Transient Stability Improvement of SMIB with Unified Power Flow Controller Abstract

The focus of this project is on a FACTS device known as the Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC), which can provide simultaneous control of basic power system parameters like voltage, Impedance and phase angle. In this research work, two simulation models of single machine Infinite bus (SMIB) system, i.e. with & without UPFC, has been developed. This simulation Models have been incorporated into MATLAB based Power System Toolbox (PST) for their Transient stability analysis. These models were analyzed for three phase fault , i.e. receiving end of the transmission line keeping the location of UPFC fixed at the receiving end of the line. Transient stability was studied with the help of curves of fault current, active & reactive power at receiving end, shunt injected voltage & its angle, and series injected voltage & its angle and excitation voltage. With the addition of UPFC, the magnitude of fault current reduces and oscillations of excitation voltage also reduce. Series and Shunt parts of UPFC provide series and shunt injected voltage at certain different angles. Therefore, it can be concluded that transient stability of SMIB is improved with the addition of Unified Power Flow Controller.

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CHAPTER-1

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INTRODUCTION
TRANSMISSION INTERCONNECTIONS Most if not all of the world's electric power supply systems are widely interconnected, involving connections inside utilities' own territories which extend to inter-utility interconnections and then to inter-regional and international connections. This is done for economic reasons, to reduce the cost of electricity and to improve reliability of power supply. 1.1.1 Why We Need Transmission Interconnections We need these interconnections because, apart from delivery, the purpose of the transmission network is to pool power plants and load centers in order to minimize the total power generation capacity and fuel cost. Transmission interconnections enable taking advantage of diversity of loads, availability of sources, and fuel price in order to supply electricity to the loads at minimum cost with a required reliability. In general, if a power delivery system was made up of radial lines from individual local generators without being part of a grid system, many more generation resources would be needed to serve the load with the same reliability, and the cost of electricity would be much higher. With that perspective, transmission is often an alternative to a new generation resource. Less transmission capability means that more generation resources would be required regardless of whether the system is made up of large or small power plants. In fact small distributed generation becomes more economically viable if there is a backbone of a transmission grid. One cannot be really sure about what the optimum balance is between generation and transmission unless the system planners use advanced methods of analysis which integrate transmission planning into an integrated value-based transmission/generation planning scenario. The cost of transmission lines and losses, as well as difficulties encountered in building new transmission lines, would often limit the available transmission capacity. It seems that there are many cases where economic energy or reserve sharing is constrained by transmission capacity, and the situation is not getting any better. In a deregulated electric service environment, an effective electric grid is vital to the competitive environment of reliable electric service. Since the development of interconnection of large electric power systems, there have been spontaneous system oscillations at very low frequencies in order of 0.23.0 Hz. Once started, they
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would continue for a long period of time. In some cases, they continue to grow causing system separation due to the lack of damping of the mechanical In the past three decades, power system stabilizers (PSSs) have been extensively used to increase the system damping for low frequency oscillations. The power utilities worldwide are currently implementing PSSs as effective excitation controllers to enhance the system stability [112]. However, there have been problems experienced with PSSs over the years of operation. Some of these were due to the limited capability of PSS, in damping only local and not inter area modes of oscillations. In addition, PSSs can cause great variations in the voltage profile under severe disturbances and they may even result in leading power factor operation and losing system stability This situation has necessitated a review of the traditional power system concepts and practices to achieve a larger stability margin, greater operating flexibility, and better utilization of existing power systems. Flexible AC transmission systems (FACTS) have gained a great interest during the last few years, due to recent advances in power electronics. FACTS devices have been mainly used for solving various power system steady state control problems such as voltage regulation, power flow control, and transfer capability enhancement. As supplementary functions, damping the inter area modes and enhancing power system stability using FACTS controllers have been extensively studied and investigated. Generally, it is not cost-effective to install FACTS devices for the sole purpose of power system stability enhancement. In this work, the current status of power system stability enhancement using FACTS controllers was discussed and reviewed. This paper is organized as follows. The development and research interest of FACTS is presented in Section 2. Section 3 discusses the potential of the first generation of FACTS devices to enhance the low frequency stability while the potential of the second generation is discussed in Section 4. Section 5 highlights some important issues in FACTS installations such as location, feedback signals, coordination among different control schemes, and performance comparison. Major real-world installations and recent developments in power electronic devices used in FACTS controllers have been summarized in Section 6. Applications of FACTS to optimal power flow and deregulated electricity market as steady state problems have been discussed in Section 7. Some concluding remarks are highlighted in Section 8. About two hundred research publications are reviewed, discussed, classified, and appended for a quick reference.
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CHAPTER-2

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INTRODUCTION TO TRANSIENTS Transient:

A transient is a high voltage spike caused by external or internal transient sources A transient is a high voltage spike of less than 10 microseconds in duration. Transients in power lines may have voltage spikes up to 6,000 volts, and it is not unusual that spikes in commercial industrial circuits excess 1,000 volts. High voltage transients follows the path of least resistance to the ground, creates a damaging heat in the circuit components and causing malfunctions and failure. A transient event is a short-lived burst of energy in a system caused by a sudden change of state. The source of the transient energy may be an internal event or a nearby event. The energy then couples to other parts of the system, typically appearing as a short burst of oscillation.

Sources for transients: Transients, also more commonly known as surges, can be caused by
lightning or internal switching events. Both forms have different characteristics and are defined by IEEE using two different types of waveforms.

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The 8x20 waveform is associated with naturally occurring lightning events. The first number (8) signifies the time in microseconds that it takes for the surge to reach 90 % of its peak value. This is also known as rise time. The second number (20) represents the time in microseconds that it takes for the surge to decay from its peak to half value. The 10x1000 waveform is associated with man-made surges, representing a rise time of 10 sand a decay time of 1000 s. Even though we are looking at microseconds, it is obvious that the 10x1000 switching surge lasts longer then the 8x20 lightning event. Although it is not as strong as the 8x20 event, the longer duration allows the surge greater time to cause more damage across printed circuit boards. Since todays electronic equipment incorporates more transistors per chip and smaller trace widths, surge vulnerability is increasing in significance.

While lighting is the most well known cause of equipment damaging transients, the more common source are man-made surges. It is estimated that approximately 80 % of all surges are actually created from within the system. In commercial facilities, generators, AC units and other large pieces of equipment turning on and off often generate these switching surges that are hazardous to sensitive electronics like computers

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CHAPTER-3

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INTRODUCTION TO FACTS
From the part towards the future the supply of electrical energy developed from separated utilities to large interconnected systems. In former times distributed power generation supplied load centers within a limited supply area. These smaller systems were operated at lower voltage levels. Nowadays there is increased power exchange over larger distances at highest system voltages allowing reverse sharing and competition. Electrical energy shall be made available at most locations at minimum cost and at highest reliability. Following problems have been observed in three phase systems: Voltage control at various load conditions Reactive power balance (voltage, transmission losses) Stability problems at energy transfer over long distances Increase of short circuit power in meshed systems Coupling of asynchronous systems Coupling of systems with different system frequencies The last two problems can be solved using HVDC technology and the upper over can be solved by proper use of reactive power compensation based on FACTS devices. 3.1 Shunt compensation: Tasks of dynamic shunt compensation Steady state and dynamic voltage control. Reactive power control of dynamic loads. Damping of active power oscillations. Improvement of system stability.

Example of shunt compensation device: SVC (Thyristor technology): Conventional SVCs consist of thyristor controlled (TCR) and thyristor switched branches (TSC/TSR) together with filter branches for harmonic current absorption.

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3.2 Series compensation:

Tasks of dynamic series compensation Reduction of load dependents on voltage drops. Reduction of system transfer impedance. Reduction of transmission angle. Increase of system stability. Load flow control for specified power paths. Damping of active power oscillations.

3.3 WHAT LIMITS THE LOADING CAPABILITY?

Assuming that ownership is not an issue, and the objective is to make the best use of the transmission asset, and to maximize the loading capability (taking into account contingency conditions), what limits the loading capability, and what can be done about it? Basically, there are three kinds of limitations: Thermal Dielectric Stability Thermal capability of an overhead line is a function of the ambient temperature, wind conditions, condition of the conductor, and ground clearance. It varies perhaps by a factor of 2 to 1 due to the variable environment and the loading history. The nominal rating of a line is generally decided on a conservative basis, envisioning a statistically worst ambient environment case scenario. Yet this scenario occurs but rarely which means that in reality, most of the time, there is a lot more real time capacity than assumed. Some utilities assign winter and summer ratings, yet this still leaves a considerable margin to play with. There are also off-line computer programs that can calculate a line's loading capability based on available ambient environment and recent loading history. Then there are the on-line monitoring devices that provide a basis for on-line real-time loading capability. These methods have evolved over a period of many years, and, given the age of automation (typified by GPS systems and low-cost sophisticated communication services), it surely makes sense to consider reasonable, day to day, hour
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to hour, or even real-time capability information. Sometimes, the ambient conditions can actually be worse than assumed, and having the means to determine actual rating of the line could be useful. During planning/design stages, normal loading of the lines is frequently decided on a loss evaluation basis under assumptions which may have changed for a variety of reasons; however losses can be taken into account on the real-time value basis of extra loading capability. Of course, increasing the rating of a transmission circuit involves consideration of the real-time ratings of the transformers and other equipment as well, some of which may also have to be changed in order to increase the loading on the lines. Real-time loading capability of transformers is also a function of ambient temperature, aging of the transformer and recent loading history. Off-line and on-line loading capability monitors can also be used to obtain real time loading capability of transformers. Also, the transformer also lends itself to enhanced cooling. Then there is the possibility of upgrading a line by changing the conductor to that of a higher current rating, which may in turn require structural upgrading. Finally, there is the possibility of converting a single-circuit to a double-circuit line. Once the higher current capability is available, then the question arises of how it should be used. Will the extra power actually flow and be controllable? Will the voltage conditions be acceptable with sudden load dropping, etc.? The FACTS technology can help in making an effective use of this newfound capacity. Dielectric from an insulation point of view, many lines are designed very conservatively. For a given nominal voltage rating, it is often possible to increase normal operation by +10% voltage (i.e., 500 kV550 kV) or even higher. Care is then needed to ensure that dynamic and transient overvoltages are within limits. Modern gapless arresters or line insulators with internal gapless arresters, or powerful thyristor-controlled overvoltage suppressors at the substations can enable significant increase in the line and substation voltage capability. The FACTS technology could be used to ensure acceptable over-voltage and power flow conditions. Stability There are a number of stability issues that limit the transmission capability. These include: Transient stability Dynamic stability Steady-state stability Frequency collapse
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 Voltage collapse Sub synchronous resonance

3.4 BASIC TYPES OF FACTS CONTROLLERS

In general, FACTS Controllers can be divided into four categories: Series Controllers Shunt Controllers Combined series-series Controllers

Series Controllers:
The series Controller could be variable impedance, such as capacitor, reactor, etc., or power electronics based variable source of main frequency, sub synchronous and harmonic frequencies (or a combination) to serve the desired need. In principle, all series Controllers inject voltage in series with the line. Even variable impedance multiplied by the current flow through it, represents an injected series voltage in the line. As long as the voltage is in phase quadrature with the line current, the series Controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

Shunt Controllers: As in the case of series Controllers, the shunt Controllers may be variable impedance, variable source, or a combination of these. In principle, all shunt Controllers inject current into the system at the point of connection. Even variable shunt impedance connected to the line voltage causes a variable current flow and hence represents injection of current into the line. As long as the injected current is in phase quadrature with the line voltage, the shunt Controller only supplies or consumes variable reactive power. Any other phase relationship will involve handling of real power as well.

Combined series-series Controllers: This could be a combination of separate series controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner, in a multi line transmission system. Or it could be a unified Controller, in which series Controllers provide independent series reactive compensation for each line but also transfer real power among the lines via the power link. The real power transfer capability of the unified series-series Controller, referred to as Interline Power Flow Controller, makes it possible to balance both the real
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and reactive power flow in the lines and thereby maximize the utilization of the transmission system. Note that the term "unified" here means that the dc terminals of all Controller converters are all connected together for real power transfer.

Combined series-shunt Controllers: This could be a combination of separate shunt and series Controllers, which are controlled in a coordinated manner or a Unified Power Flow Controller with series and shunt elements.In principle, combined shunt and series Controllers inject current into the system with the shunt part of the Controller and voltage in series in the line with the series part of the Controller. However, when the shunt and series Controllers are unified, there can be a real power exchange between the series and shunt Controllers via the power link.

3.5 Relative importance of Different Types of Controllers

It is important to appreciate that the series-connected Controller impacts the driving voltage and hence the current and power flow directly. Therefore, if the purpose of the application is to control the current/power flow and damp oscillations, the series Controller for a given MVA size is several times more powerful than the shunt Controller. As mentioned, the shunt Controller, on the other hand, is like a current source, which draws from or injects current into the line. The shunt Controller is therefore a good way to control voltage at and around the point of connection through injection of reactive current (leading or lagging), alone or a combination of active and reactive current for a more effective voltage control and damping of voltage oscillations. This is not to say that the series Controller cannot be used to keep the line voltage within the specified range. After all, the voltage fluctuations are largely a consequence of the voltage drop in series impedances of lines, transformers, and generators. Therefore, adding or subtracting the FACTS Controller voltage in series (main frequency, sub synchronous or harmonic voltage and combination thereof) can be the most cost-effective way of improving the voltage profile. Nevertheless, a shunt controller is much more effective in maintaining a required voltage profile at a substation bus. One important advantage of the shunt Controller is that it serves the bus node independently of the individual lines connected to the bus. Series Controller solution may require, but not necessarily, a separate series Controller for several lines connected to the substation, particularly if the application calls for contingency outage of any one line. However, this

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should not be a decisive reason for choosing a shunt-connected Controller, because the required MVA size of the series Controller is small compared to the shunt Controller, and, in any case, the shunt Controller does not provide control over the power flow in the lines. On the other hand, series-connected Controllers have to be designed to ride through contingency and dynamic overloads, and ride through or bypass short circuit currents. They can be protected by metal-oxide arresters or temporarily bypassed by solid-state devices when the fault current is too high, but they have to be rated to handle dynamic and contingency overload. The above arguments suggest that a combination of the series and shunt Controllers can provide the best of both, i.e., an effective power/ current flow and line voltage control. For the combination of series and shunt Controllers, the shunt Controller can be a single unit serving in coordination with individual line Controllers. This arrangement can provide additional benefits (reactive power flow control) with unified Controllers. FACTS Controllers may be based on thyristor devices with no gate turn-off (only with gate turn-on), or with power devices with gate turn-off capability. Also, in general, as will be discussed in other chapters, the principal Controllers with gate turn-off devices are based on the dc to ac converters, which can exchange active and/ or reactive power with the ac system. When the exchange involves reactive power only, they are provided with a minimal storage on the dc side. However, if the generated ac voltage or current is required to deviate from 90 degrees with respect to the line current or voltage, respectively, the converter dc storage can be augmented beyond the minimum required for the converter operation as a source of reactive power only. This can be done at the converter level to cater to short-term (a few tens of main frequency cycles) storage needs. In addition, another storage source such as a battery, superconducting magnet, or any other source of energy can be added in parallel through an electronic interface to replenish the converter's dc storage. Any of the converter-based, series, shunt, or combined shunt-series Controllers can generally accommodate storage, such as capacitors, batteries, and superconducting magnets, which bring an added dimension to FACTS technology. The benefit of an added storage system (such as large dc capacitors, storage batteries, or superconducting magnets) to the Controller is significant. A Controller with storage is much more effective for controlling the system dynamics than the corresponding Controller without the storage. This has to do with dynamic pumping of real power in or out of the system as against only influencing the transfer of real power within the system as in the case with Controllers lacking storage. Here also, engineers have to rethink the role of storage, particularly the one that can deliver or absorb large amounts of real power in short bursts. A converter-based Controller can also be designed with so-called high pulse order or with pulse
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width modulation to reduce the low order harmonic generation to a very low level. A converter can in fact be designed to generate the correct waveform in order to act as an active filter. It can also be controlled and operated in a way that it balances the unbalance voltages, involving transfer of energy between phases. It can do all of these beneficial things simultaneously if the converter is so designed. Given the overlap of benefits and attributes, it can be said that for a given problem one needs to have an open mind during preliminary evaluation of series versus shunt and combination Controllers and storage versus no storage.

3.6 Shunt Connected Controllers

Static Synchronous Compensator (STATCOM): A Static synchronous generator operated as a shunt-connected static Var compensator whose capacitive or inductive output current can be controlled independent of the ac system voltage. STATCOM is one of the key FACTS Controllers. It can be based on a voltage sourced or currentsourced converter. As mentioned before, from an overall cost point of view, the voltage-sourced converters seem to be preferred, and will be the basis for presentations of most converter-based FACTS Controllers. For the voltage-sourced converter, its ac output voltage is controlled such that it is just right for the required reactive current flow for any ac bus voltage dc capacitor voltage is automatically adjusted as required to serve as a voltage source for the converter. STATCOM can be designed to also act as an active filter to absorb system harmonics. STATCOM as defined above by IEEE is a subset of the broad based shunt connected Controller which includes the possibility of an active power source or storage on the dc side so that the injected current may include active power.

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Static Synchronous Generator (SSG): A static self-commutated switching power converter supplied from an appropriate electric energy source and operated to produce a set of adjustable multiphase output voltages, which may be coupled to an ac power system for the purpose of exchanging independently controllable real and reactive power. Clearly SSG is a combination of STATCOM and any energy source to supply or absorb power. The term, SSG, generalizes connecting any source of energy including a battery, flywheel, superconducting magnet, large dc storage capacitor, another rectifier/inverter, etc. An electronic interface known as a "chopper" is generally needed between the energy source and the converter. For a voltage-sourced converter, the energy source serves to appropriately compensate the capacitor charge through the electronic interface and maintain the required capacitor voltage. Within the definition of SSG is also the Battery Energy Storage System (BESS), defined by IEEE as:

Battery Energy Storage System (BESS): A chemical-based energy storage system using shunt connected, voltage-source converters capable of rapidly adjusting the amount of energy which is supplied to or absorbed from an ac system.. For transmission applications, BESS storage unit sizes would tend to be small (a few tens of MWHs), and if the short-time converter rating was large enough, it could deliver MWs with a high MW/MWH ratio for transient stability. The converter can also simultaneously absorb or deliver reactive power within the converter's MVA capacity. When not supplying active power to the system, the converter is used to charge the battery at an acceptable rate. Yet another subset of SSG, suitable for transmission applications, is the Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES), which is defined by IEEE .

Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage (SMES): A Superconducting electromagnetic energy storage device containing electronic converters that rapidly injects and/or absorbs real and/or reactive power or dynamically controls power flow in an ac system. Since the dc current in the magnet does not change rapidly, the power input or output of the magnet is changed by controlling the voltage across the magnet with a suitable electronics interface for connection to a STATCOM.

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Static Var Compensator (SVC): A shunt-connected static Var generator or absorber whose output is adjusted to exchange capacitive or inductive current so as to maintain control specific parameters of the electrical power system (typically bus voltage). This is a general term for a thyristor-controlled or thyristor-switched reactor, and/or thyristor-switched capacitor or combination SVC is based on thyristors without the gate turn-off capability. It includes separate equipment for leading and lagging vars; the thyristor-controlled or thyristor-switched reactor for absorbing reactive power and thyristor-switched capacitor for supplying the reactive power. SVC is considered by some as a lower cost alternative to STATCOM, although this may not be the case if the comparison is made based on the required performance and not just the MVA size.

Thyristor Controlled Reactor (TCR): A shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled inductor whose effective reactance is varied in a continuous manner by partial-conduction control of the thyristor valve. TCR is a subset of SVC in which conduction time and hence, current in a shunt reactor is controlled by a thyristor-based ac switch with firing angle control

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Static Var Generator or Absorber (SVG): A static electrical device, equipment, or system that is capable of drawing controlled capacitive and/or inductive current from an electrical power system and thereby generating or absorbing reactive power. Generally considered to consist of shunt-connected, thyristor-controlled reactor(s) and/or thyristorswitched capacitors.The SVG, as broadly defined by IEEE, is simply a reactive power (var) source that, with appropriate controls, can be converted into any specific- or multipurposereactive shunt compensator. Thus, both the SVC and the STATCOM are static var generators equipped with appropriate control loops to vary the var output so as to meet specific compensation objectives.

Static Var System (SVS): A combination of different static and mechanically-switched var compensators whose outputs are coordinated.

Thyristor Controlled Braking Resistor (TCBR): A shunt-connected thyristor-switched resistor, which is controlled to aid stabilization of a power system or to minimize power acceleration of a generating unit during a disturbance. TCBR involves cycle-by-cycle switching of a resistor (usually a linear resistor) with a thyristor-based ac switch with firing angle control. For lower cost, TCBR may be thyristor switched, i.e., without firing angle control. However, with firing control, half-cycle by half-cycle firing control can be utilized to selectively damp low-frequency oscillations.

3.7 Series Connected Controllers

Static Synchronous Series Compensator (SSSC): A static synchronous generator operated without an external electric energy source as a series compensator whose output voltage is in quadrature with, and controllable independently of, the line current for the purpose of increasing or decreasing the overall reactive voltage drop across the line and there by controlling the transmitted electric power. The SSSC may include transiently rated energy storage or energy absorbing devices to enhance the dynamic behavior of the power system by
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additional temporary real power compensation, to increase or decrease momentarily, the overall real (resistive) voltage drop across the line. SSSC is one the most important FACTS Controllers. It is like a STATCOM, except that the output ac voltage is in series with the line. It can be based on a voltage sourced converter or current-sourced converter. Usually the injected voltage in series would be quite small compared to the line voltage, and the insulation to ground would be quite high. With an appropriate insulation between the primary and the secondary of the transformer, the converter equipment is located at the ground potential unless the entire converter equipment is located on a platform duly insulated from ground. The transformer ratio is tailored to the most economical converter design.

Interline Power Flow Controller (IPFC): The IPFC is a recently introduced Controller and thus has no IEEE definition yet. A possible definition is: The combination of two or more Static Synchronous Series Compensators which are coupled via a common dc link to facilitate bi-directional flow of real power between the ac terminals of the SSSCs, and are controlled to provide independent reactive compensation for the adjustment of real power flow in each line and maintain the desired distribution of reactive power flow among the lines. The IPFC structure may also include a STA TCOM, coupled to the IFFC's common dc link, to provide shunt reactive compensation and supply or absorb the overall real power deficit of the combined SSSCs.

Thyristor Controlled Series Capacitor (TCSC): A capacitive reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor bank shunted by a thyristorcontrolled reactor in order to provide a smoothly variable series capacitive reactance.

Thyristor-Switched Series Capacitor (TSSC): A capacitive reactance compensator which consists of a series capacitor bank shunted by a thyristorswitched reactor to provide a stepwise control of series capacitive reactance. Instead of continuous
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control of capacitive impedance, this approach of switching inductors at firing angle of 90 degrees or 180 degrees but without firing angle control, could reduce cost and losses of the Controller. It is reasonable to arrange one of the modules to have thyristor control, while others could be thyristor switched.

Thyristor-Controlled Series Reactor (TCSR): An inductive reactance compensator which consists of a series reactor shunted by a thyristor controlled reactor in order to provide a smoothly variable series inductive reactance. When the firing angle of the thyristor controlled reactor is 180 degrees, it stops conducting, and the uncontrolled reactor acts as a fault current limiter. As the angle decreases below 180 degrees, the net inductance decreases until firing angle of 90 degrees, when the net inductance is the parallel combination of the two reactors. As for the TCSC, the TCSR may be a single large unit or several smaller series units.

Thyristor-Switched Series Reactor (TSSR): An inductive reactance compensator which consists of a series reactor shunted by a thyristorcontrolled switched reactor in order to provide a stepwise control of series inductive reactance. This is a complement of TCSR, but with thyristor switches fully on or off (without firing angle control) to achieve a combination of stepped series inductance.

3.8 Combined Shunt and Series Connected Controllers

Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC): A combination of static synchronous compensator (STATCOM) and a static series compensator (SSSC) which are coupled via a common dc link, to allow bidirectional flow of real power between the series output terminals of the SSSC and the shunt output terminals of the STATCOM, and are controlled to provide concurrent real and reactive series line compensation without an external electric energy source. The UPFC, by means of angularly unconstrained series voltage injection, is able to control, concurrently or selectively, the transmission line voltage, impedance, and angle or, alternatively, the real and reactive power flow in the line. The UPFC may also provide independently controllable shunt reactive compensation.

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Thyristor-Controlled Phase Shifting Transformer (TCPST): A phase-shifting transformer adjusted by thyristor switches to provide a rapidly variable phase angle. In general, phase shifting is obtained by adding a perpendicular voltage vector in series with a phase. This vector is derived from the other two phases via shunt connected transformers. The perpendicular series voltage is made variable with a variety of power electronics topologies. A circuit concept that can handle voltage reversal can provide phase shift in either direction. This Controller is also referred to as Thyristor-Controlled Phase Angle Regulator (TCPAR).

Interphase Power Controller (IPC): A series-connected controller of active and reactive power consisting, in each phase, of inductive and capacitive branches subjected to separately phase-shifted voltages. The active and reactive power can be set independently by adjusting the phase shifts active and capacitive impedance form a conjugate pair, each terminal of the IPC is a passive current source dependent on the voltage at the other terminal. This is a broad based concept of series Controller, which can be designed to provide control of active and reactive power end/or the branch impedances, using mechanical or electronic switches.

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CHAPTER-4

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INTRODUCTION OF UPFC
Unified Power Flow Controller (UPFC) is one of the FACTS devices, which can control power system parameters such as terminal voltage, line impedance and phase angle. Therefore, it can be used not only for power flow control, but also for power system stabilizing control. Unified Power Flow Controllers are capable of directing real and reactive power flows through a designated route and regulating the system voltage through reactive power compensation. Thus, UPFC provides several features for power flow control namely: voltage control through shunt compensation, real power flow control through quadrature voltage injection and reactive power flow control through in-phase voltage injection. This report, however, investigates the three control methods, namely, voltage control through shunt compensation, real power flow control through quadrature voltage injection and reactive power flow control through in-phase voltage injection for the UPFC in order to improve the stability of the power system, thus providing the security for the increased power flow.

Power System Model with UPFC

A simple power system is chosen and studied in PSCAD/EMTDC environment in order to evaluate the performance of the UPFC with different control strategies. The power system whose parameters are given in appendix comprises a 100MVA, 16.64kV synchronous generator connected to an infinite bus through a transmission line and a transformer stepping up the voltage to 330kV. The generator is assumed to have Automatic Voltage Regulator (AVR) controlling its terminal voltage. The single-machine infinite-bus (SMIB) system used in this study is for better understanding of transient stability of Nigerian Grid System since the purpose for the use of UPFC is to improve transient stability of the system. The UPFC is placed between bus 2 and bus 3 on the transmission line as shown in Figure 1. The UPFC is designed to control the power (real and reactive) through line as well as the voltage at bus 3 using PWM power controller.

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Figure 1. Single-machine infinite bus system with UPFC Generator model

A detailed dynamic generator model for the single-machine infinite bus system is used for a UPFC controller design to give more accurate controller parameters. It is given as follows [7, 8]: Mechanical equations: (1) (2) (3) where ;

is the power angle of the generator; is the power angle of the generator at the operating point; is the relative speed of the generator; is the mechanical input power (assumed constant); is the real power delivered by the generator; is the synchronous machine speed; Dm is the per unit damping constant; H is the inertia constant. Generator electrical dynamics: (4) where is the transient Electromotive force (EMF) in the quadrature axis of the generator;

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Eq(t) is the EMF in the quadrature axis; Ef (t) is the equivalent EMF in the excitation coil; direct axis open-circuit transient time constant. Electrical equations: (5) (6) (7)

is the

(8) (9) (10) (11) where is the transient Electromotive force (EMF) in the quadrature axis of the generator;

Eq(t) is the EMF in the quadrature axis; Q(t) is the reactive power; If(t) is the excitation current; Iq(t) is the quadrature axis current; xad is the mutual reactance between the excitation coil and the stator coil; xd is the direct axis reactance of the generator; xd is the direct axis transient reactance of the generator; xds is the mutual transient reactance between the direct axis of generator and transformer; (t) is the power angle of the generator; xds is the mutual reactance between the direct axis of generator and transformer; xT is the reactance of the step up transformer; xE is the reactance of the Thevenin equivalent viewed from bus ; .

VE is the voltage magnitude of the Thevenin equivalent viewed from bus

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UPFC model and control strategies

The mathematical UPFC model was derived with the aim of being able to study the relations between the electrical transmission system and UPFC in steady-state conditions. The basic scheme of this model is shown in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Model of UPFC

The mathematical UPFC model was derived with the aim of being able to study the relations between the electrical transmission system and UPFC in steady-state conditions. The basic scheme of this model is shown in Figure 2. This figure represents a single-line diagram of a simple transmission line with impedance, UPFC, sending-end voltage source and receiving-end voltage source. According to Figure 3, the power circulation and the line flow are calculated by the following expressions : (neglecting losses) (12) (13) (14) where Psh is the power at the shunt side of the UPFC; Pse is the power at the series part of UPFC; PL is the real power flow; QL is the reactive power flow; V2 is the voltage at the bus2; Vm2 is the series voltage of UPFC; V1 is the voltage at bus1;
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Xt2 is the reactance between buses 1 and 2; 1and 2 are the angles of buses 1 and 2 respectively.

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CHAPTER-5

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MODELING OF SMIB

SMALL SIGNAL ANALYSIS REPRESENTATION:

Consider a single machine system shown in Fig.5.1. For simplicity, we will assume a synchronous machine represented by model 1.0 neglecting damper windings both in the d and q axes. (It is possible to approximate the effects of damper windings by a nonlinear damping term, if necessary). In addition, the armature resistance of the machine is neglected and the excitation system represented by a single time-constant system shown in Fig. 5.2.

Figure 5.1: A single machine system

Figure 5.2: Excitation system The algebraic equations of the stator are E1q + X1d id = Vq -Xqiq
=

(5.1) (5.2)

Vd

The complex terminal voltage can be expressed as VQ + jVD = (Vq + jVd )ej = (iq + jid) (Re + jXe) ej + Eb0 From which
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(Vq + jVd) = (iq + jid) (Re + jXe) + Ebe-j Separating real and imaginary parts, Eq. (6.3) can be expressed as Vq = Reiq - Xe id + Eb cos Vd = Reid + Xeiq - Eb sin (5.4) (5.5)

(5.3)

Substituting Eqs. (5.4) and (5.5) in Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2), we get,

.. (5.6) The expressions for id and iq are obtained from solving (5.6) and are given below id = [Re Eb sin + (Xq + Xe) ( Eb cos - E1q)]/A iq Where A= (X1d + Xe ) (Xq + X) + R2 e Linearizing Eqs. (6.7) and (6.8) we get id = C1 + C2 E1q iq = C3 + C4 E1q Where C1 = [ReEb coso - (Xq + Xe) ( Ebsino ]/A C2 = - (Xq + Xe)/A C3 = [(X1d + Xe ) Eb coso+ ReEbsino ]/A
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(5.7) (5.8)

= [(X1d + Xe )Eb sin - Re(Eb cos - E1q)]/A

(5.9)

(5.10) (5.11)

C4 = Re/A Linearizing Eqs. (5.1) and (5.2), and substituting from Eqs. (5.10) and (5.11), we get Vq = X1d C1 + (1 + X1d C2 ) E1q Vd = - XqC3 - XqC4 E1q (5.12) (5.13)

It is to noted that the subscript o indicates operating value of the variable.

5.1 ROTOR MECHANICAL EQUATIONS AND TORQUE ANGLE LOOP: The rotor mechanical equations are

d/dt = B(Sm - Smo) 2H(dSm/dt) = - DSm + Tm - Te Te = E1q iq - ( Xq - X1d) id iq Linearizing Eq. (5.16) we get Te = [E1qo - ( Xq - X1d) ido] iq + iqoE1q - ( Xq - X1d) iqo id (5.17)

(5.14) (5.15) (5.16)

Substituting Eqs. (5.10) and (5.11) in Eq. (5.17), we can express Te as Te = K1 + K2E1q Where K1 = EqoC3 - ( Xq - X1d) iqoC1 K2 = EqoC4 + iqo - ( Xq - X1d) iqoC2 Eqo = E1qo - ( Xq - X1d) ido (5.19) (5.20) (5.21) (5.18)

Linearizing Eqs. (5.14) and (5.15) and applying laplace transform, we get = BSm/s = B/s (5.22)
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Sm = [Tm - Te - DSm ]/2Hs

(5.23)

The combined Eqs. (5.18), (5.22) and Eq. (5.23) represent a block diagram shown in fig.5.3. This represents the torque-angle loop of the synchronous machine.

5.2 REPRESENTATION OF FLUX DECAY: The equation for the field winding is expressed as T1dodE1q /dt = Efd - E1q + ( Xd - X1d )id (5.24)

Figure 5.4. Representation of flux decay

Linearizing Eq. (5.24) and substituting from Eq. (5.10) we have T1dodE1q /dt = Efd -E1q + + Vdo E1q) Taking Laplace transform of (5.25), we get, (1+sT1doK3 ) E1q = K3Efd - K3 K4 Where K3 = 1/ [1- ( Xd - X1d ) C2] (5.27)
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(5.25)

(5.26)

K4 = -( Xd - X1d )C1 Eq. (5.26) can be represented by the block diagram shown in Fig.5.4

(5.28)

5.3 REPRESENTATION OF THE EXCITATION SYSTEM: The block diagram of the excitation system considered is shown in Fig. 5.2. The same block diagram omitting the limiter can also represent the linearized equations of this system. For the present analysis we can ignore the auxiliary signal Vs. The perturbation in the terminal voltage Vt can be expressed as Vt = VdoVd/ Vto + VqoVq/ Vto Substituting from Eqs. (5.12) and (5.13) in (5.29), we get Vt = K5 + K6E1q (5.30) (5.29)

Figure 5.5: Excitation system block diagram

where K5 = - (Vdo/ Vto)XqC3 + (Vqo/ Vto) X1d C1 (5.31)

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K6 = - (Vdo/ Vto)XqC4 + (Vqo/ Vto) (1+ X1d C2)

(5.32)

Using Eq. (5.30) the block diagram of the excitation system is shown in Fig. 5.5. The coefficients K1 to K6 defined in Eqs (5.19), (5.20), (5.27), (5.28), (5.31) and (5.32) are termed as Heffron-Phillips constants. They are dependent on the machine parameters and the operating conditions. Generally, K1, K2, K3 and K6 are positive. K4 is also mostly positive for cases when Re is high. K5 can be either positive or negative. K5 is positive for low to medium external impedances (Re +jXe) and low to medium loadings. K5 is usually negative for moderate to high external impedances and heavy loadings.

5.4 COMPUTATION OF HEFFRON-PHILLIPS CONSTANTS FOR LOSSLESS NETWORK:

For Re = 0, the expressions for the constants K1 to K6 are simplified. As the armature resistance is already neglected, this refers to a lossless network on the stator side. The expressions are given below

Fig 5.5. Block Diagram of the Excitation system

K1= [(EbEq0 cos0)/ (Xe+Xq)] + {[(Xq-Xq1) (Ebiq0sin0)]/ (Xe+Xd1)}

(5.33)
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K2= {[(Xe+Xq) (iq0)]/ (Xe+Xd1)} = (Ebsin0)/ (Xe+Xd1) K3= (Xe+Xd1)/ (Xd+Xe) K4= [(Xd-Xd1) (Ebsin0)]/ (Xd1+Xe) K5= {(XqVd0Ebcos0)/ [(Xe+Xq0) (Vt0)]}-(Xd1Vq0Ebsin0)/ [(Xe+Xd1) (Vt0)] K6= (Xe Vq0)/ [(Xe+Xd1) (Vt0)]

(5.34) (5.35) (5.36) (5.37) (5.38)

It is not difficult to see that for Xe > 0, the constants K1, K2, K3, K4 and K6 are positive. This is because o is generally less than 90degrees and iqo is positive. is independent of the operating point and less than unity (as X1d < Xd). Note that Xe is generally positive unless the generator is feeding a large capacitive load (which is not realistic).

5.5 SYSTEM REPRESENTATION:

The system block diagram, consisting of the representation of the rotor swing equations, flux decay and excitation system, is obtained by combining the component blocks shown in Figs. 5.3 and 5.5. The overall block diagram is shown in Fig. 5.6. Here the damping term (D) in the swing equations is neglected for convenience. (Actually D is generally small and neglecting it will give slightly pessimistic results)

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Fig 5.6. Over all system block diagram For a static exciter, TE is very small and for large values of Ke the electrical torque compound Te2 is related to by the following relation Te2(s)/ (s) = - (K2 K5/ K6)/ [sT1do/ ( K6 KE) +1] (5.39)

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CHAPTER-6

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MODELING OF UNIFIED POWER FLOW CONTROLLER 6.1 MODIFIED HEFFRON-PHILLIPS SMALL PERTURBATION TRANSFER FUNCTION MODEL OF A SMIB SYSTEM INCLUDING UPFC:

Figure 6.1 shows the small perturbation transfer function block diagram of a machine-infinite bus system including UPFC relating the pertinent variables of electric torque, speed, angle, terminal voltage, flux linkage, UPFC control parameters, and dc link voltage. This model has been obtained by modifying the basic heffron-phillips model including UPFC. This linear model has been developed by linearising the non-linear differential equations around a nominal operating point. The twenty-eight constants of the model depend on the system parameters and the operating condition in figure 6.1, [u] is the column vector while [Kpu], [Kqu], [Kvu] and [Kcu] are the row vectors as defined below, [u] = [mE E mB B]T [Kpu] = [Kpe Kpe Kpb Kpb] [Kvu] = [Kve Kve Kvb Kvb] [Kqu] = [Kqe Kqe Kqb Kqb] [Kcu] = [Kce Kce Kcb Kcb] The significant control parameters of UPFC are, mB modulating index of series inverter. By controlling mB, the magnitude of series (6.1) (6.2) (6.3) (6.4) (6.5)

injected voltage can be controlled, there by controlling the reactive power compensation. B power exchange mE modulating index of shunt inverter. By controlling mE, the voltage at a bus phase angle of series inverter which when controlled results in the real

where UPFC is installed, is controlled through reactive power compensation. E phase angle of the shunt inverter, which regulates the dc voltage at dc link
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ANALYSIS Computation of constants of the model

The initial d-q axes voltage and current components and torque angle needed for computing K-constants for the nominal operating condition are computed and are as follows: Q = 0.1670 pu edo = 0.3999 pu eqo = 0.9166 pu o = 47.13080 pu Ebdo = 0.7331 pu Ebqo = 0.6801 pu Ido = 0.4729 pu Iqo = 0.6665 pu

The K-constants of the model computed for nominal operating condition and system parameters are K1 = 0.3561 K2 = 0.4567 K3 = 1.6250 K4 = 0.09164 K5 = -0.0027 K6 = 0.0834 K7 = 0.1371 K8 = 0.0226 K9 = -0.0007 Kpb = 0.6667 Kqb = 0.6118 Kvb = -0.1097 Kpe = 1.4821 Kqe = 2.4918 Kve = -0.5125 Kpb = 0.0924 Kqb = -0.0050 Kvb = 0.0061 Kpe = 1.9315 Kqe = -0.0404 Kve = 0.1128 Kcb = 0.1763 Kce = 0.0018 Kcb = 0.4987 Kce = 0.4987 Kpd = 0.0323 Kqd = 0.0524 Kvd = -0.0107

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Figure6.1 Modified Hefrron-Phillips model of SMIB system with UPFC For this operating condition, the eigen-values of the system are obtained and it is clearly seen that system is unstable.

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6.2 DESIGN OF DAMPING CONTROLLERS:

The damping controllers are designed to produce an electrical torque in phase with the speed deviation. The four control parameters of the UPFC (i.e., mB,mE, B, E) can be modulated in order to produce the damping torque. The speed deviation is considered as the input to the damping controllers. The four alternative UPFC based damping controllers are examined in the present work. Damping controller based on UPFC control parameter mB shall henceforth by denoted as damping controller (mB). Similarly damping controllers based on mE, B, and L shall henceforth be denoted as damping controller (mE), damping controller (B), and damping controller (E), respectively. The structure of UPFC based damping controller is shown in fig 7.2. It consists of gain, signal washout and phase compensator blocks. The parameters of the damping controller are obtained using the phase compensation technique. The detailed step-by-step produce for computing the parameters of the damping controllers using phase compensation technique is given below: u
Kdc sT/(1+ sT)

Ge(s) = (1+sT1)/ (1+sT2)

Gain Signal washout Phase compensator

Figure6.2 Structure of UPFC based damping controller 1. Computation of natural frequency of oscillation n from the mechanical loop wn = (K10/M)1/2 (6.6)

2. Computation of GEPA (Phase lag between u and Pe) at s = jn. Let it be . 3. Design of phase lead/lag compensator Gc:

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The phase lead/lag compensator Gc is designed to provide the required degree of phase compensation. For 100% phase compensation, Gc(jn)+ GEPA(jn ) = 0 (6.7)

Assuming one lead-lag network, T1 = a T2, the transfer function of the phase compensator becomes, Gc(s) = (1+saT2)/ (1+sT 2) (6.8)

Since the phase angle compensated by the lead lag network is equal to , the parameters a and T2 are computed as, a = (1+sin )/ (1-sin ) T2 =1/ (na) (6.9) (6.10)

4. computation of optimum gain Kdc:

The required gain setting Kdc for the desired value of damping ratio =0.05 is obtained as,

Kdc = (2BM)/ (Gc(s) GEPA (S) ) Where Gc(s) andGEPA(S) are evaluated at s = jn

(6.11)

The signal washout is the high pass filter that prevents steady changes in the speed from modifying the UPFC input parameter. The value of the washout time constant T w should be high enough to allow signals associated with oscillations in rotor speed to pass unchanged. From the viewpoint of the washout function, the value of Tw is not critical and may in the range of 1s to 20s. Tw equal to 10s is chosen in the present studies.

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CHAPTER-7

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MAT LAB/ SIMULINK MAT LAB:

MATLAB is a programming environment for algorithm development, data analysis, visualization, and numerical computation. Using MATLAB, you can solve technical computing problems faster than with traditional programming languages, such as C, C++, and Fortran. You can use MATLAB in a wide range of applications, including signal and image processing, communications, control design, test and measurement, financial modeling and analysis, and computational biology. For a million engineers and scientists in industry and academia, MATLAB is the language of technical computing. The MATLAB application is built around the MATLAB language, and most use of MATLAB involves typing MATLAB code into the Command Window (as an interactive mathematical shell), or executing text files containing MATLAB code and functions. MATLAB is a high-level language and interactive environment that lets you focus on your course work and applications, rather than on programming details. MATLAB enables you to solve many numerical problems in a fraction of the time it takes to write a program in a lower-level language, such as Java, C, C++, or Fortran. MATLAB also enables analysis and visualization of data using automation capabilities, avoiding the manual repetition common with other products. Programming and developing algorithms are faster with MATLAB than with traditional languages because MATLAB supports interactive development. You do not need to perform low-level administrative tasks, such as declaring variables and allocating memory. Thousands of engineering and mathematical functions are available, eliminating the need to code and test them yourself. MATLAB provides all the features of a traditional programming language, including arithmetic operators, flow control, data structures, data types, object-oriented programming (OOP), and debugging features. MATLAB helps you better understand and apply concepts in a wide range of engineering, science, and mathematics applications, including signal and image processing, communications, control design, test and measurement, financial modeling and analysis, and computational biology. Add-on toolboxes extend the MATLAB environment to solve particular classes of problems in these application areas. (Toolboxes are collections of task- and application-specific MATLAB functions, available separately.)

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MATLAB currently has over a million users and is recognized by employers worldwide as a useful tool to increase the productivity of engineers and scientists.

Variables
Variables are defined using the assignment operator, =. MATLAB is a weekly dynamically typed programming language. It is a weekly typed language because types are implicitly converted. It is a dynamically typed language because variables can be assigned without declaring their type, except if they are to be treated as symbolic objects, and that their type can change. Values can come from constants, from computation involving values of other variables, or from the output of a function. For example:
>> x = 17 x = 17 >> x = 'hat' x = hat >> y = x + 0 y = 104 97 >> x = [3*4, pi/2] x = 12.0000 1.5708 >> y = 3*sin(x) y = -1.6097 3.0000

116

File extensions
Native .fig MATLAB Figure .m MATLAB function, script, or class .mat MATLAB binary file for storing variables .mex...
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MATLAB executable (platform specific, e.g. ".mexmac" for the Mac, ".mexglx" for Linux, etc.) .p MATLAB content-obscured .m file (result e() ) Third-party .jkt GPU Cache file generated by Jacket for MATLAB (AccelerEyes) .mum MATLAB CAPE-OPEN Unit Operation Model File (AmsterCHEM)

Secondary programming
MATLAB also carries secondary programming which incorporates the MATLAB standard code into a more user friendly way to represent a function or system.

Interfacing with other languages

MATLAB can call functions and subroutines written in the C programming language or Fortran. A wrapper function is created allowing MATLAB data types to be passed and returned. The dynamically loadable object files created by compiling such functions are termed "MEX-files" (for MATLAB executable). Libraries written in Java, ActiveX or .NET can be directly called from MATLAB and many MATLAB libraries (for example XML or SQL support) are implemented as wrappers around Java or ActiveX libraries. Calling MATLAB from Java is more complicated, but can be done with MATLAB extension, which is sold separately by Math Works, or using an undocumented mechanism called JMI (Java-to-Mat lab Interface), which should not be confused with the unrelated Java Metadata Interface that is also called JMI. As alternatives to the MuPAD based Symbolic Math Toolbox available from Math Works, MATLAB can be connected to Maple or Mathematics. Libraries also exist to import and export MathML.

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SIMULINK:
Simulink, developed by Math Works, is a commercial tool for modeling, simulating and analyzing multi-domain dynamic systems. Its primary interface is a graphical and a customizable set of block libraries. It offers tight integration with the rest of the MATLAB environment and can either drive MATLAB or be scripted from it. Simulink is widely used in control theory and digital signal processing for multi-domain simulation and Model-Based Design. Simulink Verification and Validation enables systematic verification and validation of models through modeling style checking, requirements traceability and model coverage analysis. Simulink Design Verifier uses formal methods to identify design errors like integer overflow, division by zero, dead logic and assertion violation, to generate test vectors and for model checking.

Use the Simulink interactive tools for modeling, simulating, and analyzing dynamic systems, including controls, signal processing, communications, and other complex systems. Simulink supports linear and nonlinear systems, modeled in continuous time, sampled time, or a hybrid of the two. Systems also can be multirate (having different parts that are sampled or updated at different rates). You can easily build new models, or take an existing model and add to it. With instant access to all the MATLAB analysis tools, you can analyze and visualize the results. The Simulink environment provides a sense of fun and discovery in modeling and simulation. It encourages you to pose a question, model it, and see what happens. Thousands of engineers around the world use Simulink to model and solve real problems. Simulink is a tool that you can use throughout your professional career.

Key Features

Extensive and expandable libraries of predefined blocks Interactive graphical editor for assembling and managing intuitive block diagrams Ability to manage complex designs by segmenting models into hierarchies of design components Model Explorer to navigate, create, configure, and search all signals, parameters, properties, and generated code associated with your model

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Application programming interfaces (APIs) that let you connect with other simulation programs and incorporate hand-written code

MATLAB Function blocks for bringing MATLAB algorithms into Simulink and embedded system implementations

Simulation modes (Normal, Accelerator, and Rapid Accelerator) for running simulations interpretively or at compiled C-code speeds using fixed- or variable-step solvers

Graphical debugger and profiler to examine simulation results and then diagnose performance and unexpected behavior in your design

Full access to MATLAB for analyzing and visualizing results, customizing the modeling environment, and defining signal, parameter, and test data

Model analysis and diagnostics tools to ensure model consistency and identify modeling errors Getting Started with Simulink Build and simulate a model. Add-on products extend Simulink software to multiple modeling domains, as well as provide tools for design, implementation, and verification and validation tasks. Simulink is integrated with MATLAB, providing immediate access to an extensive range of tools that let you develop algorithms, analyze and visualize simulations, create batch processing scripts, customize the modeling environment, and define signal, parameter, and test data.

You can construct a model by assembling design components, each of which could be a separate model.

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Creating and Working with Models

With Simulink, you can quickly create, model, and maintain a detailed block diagram of your system using a comprehensive set of predefined blocks. Simulink provides tools for hierarchical modeling, data management, and subsystem customization, making it easy to create concise, accurate representations, regardless of your system's complexity.

Selecting and Customizing Blocks

Simulink software includes an extensive library of functions commonly used in modeling a system. These include:

Continuous and discrete dynamics blocks, such as Integration and Unit Delay Algorithmic blocks, such as Sum, Product, and Lookup Table Structural blocks, such as Mux, Switch, and Bus Selector You can customize these built-in blocks or create new ones directly in Simulink and place them into your own libraries. Additional blocksets (available separately) extend Simulink with specific functionality for aerospace, communications, radio frequency, signal processing, video and image processing, and other applications. You can model physical systems in Simulink. Simscape, SimDriveline, SimHydraulics, SimMechanics, and SimPowerSystems (all available separately) provide expanded capabilities for modeling physical systems, such as those with mechanical, electrical, and hydraulic components.

Incorporating MATLAB Algorithms and Hand-Written Code

When you incorporate MATLAB code, you can call MATLAB functions for data analysis and visualization. Additionally, Simulink lets you use MATLAB code to design embedded algorithms that can then be deployed through code generation with the rest of your model. You can also incorporate

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hand-written C, Fortran, and Ada code directly into a model, enabling you to create custom blocks in your model.

Building and Editing Your Model

With Simulink, you build models by dragging and dropping blocks from the library browser onto the graphical editor and connecting them with lines that establish mathematical relationships between the blocks. You can arrange the model by using graphical editing functions, such as copy, paste, undo, align, distribute, and resize.

Options for connecting blocks in Simulink. You can connect blocks manually, by using the mouse, or automatically, by routing lines around intervening blocks and through complex topologies. The Simulink user interface gives you complete control over what you can see and use onscreen. You can add your commands and submenus to the editor and context menus. You can also disable and hide menus, menu items, and dialog box controls.

Organizing Your Model

Simulink lets you organize your model into clear, manageable levels of hierarchy by using subsystems and model referencing. Subsystems encapsulate a group of blocks and signals in a single block. You can add a custom user interface to a subsystem that hides the subsystem's contents and makes the subsystem appear as an atomic block with its own icon and parameter dialog box.

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Creating and Masking Subsystems

Create hierarchy and modularize system behavior using subsystems. You can also segment your model into design components to model, simulate, and verify each component independently. Components can be saved as separate models by using model referencing, or as subsystems in a library. They are compatible with configuration management systems, such as CVS and Clear Case, and with any registered source control provider application on Windows platforms.

Modular Design Using Model Referencing

Explore the value of model referencing for component-based modeling. You can reuse the design components on multiple projects, easily maintaining audit and revision histories. Organizing your models in this way lets you select the level of detail appropriate to the design task. For example, you can use simple relationships to model high-level specifications and add more detailed relationships as you move toward implementation.

Manage Design Variants

Manage design variants in the same model using reference model variants and variant subsystems. This capability simplifies the creation and management of designs that share components, as one model can represent a family of designs.

Variant Subsystems
Manage variants of a design and use data-driven conditions to switch between them. Conditionally Executed Subsystems Conditionally executed subsystems let you change system dynamics by enabling or disabling specific sections of your design via controlling logic signals. Simulink lets you create control signals that can enable or trigger the execution of the subsystem based on specific time or events.
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Logic blocks let you model simple commands to control enabled or triggered subsystems. You can include more complex control logic, as well as model state machines, with Stateflow (available separately).

Defining and Managing Signals and Parameters

Simulink enables you to define and control the attributes of signals and parameters associated with your model. Signals are time-varying quantities represented by the lines connecting blocks. Parameters are coefficients that help define the dynamics and behavior of the system. Signal and parameter attributes can be specified directly in the diagram or in a separate data dictionary. Using the Model Explorer, you can manage your data dictionary and quickly repurpose a model by incorporating different data sets.

Loading and Logging data

Use MATLAB data in Simulink models and save simulation results. You can define the following signal and parameter attributes:

Data typesingle, double, signed or unsigned 8-, 16- or 32-bit integers; Boolean; and fixed-point Dimensionsscalar, vector, matrix, or N-D arrays Complexityreal or complex values Minimum and maximum range, initial value, and engineering units Enhanced Model Explorer Use Model Explorer to quickly import and export data and to view items by groups and filters. Fixed-point data types provide support for scaling and arbitrary word lengths of up to 128 bits. These data types require Simulink Fixed Point software(available separately) to simulate and generate code. You can also specify the signal sampling mode as sample-based or frame-based, to enable the faster execution of signal processing applications in Simulink and DSP System Toolbox (available separately).
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Using Simulink data-type objects, you can define custom data types and bus signals. Bus signals let you define interfaces between design components. Simulink lets you determine the level of signal specification. If you do not specify data attributes, Simulink determines them via propagation. You can specify only component interfaces or all data for your model. In all instances, Simulink conducts consistency checking to ensure data integrity. You can restrict the scope of your parameters to specific parts of your model through a hierarchy of workspaces, or share them across models via a global workspace.

Running a Simulation
After building your model in Simulink, you can simulate its dynamic behavior and view the results live. Simulink software provides several features and tools to ensure the speed and accuracy of your simulation, including fixed-step and variable-step solvers, a graphical debugger, and a model profiler.

Using Solvers
Solvers are numerical integration algorithms that compute the system dynamics over time using information contained in the model. Simulink provides solvers to support the simulation of a broad range of systems, including continuous-time (analog), discrete-time (digital), hybrid (mixed-signal), and multirate systems of any size. These solvers can simulate stiff systems and systems with state events, such as discontinuities, including instantaneous changes in system dynamics. You can specify simulation options, including the type and properties of the solver, simulation start and stop times, and whether to load or save simulation data. You can also set optimization and diagnostic information for your simulation. Different combinations of options can be saved with the model.

Using Solvers
Change default solver settings to improve accuracy and speed of simulation

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Debugging a Simulation
The Simulink debugger is an interactive tool for examining simulation results and locating and diagnosing unexpected behavior in a Simulink model. It lets you quickly pinpoint problems in your model by stepping through a simulation one method at a time and examining the results of executing that method. (Methods are functions that Simulink uses to solve a model at each time step during the simulation. Blocks are made up of multiple methods.) The Simulink debugger lets you set breakpoints, control the simulation execution, and display model information. It can be run from a graphical user interface (GUI) or from the MATLAB command line. The GUI provides a clear, color-coded view of the model's execution status. As the model simulates, you can display information on block states, block inputs and outputs, and other information, as well as animate block method execution directly on the model.

Simulink debugger GUI used with a multirate control system. You can step through the simulation one method at a time or run to breakpoints.

Executing a Simulation
Once you have set the simulation options for your model, you can run your simulation interactively, by using the Simulink GUI, or systematically, by running it in batch mode from the MATLAB command line. The following simulation models can be used:

Normal (the default), which interpretively simulates your model

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Accelerator, which speeds model execution by creating compiled target code while still letting you to change model parameters

Rapid Accelerator, which can simulate models faster than Accelerator mode but with less interactivity by creating an executable separate from Simulink that can run on a second processing core You can also use MATLAB commands to load and process model data and parameters and visualize results.

Profiling a Simulation
Model profiling can help you identify performance bottlenecks in your simulations. You can collect performance data while simulating your model and then generate a simulation profile report based on the collected data that shows how much time Simulink takes to execute each simulation method.

Running Models on Target Hardware

Simulink provides built-in support for prototyping, testing, and running models on low-cost target hardware, including Arduino, LEGO MINDSTORMS NXT, and BeagleBoard. You use the Run on Target Hardware installer to select and download a support package and configure Simulink for your hardware. After building a model, you generate an executable application that loads and runs on the target hardware. You can design algorithms in Simulink for control systems, robotics, audio processing, and computer vision applications and see them perform with hardware.

Analyzing Results
Simulink includes several tools for analyzing your system, visualizing results, and testing, validating, and documenting your models.

Visualizing Results
You can visualize the system by viewing signals with the displays and scopes provided in Simulink software. Alternatively, you can build your own custom displays using MATLAB visualization and GUI development tools. You can also log signals for post-processing.

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Visualizing Simulation Results Visualize simulation results using scopes and viewers. To gain deeper insight into complex 3-D motion of your dynamic system, you can incorporate virtual reality scenes into your visualization using Simulink 3D Animation software (available separately).

Testing and Validating Your Models

Simulink includes tools to help you generate test conditions and validate your model's performance. These include blocks for creating simulation tests. For example, the Signal Builder block lets you graphically create waveforms to exercise models. Using the Signal & Scope Manager, you can inject signals into your model, as well as log and view signals, without adding blocks. Simulink also provides model verification blocks to check that block outputs conform to your design requirements.

Simulation Data Inspector

Analyze signal data from multiple simulations to compare designs and validate model results with external data. You can formally link requirements to sections of your model, write custom model standards checks, and run model coverage using Simulink Verification and Validation software (available separately). You can generate tests for your model that satisfy model coverage and user-defined objectives and prove properties using Simulink Design Verifier software (available separately). To manage and store tests independently of your model, you can use System Test software (available separately) to develop test sequences and generate test reports.

Documenting Your Model

It is easy to add documentation to your Simulink model. Annotations, including hyperlinks to other documents and Web pages, can be added directly in the diagram. Detailed descriptions can be added to each block's properties as well as model properties, such as model history information. The Doc Block lets you include a text file document as a block within your model. Simulink also offers printing capabilities that let you easily document your model. With one command, you can create a HTML document that describes your entire model, including snapshots of the different levels of hierarchy, and all the block specifications.
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Using the Simulink Manifest Tools you can create a report listing the files that your model requires to function and, additionally, compress those files for sharing with other users. Using Simulink Report Generator software (available separately) you can create customized reports that comply with specific document standards, as well as share interactive renditions of your models viewable in a Web browser.

Generating C/C++ and HDL Code

Models that are built in Simulink can be configured and made ready for code generation. Using Simulink Coder and Embedded Coder products (both available separately), you can generate C/C++ code from the model for real-time simulation, rapid prototyping, and embedded system deployment. Using the Simulink HDL Coder product (available separately), you can generate synthesizable, target independent Verilog and VHDL code, as well as test benches for code validation in external HDL simulators.

Building a simulink model:

Creating a New Model: Before creating a model, you need to start MATLAB and then start Simulink. 1. In the MATLAB Command Window, enter simulink The Simulink Library Browser opens. 2. From the Simulink Library Browser menu, select File > New > Model. A Simulink editor window opens with an empty model.

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1. Select File > Save as. The Save As dialog box opens. 2. In the File name box, enter a name for your model, and then click Save. For example, enter simple_model. Your model is saved with the file name simple_model.mdl. Adding Blocks to a Model To create a model, begin by copying blocks from the Simulink Library Browser to the Simulink editor window. For a description of the blocks in this example, see Overview of a Simple Model. 1. In the Simulink Library Browser, select the Sources library. The Simulink Library Browser displays blocks from the Sources library in the right pane.

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2. Select the Sine Wave block, and then drag it to the editor window. A copy of the Sine Wave block appears in your model.

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3. Add the following blocks to your model in the same way you added the Sine Waveblock. Library Sinks Continuous Block Scope Integrator

Signal Routing Mux

4. Your model now has the blocks you need for the simple model.

Moving Blocks in the Model

Before you connect the blocks in your model, you should arrange them logically to make the signal connections as straightforward as possible. 1. Move the Scope block after the Mux block output. To move a block in a model, you can either:

Click and drag the block. Select the block, and then press the arrow keys on the keyboard.

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2. Move the Sine Wave and Integrator blocks before the Mux block Inputs. Your model should look similar to the following figure.

Your next task is to connect the blocks together with signal lines. See Connecting Blocks in the Simple Model.

BLOCK CONNECTIONS IN A MODEL

After you add blocks to your model, you need to connect them. The connecting lines represent the signals within a model. Most blocks have angle brackets on one or both sides. These angle brackets represent input and output ports:

The > symbol pointing into a block is an input port. The > symbol pointing out of a block is an output port.

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DRAWING LINES BETWEEN BLOCKS

Connect the blocks by drawing lines between output ports and input ports. For how to add blocks to the model in this example, see Adding Blocks to a Model. 1. Position your mouse pointer over the output port on the right side of the Sine Wave block. The pointer changes to a cross hairs (+) shape while over the port.

2. Click and drag a line from the output port to the top input port of the Mux block. While you hold the mouse button down, the connecting line appears as a dashed line.

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3. Release the mouse button over the output port. Simulink connects the blocks with an arrow indicating the direction of signal flow.

4. Drag a line from the output port of the Integrator block to the bottom input port on the Mux block. The Integrator block connects to the Mux block with a signal line.

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5. Select the Mux block, hold down the Ctrl key, and then select the Scope block. A line is drawn between the blocks to connect them. Your model should now look similar to the following figure.

Note The Ctrl+click shortcut is useful when you are connecting widely separated blocks, or when working with complex models.

DRAWING A BRANCH LINE

The simple model is almost complete, but one connection is missing. To finish the model, you need to connect the Sine Wave block to the Integrator block. This final connection is different from the other three connections, which all connect output ports to input ports. Because the output port of the Sine Wave block is already connected, you must connect this existing line to the input port of the Integrator block. The new line, called abranch line, carries the same signal that passes from the Sine Wave block to the Mux block. 1. Position the mouse pointer on the line between the Sine Wave and the Mux block. 2. Hold down the Ctrl key, and then drag a line to the input port of the Integrator block input port.

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3. From the File menu, click Save. Your model is now complete.

After you finish building a model, you can simulate the dynamic behavior of the model. See Simulating the Simple Model.

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Simulating the Simple Model SETTING SIMULATION OPTIONS

Before you simulate a model, you have to set simulation options. Specify options, such as the stop time and solver, using the Configuration Parameters dialog box. For how to build the model in this example, see Creating the Simple Model. 1. In the Simulink editor window, select Simulation > Configuration Parameters. The Configuration Parameters dialog box opens to the Solver pane. 2. In the Stop time field, enter 20, and in the Max step size field, enter 0.2.

3. Click OK. The software updates the parameter values with your changes and closes the Configuration Parameters dialog box.

RUNNING A SIMULATION AND OBSERVING RESULTS

After entering your configuration parameter changes, you are ready to simulate the simple model and visualize the simulation results. 1. In the Simulink editor window, select Simulation > Start from the menu. The simulation runs, and then stops when it reaches the stop time specified in the Configuration Parameters dialog box. Tip button Alternatively, you can control a simulation by clicking the Start simulation on the editor window toolbar.

and Stop simulation button

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2. Double-click the Scope block. The Scope window opens and displays the simulation results. The plot shows a sine wave signal with the resulting cosine wave signal from the Integrator block.

3. From the toolbar, click the Parameters button dialog box displays the figure editing commands.

, and then the Style tab. The Scope Parameters

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4. Make changes to the appearance of the figure. For example, select white for the Figure and Axes background color, and change the signal line colors to blue and green. Click the Apply button to see your changes.

Block Library COMMONLY USED BLOCKS

Description Group of the most commonly used blocks, such as

the Constant,In1, Out1, Scope, and Sum blocks. Each of the blocks in this library are also included in other libraries.

Continuous

Model

linear

functions

using

blocks

such

as

the Derivative and

Integrator blocks. Discontinuities Create outputs that are discontinuous functions of their inputs using blocks such as the Saturation block. Discrete Logic and Represent discrete time functions using blocks such as the Unit Delay block. Bit Perform logic or bit operations using blocks such as the Logical Operator and Relational Operator blocks.

Operations

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Block Library Lookup Tables

Description Use lookup tables to determine their outputs from their inputs using blocks such as the Cosine and Sine blocks.

Math Operations

Perform

mathematical

and

logical

functions

using

blocks

such

as

the Gain, Product, and Sum blocks. Model Verification Create self-validating models using blocks such as the Check Input Resolution block. Model-Wide Utilities Ports & Subsystems Signal Attributes Provide information about the model using blocks such as the Model Info block. Create subsystems using blocks such as the In1, Out1, and Subsystem blocks. Modify the attributes of signals using blocks such as the Data Type Conversion block. Signal Routing Route signals from one point in a block diagram to another using blocks such as the Mux and Switch blocks. Sinks Sources Display or export output using blocks such as the Out1 andScope blocks. Generate or import system inputs using blocks such as theConstant, In1, and Sine Wave blocks. User-Defined Functions Additional Math & Additional libraries for mathematical and discrete function blocks. Discrete Define custom functions using blocks such as the MATLAB Function block.

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Graph between rotor angle vs time.

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Graph between mechanical power vs time.

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Graph between rotor angle vs time.

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CONCLUSION:
The transient stability improvement of single machine infinite bus system with unified power flow controller (UPFC) has been implemented in MATLAB/SIMULINK. A brief knowledge has been gained about the
MATLAB/SIMULINK block sets which were used in the implementation of this project, The transients that occur in the SMIB can be removed by using upfc device,the three parameter like rotor angle, voltage, sasuptances can be control,

following conclusions are drawn if UPFC is added in SMIB system: Fault current is reduced when fault occurs in the line. Excitation voltage is modified with damping out of oscillations when fault occurs at of the line. The three parameters(voltage, impedance and angle), determined, the power flow through a transmission line. From the simulation of SMIB with UPFC characteristic the transient stability is improved.

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REFERENCES: 1 KR. Padiyar and V. Kalyana Raman, "Study of voltage collapse at converter bus in asynchronous MTDC-AC systems", Int. J. of Elec. Power and Energy Syst., Vol. 15, No.1, Feb. 1993, pp. 45-53 2. KR. Padiyar and S. Suresh Rao, "Dynamic analysis of voltage instability in AC-DC systems", To appear in Int. J. of Elec. Power & Energy Syst. 3. G.K Morrison, B. Gao and P.Kundur, "Voltage stability a n a l y s i ~ using static and dynamic approaches", IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 8, No.3, August 1993, pp. 1159-1171 4. P.A.Lof,G. Anderson and D.J. Hill, "Voltage stability indices for stressed power systems", IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 8, No.1, Feb. 1993, pp. 326-385 5. C. Rajagopalan,B. Lesieutre,P.W. Sauer and M.A. Pai, "Dynamic aspects of voltage/power characteristics" , IEEE Trans. on Power Systems, Vol. 7, No.3, Aug. 1992, pp. 990-1000 6. C.W. Taylor, "Cuncepts of undervoltage load shedding for voltage stability", IEEE Trans on Power Delivery, Vol. 7, No.2, April 1992, pp. 480-488 7. F.P. de Mello and C. Concordia, "Concepts of Synchronous Machine Stability as Affected by Excitation Control", IEEE Transactions on Power Apparatus and Systems, Vol. PAS-88, No.4, 1969, pp. 316-329 8. K.R. Padiyar and Kalyani Bhaskar, "An Integrated Analysis of Voltage and Angle Stability of a Three Node Power System", to appear in the International Journal of Electrical Power & Energy Systems. 9. K.R. Padiyar and S.S. Rao, "Dynamic Analysis of Small Signal Voltage Instability Decoupled from Angle Instability", International Journal on Electric Power and Energy Systems, Vol. 18, No.7, 1996, pp. 445-452

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