the M1.
M1". The reader has been introduced to the M1 but does not know where it goes and therefore needs to be told. In sentence 2, the theme is "the motorway from London to Leeds". The reader knows there
is a motorway from London to Leeds but does not know what it is called According to Gillett (n.d.), in English, the theme usually comes at the beginning of the sentence and the rheme at the end. The decision about which part of the sentence to make the theme and which part to make the rheme depends on the information that needs to be communicated. This depends on the sentences that come before Look at the following short paragraphs from Gillett (n.d.): The theme in sentence 1 is "the

3. I was born in Glasgow. Glasgow is the largest city in Scotland. 4. I was born in Glasgow. The largest city in Scotland is Glasgow.
All of the sentences are grammatically correct, but in example 4, the information to be communicated, the rheme the largest city in Scotland, is at the beginning of the sentence. Example 3 is preferred in English.

According to Gillett (n.d.), there are two basic choices in organising information texts: The rheme of one sentence is the same as the theme of the next sentence. Look at the following example:
Example The complete electrical behaviour of any valve or transistor can be described by stating the interrelation of the currents and the voltages between all the electrodes. These relationships can conveniently be displayed graphically, and the various curves are known as the characteristics of the device. In principle, all the characteristics should be available to the designer proposing to use the device in a circuit.
2. The theme of one sentence is the same as the theme of the next sentence.

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Example

Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the biological species to which we human beings belong. It is the study of how our species evolved from more primitive organisms; it is also the study of how our species developed a mode of communication known as language and a mode of social life known as culture. Finally, it is the study of how culture, people, and nature interact wherever human beings are found.

(Note. Example paragraph taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Students in Higher Education: Academic Writing Web site (Writing paragraphs, Flow), by A. Gillett, n.d., Retrieved January 27, 2007, from http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm)

Activity 2: Underline the supporting sentences in the following paragraphs:

Paragraph 1 In some parts of the world a wealthy man was a man who owned a lot of animals. In east Africa a man showed how rich he was by the number of cows he owned. Sometimes wives were bought with animals. Using animals as money was difficult however because it was not easy to give change. If your animal died it meant that you have lost all your wealth. Paragraph 2 After independence in 1990, Namibia became one of the first countries worldwide to incorporate an environmental and sustainable development clause within its national constitution (Articles 95(1). It complemented this clause by enabling its citizens to raise issues of environmental concern via the office of the ombudsman. (Article 91 (c). In 1992, through Namibias Green Plan, the government of the Republic of Namibia (GRN) created a national common vision for sustainable development. President Sam formally tabled this document at UNCED, on behalf of the Republic of Namibia. The Green Plan, in turn, to Namibias 12 Point Plan for Integrated and Sustainable Environmental Management, a short strategic implementation document, which was tabled and adopted by parliament in 1993. Namibias portfolio of environmental programmes and projects arose from this process, and were designed as a complimentary and synergistic set of activities to address the countrys environmental challenges.
(Note. Example paragraphs taken and adapted from the national assessment report for world summit on sustainable development, by the Ministry of Environment and Tourism & UNDP, 2002, p.3)

2. Linking words in academic paragraphs

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In English or any other language, it is the responsibility of the writer to make it clear to the reader how the various parts of paragraphs are connected. The various parts of a paragraph are usually connected to one another through the use of linking words.

There are various categories of linking words in academic paragraph writing. Each category of linking words serves a signalling function and hence makes it easy for the reader to follow the line of argument. Table 1 below and on the following page shows the categories of linking words that could be used to link sentences in an academic paragraph.

Time/order Comparison/ similar ideas Contrast/ opposite ideas Cause and effect Examples Generalisation Stating the obvious Attitude Summary/ conclusion Explanation/ equivalence Addition Condition Support Contradiction Emphasis

At first, eventually. Finally, firstly, in the end, in the first place, in the second place, lastly, later, second, secondly, later next., to begin with In comparison, in the same way, similarly But, despite, in spite of, even so, however, in contrast, in spite of this, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, still whereas, yet Accordingly, as a consequence, as a result, because, because of this, consequently, for this reason, hence, in consequence, in order to, owing to this, since, so, so that, therefore, thus For example, for instance, such as, thus, as follows As a rule, for the most part, generally, in general, normally, on the whole, in most cases, usually After all, as one might expect, clearly, it goes without saying, naturally, obviously, of course, surely Admittedly, certainly, fortunately, luckily, oddly enough, strangely enough, undoubtedly, unfortunately Finally, in brief, in conclusion, in short, overall, so, then, to conclude, to sum up In other words, namely, or rather, that is to say, this means, to be more precise, to put it another way Apart from this, as well as, besides, furthermore, in addition moreover, nor, not only, but also, too, what is more In that case, then Actually, as a matter of fact, in fact, indeed Actually, as a mater of fact, in fact Chiefly, especially, in detail, mainly, notably, particularly

___________________________________________________________________________(Note.

(Taken from Using English fir

Academic Purposes web site [signalling by Gillett, n.d, retrieved 27, 2007, http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm)
2.1 Some examples of linking words in sentences

The section below shows how the linking words listed above may be used in sentences. These examples are not exhaustive, so students should draw examples from these, and they should use them effectively in their own sentences. The effective use of these linking words will improve communication in students writing.

If you want to tell your reader that your line of argument is going to change, make it clear.

The Bristol 167 was to be Britain's great new advance on American types such as the Lockheed Constellation and Douglas DC-6, which did not have the range to fly the Atlantic non-stop. It was also to be the largest aircraft ever built in Britain. However, even by the end of the war, the design had run into serious difficulties.
If you think that one sentence gives reasons for something in another sentence, make it explicit.

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While an earlier generation of writers had noted this feature of the period, it was not until the recent work of Cairncross that the significance of this outflow was realised. Partly this was because the current account deficit appears much smaller in current (1980s) data than it was thought to be by contemporaries.
If you think two ideas are almost the same, say so.

Marx referred throughout his work to other systems than the capitalist system, especially those which he knew from the history of Europe to have preceded capitalism; systems such as feudalism, where the relation of production was characterised by the personal relation of the feudal lord and his serf and a relation of subordination which came from the lord's control of the land. Similarly, Marx was interested in slavery and in the classical Indian and Chinese social systems, or in those systems where the ties of local community are all important.
If you intend your sentence to give extra information, make it clear.

He is born into a family, he marries into a family, and he becomes the husband and father of his own family. In addition, he has a definite place of origin and more relatives than he knows what to do with, and he receives a rudimentary education at the Canadian Mission School.
If you are giving examples, do it explicitly.

This has sometimes led to disputes between religious and secular clergy, between orders and bishops. For example, in the Northern context, the previous bishop of Down and Connor, Dr Philbin, refused for most of his period of leadership in Belfast to have Jesuits visiting or residing in his diocese.
2.2 How Linking Words May Be Used in Sentences a. Time/order

At first At first the freemen of both town and country had an organization and a type of property which still retained something of the communal as

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well as something of the private, but in the town a radical transformation was taking place. Eventually Eventually the group did manage to buy some land in a village not far from London, but the project had to be abandoned when the villagers zoned their land against agricultural use. Finally Finally, there have been numerous women altogether outside the profession, who were reformers dedicated to creating alternatives. First First I went to see the editor of the Dispatch. Firstly There are two reasons. Firstly I have no evidence whatever that the original document has been destroyed. In the end In the end, several firms undertook penicillin production on a massive scale, but hardly any ever came to Florey himself for the clinical trials which he was desperate to extend. In the first place/in the second place If we try to analyse the conception of possession, we find two elements. In the first place, it involves some actual power of control over the thing possessed. In the second place, it involves some intention to maintain that control on the part of the possessor. Lastly

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Lastly, we may notice that even a wrongful possession, if continued for a certain length of time, matures into what may be, for practical purposes, indistinguishable from ownership. Later Later she went up to the office. Next Next, I'd like to show you some pictures.

Second And second, this kind of policy does not help to create jobs. Secondly He was first of all an absolute idiot, and secondly he was pretty dishonest. To begin with To begin with, the ratio between attackers and defenders was roughly the same. b. Comparison In comparison The vast majority of social encounters are, in comparison, mild and muted affairs. In the same way Every baby's face is different from every other's. In the same way, every baby's pattern of development is different from every other's.
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Similarly You should notify any change of address to the Bonds and Stock Office. Similarly, savings certificates should be re-registered with the Post Office.
c. Contrast

But In 1950 oil supplied only about 10% of our total energy consumption; but now it's up to about 40% and still rising. Despite Despite the difference in their ages they were close friends. Even so This could lead you up some blind alleys. Even so, there is no real cause for concern.

However The more I talked the more silent Eliot became. However, I left thinking that I had created quite an impression. In spite of this My father always had poor health. In spite of this, he was always cheerful. Nevertheless He had not slept that night. Nevertheless, he led the rally with his usual vigour. On the contrary
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I have never been an enemy of monarchy. On the contrary, I consider monarchies essential for the well-being of new nations. On the other hand John had great difficulties playing cricket. But on the other hand, he was an awfully good rugby player. Still He's treated you badly. Still he's your brother and you should help him. Yet Everything around him was blown to pieces, yet the minister escaped without a scratch.
d. Cause/effect

Accordingly She complained of stiffness in her joints. Accordingly she was admitted to hospital for further tests. As a consequence The red cross has not been allowed to inspect the camps, and as a consequence little is known about them. The Cold War has ended. As a consequence the two major world powers have been able to reduce their arms budgets dramatically. As a result Many roads are flooded. As a result there are long delays. Because Because these were the only films we'd seen of these people, we got the impression that they did nothing else but dance to classical music.
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Because of this The cost of running the club has increased. Because of this, we must ask our members to contribute more each week. Consequently Japan has a massive trade surplus with the rest of the world. Consequently it can afford to give more money to the Third World. For this reason The traffic was very heavy. For this reason he was late. Hence The computer has become smaller and cheaper and hence more available to a greater number of people. In consequence The fastest these animals can run is about 65 kph and in consequence their hunting methods have to be very efficient indeed. In order that They are learning English in order that they can study a particular subject. In order to He had to hurry in order to reach the next place on this schedule. Owing to this The rain was terrible. Owing to this, the match was cancelled. So
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He speaks very little English, so I talked to him through an interpreter.

So that You take some of the honey and replace it with sugar so that the bees have something to eat. Therefore I'm not a member of the Church of England myself. Therefore it would be rather impertinent of me to express an opinion. Thus If I am to accept certain limitations on my freedom, I must be assured that others are accepting the same restraints. Thus, an incomes policy has to be controlled if it is to be effective. e) example For example Many countries are threatened by earthquakes. For example, Mexico and Japan have large ones this century. For instance Not all prices have increased so dramatically. Compare, for instance, the price of oil in 1980 and the price now. Such as There are many reasons why the invasion failed, such as the lack of proper food and the shortage of ammunition. Thus
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Plants as well as stones can be charms. The Guyana Indians have many plant charms, each one helping to catch a certain kind of animal. The leaves of the plant usually look like the animal it is supposed to help to catch. Thus the charm for catching deer has a leaf which looks like deer horns.
f. Generalisation

As a rule As a general rule, the less important than executive is, the more status-conscious he is likely to be. For the most part The New Guinea forest is, for the most part, dark and wet. In general The industrial processes, in general, are based on man-made processes. Normally Meetings are normally held three or four times a year. On the whole One or two were all right but on the whole I used to hate going to lectures. Usually She usually found it easy to go to sleep at night.
g. Stating the obvious

As one might expect There are, as one might expect, several other methods for carrying out the research. After all
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They did not expect heavy losses in the air. After all they had superb aircraft. Clearly Clearly, there is no point in continuing this investigation until we have more evidence. It goes without saying It goes without saying that I am grateful for all your help. Naturally Naturally, publishers are hesitant about committing large sums of money to such a risky project. Obviously Obviously, I don't need to say how important this project is.

Of course There is of course an element of truth in this argument. Surely In defining an ideology, the claims which seek to legitimate political and social authority are surely as important as the notion of authority itself. h. Attitude Admittedly Admittedly, economists often disagree among each other.
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Certainly Ellie was certainly a student at the university but I'm not sure about her brother. Fortunately Fortunately such occurrences are fairly rare. Luckily Luckily, Saturday was a fine day. Oddly enough Oddly enough, it was through him that I met Carson. Strangely enough It has, strangely enough, only recently been discovered. Undoubtedly Undoubtedly, many families are victims of bad housing. Unfortunately He couldn't wait to tell Judy. Unfortunately, she had already left for work.
i. Summary/conclusion Finally Let's come finally to the question of pensions.

In brief In brief then, do you two want to join me? In conclusion

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In conclusion, let me suggest a number of practical applications. In short In short, the report says more money should be spent on education. Overall Overall, imports account for half our stock. So So if a woman did leave the home, she was only supposed to concern herself with matters pertaining to domestic life. Then The importance of education, then, has been infinitely greater than in previous centuries. To conclude To conclude, I'd like to say thank you to everyone who has worked so hard to make this conference possible. To sum up To sum up, we cannot hope for greater success unless we identify our needs clearly.
j. Explanation/equivalence

In other words In other words, although the act of donating blood would increase the chances of the donor dying, this increase was small compared with the increase in the recipient's chances of surviving. Namely

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He could not do any thing more than what he had promised - namely, to look after Charlotte's estate.... three famous physicists, namely, Simon, Kurte and Mendelsohn. Or rather The account here offered is meant as a beginning of an answer to that question. Or rather it contributes by setting the question in a certain way. That is to say The romans left Britain in 410 AD - that is to say England was a Roman dependency for nearly 500 years. This means With syphilis and gonorrhoea, the ages are also recorded, and this means that an accurate map of disease prevalence can be drawn and any trends or changes can be recognized very quickly. To be more precise These reforms of Justinian in AD 529 proclaim that they are "imposing a single nature" on trusts and legacies or, to be more precise, imposing it on legatees and trust beneficiaries. To put it another way He was being held there against his will. To put it another way, he was a prisoner.
k. Addition

Also Sugar is bad for your teeth. It can also contribute to heart disease. Apart from this

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Eccleshall and Honderich find common cause in a desire to establish the ideological nature of Conservative thought, but apart from this their approaches to the study of Conservativism are very different. As well as Marx and Engels, as well as many of their contemporaries, believed that pastoralism predated agriculture. Besides Besides being good test cases, Locke obviously finds these ideas intrinsically interesting too. Furthermore Computer chess games are still a bit expensive, but they are getting cheaper all the time. Furthermore their chess-playing strength is rising. In addition Our survey will produce the essential statistics. In addition, it will provide information about people's shopping habits. Moreover The drug has powerful side-effects. Moreover, it can be addictive. Nor I could not afford to eat in restaurants. Nor could anyone I knew.I couldn't understand a word they said, nor could they understand me. Not only/but also Meissner was not only commander of the army but also a close friend of the President. Too
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Evans was not only our doctor. He was a friend too. What is more What is more, more machines will mean fewer jobs. l. Condition In that case Of course the experiment may fail and in that case we will have to start again. Then Sometimes the computer system breaks down. Then you'll have to work on paper.
m. Support

As a matter of fact The company is doing very well. As a matter of fact, we have doubled our sales budget. In fact The winter of 1940 was extremely bad. In fact most people say it was the worst winter of their lives. Indeed This act has failed to bring women's earnings up to the same level. Indeed the gulf is widening. They continue to work throughout their short life. Indeed it is overwork which eventually kills them.
n. Contradiction

Actually
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There are many stories which describe wolves as dangerous, blood thirsty animals, but actually they prefer to avoid human beings. In fact I thought he could speak the language fluently. In fact, that wasn't the case at all.
o. Emphasis

Chiefly How quickly you recover from an operation chiefly depends on your general state of health. The experiment was not a success, chiefly because the machine tools were of poor quality. Especially They don't trust anyone, especially people in our position. I'm not attracted to Sociology, especially the way it's taught here. In detail The implications of this theory are examined in detail in chapter 12. In particular In particular, he was criticised for pursuing a policy of conciliation and reform. Mainly The political group will have more power, mainly because of their large numbers. Notably Some people, notably his business associates, had learned to ignore his moods. The organisation had many enemies, most notably among feminists.
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Particularly Many animal sources of protein are also good sources of iron. Particularly useful are liver, kidney, heart, beef, sardines, pilchards (red fish generally), and shellfish, including mussels and cockles.
( Note. Example paragraph taken and adapted from Using English for Academic Purposes: A Guide for Students in Higher Education: Academic Writing Web site [Signalling], by A. Gillett, n.d., Retrieved January 27, 2007, from http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm)
Activity 3 Highlight linking words used in the following paragraph

The view has three main sources. Firstly, there is the ontological view that the subject and purpose of the human sciences are so unique that they cannot be reduced to quasi-scientific models and instruments. This view is encountered in phenomenology and in certain qualitative research trends. A second source is neo-marxism, counter cultural writers such as Ellul, and postmodernism. On the basis of, inter alia, their rejection of logical positivism, these groups equates technology with scientism, technicism and modernism. Thirdly, a moral level, technology is sometimes equated with social engineering and is hence rejected. (Marais (1996 p89)

3. Concluding paragraph

To avoid an abrupt end, you should also have a concluding paragraph in your work. According to De Soto (n.d.), in order to write an effective conclusion, the following should be done:

Restate the seriousness of a problem; Summarize your thesis or proposed solution; Recap the most important points of the paper Suggest future directions Pose some questions to your reader, encouraging him to continue thinking about the thesis

Activity 4: Now that you understand the different types of paragraphs, write a three-paragraph essay in which you express your view on the advantages of using the Internet to enhance learning at the University of Namibia.

Your paragraphs should consist of the following:

An introduction Two main paragraphs each with a topic sentence, supporting sentences and linking words in all paragraphs Concluding paragraph

4. References 122

Aaron, J. E. (1997). The little, brown compact handbook. New York: Longman.
De Soto, M. (n. d.). Concluding paragraphs. [Retrieved July 30, 2007, from http://glory.gc.maricopa.edu/~mdesoto/101hybrid_new/concluding_paragraphs.htm] Gillet, A. (n. d.). Using English for academic purposes: A guide for students in higher education: Academic writing (Writing paragraphs). [Retrieved January 27, 2007, from http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm]

Marais, C. K. (1996). Human Sciences Technology. In J. G. Garbers (Ed.), Effective research in human sciences (pp. 80-108). Pretoria: Van Schaik Publishers.
Ministry of Environment and Tourism & UNDP. (2002). The national assessment report for the world summit on sustainable development. Windhoek: MET & UNDP.

Reid, J.M. (1999). The Process of Composition. Wyoming: Longman

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UNIT 7: FUNCTIONAL SITUATIONS IN ACADEMIC WRITING

Introduction
In writing, there are different scenarios that dictate the way we write. The writing situations in academic writing are determined by the type of audience, purpose and the content of the topic. The writing situation determines how writers present their views. A writing situation could therefore be defined as a scenario under which a writer presents information. Depending on the situation (content, audience and purpose), a writer may argue, describe, compare and contrast, define, or discuss. Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to: 1. Factors that determine a writing situation a. Audience When you speak or write you need to think about your audience. You need to consider the following: AGE The language skills of the audience Identify types of essays; Identify the language and style of each writing situation; Use a good argument for reasoning; Demonstrate ways of critically assessing the validity and relevance of arguments in a piece of writing; Outline the major function of writing; Apply the overall academic writing techniques to essays or any other type of writing in an academic setting.

EDUCATION INTELLIGENCE

The audiences knowledge of the subject; Your relationship with the audience.

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b. Register In academic writing, register is a word that is used to refer to a type of writing. Depending on the purpose of writing and the audience the register to use can be either one of the following: Formal; Informal; Technical; Academic. c. Purpose There are seven main purposes for writing: to interact; to inform; to find out; to influence; to regulate; to entertain; to record.

d. Content The type of content to be covered by a particular text will determine the kind of writing. In writing a story on a birthday party, the language and style of that text will differ from writing a research report. In short, the content of the subject will determine the language and style used. An instructional word such as describe or discuss also determines how people write. A text that is meant to compare objects will differ from the one that aims at discussing ideas. 2. Different types writing

The typical rhetorical situations and functions used in academic writing, according to Werlich (1976) and Lackstrom, Selinker & Trimble (1973), are:

Describing; Reporting and narrating; Defining; Classifying/categorising; Comparing and contrasting; Generalising; Writing arguments; Expressing reasons and explanations; Expressing degrees of certainty; Writing critically; Writing research reports; 125

Writing research results; Writing research discussions; Drawing conclusions; Writing research abstracts; Writing introductions.

In this unit, however, we are only going to look at the argumentative, compare and contrast, and the descriptive writing situations. Activity 1 a) Write 1 paragraph, in which you motivate Grade 7 learners who are about to sit for final examinations, on how to study under pressure. b) Write a similar text, but this time to final year B.Ed (Bachelor of Education) students. c) In each case, identify the purpose and the register used. Feedback: Students will be asked to describe the differences between the 2 texts, in terms of the vocabulary and language used. There ought to be differences because the academic maturity of Grade 7 learners is totally different from that of final year B.Ed students. 3. Organising written answers
In planning a written answer, the instruction decides the text-type (discussion, explanation, etc.); the topic (with its restriction or expansion if there is one) determines the overall range of the subject matter but the aspect determines the particular content; viewpoint dictates which arguments, for or against, to use. The interaction between instruction and aspect will lead to decisions about the organisation of the essay. In the following question, those elements will be highlighted: Analyse the 3 factors that contributed to the economic improvement of Namibia between the years 1990 and 2007. Comment/Instruction: Topic: Focus/Aspect: Viewpoint: anlyse

economic improvement 3 factors that led to (the economic improvement) of Namibia between the years 1990 and 2007. Positive (improvement)

3.1 The essay An essay is a piece of writing that contains several paragraphs and that is written about one topic. Some essay contents will require writers to present arguments; others will expect a writer to describe events and situations, to explain, and so on.

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The aim of the essay should be deduced strictly from the wording of the title or question, and needs to be defined at the beginning. The purpose of an essay is to express your own thoughts about a given topic based on what you have learnt about the topic and on what you may have already known about the topic. The emphasis should be on working with other peoples ideas, rather than reproducing their words. The ideas, and people that you refer to, need to be made explicit by a system of referencing. This section will therefore explain the types of essays that are likely to be written in academic writing situations. Your essay should have the following sections:

Preliminaries

Title page Introduction

Main text

Main body Conclusion

End matter

References

Essays are linear. They start at the beginning and finish at the end, with every part contributing to the main line of argument, without digressions or repetition. Writers are responsible for making their line of argument clear and for presenting it in an orderly fashion so that the reader can follow. Each paragraph in an essay discusses one major point and should lead directly to the next. The paragraphs are tied together with an introduction and a conclusion. An essay has three main parts: An introduction; A main body; A conclusion.

The introduction The purpose of the introduction is to show the reader what you are doing in your writing. It is also helpful to explain why you are doing it and how you are doing it. The introduction consists of two parts:

a. It should include a few general statements about the subject to provide a background to your essay and to attract the readers attention. It should try to explain why you are writing the essay. It may include a definition of terms in the context of the essay, or any other text. b. It should also include a statement of the specific subdivisions of the topic and/or an indication of how the topic is going to be tackled in order to specifically address the question.
The introduction should present the central idea or the main purpose of the writing. It should address the question that the essay is meant to answer.

The main body

The main body consists of one or more paragraphs of ideas and arguments. Each paragraph develops a subdivision of the topic. The paragraphs of the essay contain the main ideas and arguments of the essay together

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with illustrations or examples. The paragraphs are linked in order to connect the ideas. The purpose of the essay must be made clear, and the reader must be able to follow its development. It is important to note that although you may have different ideas in the body, each paragraph should address only one main idea.

The conclusion
The conclusion includes the writers final points.

a. It should recall the issues raised in the introduction and draw together the points made in the main body. b. It should explain the overall significance of the conclusions, that is, the general points that can be drawn from the essay as a whole.
Read the following conclusions and note how in the first conclusion, the author is summarising the text in order to indicate to the reader that the text is coming to an end. In the second one, the author is concluding from what has been said earlier. Both conclusions indicate that the essay question has been answered. Example 1:

In conclusion, therefore, it can be seen that millions of people continue to be affected by water-related problems and, contrary to popular belief, future water supplies are not inexhaustible. So the situation is very serious, especially in view of the UN estimates of demand. Although projects to provide ever-increasing supplies of water indicate that a growing number of countries are aware of the present problems and of those to come, these more often than not are highly expensive and not very practical - and very time-consuming when time is a commodity in short supply. So, while research in these areas is important, the eventual solution would definitely appear to be worldwide conservation and pollution control - in other words, a greater respect for our most valuable natural resource. Example 2
Altogether, it seems that we cannot accept without question the dramatic increase in recorded crime as corresponding to a real increase in victimization of the same proportions. But, however good it would be to explain away all, or even most, of the increase as an artefact of recording changes, this cannot be shown to be the case. We can plausibly infer that crime has been increasing in the last two to three decades, presenting a problem for explanation and policy. (Note: Taken from Paul, R.H. 2004)

4. Language The following phrases could be used when concluding your essay: In short, In a word, In brief, To sum up, ... To conclude, To summarise In conclusion, 128

On the whole, Altogether, In all, accepted generally argued It is that widely held believed Therefore, concluded Thus, can It be deduced that On this basis, may inferred Given this, Table 1

seen concluded table can shown figures From it be that may estimated the data calculated results inferred information In conclusion, we/may say that Finally it can/may be said
(Note: Taken from the Nature of Academic Writing by Chackland, P. 2004, p.209) The conclusion should clearly signal to the reader that the essay is finished and leave a clear impression that the purpose of the essay has been achieved and that the question has been answered. Activity 2 Write an introduction of 1 paragraph on a topic of your own choice.

5. Ways of organising essays in different writing situations

Essays are organised differently according to the situation in which they are written. Essays can be divided into the following main types.

Descriptive essays
a. b. c. Describing an object or place; Describing a sequence of events; Describing a process;

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d.

Describing and explaining.

Argumentative essays a. The balanced view; b. The persuasive essay; c. The to what extent essay.

Compare and contrast essays a. The contrast essay; b. The compare essay; c. The compare and contrast essay.

5.1.

The descriptive essay a. Description of object or place

Descriptive essays require you to state the appearance of something, or to state the major characteristics of it. Note the word state i.e. you are not asked to comment on the subject or to give your personal opinion of it. Questions are often introduced by:

Describe .... Narrate... Tell.... b. Describing a sequence of events.

Describing a sequence of events is simply telling a story. You need to state clearly when events happened or how one event caused another. Questions may be introduced by:

Give an account of..., Trace..., Examine developments in... c. Describing a process

This is like telling a story, but here the connections between the facts must be clearly shown and explained. Group the events into steps or stages. Examples of such questions are:

Explain/What is the connection between.... Describe the procedures by which..

The following table illustrates how you may plan an essay that describes a process:
Definition of process Main equipment/Main steps

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Step One Leads to

Step Two Leads to

Step Three

Conclusion Summary of process (Note: Taken from the Nature of Academic Writing by Chackland, P. 2004, p.213)

d. Describing and explaining

When we are asked to describe or explain causes, factors, functions or results, the examiner wants us to group our facts. Similar causes are put together; for instance the economic causes of a situation. Some of the words and phrases, which introduce this type of question are:

Explain the causes/reasons.... Account for.... Analyse the causes.... Comment on (the reasons for).... Show that.... Show why... Examine the effect of.... Suggest reasons for.... Why did...? What are the implications of...? Discuss the causes of.... Discuss the reasons for.... 5.2. The argumentative essays

There are two main methods of presenting an argument, and, in general, the one you choose will depend on exactly how the essay title is worded.

a. The balanced view

If the essay title begins with something like:

Give the arguments for and against.... Assess the importance of.... Examine the arguments for and against.... What are the advantages and disadvantages of...? Evaluate.... 131

Critically examine the statement that.... To what extent is...true? or even just the word Discuss....
It is then clear that a balanced essay is required. That is to say you should present both sides of an argument, without necessarily committing yourself to any opinions, which should always be based on evidence, until the final paragraph. At its simplest your essay plan will be as follows: Introduce the argument to the reader. e.g. why it is particularly relevant topic nowadays or refer directly to some comments that have been voiced on it recently.

Reasons in favor of the argument

Reasons against the argument

After summarising the two sides, state your own opinion, and explain why you think as you do

(Note: Taken from Analytical Writing by Werlich, L. 1999, p.115)

5.2.1. The persuasive essay

This second type of argumentative essay involves stating your own point of view immediately, and then trying to convince the reader by reasoned argument that you are right. Perhaps the essay question will begin with something like:

Give your views on.... What do you think about...? Do you agree that...? Consider whether....
It is also possible that a question itself will be so controversial that everyone will hold a definite opinion in one direction or another. The form of the essay will be, in outline, as follows: Introduce the topic briefly in general terms, and then state your own opinion. Explain what you plan to prove in the essay.

Reasons against the argument. Dispose briefly of the main objections to your case.

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Reasons for your argument the arguments to support your own view, with evidence and examples.

Conclusion - Do not repeat your opinion again. End your essay with something memorable e.g. a quotation or a direct question. (Taken from A Strategy for Good Arguments by Kotler & Anderson, 2003, p.29)

5.2.2. The to what extent essay

In this type of essay, the examiner gives you a statement. It appears true, but truth is never 100%. You must decide how true it is. Are there some areas where you disagree with the statement? If so, describe how far you agree, and your points of agreement and disagreement. Words used in the question are:

To what extent .... How true .... How far do you agree.... Activity 2 a. Write 1 paragraph in which you describe the registration process at the University of Namibia. b. Write 2 paragraphs in which you discuss whether in your view, the registration process at the University of Namibia is time consuming to students or not. Support your views with valid arguments. Feedback Discuss your answers in groups, and point out the differences between a text that is meant to describe and one that is meant to discuss. 5.3. Compare and contrast essays.
Contrast or distinguish between questions usually present you with two or more terms, instruments, concepts or procedures that are closely connected, and sometimes confused. The purpose of the essay is to explain the differences between them. Words used are:

5.3.1. The contrast essay

Contrast .... Distinguish between ... What is/are the difference(s) between.... 133

What are the differences between.... How are ... and ... different?
A suitable answer structure would be: Introduction to differences between A and B

Contrast A & B in terms of first difference

Contrast A & B in terms of second difference

Contrast A & B in terms of third difference

Etc

Conclusion (Note: Taken from Writing Critically by Kotler, P. 2001, p.117)

b. The Compare essay

Compare questions usually present you with two or more terms, instruments, concepts or procedures that are closely connected, and sometimes confused. The purpose of the essay is to explain the similarities between them. Words used are:

Compare .... What features do ... and ... have in common? What are the similarities between.... How are ... and ... similar?
A suitable answer structure would be: Introduction to similarities between A and B

Compare A & B in terms of first similarity

Compare A & B in terms of second similarity

Compare A & B in terms of third similarity

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Etc.

Conclusion (Note: Taken from Writing Critically by Kotler, P. 2001, p. 121)

5.3.2. The compare and contrast essay

Compare and contrast essays require you to indicate areas in which the things to be compared are similar and different. Compare and contrast.... The compare and contrast essay can be answered in the following way: Introduction to differences and similarities between A and B

Difference 1

Difference 2

Difference 3

Difference 4

Transition

Similarity 1

Similarity 2

Similarity 3

Etc.

Conclusion

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(Note: Taken from Fundamental Writing by Paul, R.H. 2004, p. 76) 6. Functional Situations in Academic Writing A function is an act that is meant to serve a particular purpose. In this case, the term functional (adjective of the word function) situation can be defined as a writing method that is applied in order to serve a writing situation; for example, which writing method should a writer apply when he or she is in a situation where he is required to discuss, to compare, to contrast, or to argue. This section will, therefore, explore ways of employing relevant styles and methods in different writing situations. 6.1 Functional Situations in Academic Writing: Arguing and discussing
In academic writing, arguing and discussing is often part of a larger piece of writing. In arguing and discussing, you are expected to present two or more points of view and discuss the positive and negative aspects of each case. On the basis of your discussion, you can then choose one point of view and persuade your readers that you are correct. This means giving your opinions (positive and negative) on the work of others and your own opinions based on what you have learned. You need to evaluate arguments, weigh evidence and develop a set of standards on which to base your conclusion. As always, all your opinions must be supported; you should produce your evidence and explain why this evidence supports your point of view. It is important to distinguish between your claim (proposition, thesis) - your point of view, what you believe; your evidence (support or grounds) - the facts, data and examples that support your point of view; and your reasons (warrant or argument) - why you believe what you do, how the evidence you have provided leads to the claim you are making (Toulmin, 1999). There are two main methods of presenting an argument, and, in general, the one you choose will depend on exactly how the essay question is worded.

a. The balanced view

In this case, you present both sides of an argument, based on actual evidence, without necessarily committing yourself to any particular opinion until the final paragraph. At its simplest, your essay plan will be as follows:

Introduce the argument to the reader. e.g. why it is a particularly relevant topic nowadays or refer directly to some comments that have been voiced on it recently.

Reasons in favor of the argument State your point of view, your evidence and your reasons.

Reasons against the argument. State your point of view, your evidence and your reasons.

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After summarising the two sides, state your own opinion, and explain why you think as you do.

(Note: Taken from Functional Writing by Paul, R.H. 2004, p. 108) b. The persuasive essay
This second type of argumentative essay involves stating your own point of view immediately, and then trying to convince the reader by reasoned argument that you are right. The form of the essay will be, in outline, as follows:

Introduce the topic briefly in general terms, and then state your own opinion. Explain what you plan to prove in the essay.

Reasons against the argument. Dispose briefly of the main objections to your case. Provide evidence and your reasons.

Reasons for your argument the arguments to support your own view, with evidence, reasons and examples.

Conclusion - Do not repeat your opinion again. End your essay with something memorable e.g. a quotation or a direct question.

(Note: Taken from Persuasive Writing by Mintzberg,H. 2000, p. 27)

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To conclude it is important to note the appropriate language to use when making a point of your own, presenting an argument or disagreeing with a point of view. Academic writing encourages us to be diplomatic, while at the same time making sure that our points and ideas are registered and understood by our readers. To say for example that I totally disagree with Mr X or that Mr Y is absolutely wrong is undiplomatic and therefore not encouraged. You are advised to use phrases such as Serious reservations may be raised against what Mr X has written because. It is also important to make sure that you state your reasons as to why you disagree to a particular point of view. People may feel offended if you disagree with their views without providing valid reasons as to why.

Finally, linking words, as you have seen in examples given in this unit, must be correctly used. If a writer says however, it indicates that he is going to differ with an earlier point. If he says in addition, this means additional information to what was said, and not a different point of view. REFERENCES Checkland, P. (2004). The nature of Academic Writing, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons, Chichester. Kotler, P. (2001). Writing Critically. New Jersey: Prentice-Hall. Kotler, P and Anderson, A. (2003). A Strategy for Good Arguments, New Jersey: PrenticeHall. Lackstrom C. (2003). Discursive Writing. London: Groom Helm, London. Leech, R. and Svartvik, T. (2000). Argumentative Writing. New York: Harper and Row. Mintzberg, H. (2000). Persuasive Writing: A Handbook for Beginners. New York: Harper and Row. Rumble, G. (2001). In Search of Excellence: Lessons from Americas best Academic Writers. London: Groom Helm Paul, R.H. (2004). Functional Writing. Chichester: John Wiley and Sons. Peters, T.J. (2002). A Handbook for Descriptive Authors. New York: Harper and Row. Toulmin, C. (1999). Functional Situations in Academic Writing, London: Kogan Page. Werlich, L.(1999). Analytical Writing, London: Kogan Page.

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UNIT 8: SELECTING AND SYNTHESISING

Introduction This unit deals with the skills of selecting and synthesising of ideas and /or information when writing an academic essay. Essay writing is one of the most important academic assignments required from students and should be based on research. Therefore, before an assignment is written a student has to read on the given topic. This entails selecting relevant facts, ideas, theories and concepts from various sources, i.e. books, journals, newspapers, electronic media and many others. Good academic written assignments combine various ideas to form one coherent whole. This is called synthesizing. However, ideas and information taken from other sources should be acknowledged by direct quotations or citations. Ideas are synthesized purposely to support ideas, justify the writers thinking and arguments and also to provide evidence of research. When written tasks are supported by external sources, the sources must be acknowledged as part of the research conducted, in order to avoid plagiarism. A good academic paper is therefore based on selected relevant ideas, well integrated into the paper (Murray & Johanson, 1996).

Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to: Select relevant ideas from various sources; Synthesise own ideas and information from various sources into an essay; Identify opposing ideas from a text; Read closely and critically; Identify criteria for academic writing; Analyse the title of an article; Write an academic essay. 1. Selecting relevant ideas Academic essays involve careful reading and selection of information relevant to a topic and the purpose of writing the assignment. Once the topic and focus of the assignment have been identified, various sources must be read to select relevant information in order to write an informed argument. 2. Synthesising There are various ways in which ideas can be synthesised e.g. by using mind-maps and tables. A mind-map is very useful, because new information can always be inserted at an 139

appropriate place. Repetition can be avoided because all the information is on one page and can be seen at a glance. Tables are useful for comparing information, because contrasting points can be written next to one another (Murray & Johanson, 1996).

3. Identifying opposing ideas from a text If the writer wants to point out opposing ideas in one or more texts, the text(s) should be read carefully at first, in order to identify the opposing arguments. Thereafter arguments can be written in a table next to each other. The writer should then use these points to write paragraphs in which the opposing ideas are discussed. Activity 1 Two opposing views are presented in the three passages about capital punishment. Read the passages carefully and underline the main arguments presented in order to complete Activity 2.

ARGUMENTS FOR THE DEATH PENALTY

Incapacitation of the criminal Capital punishment permanently removes the worst criminals from society and should prove much cheaper and safer for the rest of us than long term or permanent incarceration. It is self- evident that dead criminals cannot commit any further crimes, either within prison or after escaping or being released from it. Cost

Money is not an inexhaustible commodity and the state may very well better spend our (limited) resources on the old, the young and the sick rather than the long term imprisonment of murderers, rapists, etc. Anti-capital punishment campaigners in America city the higher cost of executing someone over life in prison, but this (whilst true for America) has to do with the endless appeals and delays in carrying out death sentences that are allowed under the American legal system where the average time spent on death row is over 11 years. In Britain in the 20th century, the average time in the condemned cell was less than 8 weeks and there was only one appeal. Retribution

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Execution is a very real punishment rather than some form of "rehabilitative" treatment, the criminal is made to suffer in proportion to the offence. Although, whether there is a place in a modern society for the old fashioned principal of "lex talens" (an eye for an eye), is a matter of personal opinion. Retribution is seen by many as an acceptable reason for the death penalty according to my survey results. Deterrence

Does the death penalty deter? It is hard to prove one way or the other because in most retentionist countries the number of people actually executed per year (as compared to those sentenced to death) is usually a very small proportion. It would, however, seem that in those countries (e.g. Singapore) which almost always carry out death sentences, there is generally far less serious crime. This tends to indicate that the death penalty is a deterrent, but only where execution is an absolute certainty.

Anti-death penalty campaigners always argue that death is not a deterrent and usually cite studies based upon American states to prove their point. This is, in my view, flawed and probably chosen to be deliberately misleading. Let us examine the situation in 1 country. Britain

The rates for unlawful killings in Britain have more than doubled since abolition of capital punishment in 1964 from 0.68 per 100,000 of the population to 1.42 per 100,000. Home Office figures show around 300 unlawful killings in 1964, which rose to 565 in 1994 and 833 in 2004. The principal methods of homicide were fights involving fists and feet, poisoning, strangling, firearms and cutting by glass or a broken bottle. 72% of the victims were male with young men being most at risk. Convictions for the actual crime of murder (as against manslaughter and other unlawful killings) have been rising inexorably. Between 1900 and 1965 they ran at an average of 29 per year. There were 57 in 1965 the first year of abolition. Ten years later the total for the year was 107 which rose to 173 by 1985 and 214 in 1995. The figure for 2005 is 280. There have been 71 murders committed by people who have been released after serving "life sentences" in the period between 1965 and 1998 according to Home Office statistics. Some 6,300 people are currently serving sentences of life in prison for murder. Statistics were kept for the 5 years that capital punishment was suspended in Britain (1965-1969) and these showed a 125% rise in murders that would have attracted a death sentence. Whilst statistically all this is true, it does not tell one how society has changed over nearly 40 years. It may well be that the murder rate would be the same today if we had retained and continued to use the death penalty. It is impossible to say that only this one factor affects the murder rate. Easier divorce has greatly reduced the number of domestic murders, unavailability of poisons has seen poisoning become almost extinct whilst tight gun control had begun to reduce the number of shootings. However, drug related gun crime is on the increase and there have been a spate of child murders recently. Stabbings have increased dramatically as have the kicking and beating to death of people who have done something as minor as arguing with someone or jostling them in a crowd, i.e. vicious and virtually motiveless killings. As in most Western countries, greatly improved medical techniques have saved many victims who would have previously died from their injuries (e.g. Josie Russell).

___________________________________________________________________________
(Note: Taken from

http://www.richard.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/thoughts.html#pro#pro)

ARGUMENTS AGAINST THE DEATH PENALTY There are a number of incontrovertible arguments against the death penalty.

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The most important one is the virtual certainty that genuinely innocent people will be executed and that there is no possible way of compensating them for this miscarriage of justice. There is also another significant danger here. The person convicted of the murder may have actually killed the victim and may even admit having done so but does not agree that the killing was murder. Often the only people who know what really happened are the accused and the deceased. It then comes down to the skill of the prosecution and defence lawyers as to whether there will be a conviction for murder or for manslaughter. It is thus highly probable that people are convicted of murder when they should really have only been convicted of manslaughter. A second reason, that is often overlooked, is the hell the innocent family and friends of criminals must also go through in the time leading up to and during the execution and which will often cause them serious trauma for years afterwards. It is often very difficult for people to come to terms with the fact that their loved one could be guilty of a serious crime and no doubt, even more difficult to come to terms with their death in this form. However, strongly you may support capital punishment, two wrongs do not make one right. One cannot and should not deny the suffering of the victim's family in a murder case but the suffering of the murderer's family is surely equally valid. There must always be the concern that the state can administer the death penalty justly. Most countries have a very poor record on this. In America, a prisoner can be on death row for many years (on average 11 years 2004 figure) awaiting the outcome of numerous appeals and their chances of escaping execution are better if they are wealthy and/or white rather than poor and/or black, irrespective of the actual crimes they have committed which may have been largely forgotten by the time the final decision is taken. Although racism is claimed in the administration of the death penalty in America, statistics show that white prisoners are more liable to be sentenced to death on conviction for first degree murder and are also less likely to have their sentences commuted than black defendants. It must be remembered that criminals are real people too, who have life and with it the capacity to feel pain, fear and the loss of their loved ones, and all the other emotions that the rest of us are capable of feeling. It is easier to put this thought on one side when discussing the most awful multiple murderers but less so when discussing, say, an 18 year old girl convicted of drug trafficking. (Singapore hanged two girls for this crime in 1995 who were both only 18 at the time of their offences and China shot an 18 year old girl for the same offence in 1998). There is no such thing as a humane method of putting a person to death irrespective of what the State may claim (see later). Every form of execution causes the prisoner suffering; some methods perhaps cause less than others, but be in no doubt that being executed is a terrifying and gruesome ordeal for the criminal. What is also often overlooked is the extreme mental torture that the criminal suffers in the time leading up to the execution. How would you feel knowing that you were going to die tomorrow morning at 8.00 a.m.? There may be a brutalising effect upon society by carrying out executions; this was apparent in this country during the 17th and 18th centuries when people turned out to enjoy the spectacle. They still do today in those countries where executions are carried out in public. It is hard to prove this one way or the other people stop and look at car crashes but it doesn't make them go and have an accident to see what it is like. I think there is a natural voyeurism in most people. The death penalty is the bluntest of "blunt instruments." It removes the individual's humanity and with it any chance of rehabilitation and their giving something back to society. In the case of the worst criminals, this may be acceptable but is more questionable in the case of less awful crimes.

(Note: Taken from http://www.richard.clark32.btinternet.co.uk/thoughts.htm#pro#pro)

THE DEATH PENALTY: A VIOLATION OF BASIC HUMAN RIGHTS AND AN INEFFECTIVE CRIME DETERRENT

MATTHEW BURNETT
The Namibian public is rightfully outraged in response to the sexual assault and murder of two young girls in Windhoek and Swakopmund. In response, a number of people have called for the re-introduction of the death penalty in Namibia. 142

I respectfully submit that the call to consider the legalisation of capital punishment is misguided. Not only is the death penalty explicitly outlawed by the Namibian Constitution, it also contravenes Namibias regional and international human rights obligations. Moreover, the death penalty has not been shown to deter criminal behaviour or reduce crime rates in other countries, and there is no proven method to ensure that innocent people will not be put to death at the hands of the State. Article 6 of the Namibian Constitution states that the right to life shall be respected and protected. It then goes on to explicitly state that no Court or Tribunal shall have the power to impose a sentence of death on any person, and that no executions shall take place in Namibia. Further, Article 131 provides that the repeal or amendment of the fundamental rights and freedoms enshrined in the Constitution that would diminish or detract from them is impermissible. Because the right to life is a fundamental right, the only way that Article 6 or portions thereof could be changed is to throw out the Constitution and begin the process anew. Taking such a drastic measure in order to legalise the death penalty, which is currently condemned by the majority of countries in the world, is without merit. Current figures reveal that 118 countries in the world have abolished the death penalty, either in law or in practice. Since 1985 only four countries that had previously abolished the death penalty have reinstated it (Nepal, the Philippines, Gambia, and Papua New Guinea). However, Nepal has now abolished it again, the Philippines have suspended executions, and there have been no executions in Gambia and Papua New Guinea. Thus, if Namibia were to re-introduce the death penalty and carry out an execution, it would stand alone in the world. It is clear that countries that have abolished the death penalty far exceed the number of countries which both retain and use the death penalty (78). In fact, in 2003, 84 percent of all executions were carried out in only four countries (China, the United States, Iran, and Vietnam). Internationally, there are four treaties through which various countries have explicitly agreed not to use the death penalty, or to only do so during wartime. Further, the cornerstone of international human rights, the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, enshrines the protection of the right to life and prohibits cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment (Articles 3 and 5). Namibia has signed and ratified a number of international treaties that similarly enshrine the protection of the right to life as well as prohibit cruel, inhuman, or degrading treatment. They include the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (Articles 6 and 7), the Convention on the Rights of the Child (Article 37), and the Convention Against Torture and Other forms of Cruel, Inhuman or Degrading Treatment or Punishment (Articles 1 and 16). Moreover, Namibia has obligations to two regional treaties that enshrine the right to life and prohibit cruel, inhuman, and degrading treatment, namely the African Charter on Human and Peoples Rights (Articles 4 and 5) and the African Charter on the Rights and Welfare of the Child (Article 5). By reintroducing the death penalty, Namibia would arguably contravene each of these international and regional agreements. Even if it were acceptable to Namibians to throw out the Constitution and ignore all of these international and regional human rights obligations which it should clearly not be research 143

shows that the death penalty is simply not effective in combating crime. Indeed, a recent report that considers the relationship between the death penalty and homicide rates conducted for the United Nations concluded that it is not prudent to accept the hypothesis that capital punishment deters murder to a marginalised greater extent than does the threat and application of the supposedly lesser punishment of life imprisonment. This same report, in comparing the relationship between changes in the use of the death penalty and crime rates, stated that the fact that the statistics continue to point in the same direction is persuasive evidence that countries need not fear sudden and serious changes in the curve of crime if they reduce their reliance upon the death penalty. In Canada, for example, the homicide rate peaked the year before the death penalty was abolished for the crime of murder, and has fallen by 40 percent since. In the United States, the State of Texas has become the nations leader in the use of the death penalty since 1982, yet in the years between 1982 and 1991 the rate of violent crime grew by 46 percent and the general crime rate grew by 24 percent. The facts also show that the death penalty can lead to state sponsored killing of innocent people. For example, in the United States, 117 individuals have been released from death row since 1973 after evidence of their innocence was revealed. Indeed, in 2000 the governor of one US state (Illinois) declared a moratorium on the death penalty after thirteen death row inmates were found to have been wrongfully convicted since 1977. One of the men exonerated, Madison Hobley, made a false confession after police wrapped a plastic bag over his head, beat him, and choked him in order to force a confession. Based on this coerced confession, he was convicted and spent 13 years on Illinois death row before being exonerated. In countries that permit the use of the death penalty, the risk of innocent people being killed at the hands of the state is simply unavoidable. It can and does happen. While it is natural that we want to protect ourselves and our children from crime, the death penalty is simply not a wise or effective way to accomplish that objective. This does not mean, however, that a national debate on crime reduction and prevention does not need to take place in Namibia. It is the responsibility of every Namibian to consider ways in which to make Namibian society a safer place for everyone, but the death penalty is not the answer. Matthew Burnett, a former legal intern at the Legal Assistance Centre, is a researcher and writer on international human rights and other public international law topics. He currently lives and works in Johannesburg, South Africa.

(Note: Taken from The Namibian, February 2005)

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ACTIVITY 2 In all three texts, arguments for and against capital punishment are given. Note down the main arguments for and against capital punishment in the table below. Arguments for capital punishment Arguments against capital punishment

ACTIVITY 3 Write a short essay in which you discuss the two opposing views about capital punishment. Your essay should have four paragraphs: an introduction, two paragraphs in which you discuss the arguments for and against capital punishment and a concluding paragraph in which you draw your own conclusion based on the ideas discussed in your essay. You should acknowledge the sources read by making use of the academic conventions dealt with in the ULEA Study Guide. ACTIVITY 4 Read the article entitled The Death Penalty: A violation of human rights and an ineffective crime deterrent, and answer the questions that follow: 145

4.1. What type of text is this? _____________________________________________________________________ 4.2. What do you know about the author of the article? _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ 4.3. What is the purpose of writing this article? ______________________________________________________________________

4.4. Write down the main ideas of the following paragraphs in the spaces provided. 4.5 Paragraph 3 ____________________________________________________ Paragraph 4 ____________________________________________________ Paragraph 5 ____________________________________________________ Paragraph 7 ____________________________________________________ Paragraph 8 ____________________________________________________ Indicate to what extent the writer succeeded in writing an article that meets the criteria of an academic text. Motivate by giving examples of each criterion below from the text. Objectivity

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__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ Tentativeness

__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________

Accuracy

__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________

Formality

__________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 4.6. Analyse the title of the article, The Death Penalty: a violation of basic human rights 147

and an ineffective crime deterrent by identifying the following components: Topic __________________________________________________________ Focus __________________________________________________________ Comment _______________________________________________________ Viewpoint ______________________________________________________

References Burnett, M. (February, 2005) The death penalty: a violation of human rights and an ineffective crime deterrent. The Namibian. Clark, R. (n.d.) Arguments for the death penalty. Retrieved October, 2006, from http://www.richard.clark32.binternet.co.uk/thoughts.htm#pro#pro Clark, R. (n.d) Arguments against the death penalty. Retrieved October, 2006, from http://www.richard.clark32.binternet.co.uk/thoughts.htm#pro#pro Murray, S & Johanson, L. (1996). Read to learn. A course in reading for academic purposes. Johannesburg: Hodder & Stoughton.

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UNIT 9: APPLIED WRITING A. Writing an abstract Introduction

The abstract of an article or academic essay is quite useful to give the reader a quick overview of the article/essay. You will be required to write an abstract as part of your academic essay. In this unit an explanation of what an abstract is and how to write it will be given. Examples o abstracts will also be provided. Objectives: At the end of this unit students should be able to: 1. Define what an abstract is; Identify the characteristics of an abstract; Answer questions based on examples of abstracts given in the unit; Write the abstract of an academic essay. Abstract

An abstract is a short summary of a book, article, lecture, essay or report. According to the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association (2001), an abstract is a brief comprehensive summary of the contents of an article. It allows readers to quickly survey the contents of the article. When doing a literature search on computer, the first contact with academic articles will be the abstract. After skimming through the abstract, the reader will decide whether to read the entire article, or not. The abstract needs to be concise but also readable, wel organised and brief. Furthermore, an abstract for a theoretical article should describe the topic in one sentence; the purpose of the article; the sources used (e.g. published literature) and the conclusion. An abstract should be:

Accurate: It should correctly reflect the purpose or content of the article or essay Information that does not appear in the body of the article or essay should not be included Comparing an abstract with the outline of the headings of the article is a useful way o ensuring its accuracy. Self-contained: Define all abbreviations, acronyms and unique terms. Avoid quotations rather paraphrase. Concise and specific: Each sentence should be maximally informative; especially the
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topic sentence. The abstract should be brief; it should not exceed 120 words. Begin the abstract with the most important information (but do not repeat the title). Only the four o five most important concepts, findings or implications should be included in the abstract.

In order to improve conciseness the following can be done: use digits for all numbers, excep those at the beginning of a sentence. Abbreviate liberally, except those abbreviations and acronyms that need to be explained. Also do not use contractions, like dont. Use the active voice, but without the personal pronouns I or we.

______________________________________________________________________________
(Note: Taken and adopted from the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association, 2001).

Activity 1 Study the examples of abstracts below and then answer the questions that follow: ABSTRACT A:

Successful product development requires managing tensions coping with fluctuating contingencies to foster innovation and efficiency. To investigate this challenge, we explored the nature, dynamics and impacts of contrasting project management styles. Our conceptua framework details emergent and planned styles. Following 80 projects over two-year periods we find that these styles offer disparate but interwoven approaches to monitoring, evaluation and control activities; use of these activities fluctuate over time; a paradoxical blend of style enhances performance; and uncertainty moderates project management-performance relationships.

(Note: Taken from Product Development Tensions. Exploring Contrasting Styles of Product Management, Lewis, Welsh Dehler & Green, 2002, p. 245).

ABSTRACT B:

A total of 365 potential Open University (OU) students responded to a postal test ( via two cloze passages) of their reading skills, and a survey of their reading habits. A best-fit multiple regression model showed that previous educational level and time elapsed since a respondent had last finished a book were the best predictors of close scores. A five-factor model explained 37.2% of variance in the data; brief descriptions of respondents associated with each factor are given. Age accounted for 11.6% of the variance, higher than any other factor. Younge respondents were significantly more likely to score low on the more difficult cloze passage, to
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read books less frequently, and to read tabloid newspapers.

(Note: Taken from Reading Skills and Reading Habits, a study of new Open University undergraduate reserves, Datta & Macdonald-Ross, 2002, p. 69).

ABSTRACT C:

The use of network technology to deliver training is the latest trend in the training and development industry and has been heralded as the e-learning revolution. In an effort to separate hype from reality, this paper reviews practitioner and research literature on e-learning incorporating unpublished information from interviews with managers and consultants directly involved in e-learning initiatives. Specific attention is given to why organizations use e-learning what the potential drawbacks to e-learning are, what we know from research about e-learning and what the future of e-learning may hold.

(Note: Taken from E-learning, emerging uses, empirical results and further Directions. Welsh, Wanberg, Brown & Simmering, 2003, p.245).

1.1. Write down the main ideas of each of the three abstracts in the space provided below: A: __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ B: __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ C: __________________________________________________________________ __________________________________________________________________ 1.2. In abstract A the personal pronouns we and our are often used. Rewrite those sentences without using personal pronouns. ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ ____________________________________________________________________ 1.3. What did the writer of abstract C do to improve conciseness?
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_____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________ _____________________________________________________________________

1.4. Analyse each abstract to find its topic, purpose, sources used (if mentioned) and conclusions drawn, if applicable. Abstract A B C Topic Purpose Sources Conclusion

With the assistance of your lecturer, you will now be able to write the abstract of your academic essay.

References Datta, S. & Macdonald-Ross, M. (2002). Reading Skills and Reading Habits: a study of new open University undergraduate reserves. The Journal of Open and Distance learning, Vol. 17, 1, pp. 69 - 88. Lewis, M.W., Welsh, M.A., Dehler, G.E. & Green, S.G. (2002). Product Development Tensions: Exploring Contrasting Styles of Product Management. The Academy of Management Journal, Vol 45, 3, pp. 546 - 564. Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association. (2001). American Psychological Association: Washington D.C.

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Welsh, E. T., Wanberg, C. R., Brown, K. G. & Simmering, M. J. (2003). Elearning: emerging uses, empirical results and future directions. International Journal of Training and Development, Vol.7, 4, pp. 245 - 256. B: Writing a report Introduction People are often required to present a report, orally, or in writing. Sometimes one has to present a quick oral report about a meeting or workshop one has attended, and at other times a more formal written report is required, e.g. about the progress made with a project, or even a report about the misconduct of a colleague or employee in an organisation. Whatever the case may be, reports play an important role in any organisation or business. They are used to give information, report on the results of an investigation or evaluate or introduce fresh approaches to existing issues. Reports are usually written by investigators, policemen, traffic officers, directors, managers, heads of departments, therapists, depending on the specific situation and organisation in question (Whiting & Davids, 2003; Ziegler & Cloete, 2002). In this unit reports will be defined and classified according to purposes and types. Various types of reports will be mentioned, but for the purpose of the ULEA course only the short formal report will be discussed thoroughly. The unit will also deal with the steps necessary for writing the report and short activities based on the information given. Objectives At the end of the unit students should be able to: 1. Define report writing; Discuss the purposes of reports; Identify different types of reports; Discuss the steps necessary for compiling a report; Use the correct format to write a short formal report; Use the correct language and tone when writing a short formal report. The Report

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Whiting and David (2003) define a report as a factual account (description) of something that the writer/speaker has investigated, seen heard or experienced (2003). 1.1 Purposes and types of reports According to Scheepers and Jattiem ( 2002) and Ziegler and Cloete (2002), reports can be classified as informative or evaluative reports. Informative reports give new information on a specific area or problem, e.g. progress Reports. Evaluative reports analyse problems, e.g. feasibility reports, laboratory reports. Special reports are once-off reports, usually requested by someone in a senior position, reporting about issues of relevance at a particular time. The following TYPES of reports are also described in the literature: The extended formal report (used by central/local government and large companies); The short informal report (used to briefly report on general matters, e.g. a workshop on developing materials). The short formal report (used in formal reporting situation internally directed). (Evans, 1992). 2. The short formal report The short formal report is used where middle or senior management has to report to top management, and can be used for investigation and/or research reports. The report is structured with headings, sub-headings and numbers to make it reader-friendly (Evans, 1992; Whiting & Davids, 2003). The format of the short formal report

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According to Whiting and Davids, (2003), the short formal report has the following headings: 1. Terms of reference Brief and scope brief background or context, exact instructions, limits; Aims and objectives, reasons, who requested the report, who is/are the authors, investigators. 2. Procedures Describe the methods used to gather information; Give details who, what where, when and how much time was spent; Mention books, articles, documents, describe interviews, surveys, questionnaires, services of experts, laboratory tests, meetings, but do not write findings here. 3. Findings Main body of report contains the findings; Present information objectively; Facts to be verified should be given; Careful selection of relevant information; Arrange information logically.

4. Conclusion Logical outcome of facts presented; Can be a summary and/or conclusion drawn by writer; May include opinions, but should be based on facts. 5. Recommendations Ideas on what can be done to remedy the problem, or make necessary changes; Ideas are aimed at future action; Advice should be clear and practical (p. 135).
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6 Reference list Reference list is usually placed after the recommendations and before the appendices; Make sure that all the sources are included (Ziegler & Cloete, 2002, p. 33). 7 Appendices (If any) Appendices are attached to the report Contain all the detailed information that is too comprehensive to be put in the text Headings are numbered by using letters of the alphabet, e.g. Appendix A: Calculations (Ziegler & Cloete, 2002, p. 33). An example of a short formal report taken from Whiting and Davids (2003, p. 136) is given below: SP WHOLESALERS (PTY) LTD REPORT OF SUB-COMMITTEE ON PROPOSED NEW BRANCH OFFICE 1. Terms of reference The members of the subcommittee were appointed in accordance with the following resolution passed by the board of directors on 10 June 2002. 1.1 That a subcommittee be appointed to investigate the desirability of opening a branch for the company in Paarl. That the subcommittee comprise Ms A. Londt and Messrs M.V. Shai and B. Beukes.

1.2

2.

Procedure

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2.1 The subcommittee met on three occasions: 15 June, 30 June and 23 July 2002. 2.2 On each occasion all the members of the subcommittee were present. 2.3 In addition, the subcommittee visited the central business district of Paarl.

3.

Findings 3.1 Rival businesses are represented in Main Street, the main road of the

CBD. 3.2 There are two other smaller companies of a similar nature in the immediate vicinity of Samaai Road, which runs parallel to Main Street. 3.3 However, in the next road, Kimberley Street, a suitable site for the erection of a new branch with offices has been found. It has easy access to both the railway station and other transport facilities.

4.

Conclusion 4.1 The most suitable site in Paarl for the establishment of a new branch for the company would appear to be in Kimberley Street, which is fast becoming the third most important business road in Paarl.

6. Recommendations The subcommittee recommends that: 6.1 Negotiations be entered into for the purchase of the land marked on the attached plan, subject to planning permission being obtained; The companys architects be instructed to prepare plans for the erection of the new branch with an office block on the site.

5.2

Compiled by: Ms A. Londt Chairperson

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M.V. Shai Secretary 01 August 2002

2.2. Steps of report writing Activity 1 Brainstorming Write down 3 or 4 steps (you can think of) to follow when writing a short formal report.

The following important steps for writing a report are suggested by Whiting and Davids (2003). 1. Analyse the topic In order to prepare carefully the exact topic, terms of reference, scope and due date should be established early. The following questions must be answered: Who wants the problem to be investigated? Why and when? 2. Select a format Decide what kind of report it is and select the appropriate format, e.g. short formal report (See format on p. ) 3. Plan The next step is brainstorming. Thoughts should be organized logically and broken up into manageable chunks in order to gather information and make notes.
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4.

Gather information Information should be obtained by making use of various methods and sources, i.e. reading books, articles reports and conducting interviews. While gathering information notes should be made and careful track of sources should be kept.

5.

Writing the first draft Use the format selected earlier when writing the first draft. It is important to select only the relevant information. The report should be written in accurate, clear and simple language that is objective and formal (see academic writing in unit ). Be concise, in other words, use words economically. The past tense should be used for the terms of reference, procedures and findings and the present tense for the conclusion.

6.

Editing The report should be edited to make sure that the correct format was used and that it is complete, the informative, relevant, reader-friendly and free from errors.

7.

The final presentation The report should be typed in the required format, with the required cover page, title and content page. The reference page and appendices should be typed on separate pages to be attached to the report. A short summary has to follow the title page to give the busy reader a quick overview of the report before reading it in detail (pp. 142-144). Activity 2 2.1. Conduct an investigation about an issue of concern in your faculty (at the university ). It could be absenteeism of students or lecturers, lack of punctuality or non-adherence to deadlines. It could also be more serious problems (theft, disciplinary problems).

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2.2.

You should conduct interviews with the parties involved; get information using some of the methods explained previously, i.e. from reports, class lists, and/or questionnaires.

2.3

Write a short formal report with the following headings: Terms of reference; findings; conclusion; recommendations; reference list; appendices. Due date: To be decided in class.

2.4 References

Evans, D.W. (1990). Better Business Writing. Crisp Publications: Menlo Park. Scheepers, J. & Jattien, R. (2002). Communication for personnel management. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Whiting, C. & Davids, G. (2003). Communication for public management. Cape Town: Oxford University Press Southern Africa. Ziegler, A. & Cloete, M. (2002). Communication for mechanical engineering. Cape Town:

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UNIT 10: The APA reference style Introduction The APA writing style has entrenched itself as one of the most widely used writing styles for academic documentation. The abbreviation APA stands for American Psychological Association. Although it has its roots in Psychology, it is also widely used in other social sciences such as Economics, Sociology, Anthropology, etc. If you wish to understand it in detail, you can borrow the Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association from your nearest library. Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to: Avoid plagiarism Identify and present own voice in text Demonstrate the ability to properly cite information from various sources using the APA writing style. Demonstrate the ability to properly write a reference using the APA writing style. Construct a reference list in proper APA writing style format. Demonstrate ability to organise list of reference in an acceptable APA format 1. How to Use the APA Writing Style in Your Text The use of the APA writing style within your text will differ from other styles of academic writing such as the Turibian and MLA (described in the previous unit). Your lecturer will inform you of the correct style you will have to adopt for crafting your essays or any other written academic texts. Examples below illustrate how you would go about merging information from different sources with your own information using the principles of APA documentation style. What is worth pointing out from the outset is that an APA parenthetical citation contains the authors last name, the date of publication and often the page number from which material is borrowed. 1. Plagiarism
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1.1.

What is plagiarizing?

According to Chambers 21st Century Dictionary, (1999, p.1059) plagiarizing is to copy (ideas, passages of a text etc) from someone elses work and use them as if they were ones own Plagiarism therefore involves copying without acknowledgement of sources by the author. Using someone elses facts or ideas, submitting an assignment for one course that was handed in for another course without permission from the instructor is plagiarism. Plagiarism is a serious crime at the University of Namibia and a student who submits copied work receives a zero for reproducing another persons work without acknowledging sources. 1.2 Types of plagiarism Complete plagiarism This is when a student submits an assignment that has been written by someone else. The original source may be a published journal article, book chapter, an unpublished work or the work of another student. Near complete plagiarism This is when a student lifts portions of another text and uses them in hi or her own work. Patchwork plagiarism This is when a student lifts ideas, phrases, words and sentences and paragraphs from a variety of sources and stitches them together into an essay. Lazy plagiarism This is the result of sloppy note-making or research short cuts. It includes the inadvertent use of someone elses language, use of footnotes or material quoted in other sources as if they were the results of your research and sloppy or inadequate footnoting which leaves out sources of page referencing Self plagiarism
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This is the use of an essay written for one course to satisfy the requirements of another. 1.3 Avoiding plagiarism In order to avoid plagiarism, before you carry out a library research on a given topic, you must always first brainstorm ideas to establish what you already know about the topic because others may influence your writing. The process of brainstorming ideas enable you to have own voice in the essay which is an important aspect in essay writing. When reading around the assignment question, be accurate when recording publication details such as title of source, authors name date of publication and the like. Such details are helpful in distinguishing carefully between your own words and those of others. Reference Citations in Text Examples a. Author not named in your text One critic of Namibian politics said that the nation should be fully informed of its voting rights before it takes to the polls (Diescho, 1998, p. 50). b. Author named in your text Diescho (1998) said that the nation should be fully informed of its voting rights before it takes to the polls (p. 50). c. A work with two authors Zimba and Hengari (1996) demonstrate that a childs language often carries developmental indicators. One study (Zimba & Hengari, 1996) demonstrates developmental indicators in a childs language. When given in the text, two authors names are connected by and. In parenthetical citation, they are connected by an ampersand &.
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d. A work with three to five authors Zimba, Likando, Auala and Hengari (1999) further demonstrate language developmental indicators in gestures. Notes: When you cite a source with works of three to five authors for the first time, name all of them. When you cite the same source for the second time, just write the first name followed by et al. Et al. is a Latin word that means and others. e. A work with six or more authors One study (Villet et al., 1995) attempts to explain these management differences according to organizations. Notes: For this, even in the first citation of the work, give only the first authors name followed by et al. f. An anonymous author One article (Revolutionary Pedagogy, 1999) noted that education should be relevant to ones environment. Notes: For an anonymous or unsigned work, use the first two or three words of the title in place of an authors name, excluding initial words like A or An. Capitalize the significant words in all titles cited in the text. g. One or two more works by the same author Decentralization is important in effective sharing and disbursing of national resources (Mutumba, 2004a, pp. 99-102). Notes:
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If your reference list includes two or more works published by the same author (s) in the same year, the works should be lettered in the reference list as in the 2004a example above. h. Two or more works by different authors Two studies (Zimba, 1994; Otaala & Hengari, 1997) found that ample hostels in an environment can significantly reduce child abuse. Notes: List the sources in alphabetical order. Insert a semicolon in between authors. i. An indirect source Supporting data appears in the study by Nyathi (as cited in Zimba & Likando, 2007). Notes: The phrase as cited in indicates that the reference to Nyathis study was found in the Zimba and Likando source. You are obliged to acknowledge that you did not consult the original source (Nyathi) yourself. In the list of references, give only the reference details for Zimba and Likando. Activity 2 Now turn to unit 6 on Editing and revising and read paragraph 1-2 in The danger of smoking to health. Identify the three references in the essay and then write them down into the APA format. Reference 1: Reference 2:
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Reference 3:

2. The APA Reference List In the previous unit(s), you learnt the meaning of the word reference. You also learnt how a reference list differs and/or relates to the word bibliography. Now we will explain what a reference list is and how you can work on it under the APA style of writing. Whenever you prepare an APA reference list, you will be required to note that: The list of References includes full publication information for every secondary source cited your essay/assignment. 2.1. How to Write a Reference 1. Arrange sources alphabetically by the authors last name. Iif there is no author, then arrange the sources by the first main word of the title, excluding words such as a and the.. 2. Double-space all entries. 3. Use an appropriate indention for each entry. Indent the first line of each entry for papers that will be published (Indention requires five to seven spaces). Reference example: Tarnas, R. (1998). The passion of the western mind. London: Random House (Pty) Limited. As you can see from the example above, the first line of the reference is indented while the second line is flush with the left margin of the paper. The title of the book is placed in italics. The first name or names of the author are written in initials and punctuated carefully. Note:
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When handwriting the reference list, anything that is normally written in italics when typed on a computer should be underlined instead. Also important to note is that the above style of referencing is normally used when you are preparing your essay or paper for publishing, but some lecturers or professors prefer usage of this style even if the paper is not intended for publishing. 2.2. Reference writing contd. Taking into consideration the example for referencing on the previous page, if one had to reference the same book for a lecturer or not for publishing purposes, one would put the first line of the reference flush with the left margin and then indent all other lines. For example: Tarnas, R. (1998). The passion of the western mind. London: Random House (Pty) Limited. If you are not preparing the document for publishing, use hanging indentation i.e., the first line is not indented while the others are. Hanging indentions make it easier for readers to spot the name of the author. Advice: Ask your lecturer about the format or writing style that he or she prefers you to use when writing a paper. 2.3. Reference writing concluded In titles of books and articles, capitalize only the first letter of the title, the first letter of the subtitle, and proper names; all other words begin with lowercase letters. In titles of journals, capitalize all significant words. Italicize the titles of books and journals, along with any period or comma following. Do not italicize or use quotation marks around the titles of articles. List all authors last names first, separating names and parts of names with commas. Use initials for first and middle names. Use an ampersand (&) before the last authors name.
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Nonperiodicals For nonperiodical sources e.g., textbooks, general books, government publications etc., give the city of publication. Use the abbreviations p. or pp. before page numbers in books and newspapers, but not in other periodicals. For inclusive page numbers, include all figures: 667 668. Referencing From Various Sources 1. A book with one author Lilemba, J. M. (2003). Power is sweet. Windhoek: Out of Africa Publishers. Notes: Even though the authors full name appears on the source, use the initials for the first and/or middle names. 2. A book with two or more authors Hund, J., & Van der Merwe, H. W. (1986). Legal ideology and politics in South Africa: A social science approach. Cape Town: Creda Press. Notes: An ampersand (&) separates the authors names.

3. A book with an editor Dohrenwend, B. S., & Dohrenwend, B. P. (Eds.). (1974). Stressful life events: Their nature and effects. New York: Wiley. Notes: List the editors names as if they were authors, but follow the last name with (Eds.). or (Ed.). with only one editor. Note the periods inside and outside the final parenthesis. 4. A book with a translator
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Trajan, P. D. (1927). Psychology of animals (H. Simone, Trans.). Washington, DC: Halperin. Notes: The name of the translator appears in parentheses after the title. It is followed by a comma, Trans., a closing parenthesis and a final period. 5. An anonymous book Merriam-Websters collegiate dictionary (10th ed.). (1993). Springfield, MA: Merriam Webster. Notes: When no author is named, list the work under its title, and alphabetize it by the first main word (excluding The, A, An). 6. An article in a magazine Shikongo, A. A. M. (2006). The Pope versus holy prophet of Islam. The African, 17(5), 12-13. 7. An article in a journal Dacey, J. (1994). Management participation in corporate buy-outs. Management Perspectives, 7(4), 20-31. Notes: -Italicize the journal title and capitalize all significant words. - Separate the volume number from the title with a comma and italicize the number. -Do not add pp. before the page numbers. 8. An article or chapter in an edited book Paykel, E. S. (1994). Life stress and psychiatric disorder: Applications of the clinical approach. In B.S. Dohrenwend & B.P. Dohrenwend (Eds.), Stressful life events: Their nature and effects (pp.239-264). New York: Wiley.

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An article or chapter in an edited book Cont. Notes: - The date of collection above (1994) becomes the date of publication of the article or chapter. - After the word In, provide the editors names (in normal order), (Eds.) and a comma, the title of the collection and the page numbers of the article in parentheses. 9. An article in a newspaper Weidlich, B. (2006, August 10). War vet stick to their guns. The Namibian, p.1. Notes: - Give the month and date along with the year of publication. - Use The in the newspaper name if the paper itself does. For a newspaper, (unlike a journal or magazine), precede the page number(s) with p. or pp.. 10.A Government report Namibia commission on poverty reduction. (1998). The Caprivi commitment. Windhoek: Author. 11.A videotape or any other audiovisual material Spielberg, S. (Director). (1993). Schindlers list. [Motion picture]. Los Angeles: Viacom. 12.A song on CD/Tape Sheehama, R. (2004). Skank it wise. On Namibian trails [CD]. Windhoek: Mshasho. 13.An Interview

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Simasiku, K. (1998, July 12). [Interview With Gilbert Likando]. Caprivi Vision, 2-5. 14.Source on the World Wide Web Leppik, P. (1996, January 21). The two rules of internet security. Retrieved September 2, 1997, from http://www.thinck.com/insec.html Activity 3 Identify weather the following sources, and then compile them into a list of reference according to the APA format. Write the surnames in alphabetical order. 1. Wallace, C, 1992, Reading; Oxford. Oxford University Press 2. P. Ur. 1981. Discussions that Work , Cambridge; Cambridge University Press 3. Wainer H, 1997 Improving tabular displays: With NAEP tables as examples and inspirations, Journal of Educational and Behavioral Statistics. 22, 1-30 4. Wehmeier, S, ed 1993. Oxford Word power Dictionary. Oxford. Oxford University Press 5. Spratt, M. 1989. Turning In. London. Longman. References: Robinson M & Davidson G. (Ed.). (1999). Chambers 21 Century dictionary. Edinburgh: Chambers Harrap Publishers.

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UNIT 11: EDITING AND REVISING Introduction In this unit, you will practise how to edit and revise academic essays. In previous units you learnt how to prepare for writing, analysing essay titles, note making and planning for essay as well as types and styles of writing. All these steps are part of what is normally called the writing process, and so are editing and revising. In this unit you will be expected to edit and revise sample essays or essay extracts by identifying language errors and correcting them. Objectives At the end of this unit students should be able to:
Identify and correct language errors in an essay; Practise different steps in essay drafting; Revise an essay draft.

1. Revising the first draft At this stage you may have realised that although the final essay is linear, the writing process is usually not a linear process. Most people think that writing is just putting ideas together and then the process is complete. What is meant here is that we do not move from one stage to the next, always moving on to the next stage of the process. When we are writing an essay, report or any type of extended writing, we as writers do not move in a straight line from preparation for writing, analysing the topic note making and planning writing the first draft and then submitting the end product to the lecturer. The process is generally far more complex than this. We go backwards and forwards among the stages of the writing process. Very often when we have written the first draft, we need to go back to the plan and revise it. The purpose for looking at our plan is to make sure that we have written our essay according to the essay plan we drafted. Remember that when you concentrate on writing as your ideas flow, it is not impossible to include new ideas or supporting ideas that were not initially in the essay plan. It becomes imperative that the entire essay layout or organisational structure be looked at and be compared with the essay plan. Below are a few hints that need to be taken into consideration before revising essay drafts:

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revising a draft takes time and discipline from the writer- it is therefore imperative to allocate more time and devote patience to this exercise; knowing our own writing well- it is essential that we take the position of the reader if we need a thoroughly revised draft; it is advisable to take the top down (from the whole to parts) approach when revising drafted work.

1.1. Steps in essay draft revision When revising the first draft of the essay, we have to put ourselves in the position of the reader. An educated reader will first of all look at the essay from different angles such as the essay title, introduction and conclusion, and finally the different paragraphs to see whether the text at hand is worth reading. Below are some of the steps worth considering when revising a draft: look at the draft composition (whole essay)
The essay needs an introduction that is reflective of the essay title, a conclusion that indicates a concluded task, and then the structure of the different paragraphs. The question to remember here is Does each of the mentioned sections carry a topic sentence, supporting sentences and concluding sentence? If so, how do they help form a complete whole of the essay? At this we should be in a position to identify where the introductory paragraph ends, where the main body starts, and where the conclusion starts. o Skim read the essay in order to identify where new ideas are introduced and where they end. When we notice these demarcations, we have to separate or mark them off in pen or pencil, until we reach the end of the essay. We should also be aware of repeating already introduced ideas.

look at paragraph connection (how one paragraph introduces the other)

o At this stage look at how the flow of the main theme is carried from one paragraph to the next (though each has an own idea). One of the easiest ways of doing this is to focus on how the concluding sentence of the last paragraph is worded. Does the last paragraph show a conclusion of an idea and hint at introducing another in the next paragraph? Skim read the concluding sentence of the above paragraph and introductory sentence of the immediate paragraph to look for hints (effectively applied cohesive devices). If these are not evident, indicate with a mark where they should be located and proceed with the next paragraph, until the end of the essay draft.

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 look at the sentence and language structure (sentence structure variety and word choice) This may seem a difficult and cumbersome as well as time-consuming task, but as mentioned in the beginning, we have to allocate enough time for this exercise. A good essay should constitute a variety of wellorganised sentences that have an even flow of ideas as well as formal language (word order and vocabulary). We should then read the first essay draft to check for clarity, brevity and directedness of sentences used. One of the ways to do this is by reading the essay a few times. Bear in mind that we planned and wrote this essay draft, and therefore are familiar with its contents. When reading over, we may (unintentionally) overlook the errors we made while writing. It is therefore important to put ourselves in the position of the reader or of an editor with a pencil or pen in hand to mark off all the errors we come across as we read the text. It is at this point also worth focusing on formal language structure that is indicative of objectivity, tentativeness and accuracy. The errors to look out for include among others, use of slang and contractions such as cant, shouldnt, (abbreviations and acronyms are an exception though they should be written in full at first use in the essay). look at the in-text referencing, use of reporting verbs and cohesive devices
Since we are dealing with academic essay writing, it is of importance that we apply acceptable and correct academic conventions in the essay. As you have learnt in the preceding units, we have two types of in-text referencing, also known as in-text citations. These are the direct and paraphrasing referencing. We have, therefore, during this exercise, to see to it that our application of these conventions is done correctly. If we fail to correct these (where applied incorrectly), our essay may be regarded as either a text of plagiarised material or a reckless and careless piece of work done by an unacademically educated person or even a cheat. No one wants to be referred to as such! In most cases, many students and writers fail to apply the correct or appropriate reporting verbs following an in-text reference or citation. It is equally important that we also pay attention to the proper application of these reporting verbs as they enhance cohesion (bonding the citation i.e. borrowed voice and supporting sentences i.e. the writers voice- which is you, the author). It is at this stage that we also have to apply tentativeness in our use of reporting verbs as well as other cohesive devices in order to avoid subjectivity.

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Activity 1 We have dealt with some theoretical aspects on revising and editing of essay drafts in the preceding paragraphs. It is now time to put our theory to test. Below are some draft and parts of essays written at first attempt by 1 st year students at the University of Namibia. Each has some unique and some common errors as these essays have been reprinted in their original form. Using the marking key provided above, identify and underline the errors and then mark them with the appropriate symbol as suggested in the marking key. Remember that you may not be able to detect all the errors at first reading, so read and read over until you are certain you have covered all possible errors in the given text. DRAFT 1: The negative effects of civil wars in Africa Introduction Civil war is one of the factors which has lead to the social instability of Africa and the world at large. The Essay discusses The negative effects brought about by civil war on African continent. This will include looking at aspects such as the economy, the environment, infrastructure and also other areas which has been affected by civil war. The economy Over the past decades many african countries have encountered economic decline as a result of civil war. In countries such as Angola oliver (1995:297) Indicate that military expenditure had been among the driving force which has lead to economic decline in many African countries and in this case Angola is an exeption. Furthermore, it has been reported that military expenditure grew faster than either the population or the estimates of GDP (Gross domestic product). As such military expenditure came to be regarded as a social burden in Angola. In Zaire and Uganda it is reported that military spending was two or three times greater than Spending on education and health, more so (Oliver F, 1995:297) has shown that in Sahara Africa, the ration were reported as 81 and 91 per cent respectively. Therefore with the figures given above it may be concluded that military expenditure has greatly contributed to the decline of economic progress in africa in persuit of civil war. Conclusion
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Finaly is has been clearly indicated as to how civil war as brought about economic and social disorder in africa Therefore it can be said that a lot needs to be done in order to ensure the recovery of some african countries so that africa stabilizes from the wounds caused by civil war.
(Printed with the permission of the student)

DRAFT 2: Discuss the role of aquaculture towards the socio-economic development of developing countries

Can be defined as aquaculture practised in water. Aqua is Greek term for water. Aquaculture is variously defined as fish farming or husbandry of fish and shellfish (Nash 1992:1 quoted in Bailey 1996 et. Al). Aquaculture may also be defined simply as farming of fish and other aquatic organisms. It represents the most important source of growth in fish supply for human consumption. It is regarded as the aquatic counterpart of agriculture and its origin extends back at least 3000 years (Bardach et al., 1972 cited in Beveridge 1996:1). The potential of aquaculture for commercial and nutritional purposes is now receiving greater attention because marine fish resources in most part of the world are heavily exploited and seems to offer limited capacity for increased harvests. (Bailey 1996 et.al). However unlike Agriculture, aquaculture has until recently contributed little in real terms to world fish and shellfish production. Roles and impacts on poverty A considerable proportion of most african country populations, particularly those living in rular areas suffer from high degree of poverty and unemployment. Aquaculture contributes to the livelihoods of the poor through improved food supply, increased employment opportunities and income (Isaacs 2006). Many small-scale farmers have small land holdings in areas of competion, diverse and risk prone agriculture in mainly rainfed and undulating land on the fringes of lowlands or uplands. Construction of ponds on these frequently environmentally degraded farms may also provide a focal point for agriculutural diversification and increase sustainability by providing a source of water. Here, fish farming in common water bodies may help to reduce poverty, provided that the poor can access them. Conclusion
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Aquaculture represent new possibility for sustainable development that may enhance community viability, coherence and solidarity in terms of poverty alleviation and the contribution to food security and good health. Appropriate technologies have to be developed and applied to reduce adverse impacts, and effective public information systems established to educate the general public and regulatory agencies. For this to happen, carefully attention to the planning process is needed, and some hard choices have to be made, choices that are basically political and moral. Reference List 1. Bailey Conmer, Svein jentoft and peter Sinclair. 1996. AQUACULTURAL DEVELOPMENT. Social Dimension of an Emerging Industry. Colorado: Westview Press, Inc: 2. Malcolm Beveridge. 1996. Cage aquaculture. Second edition. Cambridge: University Press 3. Isaacs.M. 2006 Fisheries Management Course lecture notes. Windhoek. University of Namibia
(Printed with the permission of the student)

DRAFT 3: The process and consequences of urbanization in Namibia due migration Cities especially in developing countries such as Namibia are becoming heavily overpopulated on a daily basis, while on the other hand rural areas are becoming lands of old and young ones only. However this is becoming an issue of concern. And therefore this essays main focus is to explain the process and consequences of the so-called movement; urbanization due to migration. Urbanization is a process that generally means the movement of people from rural to urban areas. It is most common in developing countries because of the big gap that is between rural and urban areas in terms of development. People who are mostly involved in this process are middle aged, specifically at the age 15-45 years old. There are many reasons as to why people move to urban areas searching for work, proper houses, better services and entertainment are some but few of the reasons
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that attract people to urban areas. While the push factors (factors forcing people to leave rural areas) in rural areas is the lack of all those above mentioned and so called pull factors.
(Printed with the permission of the student)

1.1. Now that you have identified and marked all noticeable errors in each of the above texts, explain why you think they are actually errors, Also suggest how you would go about correcting them, or reworking them to an acceptable form. It is advisable to tackle one draft at a time and then have it discussed with your lecturer before moving on to the next. This activity can be done in pairs or individually. It is important to take notes of useful and constructive comments and suggestions given as feedback. 1.2. From the discussion and class contributions on the above (1.1.), it would be advisable to write a second draft (presumed correct) of each draft and hand it in to your lecturer for assessment (to be graded for C.A.) who will give comments on your work. It is important to remember that what you are taught here should be carried on to your own writing activities as this is intended to be used throughout your academic and professional lives. In formal academic and professional writing, this process may be repeated over and over, and even reaching a stage where you exchange your work with colleagues for peer review until you are satisfied with the final draft. Cumbersome as it may be, it really pays off in the long run. Bibliography Booth, C.W., Colomb, G.G. & Williams, J.M. (1995). The Craft of Research. Chicago: University of Chicago Press. Murray, S and Johansen, L. (1989). Write to Improve: a guide to correcting and evaluating written work. Johannesburg: Hodder and Stoughton.

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UNIT 12: ACADEMIC SPEAKING

Introduction As part of the English for Academic Purposes course (ULEA 3519), you will be required to give an Oral Presentation. It will entail the planning and preparation of a presentation based on a written project. By the time you make your presentation, most of the research would already have been completed. Just as research is an important part of a successful presentation, so is the effective use of visual aids. Both aspects will be dealt with in this unit. The following purposes of speaking as identified by Jordan (1997) in an academic setting need to be strongly considered when teaching English for Academic Purposes. 1. Lectures, asking questions in class; 2. Seminars: group discussions; 3. Oral presentations, answering questions, clarifications; 4. Verbalizing data: speaking from graphs, maps formulation and giving instructions.

Objectives By the end of this unit students should be able to: Ask questions in class during any lecture; Demonstrate the ability to participate fully in seminars and group discussions both in and outside the classroom; Plan your presentation, construct an outline, select and arrange information, prepare visual aids and rehearse; Demonstrate the ability to verbalize data, speak from graphs and maps and give instructions; Use and Integrate the four skills in language learning and acquisition i.e. Reading, Writing, Listening and Speaking; Demonstrate the ability to correctly cite sources.

1.

Criteria for a good presentation

The quality of an oral presentation or speech is usually judged by the following:

Content

The information that the speaker shares with the audience should be interesting, relevant, accurate, original and well-structured.
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Body language and rapport

Guard against habits that could distract or irritate the audience. Pay particular attention to appropriate facial expressions and gestures, good eye contact with the audience, posture and meaningful gestures. Eye contact shows the audience that you are talking to and with them. Also, the presenter should make the audience feel relaxed and establish some kind of relationship with them.
Visual Aids

Use relevant, neat, creative visual aids in a well organised manner. They should enhance understanding of the topic. Visual aids that do not fit these criteria will ruin a potentially good presentation.
Speech and voice

Your voice (volume) should be loud enough for everyone to hear. Vary the pitch and pace of your voice do not speak fast all the time or slowly all the time. Use your vocal range, that is, very low or very high. Also, increase or decrease the speed at which you talk and place emphasis on important points.
Language

Fluency (ability to speak smoothly, accurately), vocabulary (use of words), grammar (sentence structure), and register (appropriate level of language for audience) are the main focus as far as language is concerned. You can achieve fluency by being thoroughly prepared and familiar with your subject. Use formal language, not slang or informal expressions or idioms. 2.

The introduction of a presentation

Greeting the audience, establishing credibility (if necessary) and

introducing the topic e.g. Good morning ladies and gentlemen. My name is Dennis Edwards from Gems International. Today Im going to talk to you
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about diamonds and the types used to make jewellery, or Today, I am going to discuss or To introduce my presentation Id like to tell you about my experience during my recent visit to Adrian and Meyer Jewellers in Windhoek.
Show the relevance

e.g. All of you here today have chosen to study the art of crafting jewellery, or Many of you have experienced ...
Provide background information

e.g., Many of you own jewellery. Now let me give you some background information or a short history lesson on the art of making jewellery using one of our own countrys own natural resources.
State the expected outcome

e.g., At the end of this presentation, everyone should have a good understanding of the process of crafting jewellery.
Preview/Outline

e.g., The presentation will consist of four main parts. Firstly, Im going to give you some statistics Then, I will show you some slides showing some of the finest jewellery crafted in Namibia. After that Ill describe the whole process, and finally Ill conclude and allow for some questions... Activity 1 Prepare an introduction on an interesting topic. You may use your essay topic if you have already decided on one. Pay attention to the above points. You will be asked to practise/present it in class. 3.

The body of the presentation Giving information in detail (defining terms, describing, sequencing, etc.).
Begin to build up your argument or set out your information; Support each main point with examples, discussion and description; Provide a link between the main points for the audience to see the connection. Use linking words e.g., therefore, as a result, however, etc.

Activity 2
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Now, prepare and rehearse at least one or two of the main points of your topic. This should be done together with your introduction. 4. The conclusion

Here you should provide a sense of completion to your audience. You may end by going back to the beginning, by summarising the main points or by leaving the issue open for consideration or discussion or calling for action.
Conclude by saying in conclusion or to sum up; Summarise the main points of the presentation; Do not add new points or ideas as new ideas may confuse the

audience.

Activity 3 Now prepare the conclusion to your presentation. 5. Visual aids

It is much easier for an audience to concentrate on a presentation if it is accompanied by visuals. They may also help the audience to understand something that is not easy to describe in words, like a process or experiment or findings. There are different types of visuals, for example, flipcharts, transparencies, PowerPoint, chalkboard or whiteboard, videos and data projectors. Keep all visuals simple and neat and use colours that are clearly visible like black, blue and green. Try not to put too much information on one visual. Using PowerPoint adds real interest and professionalism to your presentation. When using a chalkboard or whiteboard, try to write in straight lines and from left to right. Activity 4 Prepare visual(s) for your presentation. Focus on aspects such as colour, size, shape, spelling, readability, relevance, clarity, etc. 6. The delivery stage

In this stage the following are important:

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Prepare yourself both mentally and physically. Try not to think any negative thoughts and remain calm. It is natural to be nervous, so try some relaxation or breathing exercises;
Wear clothes that are appropriate for the occasion. Avoid anything that will cause distractions, such as noisy jewellery;

During the delivery of your presentation the following aspects are important: eye contact, vocalization, gestures and posture; Eye contact

Look at the audience and try to make eye contact with as many people

as you can.
Eye contact is vital in establishing a relationship with the audience.

Vocalisation
Aim to speak naturally, but at the same time audibly. Pay attention to high or low your voice sounds) and volume. Pay attention to inflection (the rise and fall of the voice). Avoid letting pitch (how

your voice rise at the end of sentences as it creates a questioning, uncertain impression.
Pay attention to tone. Your tone should help create an open and friendly climate. Aim for a resonant voice, which carries to the back of the room. Speak at a rate which allows the audience to take in the information. If it is too slow, your audience will lose interest. Also, try not to be too fast. Use pauses to let a point sink in or an increase in volume to stress an important idea.

Gestures
Use natural gestures and avoid distracting mannerisms like waving your arms.

Posture

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Good posture conveys confidence. Do not stand with your arms folded, hand(s) on your hips or lean against furniture as it will convey a negative impression. Stand on both legs with feet slightly apart. Use the floor space but do not move restlessly up and down. Face your audience, and stand in front of them rather than behind a table or lectern. This allows closer contact and enables you to move freely.

7.

Answering questions When people ask questions, it shows that they have been listening. Questions will probably focus on clarification, elaboration or repetition. Be relaxed, concentrate and answer each question as best you can. If you do not know the answer, say so.

8.

An outline

Title .. Introduction Purpose ....... First main Point .. Support 1 Support 2 ... Support 3 ... Second main Point .. Support 1 Support 2 ...

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Support 3 ... Third main Point Support 1 Support 2 ... Support 3 ... Conclusion ..

9. Checklist of presentation skills To finish, here is a checklist that you might find useful when planning and preparing your presentation and when carrying out assessment on another students presentation.

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(5 high, 1 low) Content Shows knowledge of subject 1 2 3 4 5 and presented it at appropriate level ( Interesting, prepared, original, logical, organised) Contact Quality of introduction 1 2 3 4 5 (Greeting, introducing yourself, topic, purpose, outline.) Body language 1 2 3 4 5 (Facial expression, eye contact, gestures, enthusiasm, no distracting mannerisms, etc.) Audibility 1 2 3 4 5 Variety of vocal delivery 1 2 3 4 5 (Varying pitch, rate, pause between sentences and main points, emphasis, etc.) Language 1 2 3 4 5 (Fluency, vocabulary, grammar, register, etc.) Structure of talk 1 2 3 4 5 (Introduction, main points, conclusion, clear transitions, linking words, etc.) Clarity and effective use of visual aids 1 2 3 4 5 (Visibility, their significance should be clear, appropriateness, easy to follow, spelling, etc.) Quality of conclusion 1 2 3 4 5 (Sense of completion, summarizing, or leaving topic open for consideration, etc.) Time Keeping 1 2 3 4 5 (Agreed time limits) TOTAL ____2 = ____/25
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Bibliography Boone, L. & Kurtz, D. (1994). Contemporary business communication. New Jersey. Prentice Hall. Cleary, S. (2000). The Communication Handbook. Juta. Dornbrack, J. (1997). Speak easy short course notes. Port Elizabeth. Port Elizabeth Technikon. Ellis, R. (1997). Communication for Engineers. Gray Publishing. Kent.

Jordan. R. R. (1997). EAP: A Guide and Resource Book for Teachers. Academic teaching. Cambridge. Cambridge University Press. Ziegler, R. and Cloete, M. (2002). Communication for mechanical engineering. Cape Town. Oxford University Press Southern Africa.

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Addendum 1 Writing with a computer Introduction

Many scholars started writing with computers in the late 1980. This was rather a complex and sophisticated writing tool which offered hitherto unforeseen possibilities for the process of composition. In addition, clear emphasis was put on the practical advantages offered by this technology. They begin by establishing the essentials of interacting productively with a word processor. This covers generating ideas, planning, drafting and revising documents. In addition, clear emphasis was placed on page layout and document design because this is sadly a neglected part of much writing. Furthermore, the writers explain fonts and typography, margins, line spacing and tables.

1. Computer literacy
Computer literacy is the knowledge and ability to use computers and technology efficiently. Computer literacy can also refer to the comfort level someone has with using computer programs and other applications that are associated with computers. Another valuable component of computer literacy is knowing how computers work and operate. The precise definition of "computer literacy" can vary from group to group. Generally, literate (in the realm of books) connotes one who can read any arbitrary book in his/her native language, looking up new words as he/she is exposed to them. Likewise, an experienced computer professional may consider the ability to self-teach (i.e. to learn arbitrary new programs or tasks as they are encountered) to be central to computer literacy. In common discourse, however, "computer literate" often connotes little more than the ability to use several very specific applications (such as Microsoft Word, Microsoft Internet Explorer, and Microsoft Outlook) for certain very well-defined simple tasks, largely by rote. (This is analogous to a child claiming that they "can read" because they have rote-memorized several small children's books. Real problems can arise when such a "computer literate" person encounters a new program for the first time, and large degrees of "hand-holding" will likely be required.) Being "literate" and "functional" are generally taken to mean the same thing. Taken and adapted from: Palmquist, M. and Zimmerman, D. E. (1999) Writing with a Computer, Boston: Allyn and Bacon (Accessed on Internet, January 2007).

2. How is writing with a computer different from writing with pen and paper?
If you write by starting at the beginning, continuing to the end and then handing your essay in without redrafting or checking, there is not much difference between writing with pen and paper. But if you are prepared to think about your writing and improve it as you go through the writing process, there is a big difference. If you write by hand, the chances are that you write in a purely linear fashion. Writing on a computer frees you from a purely linear approach. You can begin and end anywhere, even writing your bibliography (which comes at the end of your essay) first, if you want to. It is this flexibility that your computer will help you achieve. Also, using a computer can help you reflect on your writing and on how to write well. For example, you can learn a lot about the writing process by comparing earlier drafts with later drafts.

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The table below shows how your computer can help you to write better essays as well as saving you time and effort compared to writing with pen and paper. Writing with computer You can write clear and legible essays You can check your spelling You can use correct words You can easily delete unnecessary information and replace unwanted words with a computer You can save papers You put all your files in a computer Now study the following table. Writing with pen and paper Your handwriting is sometimes not clear You may misspell the words You may use wrong words You can waste time and energy trying to rewrite all what is wrong You can waste papers You need space to keep your pens and papers

Table - A comparison of the writing process between paper and computer Paper Computer

Research
Disadvantages - You may make spelling mistakes in your quotes or other important facts (dates, etc.) if you do not proof-read your own writing properly. Advantages - You can make notes on your computer while you read. These can later be incorporated into your essay either in your own writing or as quotes.

A bibliography written on paper will still have to be typed-up and inserted at the end of your essay at a later date. You can create a bibliography file while you are reading that can later be pasted into your essay. You can also use your computer as a research tool - either to find and order books or to read the many available internet sources.

Planning and drafting

Disadvantages - You might lose important pieces of paper. Any notes you make on paper will have to be re-written or typed up at a later date. This is a very tedious task. Advantages - You can use your Word processor to develop your ideas freely through free-writing and/or outlining Once you have stored your early notes and/or

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You will inevitably use up lots of paper (i.e. trees).

drafts it's a simple process to manipulate them and incorporate them into your draft/redraft. Disadvantage - people who are more spatially orientated may prefer to do their initial planning by using mind-mapping techniques.

Redrafting
Disadvantages - When writing by hand you are to a large extent trapped in a linear approach. You cannot insert any new information you may want to include in the most appropriate place. Nor can you re-order your text. Advantages - It is extremely easy to: change anything; insert new information anywhere; or re-order your paragraphs on your computer.

Editing / Proofreading
Disadvantages - You would have to check the spelling of EVERY word you are unsure of in a dictionary and any grammar problems in a reference book. You would also have to count the number of words. You would have to draw lines by hand in your references and tip-ex out any mistakes (very ugly). Advantages - Knowing how to use your computer's spell checker, and grammar checker functions will greatly reduce time and effort, as well as helping you to catch mistakes you might otherwise miss.(If you use these tools critically, you will also improve your grammar and spelling). You can change font appearance (bold, italic, underline) with a couple of keyboard strokes.

Presenting your final draft

Disadvantages - Teachers nowadays expect polished, word processed essays; a hand-written essay will probably suggest lack of motivation and may be judged more critically. Advantages - Word processing is not only about appearance. A legible, nicely formatted essay with few language errors is easier to read and this means your teacher will be able to understand the content better. So, in turn this suggests you will get a better grade and / or more valuable comments on where your arguments are going wrong. If you can't make it in to class you can send your essay to your teacher as a file attachment, thus avoiding losing marks unnecessarily. If your dog does devour your labour of many nights, you can simply print off another copy.

If you become sick the night before your essay is due you may lose 5% or more of your mark by submitting it late.

If your dog eats your essay / you spill your nighttime cocoa over it / etc., etc. the night before it is due in, you have to write it all over again.

Taken from: Palmquist, M. and Zimmerman, D. E. (1999) Writing with a Computer, Boston: Allyn and Bacon (Accessed on Internet, January 2007).

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3. Editing with a computer The computer can also help you to save, cut, paste, delete, copy, insert, and spell check sentences, words, tables, pictures, numbers and so forth. There are many functions that you can do with your computer. It is therefore advised that you should always ask others to help you in this regard.

4. Fonts A computer has different types of fonts and font sizes in a computer. The ones that are mostly used in academic essays are: Times New Roman, Tahoma, Arial and Century Gothic. The font sizes start from 8 to 72. When writing your essay with a computer you should know which font type and size is recommended in your faculty.

References Palmquist, M. and Zimmerman, D. E. (1999) Writing with a Computer, Boston: Allyn and Bacon (Accessed on Internet, January 2007).

Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia (28 January 2008)

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Addendum 2: Marking grid

ACADEMIC ESSAY: Examination

Criteria
REFERENCING 5

Max Marks

Abbreviations
R

Description
NO referencing or citation: NO MARKS! 3 points: correct in-text citations 2 points: correct APA Reference List

ACADEMIC REGISTER 5

Paragraphs: Topical, supporting, concluding sentences (2) Formality (1) Tentativeness (1) and Objectivity (1)

CONTENT 10

Logical arguments (2) Own Insight (2) and Reasoned Conclusions (2) Relevance (2) Task Fulfilment (2)

COHERENCE 5 LANGUAGE and VOCABULARY 5

Title (1) Introduction (1) Conclusion (1) Linking words (2)

Grammar,(1) Punctuation (1), Spelling(1) Sentence Structure (1) Planning Style/Neatness (1)

TOTAL

30

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ACADEMIC ESSAY: Semester Assignment

Criteria
REFERENCING 10

Max Marks

Abbreviations Description
R NO referencing or citation: NO MARKS! 7 points: correct in-text citations 3 points: correct APA Reference List

ACADEMIC REGISTER 5

Paragraphs: Topical, supporting, concluding sentences (2) Formality (1) Tentativeness (1) and Objectivity (1)

CONTENT 5

Logical arguments (1) Own Insight (1) and Reasoned Conclusions (1) Relevance (1) Task Fulfilment (1)

COHERENCE 5 LANGUAGE and VOCABULARY 5

Title (1) Introduction (1) Conclusion (1) Linking words (2)

Grammar,(1) Punctuation (1), Spelling(1) Sentence Structure (1) Planning Style/Neatness (1)

TOTAL

30

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ACADEMIC ESSAY : Semester Test

Criteria
REFERENCING

Max Marks
3

Abbreviations Description
R 2 points: correct in-text citations 1 point: correct APA Reference List

ACADEMIC REGISTER 5

Paragraphs: Topical, supporting, concluding sentences (2) Formality (1) Tentativeness (1) and Objectivity (1)

CONTENT 10

Logical arguments (2) Own Insight (2) and Reasoned Conclusions (2) Relevance (2) Task Fulfilment (2)

COHERENCE 5 LANGUAGE and VOCABULARY 2

Title (1) Introduction (1) Conclusion (1) Linking words (2)

Grammar / Punctuation / Spelling (1) Planning Style/Neatness (1)

TOTAL

25

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