TURBO CHARGER

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree of DIPLOMA IN AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING BY

Under the guidance of Sl.gr.Lecturer HK KEMPE GOWDA

2011

DEPARTMENT OF AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING

CERTIFICATE

Register number:
_________________________

This is to certify that the project report titled TURBO CHARGER submitted by the following students for the award of the degree of bachelor of engineering is record of bonafide work carried out by them.
Done by

Mr. / Ms_______________________________

In partial fulfillment of the requirement for the award of degree in Diploma in mechanical Engineering During the Year (2004-2005) _________________ _______________ Head of Department Guide Coimbatore 641651. Date:
Submitted for ___________ the university examination held on

_________________ Internal Examiner Examiner

________________ External

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
At this pleasing moment of having successfully completed our project, we wish to convey our sincere thanks and gratitude to the management of our college and our beloved chairman C PERUMAL CETTY, who provided all the facilities to us.

We would like to express our sincere thanks to our principal L.LINGARAJU, for forwarding us to do our project and offering adequate duration in completing our project. We are also grateful to the Head of Department Prof. HK KEMPE GOWDA, for her constructive suggestions & encouragement during our project. With deep sense of gratitude, we extend our earnest & sincere thanks to our guide SL.GR.LECTURER HK KEMPE GOWDA, Department of AUTOMOBILE for her kind guidance & encouragement during this project. We also express our indebt thanks to our TEACHING and NON TEACHING staffs of AUTOMOBILE ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT, Govt. C.P.C POLYTECHNIC

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TURBO CHARGER
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CONTENTS
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CONTENTS

AKNOWLEDGEMENT

1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9.
10.

SYNOPSIS INTRODUCTION LITERATURE SURVEY TYPES OF BRAKING IR SENSOR COMPONENTS AND DESCRIPTION BLOCK DIAGRAM WORKING PROCEDURE DESIGN AND CALCULATION APPLICATION AND ADVANTAGES LIST OF MATERIAL COST ESTIMATION CONCLUSION

11. 12. 13.

BIBLIOGRAPHY PHOTOGRAPHY

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SYNOPSIS
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------SYNOPSIS

The progress of automobiles for transportation has been intimately associated with the progress of civilization. The automobile of today is the result of the

accumulation of many years of pioneering research and development. An attempt has been made in this project, the exhaust gas is used to rotate the generator and this electrical energy is stored in a battery. Our fore most aim in selecting

this project is to use efficiency turbo charging. It is also good with regard to economical considerations and engine efficiency.

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Chapter-1
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INTRODUCTION
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION

The output of the engine exhaust gas is given to the input of the generator blades, so that the electrical energy produced. This electrical energy is used to store the battery. This power, the alternate power must be much more convenient in availability and usage. The next important reason for the search of effective, unadulterated power are to save the surrounding environments including men, machine and material of both the existing and the next forth generation from pollution, the cause for many harmful happenings and to reach the saturation point.

The most talented power against the natural resource is supposed to be the electric and solar energies that best suit the automobiles. The unadulterated zero emission

electrical and solar power, is the only easily attainable alternate source. Hence we decided to incorporate the solar power in the field of automobile, the concept of many Multi National Companies (MNC) and to get relieved from the incorrigible air pollution.

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Chapter-2
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TURBO CHARGER
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 2 TURBO CHARGER
What is turbo-charging?

Turbo-charging, simply, is a method of increasing the output of the engine without increasing its size. The basic principle was simple and was already being used in big diesel engines. European car makers installed small turbines turned by the exhaust gases of the same engine. This turbine compressed the air that went on to the combustion chamber, thus ensuring a bigger explosion and an incremental boost in power. The fuel-injection system, on its part, made sure that only a definite quantity of fuel went into the combustion chamber.

What the turbo-charger does?

What the turbo-charger was does is that it simply increases the volumetric efficiency of the engine. To give you an example: a 1,500 cc engine that produced, say, 60 bhp when it was normally aspirated, benefited at times with a 10- to 20-per cent power boost depending on the kind of turbo-charger used. Normally, the manufacturer would have had to resort to a bigger displacement in the engine, or design and develop an all-new engine to get more power from the same unit.

Introduction: BMW was the first to use turbo-charging in a production passenger car when they launched the 2002 in 1973. The car was brilliantly packaged too

and paved the way for a simply magnificent 'Turbo Era' in the automotive world. Swedish giant Saab took its cue from this and its ensuing 900 series was one of the most characteristic turbo cars of its time.

Intercoolers

the

latest

turbo's

They are used by most of today's turbo-diesel engines to make the compressed air denser. It works like this - on starting, exhaust gases spin the turbine and thus activate a compressor that pressurises the air. This pressurised air from the turbo-charger is then sent through a duct to an aircooled intercooler, which lowers the temperature of the intake charge and thus increases its density. The air-cooled intercoolers receive air through separate intakes and that explains the small scoops and louvers usually found on the hoods of turbo-charged cars.

Modern turbo-diesel engines also make use of a temperature-sensitive, motor-driven fan which boosts airflow at low engine speeds or when the intake air temperature is high.

Though there are diesel engines that 'earn' a turbo-charger mid-way through their life, the usual practice is to design and develop an engine with a turbo-charger in mind. Then, as and when a turbo-charged model is added to

the stable, the engine can adapt to it without any additional strengthening and cooling of engine parts. A well-engineered, turbo-charged diesel engine offers better fuel efficiency (at times by 15 per cent), better overall performance (better torque and high-end power), reduced noise (compared to normally aspirated diesel engines) and minimum engine maintenance (owing to better combustion of diesel fuel).

Turbo

looses

steam

Multiple valves and double-overhead camshaft designs developed reasonable performance without the complication of turbo-charging, and these methods were politically correct too since they consumed less fuel. Consequently today there are only a few petrol-powered road cars that still use turbo-chargers for enhanced performance. Computers soon started playing an even bigger role in cars. Engine management systems linked to fuel-injection systems meant getting more out of the engine was even easier. For example, one can buy chips that can boost power by 100 bhp for some Japanese cars, such as the Nissan Skyline. Moreover, on-road speeds were being restricted all over the world.

Though most of the sports cars today are capable of doing more, they are restricted electronically not to exceed 250 kmph even in autobahn-blessed Germany.

Turbo-charging lost its edge towards the end of the '80s and today this technology is used only in select performance cars. Porsche, for example, is all set to build a turbo-charged version of its all-new 911 (water-cooled) with added performance. Turbo engines were banned in Formula One too with the idea of restricting the performance of the cars (and thereby making them safer too). There are many who consider this a backward step in the world of Formula One, which is considered to represent the 'tomorrow' of automotive technology. But if one analyses the performance of normally aspirated cars in F1 today, (3,500 cc non-turbo), they perform as well, if not better, than the turbo cars of the early '80s. So, there are no full stops in technology. While road cars and even sports and racing cars are going in for more efficient engines, better metallurgy and wilder-than-ever electronics to get their engines to perform at an optimum level without sacrificing the performance edge, turbo-chargers still continue to serve the same purpose they were invented for... albeit more so with diesel engines.

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Chapter-3
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COMPONENTS
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CHAPTER 3 COMPONENTS

The following are the important components used in the hybrid vehicle. GASOLINE ENGINE Gasoline engines are those heat engines that store the chemical energy during their operations. The energy is converted into mechanical energy by the expansion of gases against the piston attached to the crank shaft that can rotate. 3.2 D.C MACHINE The dc machine on a hybrid vehicle is very sophisticated. Advanced electronics allow it to act as well as a generator. For example, when it needs to it, it can draw energy from the batteries to accelerate the car. But acting as a generator, it can slow the car down and return energy to the batteries. 3.3 BATTERY The batteries in a hybrid vehicle are the energy storage device for the electric motor. Unlike, the gasoline in the fuel tank, which can only power the gasoline engine.

The electric motor on a hybrid vehicle can put energy in to the batteries as well as draw energy from them.

3.4.2 Bearings Bearings are intended to direct the motion of shafts and axles and forces acting on them. Bearing is an machine element which support another moving machine element (known as journal). It permits a relative motion between the contact surfaces of the members, while carrying the load. In order to reduce frictional resistance and heat generated, a layer of fluid may be provided. Types of bearings are, Radial bearing. Thrust bearing.

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Chapter-4
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I.C ENGINE
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 4 I.C ENGINE

Internal combustion engines are those heat engines that burn their fuel inside the engine cylinder. In internal combustion engine the chemical energy stored in their

operation. The heat energy is converted in to mechanical energy by the expansion of gases against the piston attached to the crankshaft that can rotate. 4.1 PETROL ENGINE The engine which gives power to propel the automobile vehicle is a petrol burning internal combustion engine. Petrol is a liquid fuel and is called by the name gasoline in America. The ability of petrol to furnish power rests on the two basic principles; Burning or combustions always accomplished by the production of heat. When a gas is heated, it expands. If the volume remains constant, the pressure rises according to Charles law. 4.2 WORKING There are only two strokes involved namely the compression stroke and the power stroke, they are usually called as upward stroke and downward stroke respectively. 4.2.1 UPWARD STROKE During this stroke, the piston moves from bottom dead center to top dead center, compressing the charge-air petrol mixture in combustion chamber of the cylinder, at the time the inlet port is uncovered and the exhaust, transfer ports are covered. The compressed charge is ignited in the combustion chamber by a spark given by spark plug.

4.2.2 DOWNWARD STROKE The charge is ignited the hot gases compress the piston moves downwards, during this stroke the inlet port is covered by the piston and the new charge is compressed in the crankcase, further downward movement of the piston uncovers first exhaust

port and then transfer port and hence the exhaust starts through the exhaust port. As soon as the transfer port open the charge through it is forced in to the cylinder, the cycle is then repeated. 4.3 ENGINE TERMINOLOGY The engine terminologies are detailed below, 4.3.1 CYLINDER It is a cylindrical vessel or space in which the piston makes a reciprocating motion. 4.3.2 PISTON It is a cylindrical component fitted to the cylinder which transmits the bore of explosion to the crankshaft. 4.3.3 COMBUSTION CHAMBER It is the space exposed in the upper part of the cylinder where the combustion of fuel takes place. 4.3.4 CONNECTING ROD It inter connects the piston and the crankshaft and transmits the reciprocating motion of the piston into the rotary motion of crankshaft. 4.3.5 CRACKSHAFT It is a solid shaft from which the power is transmitted to the clutch. 4.3.6 CAM SHAFT

It is drive by the crankshaft through timing gears and it is used to control the opening and closing of two valves. CAM These are made as internal part of the camshaft and are designed in such a way to open the valves at the current timing. PISTON RINGS It provides a tight seal between the piston and cylinder wall and preventing leakage of combustion gases. GUDGEON PIN It forms a link between the small end of the connecting rod and the piston. INLET The pipe which connects the intake system to the inlet valve of the engine end through which air or air fuel mixture is drawn in to the cylinder. EXHAUST MANIFOLD The pipe which connects the exhaust system to the exhaust valve of the engine through which the product of combustion escape in to the atmosphere.

INLET AND EXHAUST VALVE

They are provided on either on the cylinder head or on the side of the cylinder and regulating the charge coming in to the cylinder and for discharging the product of combustion from the cylinder. FLYWHEEL It is a heavy steel wheel attached to the rear end of the crank shaft. It absorbs energy when the engine speed is high and gives back when the engine speed is low. NOMENCLATURE This refers to the position of the crank shaft when the piston is in it slowest position. 4.4.1 BORE(d) Diameter of the engine cylinder is refers to as the bore. 4.4.2 STROKE(s) Distance traveled by the piston in moving from TDC to the piston in moving from TDC to the BDC. CLEARANCE VOLUME (V) The volume of cylinder above the piston when it is in the TDC position.

SWEPT VOLUME (V)

The swept volume of the entire cylinder Vd = Vs N Where, Vs ------- Swept Volume N --------- Number of cylinder

COMPRESSION RATIO (R) It is the ratio of the total cylinder volume when the piston is at BDC to the clearance volume. 4.5 ENGINE SPECIFICATION Type of fuel used Cooling system : : Petrol Air cooled Single Two Stroke Vertical 80 cc

Number of cylinder : Number of stroke Arrangement Cubic capacity : : :

Spark Ignition Engine

A spark ignition (SI) engine runs on an Otto cyclemost gasoline engines run on a modified Otto cycle. This cycle uses a homogeneous air-fuel mixture which is combined prior to entering the combustion chamber. Once in the combustion chamber, the mixture is compressed, and then ignited using a spark plug (spark ignition). The SI engine is controlled by limiting the amount of air allowed into the engine. This is accomplished through the use of a throttling valve placed on the air intake (carburetor or throttle body). Mitsubishi is working on the development of a certain type of SI engine called the gasoline direct injection engine. Advantages

A century of development and refinement - For the last century the SI engine has been developed and used widely in automobiles. Continual development of this technology has produced an engine that easily meets emissions and fuel economy standards. With current computer controls and reformulated gasoline, today's engines are much more efficient and less polluting than those built 20 years ago.

Low cost - The SI engine is the lowest cost engine because of the huge volume currently produced.

Disadvantages The SI engine has a few weaknesses that have not been significant problems in the past, but may become problems in the future.

Difficulty in meeting future emissions and fuel economy standards at a reasonable cost - Technology has progressed and will enable the SI engine to meet current

standards, but as requirements become tougher to meet, the associated engine cost will continue to rise.

Throttling loss lowers the efficiency - To control an SI engine, the air allowed into the engine is restricted using a throttling plate. The engine is constantly fighting to draw air past the throttle, which expends energy.

Friction loss due to many moving parts - The SI engine is very complex and has many moving parts. The losses through bearing friction and sliding friction further reduce the efficiency of the engine.

Limited compression ratio lowers efficiency - Because the fuel is already mixed with the air during compression, it will auto-ignite (undesirable in a gasoline engine) if the compression ratio is too high. The compression ratio of the engine is limited by the octane rating of the engine.

Emission Control Systems Automotive emissions contribute significantly to urban air quality problems. HEVs can reduce this contribution significantly through increased fuel economy, use of alternative fuels, and improved power unit and after treatment technology. A well-tuned spark ignition engine produces relatively low emissions. Significant emissions occur when the vehicle is started and warming up. During this time the engine must be choked to run properly. This creates excess unburned fuel in the exhaust, which leads to hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide emissions. During normal driving, emissions are relatively low because the air-to-fuel mixture is precisely controlled, allowing the catalytic converter to effectively reduce emissions.

The diesel engine emissions are primarily nitrogen oxides (NOx) and particulate matter (PM). NOx is produced because the engine is operated with a lean air-to-fuel mixture. The high compression ratio of a diesel engine (required because of compression ignition) creates much higher pressure and temperature in the combustion cylinder. This lean mixture and high temperature cause the higher level of NOx production. At high engine loads, where more fuel is injected, some of the fuel burns incompletely leading to the black smoke (PM) characteristic of a diesel engine.

The fuel cell produces a little water as emissions when operating on pure hydrogen. Other types of fuel cells have reformers that convert methane to hydrogen, then use the hydrogen. The reformer produces some emissions in the conversion process, but overall emission levels are low.

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Chapter-5
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D.C MACHINE
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------CHAPTER 5 D.C MACHINES

5.1 CONSTRUCTION The D.C machine consists of the following components. They explained below one by one. 5.1.1 FRAME The field system produces a magnetic flux that passes through the poles pieces, the air gap, the armature and the frame. Practical D.C machines have air gapes ranging from 0.5 mm to 1.5 mm. Armature and field system are composed of materials that have high permeability. 5.1.2 ARMATURE CORE The armature core is keyed to the machine shaft and rotates between the field poles. It consists of slotted soft iron laminations. That is stacked to form a cylindrical core. The laminations are individually coated with a thin insulating film so that they do not come in electrical contact with each other. The purpose of laminating the core I to reduce the eddy current loss. 5.1.3 ARMATURE WINDING The slots of the armature core hold insulated conductors that are connected in a suitable manner. This is known as armature winding. This is the winding in which working e.m.f. is induced.

He armature conductors are connected in series-parallel; the conductors being connected in series so as to increase the voltage and in parallel paths so as to

increase the current. The armature winding of a D.C machine is a closed circuit winding.

5.1.4 COMMUTATOR A commutator is a mechanical rectifier which converts the alternating voltage generated in the armature winding into the direct voltage across the brushes. The commutator is made of copper segments insulated from each other by mica sheets and mounted on the shaft of the machine. There are two types of armature winding in a D.C. Machine, Lap winding Wave winding Great care is taken in building the commutator because any eccentricity will cause the brushes to bounce, producing unacceptable sparking. The sparks may burn the brushes and over heat and carbonize the commutator. 5.1.5 BRUSHES The purpose of the brushes is to ensure electrical connections between the rotating commutator and stationary external load circuit. The brushes are made of carbon and rest on the commutator. The brush pressure is adjusted by means of adjustable springs. If brush pressure is very large, the friction produces heating of the commutator and the brushes. On the other hand, if it is too weak, the imperfect contact with the commutator may produce sparking.

5.1.6 TYPE OF ARMATURE WINDING

The armature windings are D.C machines are always of drum type. The armature conductors usually in the form of coils are placed in slots around the complete surface of drum-shaped or cylindrical armature core. The coils are connected in series through the commutator segments in such a way that their emf adds to each other.

5.1.6.1 Wave Winding In this arrangement the armature coils are connected in series through commutator segments in such a way that the armature winding is divided into two parallel paths irrespective of the number of poles of the machine. If there are Z armature conductors, then Z/2 conductors will be in series in each parallel path. Each parallel path will carry a current Ia/2(Where Ia---- is the total armature current) The sum up, in a wave winding There are two parallel paths irrespective of number of poles of the machine. Each parallel path has Z/2 conductors in series, Z being total number of conductors. E.M.F generated = E.M.F./Parallel path Total armature Current Ia = 2 x Current / parallel path.

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Chapter-6
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BATTERY
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CHAPTER 6

BATTERY

Batteries are an essential component of the HEVs currently under development. Although a few production HEVs with advanced batteries have been introduced in the market, no current battery technology has demonstrated an economical, acceptable combination of power, energy efficiency, and life cycle for high-volume production vehicles. The Partnership for a New Generation of Vehicles program has established technical targets for the program's hybrid battery development efforts for power-assist and dual-mode HEVs. Desirable attributes of high-power batteries for HEV applications are high-peak and pulse-specific power, high specific energy at pulse power, a high charge acceptance to maximize regenerative braking utilization, and long calendar and cycle life. Developing methods/designs to balance the packs electrically and thermally, developing accurate techniques to determine a battery's state of charge, developing abuse-tolerant batteries, and recycle ability are additional technical challenges. Lead acid batteries, used currently in many electric vehicles, are potentially usable in hybrid applications. Lead acid batteries can be designed to be high power and are inexpensive, safe, and reliable. A recycling infrastructure is in place for them. But low specific energy, poor cold temperature performance, and short calendar and cycle life are still impediments to their use. Advanced high-power lead acid batteries are being developed for HEV applications.

Although nickel-cadmium batteries, used in many electronic consumer products, have higher specific energy and better life cycle than lead acid batteries, they do not deliver sufficient power and are not considered for HEV applications. Nickel-metal hydride batteries used routinely in computer and medical equipment, offer reasonable specific energy and specific power capabilities. Their components are recyclable, but a recycling structure is not yet in place. Nickel-metal hydride batteries have a much longer life cycle than lead acid batteries and are safe and abuse-tolerant. These batteries have been used successfully in production EVs and recently in low-volume production HEVs. The main challenges with nickel-metal hydride batteries are their high cost, high self-discharge and heat generation at high temperatures, the need to control losses of hydrogen, and their low cell efficiency. The lithium ion batteries are rapidly penetrating into laptop and cell-phone markets because of their high specific energy. They also have high specific power, high energy efficiency, good high-temperature performance, and low self-discharge. Components of lithium ion batteries could also be recycled. These characteristics make lithium ion batteries suitable for HEV applications. However, to make them commercially viable for HEVs, further development is needed similar to those for the EV-design versions including improvement in calendar and cycle life, higher degree of cell and battery safety, abuse tolerance, and acceptable cost. Lithium polymer batteries with high specific energy, initially developed for EV applications, also have the potential to provide high specific power for HEV applications. The other key characteristics of the lithium polymer are safety and good cycle and calendar life. The battery could be commercially viable if the cost is lowered and higher specific power batteries are developed.

The battery is the main part of the electrical system in the automobile. Without battery the engine cannot be started with the starting motor. The battery supplies current for operation of the starting motor and ignition system. When the engine is being cranked for starting it also supplies current for light, radio, heater and several other accessory units. When the generator is not operating fast enough to handle the electrical load.

In our project, battery is not only used for electrical system. The main component for driving the vehicle is battery. For driving the vehicle inside the city, the motor is run by using battery, so that we can able to avoid pollution inside the cities. 6.1 BATTERY TYPES The batteries are of the following types Lead acid battery Alkaline battery Nickel-iron type Nickel cadmium type Zinc-air battery 6.2 CONSTRUCTION OF A LEAD-ACID BATTERY In a 6-volt lead acid battery, three cells are connected in series whereas for 12-volt type, six cells are series connected.

6.2.1 Container The container houses the plates and the electrolyte. It is made of glass or transparent synthetic material or hard rubber depending upon the service requirements. The container is sealed off at the top to prevent the spilling of electrolyte. 6.2.2 Plates The capacity if the lead acid cell depends upon the plate area. To increase the effective area of the plates without increasing the size of the cell, we use a large number of thin plates in the cell instead of two. The alternative plates are connected together as positive plates. A commercial cell always had odd number of plates such as 11, 13, 15 or 17. The number of negative plates is always one more than number of positive plates; the outside plates being negative. A separate compartment is provided for each cell and each compartment has large space at the bottom so that any sediment from the plate may collect there. 6.2.3 Separators In order to save space and to reduce the internal resistance of the cell, the plates are placed close together. To prevent touching each other if, they wrap or buckle, they are separated by non-conducting materials(e.g., wood, rubber, etc.) called Separators. 6.2.4 Electrolyte The electrolyte is dilute sulfuric acid solution mixed in such a proportion so that with a fully charged battery, its specific gravity is about 1.28. Sometimes, we

replace water that has evaporated. To ensure normal battery life, only pure water should be used.

6.2.5 Cell cover Each cell compartment has a cover, usually made of mounded hard rubber. Openings are provided in these covers for two terminal posts and vent cap. 6.2.6 Vent caps Each cell has a hole into which is fitted the vent cap. This cap has a vent hole to allow the free exit of the gas formed in the cell. The vent can be easily removed for adding water or taking hydrometer reading. 6.2.7 Inter-cell connector It is lead alloy link that joins the cell in series. The positive terminal of the cell is marked by a large + sign or with a red colour. 6.2.8 Cell terminals Each cell has two terminals. The terminals are generally made of lead as it does not erode due to acid electrolyte. 6.3 BATTERY CAPACITY The capacity of the battery has been defined as the amount of current it can deliver. The amount of current depends upon the following factors: Number of plates. Area of plates.

Quality of the electrolyte. Temperature.

About 930 cm of plates surface must be in contact with the electrolyte to produce 40-60 amperes of current. Six volts batteries have 15, 17, 19 and 21 plates per cell, 12 volts batteries have 7, 9, 11 and 13 plates per cell, depending upon the size of the battery. There is always one more negative plate than positive plate. Between two negative plates, there is one positive plate. 6.4 CHARGING PROCEDURE Check the level of the electrolyte in the battery. If it is below the top edge of the plates, add more electrolytes so that the level is about 10 mm above the top edge of the plates. Also note the specific gravity temperature of the electrolyte. Connect the negative and positive terminals of the battery to the respective terminals of the battery charger. The battery charger is simply a source to supply direct current. Adjust the valve of charging current. This is usually kept half, in amperes, of the number of plates in the cell. For example, for a 17 plates battery, the charging current would be 8.5 amperes. Continue the charging till the gassing being, then decreasing the charging current and continue till there is no further increase in the specific gravity of the electrolyte and cell voltage reading from three hours. If the temperature of the electrolyte during the charging process exceeds 45 C, discontinue the charging for sometimes so that it cools to normal temperature. Then again starts the charging. Check the specific gravity of the electrolyte hourly during the charging process.

Avoid overcharging which may damage the battery, particularly the positive plates. A battery generally takes 12 to 20 hours for recharging, depending upon the charging rate and condition of the battery. The battery with sulphated plates requires low charging current and hence takes longer time for charging. Several batteries may be charged simultaneously if they are connected in series. 6.5 CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING DISCHARGING By discharging of a cell we mean that it is delivering current to the external circuit. Consider a charged lead acid cell with anode of pbo cathode of pb, the electrolyte being dilute hso sulphuric acid splits up in to hydrogen ions. The sulphate ions move towards the cathode and hydrogen ions move towards the anode causing the following chemical action (refer fig. 9.4). AT CATHODE: On reaching the cathode, a sulphate ion(so--)gives up its two extra electrons to become sulphate radical. These electrons give up at the cathode move through the external circuit to the anode where they available to neutralize the positive ions (hh) arriving there. Since sulphate radical cannot exist, it enters in to chemical action with cathode material (pb) to from lead sulphate (pbso).

so - 2e

so (radical)

AT ANODE: On reaching the anode, each hydrogen ion takes one electron from it to become hydrogen gas. This e electron is given by the sulphate ion at the cathode and has come to the anode via the external circuit.

HH + 2e

2H

The hydrogen gas liberated at the anode acts chemically on the anode material (pbo) and reduces it to lead oxide (pbo).

Pbo + 2H

pbo + HO

Sulphuric acid reacts with pbo to form pbso Pbo + HSO PbSO + HO

The chemical change that takes place during discharging can be summed as under: Both the plates are converted in to lead sulphate (pbSO) which is whitish in colour. Water is formed which lowers the specific gravity of the electrolyte (HSO). When the cell is fully discharged, the specific gravity of HSO falls to about 1.18. The e.m.f of the cell falls. The lead-acid cell should be discharged beyond the point where its e.m.f falls to about 1.8 Volts.

The chemical energy stored in the cell is converted in to electrical energy. It is important to note that e.m.f of the cell provides little indication to the state of discharge of the cell since it remains close to 2 Volt for 90% of the discharge period. In practice, specific gravity of the electrolyte (HSO) is used to know

the state of discharge. The cell should be recharged when specific gravity of HSO falls to 1.18. 6.6 CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING RECHARGING Consider a discharged lead-acid cell having both the plates converted in to lead sulphate (pbSO). In order to recharge the cell, direct current is passed through the cell in the reverse direction to that in which the cell provided current. To do so, the anode is connected to the positive terminal of d.c source and cathode to the negative terminal of the source as shown. (Refer fig. 9.5). The electrolyte (HSO) breaks up in to hydrogen ions (HH) and sulphate ions (SO). Hydrogen ions move towards cathode and sulphate ions move towards anode causing the following chemical reaction, AT ANODE: On reaching the anode, a sulphate ion (SO) given up its two extra electronics to become sulphate radical. These electrons given up at the anode move through the external circuit to the cathode where they are available to neutralize the positive ions (HH) arriving there. Since sulphate radical cannot exist, it enters into chemical reaction with water.

AT CATHODE:

On reaching the cathode, each hydrogen ion (H) take one electron from it to before hydrogen gas. The electron is given up by sulphate ion at anode and has come to the cathode via the external circuit. The hydrogen gas liberated at the cathode reacts with cathode material (pbSO) to reduce it to lead (Pb) as under.

PbSO + 2 H

Pb + HSO

As the charging process goes on, the anode is converted in to pbo and cathode into Pb. The HSO produced in the chemical reactions above increases the specific gravity of the electrolyte. The chemical changes that occur during recharging can be summed up as under: The positive plate (anode) is converted in to pbo and the negative plate (cathode) in to pb. HSO is formed in the reactions. Therefore, the specific gravity of the electrolyte (HSO) is raised. When the cell is fully charged, the specific gravity of HSO rises to about 1.28. The e.m.f of the cell rises. The e.m.f of a fully charged lead-acid cell is about 2 Volts.

6.7 APPLICATIONS OF LEAD-ACID BATTERIES The chief application of lead-acid batteries is at places where a dc generator cannot be conveniently installed. Such batteries are employed whenever low-voltage, high current dc source is required. Some important applications are:

Lead-acid batteries are extensively used in automobiles. A dc generator, battery and load are connected in parallel. Since the internal resistance of a lead-acid battery is low, it provides a large output current required for starting the engine of the car. In addition, the battery furnishes the power of lights, radio etc, when the engine is stopped. When the engine is running, it operates the d.c generator which takes under the duties of the battery. The generator also charges up the battery so that it will be ready when needed. Railway train lighting system is similar to the above mentioned system. When the train is in motion, axle-driven dc generators furnish power for lighting, fans etc. When the train runs at slow speeds or is stopped, lead-acid batteries take over the duties of the generator. In ac generating plants, lead-acid batteries are used to energies the control apparatus. e.g. switching. During shut down of generators, these batteries are used to supply emergency lights. These are used for lighting purpose in remote rural areas where there are no power lines. The batteries are kept in charge by means of a dc generator. When the generator fails, the batteries supply the load.

6.8 BATTERY SPECIFICATION

Voltage Capacity

12 Volt

Manufacturer Type Height Weight Width Charging current Electrolyte volume Specific gravity of acid (Initial filling) Specific gravity of acid (Fully charged)

Exide industries ltd. Lead-acid battery (charge 14) 17 cm 5 kg 9 cm 1.4 amps 0.81 liters 1.230+0.005 1.230-1.240

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Chapter-8
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WORKING
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CHAPTER 8 WORKING

The progress of automobiles for transportation has been intimately associated with the progress of civilization. The automobile of today is the result of the accumulation of many years of pioneering research and development. An attempt has been made in this project, the exhaust gas is used to rotate the generator and this electrical energy is stored in a battery. Our fore most aim in selecting this project is to use efficiency turbo charging. It is also good with regard to economical considerations and engine efficiency.

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Chapter-9
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DESIGN AND CALCULATION

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DESIGN AND DRAWINGS

1. DESIGN OF BALL BEARING

Bearing No. 6202 Outer Diameter of Bearing (D) Thickness of Bearing (B) Inner Diameter of the Bearing (d) r = = = = 35 mm 12 mm 15 mm

Corner radii on shaft and housing

(From design data book)

Maximum Speed Mean Diameter (dm)

= =

14,000 rpm (D + d) / 2

(From design data book)

(35 + 15) / 2

dm

25 mm

WAHL STRESS FACTOR Ks = 4C 1 + 0.65 4C 4 C (4 X 2.3) -1 + 0.65 (4 X 2.3 )-4 2.3 1.85

Ks

2. ENGINE DESIGN CALCULATIONS:-

DESIGN AND ANYLSIS ON TEMPERATURE DISTRIBUTION FOR TWOSTROKE ENGINE COMPONENT USING FINITE ELEMENT METHOD:

SPECIFICATION OF FOUR STROKE PETROL ENGINE: Type Cooling System Bore/Stroke Piston Displacement Compression Ratio Maximum Torque : : : : : : four strokes Air Cooled 50 x 50 mm 98.2 cc 6.6: 1 0.98 kg-m at 5,500RPM

CALCULATION:

Compression ratio Here, Compression ratio 6.6

(Swept Volume + Clearance Volume)/ Clearance Volume

= =

6.6:1 (98.2 + Vc)/Vc

Vc

19.64

Assumption:

1. The component gases and the mixture behave like ideal gases. 2. Mixture obeys the Gibbs-Dalton law Pressure exerted on the walls of the cylinder by air is P P Here, M R T V = = = = m/M = (Mass of the gas or air)/(Molecular Weight) = 8.314 KJ/Kg mole K. = (MRT)/V

Universal gas constant 303 K V = =

253.28 x 10 m

Molecular weight of air

Density of air x V mole

Here, Density of air at 303K V mole = = 1.165 kg/m 22.4 m/Kg-mole for all gases. 1.165 x 22.4

Molecular weight of air =

{[(m/(1.165 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/253.28 x 10

381134.1 m

Let Pressure exerted by the fuel is P P = (N R T)/V = 800 Kg/m

Density of petrol

P P

= =

{[(M)/(800 x 22.4)] x 8.314 x 303}/(253.28 x 10 555.02 m

Therefore Total pressure inside the cylinder

PT

= =

P + P 1.01325 x 100 KN/m = 1.01325 x 100 ------------------------- (1)

381134.1 m + 555.02 m

Calculation of air fuel ratio:

Carbon Hydrogen

= =

86% 14%

We know that, 1Kg of carbon requires 8/3 Kg of oxygen for the complete combustion. 1Kg of carbon sulphur requires 1 Kg of Oxigen for its complete combustion. (From Heat Power Engineering-Balasundrrum)

Therefore, The total oxygen requires for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel = [ (8/3c) + (3H) + S] Kg

Little of oxygen may already present in the fuel, then the total oxygen required for complete combustion of Kg of fuel

{ [ (8/3c) + (8H) + S ] - O} Kg

As air contains 23% by weight of Oxygen for obtain of oxygen amount of air required = 100/23 Kg

Minimum air required for complete combustion of 1 Kg of fuel = So for petrol 1Kg of fuel requires = = (100/23) { [ (8/3c) + H + S] - O} Kg (100/23) { [ (8/3c) x 0.86 + (8 x 0.14) ] } 14.84 Kg of air

Air fuel ratio

= =

m/m 14.84

14.84/1

 m (2)

14.84 m--------------------------

Substitute (2) in (1) 1.01325 x 100 m = = 3.81134 (14.84 m) + 555.02 m 1.791 x 10 Kg/Cycle 1.791 x 10 Kg cycle

Mass of fuel flow per cycle =

Therefore, Mass flow rate of the fuel for 2500 RPM [(1.791 x 10)/3600] x (2500/2) x 60 = 3.731 x 10 Kg/sec

Calculation of calorific value: By Delongs formula, Higher Calorific Value = = HCV = 33800 C + 144000 H + 9270 S (33800 x 0.86) + (144000 x 0.14) + 0 49228 KJ/Kg

Lower Calorific Value

= = =

HCV (9H x 2442) 49228 [(9 x 0.14) x 2442] 46151.08 KJ/Kg

LCV

46.151 MJ/Kg

Finding Cp and Cv for the mixture: We know that, Air contains 77% N and 23% O by weight But total mass inside the cylinder = m + m

= = (1)

2.65 x 10 + 1.791 x 10 Kg 2.8291 x 10 Kg 77% = 0.77 Kg in 1 Kg of air

Weight of nitrogen present =

In 2.65 x 10 Kg of air contains, = = 0.77 x 2.65 x 10 Kg of N 2.0405 x 10 Kg

Percent of N present in the total mass = = (2.0405 x 10/2.8291 x 10) 72.125 %

(1)

Percentage of oxygen present in 1 Kg of air is 23% Percentage of oxygen present in total mass = = (0.23 x 2.65 x 10)/(2.8291 x 10) 21.54 %

(2)

Percentage of carbon present in 1 Kg of fuel 86% Percentage of carbon present in total mass

= =

(0.866 x 1.791 x 10)/(2.8291 x 10) 5.444%

(3)

Percentage of Hydrogen present in 1 Kg of fuel 14% Percentage of Hydrogen present in total mass = = (0.14 x 1.791 x 10)/(2.8291 x 10) 0.886 %

Total Cp of the mixture is Cp

= =

msi Cpi (0.72125 x 1.043) + (0.2154 x 0.913) + (0.54444 x 0.7) + (8.86 x 10 x 14.257)

Cp

1.1138 KJ/Kg.K

Cv

= =

msi Cvi (0.72125 x 0.745) + (0.2154 x 0.653) + (0.05444 x 0.5486) + (8.86 x 10 x 10.1333)

0.8 KJ/Kg.K

(All Cvi, Cpi values of corresponding components are taken from clerks table)

n For the mixture

= =

(Cp/Cv) 1.11/0.8 1.38

Pressure and temperature at various PH:

= =

1.01325 x 100 bar 1.01325 bar 30C = 303 K

P/P Where, P r n = = =

(r)

1.01325 bar 6.6 1.38

13.698 bar

(r) x T

Where, T T = = 303 K 620.68 K

3 P 2 1 4

Heat Supplied by the fuel per cycle Q = = Q 0.8265 T = = = MCv 1.79 x 10 x 46151.08 0.8265 KJ/Cycle MCv (T - T) 4272.45 K

(P V) / T

(P V) / T

Where, V P Where, P = P P 94.27 bar = = P / (r) 6.973 bar = = V (T x P)/T

= =

T / (r) 2086.15 K TEMPERATURE 30 C 303 K 347.68 C 620.68 K 3999.45 C 4272.45 K 1813.15 C 2086.15 K

POINT POSITION POINT-1 POINT-2 POINT-3 POINT-4

PRESSURE (bar) 1.01325 13.698 94.27 6.973

DESIGN OF ENGINE PISTON:

We know diameter of the piston which is equal to 50 mm

Thickness of piston: The thickness of the piston head is calculated from flat-plate theory

Where, t Here, P f Maximum combustion pressure Permissible stress in tension= = 100 bar = D (3/16 x P/f)

34.66 N/mm

Piston material is aluminium alloy. t = = 0.050 (3/16 x 100/34.66 x 10/10) x 1000 12 mm

Number of Piston Rings: No. of piston rings Here, D Should be in Inches = 1.968 inches = 2 x D

No. of rings

2.805

We adopt 3 compression rings and 1 oil rings

Thickness of the ring: Thickness of the ring= D/32 = = 50/32 1.5625 mm

Width of the ring: Width of the ring = = D/20 2.5 mm

The distance of the first ring from top of the piston equals = = 0.1 x D 5 mm

Width of the piston lands between rings = 0.75 x width of ring = 1.875 mm

Length of the piston: Length of the piston = 1.625 x D

Length of the piston Length of the piston skirt

= =

81.25 mm Total length Distance of first ring from top of The first ring (No. of landing between rings x Width of land) (No. of compression ring x Width of ring)

= =

81.25 5 2 x 1.875 3 x 2.5 65 mm

Other parameter:

Centre of piston pin above the centre of the skirt =

0.02 x D = 65 mm

The distance from the bottom of the piston to the Centre of the piston pin = = Thickness of the piston walls at open ends = x 12 = The bearing area provided by piston skirt = = 6 mm 65 x 50 3250 mm x 65 + 1 33.5 mm

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Chapter-9
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DRAWINGS
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CHAPTER 10 DRAWINGS

9.4 CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING DISCHARGING

R ELECTRON FLOW

+ ANODE (PbO)

_
HH

CATHODE (Pb)
SO

ELECTROLYTE(HSO)

9.5 CHEMICAL CHANGES DURING RECHARGING

ELECTRON FLOW

+ ANODE (PbSO)

_
HH

CATHODE (PbSO)
SO

ELECTROLYTE(HSO)

9.6 CONSTRUCTION OF LEAD-ACID BATTERY

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Chapter-11
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COST ESTIMATION
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CHAPTER-10 COST ESTIMATION

Sl. No. 01. 02. 03. 04. 05. 06. 07.

Name of the Parts Generator Engine Battery-(Lead-Acid) Wheel Stand Belt Bolt & Nut TOTAL

Quantity 1 1 1 1 -

Cost (Rs.)

LABOUR COST LATHE, DRILLING, WELDING, GRINDING, POWER HACKSAW, GAS CUTTING: Cost =

OVERHEAD CHARGES

The overhead charges are arrived by Manufacturing cost

Manufacturing Cost = = = Overhead Charges = =

Material Cost + Labour cost

20% of the manufacturing cost

TOTAL COST Total cost = = = Total cost for this project = Material Cost + Labour cost + Overhead Charges

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Chapter-12
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ADVANTAGES
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CHAPTER-12

ADVANTAGES

Efficiency method of c/harging the battery Power is stored in a battery; we have to use other application like lighting, etc

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Chapter-13
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CONCLUSION
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CHAPTER 13

CONCLUSION

This project is an attempt to reduce our dependency on foreign oil and reduce the tailpipe emission from automobiles and this was an attempt to design and implement this new technology that will drive us into the future. Use of production turbo charger will reduce smog-forming pollutants over the current national average. The first hybrid on the market will cut emissions of globalwarming pollutants by a third to a half and later modes may cut emissions by even more.

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BIBLIOGRAPHY
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BIBLIOGRAPHY

AUTOMOBILE ENGG.

N.M AGGARWAL

S.K.KATARIA & SONS ADVANCES IN AUTOMOBILE ENGG. S.SUBRAMANIAM

ALLIED PUBLISHERS LTD. THEORY & PERFORMANCE OF ELECTRICAL MACHINES PRINCIPLES OF ELECTRICAL ENGINEERING AND ELECTRONICS V.K.METHTA J.B.GUPTA S.K.KATARIA & SONS

CYBER REFERANCE

www.howstuffworks.com www.visionengineer.com www.tpup.com